RF FUNDAMENTALS

Presented by

Sarika Shrivastava
Pavana Vishnu Kanth K
 Contents Overview

• RF Basics
• Transmission Line Basics
• Types Of Transmission Lines
• S- Parameters
• Smith Chart
• RF Components
RF BASICS
 Microwaves ????
– f = 300 MHz - 300 GHz
– ⅄=1m - 1 mm
 Why Microwaves ???
• Small Antennas

• Antenna gain is proportional to the electrical size of the antenna. At HFs, more antenna gain is
therefore possible for a given physical antenna size.

• Efficient BW utilization - A 1% BW at 600 MHz is 6 MHz (the bandwidth of a single TV channel),

and at 60 GHz a l % BW is 600 MHz (100 TV channels).

• Microwave signals travel by line of sight and are not bent by the ionosphere as are LF signals.
Satellite and terrestrial communication links with very high capacities are thus possible, with
frequency reuse at minimally distant locations.

• The effective reflection area RCS of a radar target is usually proportional to the target's electrical
size.

• Various molecular, atomic, and nuclear resonances occur at microwave frequencies, creating a
variety of unique applications in the areas of basic science, remote sensing, medical diagnostics and
treatment, and heating methods.

• Applications: Microwave oven, Radar, Satellite comm., direct broadcast satellite (DBS) television,
personal communication systems (PCSs) etc.
 Analysis of differences between Low and High Frequency

• Lumped Vs Distributed elements

• Thus a transmission line is a distributed-parameter network, where voltages and currents can
vary in magnitude and phase over its length.
Electrical length (in ) = Physical length/Wavelength
Phase delay = (2 or 360) x Physical length/Wavelength
f =10 kHz,  = c/f = 3 x 108/ 10 x 103 = 3000 m
Electrical length =1 cm/3000 m = 3.3 x 10 -6 
Phase delay = 0.0012
f =10 GHz,  = 3 x 108/ 10 x 109 = 3 cm
Electrical length = 0.33 
Phase delay = 118.8
Electrically long - The phase of a voltage or current changes significantly over the
physical extent of the device
 Decibel (dB)
• operates on a unitless parameter
• example ratios and coefficients
• logarithmic expression of the ratio between the power, voltage, or current of two signals.

- Gain PdB = 10log10 (P2 /P1)

- Loss VdB = 20log10 (V2 /V1)

Examples
+ 3 dB two times bigger
+10 dB ten times bigger
-3 dB one half
-10 dB one tenth
0dB 1
−∞ dB 0
7dB 5

dBw P(dBw)=10log10(Pwatts/1W)
dBm P(dBm)=10log10(Pwatts/1mW)
dBc P(dBc)=10log10(Pwatts/Pc)
 Maxwell's Equation

• Electric and magnetic phenomena at the macroscopic

• Differential form with magnetic and/or polarizable media:

Symbols Used
I. Gauss' law for electricity
E= ρ = charge i =
Electric fie density electric cu
ld rrent
B= ε0 = J = current
Magnetic permittivit density
field y
II. Gauss' law for magnetism D=
Electric μ0 = c = speed
displacem permeabil of light
ent ity
III. Faraday's law of induction
H= M= P=
Magnetic Magnetiza Polarizatio
IV. Ampere's law field stren tion n
gth
Transmission - Line Basics

f
 General Model of a transmission line

+++++++
V
-------

R L R L R L

G C G C G C

• Distributed parameters (e.g. capacitance per unit length).

Parameters Parameter Symbol Units
Conductor Resistance R W•cm-1
Self Inductance L nH•cm-1
Total Capacitance C pF•cm-1
Dielectric Conductance G W-1•cm -1

u - propagation velocity of the waves (cm/ns)

td - propagation delay (ns/cm).

R  j L
Characteristic Impedance Z0 
G  j C
Propagation Constant  R  jL G  jC     j
a = attenuation constant = rate of exponential attenuation
b = phase constant = amount of phase shift per unit length

Phase Velocity p 

In general, a and b are frequency dependent.
 The Concept of Impedance

 Intrinsic impedance of the medium

   /
• depends on the material parameters of the medium

 Wave impedance
Z w  Et / H t  1/ Yw
• a characteristic of the particular type of wave.
• TEM, TM and TE waves each have different wave impedances
• may depend on
– the type of the line or guide,
– the material
– the operating frequency.
• η = Zw for plane waves.

 Characteristic impedance
Z 0  1/ Y0  L / C
• the ratio of V/I for a traveling wave on a transmission line.
 Propagation Delay
– Transit Time
– Delay Line

Figure 13-11: The effect of the time delay of a transmission line on signals. (a) Sine wave delay
causes a lagging phase shift. (b) Pulse delay.
 Attenuation
– Attenuation
• amount of power lost per 100 ft of cable (in dB) at 100 MHz.
• Attenuation α cable length
• Attenuation α freq
• A transmission line is a LPF whose cutoff frequency depends on distributed inductance and
capacitance along the line and on length.
• It is important to use larger, low-loss cables for longer runs despite cost and handling
inconvenience.
• A gain antenna can be used to offset cable loss.
• Velocity Factor VF = Vp/Vc

– Dispersion
• Vgvs freq.
• Ex. waveguide and microstrip.
• affects transmission line impedance as well as group velocity.
• The dispersion of microstrip is just a few % over a moderate freq band, and can often be ignored.
• Two things to remember about dispersion:
• for small bandwidths, it is usually not a problem.
 Lossless Line Equivalent Circuit
L L L
R and G are negligible, at low
C
frequencies -
C C
no attenuation &
no dispersion
(Microstrip)

Z0,Zn,,length
v , length
0

 Lossless transmission lines are characterized by the following two parameters:

L
Characteristic Impedance Z0 
C

1
Propagation Velocity v
LC

• Lossless line characteristics are frequency independent.

 Homogeneous Media
• A homogeneous dielectric medium is uniform in all directions.
– All field lines are contained within the dielectric.
• For a transmission line in a homogeneous medium, the propagation velocity
depends only on material properties:

1 1 c0 30cm / ns
v   
LC  rr r
   r 0 Dielectric Permittivity
 0  8.854 x10 14 F cm Permittivity of free space

 0  1.257 x10 8 H cm Magnetic Permeability

  0 Permeability of free space

εr is the relative permittivity or dielectric constant.

 Non-Homogeneous Media

• A non-homogenous medium contains multiple materials with different

dielectric constants.
• For a non-homogeneous medium, field lines cut across the boundaries
between dielectric materials.
• In this case the propagation velocity depends on the dielectric constants and
the proportions of the materials.

1 1
v 
LC 

• er,eff - which represents an average dielectric constant.

 General Input Impedance Equation

• Input impedance of a transmission line at a distance L from the load impedance ZL with
a characteristic Zo is

Zinput = Zo [(ZL + j Zo βL)/(Zo + j ZL βL)]

where β is called phase constant or wavelength constant and is defined by the equation
β = 2p/l

• Half-wave transmission line L = l/2

Zinput = ZL W
• Quarter wave line L = l/2
Zinput = (Zinput Zoutput)0.5 W
 Effect of Lossy line on voltage and current waves

• The effect of resistance in a transmission line is to continuously reduce the

amplitude of both incident and reflected voltage and current waves.

• Skin Effect: As frequency increases, depth of penetration into adjacent conductive

surfaces decreases for boundary currents associated with electromagnetic waves.
This results in the confinement of the voltage and current waves at the boundary of
the transmission line, thus making the transmission more lossy.

• The skin depth is given by:

skin depth (m) = 1/(pmgf)0.5
where f = frequency, Hz
m = permeability, H/m
g = conductivity, S/m
 Power Loss

• Return Power Loss: When an electromagnetic wave travels down a

transmission line and encounters a mismatched load or a discontinuity in
the line, part of the incident power is reflected back down the line. The
return loss is defined as:
Preturn = 10 log10 Pi/Pr
Preturn = 20 log10 1/G
• Mismatch Power Loss: The term mismatch loss is used to describe the loss
caused by the reflection due to a mismatched line. It is defined as
Pmismatch = 10 log10 Pi/(Pi - Pr)
 Standing Waves

Ri =ZL
Preflected

Pincident Ra ≠ ZL
• Voltage Reflection Coefficient.
Γ = Vr/Vi
where Vr = incident voltage, Vi = reflected voltage

Γ = (ZL - ZO)/(ZL + ZO)

Standing wave.
– has nodal points that remain stationary with time.
– not desirable.
• Standing Wave Ratio:
Imax Vmax
SWR = =
Imin Vmin
• Relationship between VSWR and Reflection Coefficient:
VSWR = (1 + |G|)/(1 - |G|)

Transmission and reflection coefficients

Vt Vr
   
Vi Vi
 Transmission Lines as Circuit Elements

Resonant Circuits and Reactive Components

– Shorted and open λ/4 lines act like LC tuned or resonant circuits at the ref. freq.
– S.C. line
• L < λ/4 (@fo) - the shorted line looks like an inductor to the generator.
• λ/4 < L < λ/2 , it looks like a capacitor to the generator.
• These conditions repeat with multiple λ/4 or λ/2 of shorted line.

– O.C. line
• L=λ/4 line looks like a series resonant circuit to the generator
• L=λ/2 line looks like a parallel resonant circuit, just the opposite of a shorted
line.
• L < λ/4 (@fo) - the generator sees a capacitance.
• λ/4 < L < λ/2 - the generator sees an inductance.
• These conditions repeat with multiple λ/4 or λ/2 of shorted line.
Figure 13-25: Summary of impedance and reactance variations of shorted and open lines for
lengths up to one wavelength.
Types Of Transmission Lines
 Types of Transmission Lines
1. Two wire line
2. Coaxial cable
3. Multi-dielectric coax
4. Rectax
5. Waveguide - is technically NOT a transmission line, but it serves the same purpose. Types of
waveguides:
 Rectangular
 Circular
 Finline
 Parallel Plate
 Dielectric-loaded
 Double-ridged
 Substrate integrated

6. Planar Transmission Lines

 Strip line
 Microstrip line
 Slot line
 Fin line
 Coplanar Waveguide
 Coplanar slot line

7. Wire Transmission Lines

– Parallel-wire line
• is made of two parallel conductors separated by a space of ½ inch to several inches.
• A variation of parallel line is the 300-Ω twin-lead. Spacing between the wires is
maintained by a continuous plastic insulator.
– coaxial cable
• most widely used
• It consists of a solid center conductor surrounded by a dielectric material, usually a
plastic insulator such as Teflon.
• A second conducting shield made of fine wires covers the insulator, and an outer
plastic sheath insulates the braid.
– Twisted-pair cable
• uses two insulated solid copper wires covered with insulation and loosely twisted
together.
• Two types of twisted-pair cable are
– Unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) cable
– Shielded twisted-pair (STP) cable
Figure 13-1: Common types of transmission lines. (a) Open-wire line. (b) Open-wire line called
twin lead. (c) Coaxial cable (d) Twisted-pair cable.
 Balanced Versus Unbalanced Lines
– Balanced Line
• neither wire is connected to ground.
• The signal on each wire is ref. to gnd.
• Ex. Open-wire line
• offer significant protection from noise pickup and cross talk.

– Unbalanced Line
• one conductor is connected to ground.
• Ex. Coaxial cables, shielded twisted-pair
• may pick up signals and cross talk and can
even radiate energy

undesirable loss of signal.

– balun
 Coax Overview

• TEM mode of transmission

• Under proper conditions, all E-field lines run radially, while magnetic field lines run in
circles around the center conductor.
• The filling factor for coax is unity
• Keff = ER
• no lower cutoff frequency (like waveguide does).
• A coax transmission line consists of two round conductors in which one completely
surrounds the other, with the two separated by a continuous solid dielectric (or sometimes
by periodic dielectric spacers), as shown.

r
Z0, u, length
, length v, Z R
0
e
r
  b
Z0  ln  
2a 2  a 
- characteristic impedance
2b

where    / - wave impedance of lossless line equal to

intrinsic medium impedance

• widely used for hybrid high power applications: combiners,

dividers, transformers
 TEM Mode
• Non-dispersive – Vp and Zo are constant over a wide band (at least until other "spurious"
modes start to propagate).

• TEM mode
– Coax
– Stripline
– Parallel plate waveguide

• Transmission lines are typically operated at frequencies below the cutoff frequencies of TE
and TM modes so that only the TEM mode exists.
• Along the length of a normal transmission line, both electric and magnetic fields
are perpendicular (transverse) to the direction of wave travel. This is known as the
principal mode, or TEM (Transverse Electric and Magnetic) mode.
• dominant mode of wave propagation
• the cross-sectional dimensions of the transmission line are small compared to the
wavelength of the signal. (Figure below)

• Twin lead transmission line propagation: TEM mode.

 TEM media are non-dispersive

• Stripline -1.54 ns (1ns * √εR per foot rule, multiplied by the square-root of the dielectric
constant.
• CPW - 1.22 ns
• εeff = (1+ εR )/2,
• the average of free space and the substrate dielectric constant, or 1.65 in this case.
• Neither CPW or stripline is suffers from dispersion.
• Distributed elements formed on microstrip will have less bandwidth than comparable
elements formed in stripline.

CPW
Microstrip
Stripline.

Group Delay of three 50Ω transmission lines, each one foot long, realized on Rogers 5880 Duroid (Er=2.3)
 Criteria for TEM propagation in transmission lines

1. Fields are contained in uniform, isotropic dielectric material (excludes

microstrip).
– usually true for coax and stripline, but not always. Coax can have multiple
dielectrics. Stripline often uses two different dielectric materials; in these
cases, true TEM is not achieved.
2. Two or more conductors are required (excludes rectangular waveguide, but
includes parallel-plate waveguide)

3. The conductors must have infinite conductivity. The IR drop across the conductor
bends the E-field ever so slightly going forward.

4. The dielectric must be lossless.

5. The cross-section of the transmission line must remain constant (excludes certain
types of slow-wave structures)

Conditions (3) and (4) make it impossible to create pure TEM unless you have access
to superconductors and a zero-gravity lab so you don't have to support the conductors.
 What is meant by the cutoff frequency fc?
• The desirable TEM mode is allowed to propagate at all frequencies, but at
frequencies above fc an ugly higher-order mode is also allowed to propagate. This
mode will be excited at small imperfections, bends, etc., and it will propagate with
a different phase velocity and interfere with the TEM mode.

• To be sure that only one mode propagates, thus keeping the signal clean, you will
need to stay below fc. To obtain good performance at higher frequencies, smaller
diameter cables are required to stay below the cutoff frequency.

• In order to minimize losses due to skin depth, you want to use the BIGGEST coax
cable you can that won't support a TE11 mode (a higher-order mode that will screw
up your loss and VSWR and has a different propagation velocity than the TEM
mode).

• The criteria for cutoff is that the circumference at the midpoint inside the dielectric
must be less than a wavelength. Note: this is an APPROXIMATION of a
transcendental equation which must be solved numerically.

• Coaxial cable is the solution to many problems, from wide bandwidth, to low loss
and high isolation.
Microstrip
 Quasi-TEM because the static (DC, or zero freq) fields are TEM

Quasi-TEM Assumption
• The electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular to the propagation
velocity in the transverse planes.
• Variants -
embedded
microstrip and
coated microstrip,
both of which add
some dielectric
above the
microstrip
conductor.
E
H

y
z

x
 Microstrip - non TEM behavior
• Microstrip is the type of microwave circuit interconnection. This waveguide will
support the “quasi- TEM” mode, which like regular TEM modes has no non-zero
cutoff frequency.

• However, if the frequency is large enough, other modes will begin to propogate on
a microstrip. This is usually not a desirable situation

• When can microstrip provide TEM transmission?

– Substrate is air
– Overlay microstrip with a "near infinite" layer of the same material
• impossible
• Maybe a layer 20X the strip width and 20X the substrate height would do
the job. But there is the potential that the upper dielectric could propagate
an unwanted mode as well...
– At infinite frequency
• the entire wave is contained in the substrate.
• outside of the microwave spectrum - the media will support who-knows-
what different modes when the thickness is infinite wavelengths.
 h

120 h 1
Z0 
 r W 1  1.735 r0.0724 W/h 
 0.836
t r

W
- characteristic impedance

Z0
r =2
4
6
100 8
10
20

10
W/h
0.1 1 10
 Transmission Line Parameters

• Guided wavelength
– ⅄g= ⅄o / √εr
• Propagation constant
– β=2Π/ ⅄g
• Phase velocity
• Vp=ω/β

• Electrical length
– Θ=βL
• Losses
– Conductor loss
– Dielectric loss
– Radiation loss
• Dispersion
– εre(f)
– Zo(f)
• Surface Waves and higher-order modes
– Coupling between the quasi-TEM mode and surface wave mode
become significant when the frequency is above fs
– Cutoff frequency fc of first higher-order modes in a microstrip
– The operating frequency of a microstrip line < Min (fs, fc)
 SKIN - EFFECT

magnetic field H
At HFs, the current tends to flow only in the
Primary
conductor surface; the effective conductor cross current I increasing
section decreases and the conductor resistance through the
skin effect
increases.
primary current
The depth of penetration illustrates the skin effect. It ↓ses through
is defined as the thickness of a thin surface layer the skin effect

(assumed to have an even distribution of a current

increasing
flow), having the same resistance as an actual through the
skin effect
conductor which is undergoing to skin effect.
Because of the influence of the skin effect upon flowing self induction current

inductance the resistance is frequency-dependent:

l cable length,
r conductor radius,
µ0 magnetic field constant,
µr relative permeability,
σ conductivity and
ω angular frequency (ω=2πf).
 Dispersion in microstrip

The so-called "quasi-static" solution of microstrip Keff is done at zero frequency (DC), and
Keff is greatly reduced from the ER of the substrate (for example, on GaAs with ER 12.9,
Keff at DC might be around 8. But at infinite frequency, (think gamma rays instead of
microwaves) all of the E-fields will be in the substrate, and Keff will be 12.9. Note that
infinite frequency is not possible, spurious modes will propagate well before the substrate
becomes even a quarter-wavelength tall (at which point it won't work at all).
As more field lines enter the substrate at higher frequency, the wave slows down (more
group delay), and the characteristic impedance goes up slightly. But you will never come
close to Keff=ER in practical applications.
Another problem with microstrip is that the group velocity of the even and odd modes is
different. This is what causes filter skirts to be different above and below the passband of
a bandpass filter.
 Discontinuities And Components

– Full-Wave EM Simulator

Steps in width

Open ends

The fields do not stop abruptly but extend slightly further due to the effect of the
fringing field.
Gaps

Bends
Rectangular waveguide
discontinuities.

47
 Some common
microstrip
discontinuities. (a)
Open-ended microstrip.
(b) Gap in microstrip.
(c) Change in width.
(d) T-junction. (e)
Coax-to-microstrip
junction.

48
 Stripline

Centred Stripline
Variants

Dual Stripline

εeff
 Stripline - TEM behavior

• Stripline provides near-TEM mode

• Magnetic fields encircle the strip conductor, and electric fields extend
into/out of it at 90 degree angles, and terminate in the ground strips.
 b

Z0, Ohm
r r = 2
100
t 4

6
W 10
20

30 b 10
Z0 
 r We  0.441b
- characteristic impedance 1 W/b
0.1 1 10
 W
 0 for  0.35b
We W b • provides lower characteristic
   2
b b 
  0.35  W  W impedance
 for  0.35b .
  b b
 Advantages of stripline
• Stripline (TEM) vs microstrip (quasi-TEM)

• Stripline filters and couplers always offer better bandwidth than their
counterparts in microstrip, and the rolloff of stripline BPFs can be
quite symmetric (unlike microstrip).

• Stripline has no lower cutoff frequency (like waveguide does).

• But is stripline really non-dispersive at all frequencies? Read about

the low frequency dispersion of TEM media, something to think about
when you are designing between 10 MHz and 1 GHz...

• Isolation between adjacent traces

 Disadvantages of stripline

 fabrication or size constraints.

 Microstrip is an industry standard for microwave circuits, because it is easy to fabricate.
But it is not as good a solution compared to stripline.

 more expensive

 strip widths - are much narrower for a given impedance and board
thickness. Because of the second groundplane,

 A common reaction to problems with microstrip circuits is to attempt to

convert them to stripline. Chances are you'll end up with a board thickness
that is four times that of your microstrip board to get equivalent
transmission line loss.
Coplanar Waveguide

Finite

ideal H = infinite
 Advantages of CPW
• Circuit Isolation : ,you can get great isolation using CPW, because there are always RF
grounds between traces.

• The advantage of having a thick substrate is realized when you fabricate CPW MMICs. The
expense of backside processing (thinning, via etch, backside plating) is eliminated. Many
companies that are currently developing GaN devices are employing CPW so they can
concentrate on device technology and not have to figure out how to etch vias in silicon
carbide or sapphire.

• The ground inductance for shunt elements is quite low for CPW, compared to microstrip
applications. This is because the RF ground is "right there", and you don't have to drill a via
hole to connect to it (vias add inductance).

• Circuit Size : If you want to make compact circuits using narrow transmission lines, you must
trade off RF loss. CPW circuits can be lossier than comparable microstrip circuits, if you need
a compact layout.

• The advantages of coplanar waveguide are that active devices can be mounted on top of the
circuit, like on microstrip. More importantly, it can provide extremely high frequency
response (100 GHz or more) since connecting to CPW does not entail any parasitic
discontinuities in the ground plane.
 Disadvantages of CPW

• CPW is at a disadvantage versus a stripline of microstrip circuit, because

it's effective dielectric constant is lower (half of the fields are in air).

• Ground straps are always needed to tie the two grounds together in
CPW, or weird things can happen. These are especially important
around any discontinuity, such as a tee junction.

• One disadvantage is potentially lousy heat dissipation (this depends on

the thickness of the dielectric and whether it makes contact to a heat
sink).
• However, the main reason that CPW is not used is that there is a general
lack of understanding of how to employ it within the microwave design
community.
 Slotline Coplanar waveguide

h r
h r
W
W s W

Characteristic impedance
Z0, Ohm

110
• provide higher characteristic
impedance
90

70 9.7 • widely used for hybrid and

monolithic integrated circuits
50
20

30 W/h
0.0 0.1 1
2
Slotline

• quasi-TEM type of mode

• Changing the width of the slot
changes the characteristic impedance
of the line.
 FINLINE

• similar to slotline
• bounded within a rectangular waveguide - It solves the problem of how to install components
such as diodes into rectangular waveguide.
• close relative of double-ridged waveguide.
• 30 GHz to 110 GHz.
• Basically it consists of a partially metalized dielectric substrate shielded by a rectangular metal
enclosure. The metallization can be in the form of fins and/or isolated strip conductors of
arbitrary widths placed in symmetric or antisymmetric positions on the substrate.
• Types of finline : unilateral finline (fins on only one side of the substrate with slot in the centre
or off-centered) symmetrical and asymmetrical, bilateral finline (fins located on both sides of
substrate, broadside coupled double-dielectric finlines employing two symmetrically
positioned substrates with an intervening air gap between them), asymmetric broad side
coupled double dielectric finline, edge coupled finline, antipodal finline and insulated finline.
Antipodal finline is useful to act as transitions between two kinds of planar transmission lines.
• The useful applications are filters, hybrid rings, power dividers, phase shifters, mixers and
transitions.
• Finline got its name because it resembles a fin of a fish. This is the only structure having
planar transmission line in E-plane inserted in a waveguide. These kind of quasi-planar
structures combine the advantageous features of planar technology in terms of amenability to
circuit integration and mass production, and of waveguide technology in terms of low loss.
WAVEGUIDES
 Special form of transmission line
 Tube wall - distributed inductance
 Empty space between the tube walls - distributed capacitance.
 Used at microwave freq`s - typically to interconnect tx and rx with antennas.
 No concerns with proper conductor-to-conductor spacing
 No concerns of the consistency of the dielectric material (only one dielectric - air)
 “Director” of the energy rather than as a signal conductor.
 Propagation of electrical energy of different nature than in a two-conductor
transmission line.
 reduces copper (I²R) losses
 At microwave frequencies, the current-carrying area of the inner conductor is restricted to a very
small layer at the surface of the conductor by an action called skin effect. Skin effect tends to
increase the effective resistance of the conductor.
The energy is then conducted within the hollow waveguide instead of along the
two-wire transmission line.
If the frequency of a signal is decreased so much that two quarter-wavelengths
are longer than the wide dimension of a waveguide, energy will no longer pass
through the waveguide. This is the lower frequency limit, or cut-off frequency, of
a given waveguide.
The widest dimension of a waveguide is called the „a” dimension and
determines the range of operating frequencies.
The narrowest dimension determines the power-handling capability of the
waveguide and is called the „b” dimension.
The cut-off wavelength of a rectangular waveguide can be calculated by:

λcut-off = cut-off wavelength [m]

λcut-off = 2 · a a = the widest dimension of the
waveguides cross section. [m]
• The development of the E field in a waveguide happens by double quarter-wave sections,
called half-wave frames.
• The voltage and the E vary continuously from zero to the peak value.
• Voltage and E-field polarity reverse with every reversal of the input.
• The losses into a waveguide depends of the frequency.
• The required dimension of the waveguide decreases as the frequency increases.
• The wide (a) dimension determines the frequency range of the waveguide
• Narrow (b) dimension determines power-handling capability.
• The physical size of the waveguides depends of the traveling frequency.
• The „b” dimension is governed by the breakdown potential of the dielectric, which is usually
air. Dimensions ranging from 0.2 to 0.5 wavelength are common for the „b” sides of a
waveguide.
• To improve the power-handling capability it is inside the hollow leader an air pressure is
produced which one doesn't let any humidity penetrate into the waveguide.
• At microwave freq`s, lines small enough in cross-sectional dimension to maintain
TEM mode signal propagation tend to have low voltage ratings, and suffer from
large, parasitic power losses due to conductor “skin” and dielectric effects.

• Fortunately, though, at these short wavelengths there exist other modes of

propagation that are not as “lossy,” if a conductive tube is used rather than two
parallel conductors. It is at these HFs that waveguides become practical.

• The maximum +ive and -ive voltage crests of the wave travel down the center of
the waveguide and the voltage decreases to zero along the waveguide side walls.
When high power waveguide systems fail, the electrical arcs are usually between
the top and bottom walls of the waveguide in the center where the voltage is
greatest.

• TE mode (Transverse Electric)

• TM (Transverse Magnetic)
mode
 Dispersion in waveguide

- much more dispersive than even microstrip, especially near the lower cutoff freq.

Fig : Group Delay for a 12 inch piece of WR-90 Waveguide

Comparison of Waveguide and Transmission Line Characteristics
Transmission line
• Two or more conductors separated by some
insulating medium (two-wire, coaxial,
microstrip, etc.).
• Normal operating mode is the TEM or quasi-TEM
mode (can support TE and TM modes but these
modes are typically undesirable).
• No cutoff frequency for the TEM mode.
Transmission lines can transmit signals from DC up
to high frequency.
• Significant signal attenuation at high frequencies
due to conductor and dielectric losses.
• Small cross-section transmission lines (like coaxial
cables) can only transmit low power levels due to the
relatively high fields concentrated at specific
locations within the device (field levels are limited
by dielectric breakdown).
• Large cross-section transmission lines (like power
transmission lines) can transmit high power levels.
Waveguide
Metal waveguides are typically one enclosed
conductor filled with an insulating medium
(rectangular, circular) while a dielectric waveguide
consists of multiple dielectrics.
Operating modes are TE or TM modes (cannot
support a TEM mode).
Must operate the waveguide at a frequency above the
respective TE or TM mode cutoff frequency for that
mode to propagate.
Lower signal attenuation at high frequencies than
transmission lines.
Metal waveguides can transmit high power levels.
The fields of the propagating wave are spread more
uniformly over a larger cross-sectional area than the
small cross-section transmission line.
Large cross-section (low frequency) waveguides are
impractical due to large size and high cost.
 Advantages and disadvantages of waveguides

• Waveguide has a number of advantages over coax, microstrip and stripline.

– completely shielded
• excellent isolation between adjacent signals
• can transmit extremely high peak powers
• has very low loss (often almost negligible) at microwave frequencies.
• Disadvantages
– high cost
• waveguide materials such as copper and silver are relatively
expensive.
– size and mass, particularly at LFs (Ex. cell phone )
– you can't pass DC currents along with your RF signal.

• Rectangular, circular, elliptical, and all hollow, metallic waveguides cannot

support TEM waves.
• Examples of waveguides that will allow TEM modes include coaxial cable,
parallel plate waveguide, stripline, and microstrip.
 Waveguide Variants

• Dielectric-loaded waveguide / dielectric-filled waveguide (DFW)

– to shrink the dimensions.
– with a ferrite material, perhaps to make a circulator.
• Double-ridged waveguide
– can provide more bandwidth than "normal" rectangular waveguide.
– similar to finline
– By bringing down the ridges, the E-field is further increased.
• Substrate integrated waveguide (SIW)
– Emerged due to the HF disadvantages of microstrip devices and waveguides
– TM modes do not exist
– dominant mode - TE10
How to find Trace width
S - PARAMETERS
 Standard Configuration of a Two Port Network

I1 I2
+ +
Input Output
V1
_ Port The Network Port
V2
_

* notes
 Reciprocal and Lossless Networks

Reciprocal networks usually contain nonreciprocal media such as ferrites or

plasma, or active devices. We can show that the impedance and admittance
matrices are symmetrical, so that.

Zij  Z ji or Yij  Yji

Lossless networks can be shown that Zij or Yij are imaginary

 Network Equations:

Impedance
V1 = z11I1 + z12I2 V2 = b11V1 - b12I1
Z parameters
V2 = z21I1 + z22I2 I2 = b21V1 – b22I1

Admittance I1 = y11V1 + y12V2 V1 = h11I1 + h12V2

Hybrid
Y parameters H parameters
I2 = y21V1 + y22V2 I2 = h21I1 + h22V2

Transmission V1 = AV2 - BI2 I1 = g11V1 + g12I2

A, B, C, D
parameters
I1 = CV2 - DI2 V2 = g21V1 + g22I2
 Two Port Networks
V1   z 11 z 12   I 1 
Z parameters: V    z z 22   I 2 
 2   21

V z11 is the impedance seen looking into port 1

z  1
11 I I 0 when port 2 is open.
1 2

V z12 is a transfer impedance. It is the ratio of the

z  1
12 I I 0 voltage at port 1 to the current at port 2 when
2 1 port 1 is open.

V
z  2 z21 is a transfer impedance. It is the ratio of the
21 I I 0
1 2 voltage at port 2 to the current at port 1 when
port 2 is open.
V
z  2 z22 is the impedance seen looking into port 2
22 I I 0
2 1 when port 1 is open.

* notes
 Two Port Networks
Y parameters:

I y11 is the admittance seen looking into port 1

y  1
11 V V 0 when port 2 is shorted.
1 2

I y12 is a transfer admittance. It is the ratio of the

y  1
12 V V 0 current at port 1 to the voltage at port 2 when
2 1 port 1 is shorted.

I
y  2 y21 is a transfer impedance. It is the ratio of the
21 V V 0
1 2 current at port 2 to the voltage at port 1 when
port 2 is shorted.
I
y  2 y22 is the admittance seen looking into port 2
22 V V 0
2 1 when port 1 is shorted.

* notes
 Two Port Networks
Transmission parameters (A,B,C,D):

The defining equations are:

V1   A B   V 2 
I      I 
 1  C D   2 

V1 V1
A B
V2 I2 = 0  I2 V2 = 0

I1 I1
C D
V2 I2 = 0  I2 V2 = 0
 Two Port Networks
Hybrid Parameters: The equations for the hybrid parameters are:

V1   h11 h12   I 1 

 I   h h22  V2 
 2   21

V1 V1
h11  h12 
I1 V2 = 0 V2 I1 = 0

I2 I2
h21  h22 
I1 V2 = 0 V2 I1 = 0

* notes
 Two Port Networks
Hybrid Parameters: The following is a popular model used to represent
a particular variety of transistors.

I1 K1 I2

+ + +

V1 K 2V 2 K4 V2
_ K 3V 1
_ _

We can write the following equations:

V1  AI 1  BV2
V2
I 2  CI 1 
D
* notes
 Two Port Networks
Hybrid Parameters: V1  AI 1  BV2
V2
I 2  CI 1 
D

We want to evaluate the H parameters from the above set of equations.

V1 V1
h11  = K1
h12  = K2
I1 V2 = 0 V2 I1 = 0

I2
h21  = K3 I2 1
I1 V2 = 0
h22  = K
4
V2 I1 = 0
 Going From Y to Z Parameters

For the Y parameters we have: For the Z parameters we have:

I Y V V Z I
1
From above; V Y I Z I
Therefore
 y y 
 22 12
 where
z z  
 Y 
1
  Y  Y  det Y
Z Y
z
11
z
12
   y y 
 21 22   21 11 
   
 Y Y 
Two Port Parameter Conversions:
 Interconnection Of Two Port Networks
Three ways that two ports are interconnected:

ya Y parameters
* Parallel
yb
 y  ya   yb 
Z parameters
z  za   zb 
za
* Series
zb

ABCD parameters

* Cascade Ta Tb T  Ta  Tb 

Figure B.6 Equivalent circuits for (a) y, (b) z, (c) h, and (d) g parameters.
 Amplitude
Phase
Frequency

S-parameters are complex (i.e. they

have magnitude and angle)
because both the magnitude and
phase of the input signal are
changed by the network.

(This is why they are sometimes

referred to as complex scattering
parameters).
S11 = b1 / a1

S12 = b1 / a2

S21 = b2 / a1

S22 = b2 / a2

A transmission line is an
example of a symmetrical
2-port network.

| S11 |2 power reflected from port1

S11 , S22 - reflection coefficients | S12 |2 power transmitted from port1 to port2
S21, S12 - transmission coefficients | S21 |2 power transmitted from port2 to port1
| S22 |2 power reflected from port2
What do S-parameters depend on?

• the network
• the characteristic impedances of
the source and load used to
measure it
• the frequency measured at.
 Larger networks:

The S-matrix for an n-port network contains n2 coefficients (S-parameters),

each one representing a possible input-output path.

The number of rows and columns in an S-parameters matrix is equal to the

number of ports.
SMITH CHART
 Why Smith Chart ?

• Complex mathematics required to design and

analyze transmission lines
• For complex transmission line problems, the
use of the formulae becomes increasingly
difficult
• Complex impedances involved (R + jX)
• visual solutions
• standardized way of viewing and solving
transmission-line and related problems.
• a clever tool for analyzing transmission lines
• Impedances, voltages, currents, etc. all repeat every half wavelength
• The magnitude of the reflection coefficient, the SWR do not change, so they
characterize the voltage & current patterns on the line
• If the load impedance is normalized by the characteristic impedance of the
line, the voltages, currents, impedances, etc. all still have the same
properties, but the results can be generalized to any line with the same
normalized impedances
• The outside of the chart shows location on the line in wavelengths
 Components of a Smith Chart
• Horizontal line
– Resistive Or The Conductive component

• Circles of constant resistance and conductance

– tangents and intersection with the centerline.

• Lines of constant reactance

 Imaginary

Smith Chart
Real Impedance Impedance Axis
Axis

• The linear scales printed at the bottom of Smith charts are used to find the
SWR, dB loss, and reflection coefficient.
 For the constant r circles:
1.The centers of all the constant r circles
are on the horizontal axis – real part of the
reflection coefficient.
2.The radius of circles decreases when r
increases.
3.All constant r circles pass through the
point r =1, i = 0.
4.The normalized resistance r =  is at the
point r =1, i = 0.

For the constant x circles:

1.The centers of all the constant x circles

are on the r =1 line. The circles with x > 0
(inductive reactance) are above the r axis;
the circles with x < 0 (capacitive) are
below the r axis.

2. The radius of circles decreases when absolute value of x increases.

3. The normalized reactances x =  are at the point r =1, i = 0
• The input impedance of a transmission line depends on
• the impedance of the load,
• the characteristic impedance of the line, and
• the distance between the load and the observation point.

• The value of the input impedance also periodically varies in space.

• The input impedance can be found graphically via so called Smith chart.

The normalized impedance at any location is complex and can be found as:
z  j tan kL
zin ( L)  L
1  jz L tan kL
An arbitrary normalized load impedance is:
z L  r  jx
Where: RL XL
r ; x 
Zc Zc
Since the line is assumed to be lossless, its characteristic impedance is real.
The reflection coefficient will be complex:
z 1
   r  j i  L
zL  1
 1   1   r  j i 1   r 2  i 2 2 i
 z L    r  jx   j
1   1   r  j i 1   r   i 1   r    i 2
2 2 2

Therefore, by equating the real and the imaginary parts:

2 2
 r   1 

 r     i
2
  
 r 1  r 1
2 2

  r  1   i     
2 1 1
 x x
• family of circles in a plane
• axes - r and I
• All circles are inside the unit circle since maximal  = 1.
The constant r circles are orthogonal to the constant x circles at every intersection.
The actual (de-normalized) load impedance is:
Z L  Z c (r  jx)
Since the transmission line is lossless, the magnitude of the reflection coefficient is
constant at every point between the load and the signal generator.
j L zL  1
 e 
zL  1
 0   1
The input impedance at any arbitrary point (say, -z’) is

V ( z ') e jkz '  e  jkz ' 1  e  j 2 kz '

Z in ( z ')   Z c jkz '  jkz '
 Zc
I ( z ') e  e 1  e  j 2 kz '
The normalized input impedance at the point -z’ is
j
Z in ( z ') 1  e  j 2 kz ' 1   e
zin ( z ')   
Zc 1  e  j 2 kz '
1   e j

Where    L  2kz '

• zin(-z’) Vs zL
• zL can be translated to the Smith chart by rotating the initial value of the load
impedance along a circle with the R= |Γ|
• CW rotation - towards the generator
• CCW rotation – towards the load
• Amount of rotation = 2kz’ = 4z’/
• If z’ = /4
•  rad rotation
• Impedance inverted
 Solutions to Microwave problems using Smith chart

1. Plotting a complex impedance on a Smith chart

2. Finding VSWR for a given load

3. Finding the admittance for a given impedance

4. Finding the input impedance of a transmission line terminated in a short or

open.

5. Finding the input impedance at any distance from a load Z L.

6. Locating the first maximum and minimum from any load

7. Matching a transmission line to a load with a single series stub.

8. Matching a transmission line with a single parallel stub

9. Matching a transmission line to a load with two parallel stubs.

 Smith chart (Example)

Example 9.9: On the simplified Smith chart, locate the following normalized
impedances:

a ) z  1  j 0;
b) z  0.5  j 0.5
c) z  0  j 0;
d ) z  0  j1;
e) z  1  j 2;
f ) z  
 Impedance to admittance Conversion

For example, the impedance

z = 0.5 + j 0.5
corresponds to the admittance

1
y  1  j1
0.5  j 0.5

the input impedance at the location

that is /4 from a short circuit will
be an input impedance of an open
circuit!

Therefore, we may avoid using

open circuits since they are not very
attractive due to fringing, and use
short circuits only…
Finding the Input Impedance at any Distance from the Load

• The load impedance is first normalized and is located on the Smith chart.

• The VSWR circle is drawn for the load.

– Normalize the load and plot its location on the Smith chart.
– Draw a circle with a radius equal to the distance between the 1.0 point
and the location of the normalized load and the center of the Smith
chart as the center.
– The intersection of the right-hand side of the circle with the horizontal
resistance line locates the value of the VSWR.

• A line is drawn from the 1.0 point through the load to the outer wavelength
scale.

• To locate the input impedance on a Smith chart of the transmission line at

any given distance from the load, advance in clockwise direction from the
located point, a distance in wavelength equal to the distance to the new
location on the transmission line.
Using the Smith Chart with lumped elements
The Smith Chart can be used to design a
lumped (L-C) matching network
to match one impedance to another.
Each LC element behaves in a certain way on
the chart
Typical LC elements include:
Series Inductors
Series Capacitors
Shunt Inductors
Shunt Capacitors
 Series Inductors

An inductor has a normalized impedance given by:

Moves clockwise along circles of constant resistance

Series Capacitor
A capacitor has normalized impedance given by:
Parallel Inductors
The normalized admittance of an inductor
y_ind is given by:
Parallel Capacitors
The normalized admittance of a capacitor y_C
is given by:
 Short-Circuited Tx Lines

Using a transmission line instead of a

lumped inductor can be advantageous,
because tx lines tend to have lower loss
than lumped inductors, particularly for
larger inductance values. The
disadvantage is they can take up more
space, creating a larger physical
impedance matching network. Also, their
out of band perfomrance is different from
lumped elements, and all of these factors
needs taken into account to choose the
right matching component.
RF Components
 Contents
 Power Combiner and Splitter
 The T-Junction Power Divider
• LosslessDivider
• ResistiveDivider
• The Wilkinson Power Divider
 The Quadrature (90') Hybrid
 Coupled Line Directional Couplers
 The 1800 Hybrid
• Waveguide Magic-T
 Circulator
 Isolator
 Waveguide Directional Couplers
• Bethe Hole Coupler
• Design of Multihole Couplers
 Duplexer and Diplexer
 Attenuator
 RF lumped elements
• Resistor
• Capacitor
• Inductor
 Rf measurement instruments
 Power Combiner and Splitter

Figures of Merit

• Insertion loss
• Frequency Range
• Isolation
• Power Handling Capability
 Hybrid Tee junction
There are two ways of connecting the third arm to the waveguide –
1. along the long dimension (E-plane Tee)
2. along the narrow dimension (H-Plane Tee)

The E-plane and H-plane tees can be combined to form a hybrid tee junction called Magic
Tee

Various T-junction power dividers. (a) E plane waveguide T. (b) H plane waveguide T. (c) Microstrip T-junction.
• There are fringing fields and higher order
modes associated with the discontinuity at
such a junction, leading to stored energy that
• can be matched at all ports
can be accounted for by a lumped
• not lossless
susceptance B .
• isolation not achieved.
• Lossless case, B=0
• In order for the divider to be matched to the
input line of characteristic impedance Z0
• Yin = Z0
• reactive tuning
• lossless
• not matched at all ports
• does not have isolation between output
ports.

(a) Transmission line model of a lossless T-junction

(b) An equal-split three-port resistive power divider.
 The Wilkinson power divider

• A lossy three-port
network can be made
having all ports matched
with isolation between
the output ports.
• lossless when the output
ports are matched
• i.e. only reflected power
is dissipated.
• fabrication difficult in
planar form
• requires crossovers
for the resistors for
N>3
• can also be made with
stepped multiple sections,
for increased BW.

.(a) An equal-split Wilkinson power divider in microstrip form. (b) Equivalent transmission line
circuit, (c) Frequency response of an equal-split Wilkinson power divider. Port 1 is the input port;
ports 2 and 3 are the output ports.
Branch - line Coupler.
 Coupled Transmission Line

Various geometries. (a) Coupled stripline (planar, or edge-coupled). (b) Coupled stripline (stacked, or broadside-coupled).
(c) Coupled microstrip.
A three-wire coupled transmission line and its equivalent capacitance network.
Even- and odd-mode excitations for a coupled line, and the resulting equivalent capacitance networks. (a) Even-mode
excitation. (b) Odd-mode excitation.
 (a) Coupling versus frequency for the single-section coupler
(b) Coupling versus frequency for the three-section binomial coupler
180° Hybrid Junction.
Hybrid junctions. (a) A ring hybrid, or rate-
race, in microstrip or stripline form.
(b) A tapered coupled line hybrid. (c) A
waveguide hybrid junction, or magic-T.
Electric field lines for a waveguide hybrid junction. (a) Incident wave at port 1. (b) Incident wave at port 4.
 Circulator

• A circulator is a three terminal device that will allow RF to flow between any two adjacent ports. This flow is
restricted to one direction only.

Figures of Merit

• Insertion loss
• Frequency Range
• Isolation
• Power Handling Capability
 Isolator

• A isolator is a two terminal device that will allow RF to flow in one direction. It is used to protect source and
improve the input and output return loss.

Figures of Merit

• Insertion loss
• Frequency Range
• Isolation
• Power Handling Capability
 Directional Coupler

• The basic function of a directional coupler is to operate on an input so that two output signals are available.
However, when the input is applied to the opposite port of an internally terminated coupler, only one output
signal is produced.
• A schematic representation of the coupler is as shown in fig; the arrows show signal flow:
• The coupler can be used to tap the main line power which can be used for different measurement.
• Coupling Coefficient: The ratio in dB of the incident power fed into the main port to the coupled port power
when all ports are terminated by reflection less terminations.
• Directivity : In the case of a bi-directional coupler, an alternative definition is the difference in dB of the power
output of the two coupled ports, when power is transmitted in a constant direction on the main-line. Reflection
less terminations are assumed to be connected to all ports.

Figures of Merit

• Coupling coefficient and flatness

• Insertion loss
• directivity
• Frequency Range
• Isolation
• Power Handling Capability
Bethe hold directional coupler

Two versions (a) Parallel guides.

(b) Skewed guides.
Basic operation of a two-hole directional coupler.

Coupling and directivity

versus frequency for the
four-hold coupler
 Duplexer and Diplexer

• A duplexer is the network that permits a transmitter and receiver to use the same antenna.
• In a diplexer, the signals have to be offset in frequency by an appreciable percentage so the filters can do
their job sorting them out. Diplexers are used in communications.

Figures of Merit

• Insertion loss
• Frequency Range
• Isolation
• Power Handling Capability
 Attenuators

• A device used to reduce power levels of a signal by a fixed amount with little or no reflections.

They operate on the principle of interfering with the electric field or

magnetic field or both.
Figures of Merit
• Attenuation
• Frequency Range
• Isolation
• Power Handling Capability

 Slide vane attenuators

They work on the principle that a resistive material placed in parallel with the E-lines of a field
current will induce a current in the material that will result in I2R power loss.
 Flap attenuator
A flap attenuator has a vane that is dropped into the waveguide through a slot in the top of the
guide. The further the vane is inserted into the waveguide, the greater the attenuation.
 Rotary vane attenuator
It is a precision waveguide attenuator in which attenuation follows a mathematical law. In this
device, attenuation is independent on frequency.
RF Lumped elements
 Capacitors

• A device for storing electrical energy whoch depends on, ε, A, and d.

•C=εA/d.

Structures
• Single Layer SLC
– Two plates separated by a dielectric.
– Simple to fabricate
– Area/thickness limited
– Cap Ranges of .05 pF to 2000 pF
• Multi Layer MLC
– A parallel array of capacitors in a common
structure.
– High C/V can be achieved
– More complex to manufacture
– Cap Ranges of .10 pF to 5100 pF
Circuit representation
 RF Components
Capacitors
Electrical Properties

• IR = Insulation Resistance
– DC Resistance which is a function of the dielectric. It is the ability of the capacitor to oppose the flow
of electricity at a given direct voltage.
• DF = Dissipation Factor
– Loss Tangent is the ratio of energy “used up” by a working capacitor divided by the amount of energy
stored over a definite period of time. It is a measure of the capacitors operating efficiency.
• ESR = Equivalent Series Resistance
– The effective resistance to the passage of RF energy
 RF Components
Inductors

• Key Parameters for selection of inductor

• Mounting
• inductance value
• Current Rating
• DC Resistance (DCR)
• Self Resonant Frequency (SRF)
• Q factor
• Temperature Rating

• What should be the SRF ?

• For choke applications, the SRF is the frequency that provides the best signal blocking. At frequencies
below the SRF, impedance increases with frequency. At the SRF, impedance is at its maximum. At
frequencies above the SRF, impedance decreases with frequency.
• For higher order filter or impedance matching applications, it is more important to have a relatively flat
inductance curve (constant inductance vs. frequency) near the required frequency. This suggests selecting
an inductor with an SRF well above the design frequency.
• A rule of thumb is to select an inductor with an SRF that is a decade (10×) higher than the operating
frequency. In general, the choice of inductance value typically determines the SRF and vice versa. The
higher the inductance value, the lower the SRF, due to increased winding capacitance.
 RF Measurement Equipment
• Vector Network Analyzers
– Component Characterisation – insertion loss
– S-parameters - matching
• Spectrum Analyzers
– Output Power, harmonics, spurious emission
– Phase Noise
– ACP
– OBW
– Modulation - deviation
• Signal Generators
– Sensitivity (BER option needed)
– Selectivity/blocking
– Two-tone measurements – IP3
• Power Meters
– Output Power – calibration
• Oscilloscopes
– Digital signal analysis
• Function and Arbitrary Waveform Generators