argument I. Fallacies of language/ Ambiguity It expresses lack of preciseness in the words, phrases or sentences used to express thought A. Equivocation -It intentionally uses a word or phrase that suggests more than one meaning in an argument - is committed when a word carrying different meanings is used in the same context in a particular argument Example: -A KING moves one square in any direction; -But , Solomon is a king; -Therefore, Solomon moves one square in any direction. B. Amphiboly -Is committed when the awkward construction of one’s sentence allows a double meaning caused by inexactness of the expression. -The grammatical construction of a sentence is not clear and is therefore open to different interpretations. Example: -He: Can I have your name, miss? -She: why, don’t you already have one?
-In a newspaper ad:
-DOG for sale. Eats anything and is especially fond of children. II. Fallacy of Presumption -Is committed when we mistakenly reason that what is true of the parts, must therefore be true of the whole. C. False Dillema (Fallacy of False Dichotomy, “Either/Or Fallacy, Fallacy of Bifurcation) -Committed when two alternative statements are held to be the only possible choices, when in reality there are more. Example: -“It wasn’t medicine that cured Budoy, so it must have been a miracle!”
- Sen. Miriam Santiago: “We’ll have to cut
education funding this year.” -Sen. Enrile: “why?” -Sen: Santiago: “ Well, either we cut the social programs or we live with a huge deficit and cant live with the deficit.” Fallacy of Complex Question (loaded question) - occurs when, within the context of arguing, we raise a question that makes a presupposition that doesn’t hold, and then reason based on this. - asking a question in such a way as to presuppose the truth of some conclusion buried in the question. Example: -“Have you stopped beating your wife? False Cause (post hoc ergo, propter hoc-after this , therefore because of this) - occurs when one incorrectly assumes one thing is the cause of another. -Has the form “Phenomenon X has occurred, after which Y occurred. Therefore, X caused Y. Example: -Totoy Golem: How are you feeling today Asyong? -Asyong: Everytime you come by to see me, I feel worse. I might start feeling better if you stayed away for a few weeks. Example: - After Budoy was vaccinated he developed autism. Therefore the vaccine caused his autism ( temporal succession implies a causal relation)
-More cows die in the Philippines in the summer
months. More ice cream is consumed in summer months. Therefore the consumption of ice cream in the summer months is killing the cows. Hasty Generalization(converse accident) -When we reason that was true in a weird special case must, therefore , be generally true. Examples: -A person travels a town for the first time. He sees 10 people, all of them are children. The person now concludes that there are no adult residents in the town. Accident -Committed when anyone argues that what is true as a general rule is also true in some special cases. examples -We have to be generous to others. Therefore, during examination we have to share our answers with our seatmates.
-One has to tell the truth always. Thus, if a
murderer confesses his crime to a priest, it is but proper for the priest to reveal the truth to the authority. III. Fallacy of Relevance (ignoratio elenchi) -Arises when something about an argument tempts us to overlook the fact that there really is no connection between the premises and the conclusion. Appeal to ignorance -Committed whenever one argues that something must be true on the basis that it has not been proved to be false (or false on the basis that it has not been proved to be true. Example: -“if you cant prove me wrong, then I must be right.”
-Two days ago, we reported someone saw Fr.
John and Ms. Jane together. If it’s not true, they will categorically deny it. Since they did not, it only affirms our suspicion that there really is an illicit affair going on between them. Appeal to the People -When one attempts to popular assent to a conclusion by using persuasively emotive language. -Is predicated on popular opinion as a justification of the claim rather than on reason and evidence. Example: -The result of the latest survey is that CJ Corona is guilty of graft and corruption. Since this is what majority of the people think, then he must be really corrupt. Example: -Security Bank –Katipunan Branch is suffering bankruptcy because many people are withdrawing from the bank. Therefore, the bank’s financial situation is worst and insolvent. Appeal to force -Appeals to physical force or moral pressure rather than the merit of the point at issue to win an argument. Example: -Man to the girl he is courting: “marry me or if you refuse, I shall kill you.”
-I deserve a good grade, wouldn’t you agree?
If you don’t , I'm afraid you still don’t know that I have a connection with the Ampatuans. Appeal to pity -It consists in pleading for mercy and disregarding the point in question. The appeal must be relevant to the conclusion being sought. Example: -“go ahead! Live with your boyfriend. Who am I to say “No”? -Im just your mother. Break my heart.
-Your honor, my client, Lorenzo, does not
deserve death by lethal injection. He has 3 small children that needs a father, and a wife that needs a husband. Argument against the person -It is an attack against the character of the person rather than a challenge to the merit of his argument. Example: -Don’t believe him! He’s gay!
-Are you going to agree with what that
bitch (B-i-a-t-c-h) is saying?! Appeal to shame (appeal to misplaced authority) -If one cites an “authority” who is not an expert on the issue or the person who supplies the opinion is not an expert at all, or in one but in an unrelated area. Example: -Sleeping with your hair wet can make you blind. That’s true! That’s what our gardener said. Vicious Circle (Begging the Question) -The argument fails to prove anything because it somehow takes for granted what is supposed to prove. Example: -“why are you here? -Because Im not there!
-“why are you late?
-Because im not early!
-Beer causes drunkenness because it is
intoxicating. Non Sequitor -The stated conclusion does not follow from its premise/s. Example: -The prisoner pleaded guilty. He then said he made a mistake, and the judge allowed him to change his plea to “not guilty”. The case was tried. -One said: -Prisoner, a few minutes ago you said you were a thief. Now the jury say you are a liar. Consequently, you are discharged.