Introduction - challenges of mobile systems

⚫ Wireless links:
⚫ The propagation of waves: multipath, non-stationary
⚫ transmission medium more prone to errors
⚫ impact of external interferences (e.g. From other users)
⚫ limited range
⚫ Users' mobility
⚫ the destination address doesn't determine the location (the point in space);
this is in contrary to stationary systems,
⚫ power management – balance between performance, generated
interferences and power consumption,
⚫ switching users between the access points – (hand-over),
⚫ mobility management – tracking users' movements, providing the
communication capabilities in visited networks (roaming),
Introduction - signal spectrum
• Signal spectrum - signal representation in the frequency domain (amplitude and
phase)
• Fourier series - development of the periodic function (so-called Power signals) to
the following form:

f(t) – any periodic function of time

a0cos(0) – the first component of the sum

• The result is a family of sine and cosine signals whose sum

corresponds to the original signal in the time domain
Introduction - signal spectrum
• Signal spectrum - a representation of the signal in the frequency domain
• Fourier transform - is used to calculate the form of spectral representation for
non-periodic signals (so-called Energy signals). We determine the following
transformation using the Fourier transform:

• We determine the following transformation by inverse Fourier transform:

• Fourier transform and inverse transformation are mutually unique

Introduction - signal spectrum

• Amplitude and phase spectrum

• Example
Introduction - signal spectrum

• Example Fourier series

S(t) = sin(2𝜋ft)
Introduction - signal spectrum

• Examples of Fourier’s transforms:

• Sa – Sampling function (sinx/x)
 Introduction - signal spectrum
• Examples of Fourier series - periodic square signal
• Change of period T0; constant pulse width T -> roots (zeros) of the Sa () function -
invariant
 Introduction – bandwidths of the filters
• Bandwiths of the filters (Frequency response) - the frequency range in which the attenuation
is no more than 3dB.
• Channel model - frequency response; low-pass filter, middle-pass filter, high-pass filter

• Incoming signal spectrum O (f) (after passing through a channel with K (f) transmission
characteristics)
s(t), S(f) o(t), O(f)
K(f)
O(f) = S(f)K(f)

• What filter is it?

 Introduction
• Telecommunications - the transmission of information at a distance by means of an
electromagnetic wave
• Electromagnetic wave propagating (at the speed of light) disturbance of the
electromagnetic field
• Electromagnetic field - two fields, electric and magnetic 𝐹=𝑞(𝐸+𝑣×H)

• An alternating magnetic field produces an alternating electric field, and an alternating

electric field produces an alternating magnetic field
Mathematical description of electromagnetic wave propagation - Maxwell equations
(1861)
 Introduction
• Analog transmission vs. digital
• Example of an analog signal and its interference
• The analog signal is inherently continuous (described by
continuous time functions and its amplitude can take
any values in the given range)

• Example of a digital signal and its interference

• The digital signal is binary by nature, although its final
form depends on the transmission coding. The digital
signal is described by discrete time functions and its
amplitude takes only strictly defined values.

• Conclusion: Which type of transmission is more

resistant to interference?
Introduction
• Modulation - transferring utility signal information in a carrier signal (applying the
transmitted signal u(t) to a carrier wave)
• Carrier signal parameters that can carry utility signal information are:

• Amplitude (amplitude modulation),

𝑓(𝑡)=[𝐴+u(𝑡)]𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝜋𝑓⋅𝑡+𝜑)

• Frequancy (Frequancy modulation),

𝑓(t)=𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛[2𝜋(𝑓+u(𝑡))⋅𝑡+𝜑]

• Phase (Phase modulation) 𝑓(t)=𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝜋𝑓⋅𝑡+𝜑[u(𝑡)])

• These are analog modulations

 Introduction
• What modulation is this ?
• Please justify the answer.
 Introduction
• Modulated signal spectrum

• Nyquist-Kotielnikov theorem (sampling

theorem):
• If the continuous signal does not have spectral
components with a frequency equal to or
greater than B, it can be faithfully reproduced
from a series of its samples forming a discrete
signal, provided that these samples were
taken at a frequency of at least 2B.
 Introduction
• Shannon-Hartley theorem
• Reports the maximum information channel capacity depending on the channel
bandwidth and signal to noise ratio in this channel.
 Introduction
• Digital modulation - shift keying:
• Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK),
• ASK modulation involves modifying the carrier wave amplitude depending on the value of the
transmitted data bits,
• Phase keying - Phase Shift Keying (PSK),
• PSK modulation involves modifying the carrier phase depending on the value of the transmitted
data bits
• Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
• FSK modulation involves modifying the carrier frequency depending on the value of the
transmitted data bits
 Introduction
• ASK modulation • FSK modulation • PSK (BPSK) modulation
 Introduction
• Multi-valued (M-valued) modulations; M-ary signal
The idea of phase, amplitude or frequency modulation can be extended to the
transmission of more bits (2,3,4, ...) during one carrier wave period. Is there a
border?
The rate of change of the carrier wave period is called the modulation rate and
expressed in the unit [baud],
• shift π/4 - (1,0)
• shift 3·π/4 - (0,0)
• shift 5·π/4 - (0,1)
• shift 7·π/4 - (1,1)

𝑆
• Advantages: Increased transmission speed: R = 𝐿𝑜𝑔2 𝑀 ∗ 𝑊 log 2 1 +
𝑁
• Disadvantages: Reduced interference immunity. Why ?
 Introduction
• Multivalue Amplitude Modulation (ASK)
• Modulation 64 QAM (Quadrature Amplitude Modulation)

• Spectral efficiency of the modulation:

• Number of bits per one unit (Hz) of the band

R/B [bits/s/Hz]
R – transmission rate [bit/s]
B – bandwidth of the signal
 Introduction
• Transmission Modes:
• Simplex: Data / voice is sent only in one direction, e.g. pager. It is not even possible to
return confirmation (no return channel)
• Half Duplex: Data / voice is only transmitted in one direction at a time. This means
that you cannot speak and listen (transmit and receive) at the same time but you can
do it alternately. Requires only one channel.
• Full Duplex: Data / voice can be sent simultaneously in both directions (sending and
receiving). Two channels are required.
 Introduction
• Power loss model assuming Large-scale Path Loss
• Received power decreases proportionally to the n-th power of the distance from
the transmitter

Pr – power of the signal received at the distance d from a transmitter

P0 – transmitted power (measured at the distance d0 from the transmitter eg. 1m)

• Power budget on the link expressed in decibels:

 Introduction
• Signal propagation in free space
• In the free space model, the level of power received at a distance from the transmitter

Gt, Gr – gains of transmitter and receiver

attenas
λ - length of the transmitted wave
d – distance bewteen transmitter and the
receiver
Pt – transmitted power level

• The same expressed in logarithmic measure (in decibels):

where

• Relation to the formula from the previous slide:

 Introduction
• Antenna gain
• Isotropic antenna - an antenna that transmits with equal power in all directions. The
antenna's (reference) gain is G = 1 or 0 dB.
• dBi: antenna gain in relation to the isotropic antenna.
• dBd: antenna gain in relation to the half wave dipole (with 1.64 or 2.15dB gain).
Therefore, dBi is 2.15dB higher than dBd.
• Antenna gain measurement (directivity):
 Introduction
• Propagation model including reflections
• The reflected wave power is not summed
(only the voltage or the value of the
electric, magnetic fields)
• Direct path:

• Reflected path:
 Introduction
• Propagation model including reflections - total ETOT (path assembly): ETOT = ELOS + Eg
• Approximation:

• When the condition holds: we obtain:

• Conclusion: The power decreases proportionally to the 4th power of the distance between the receiver and
the transmitter

Figure:
Received power as a function of distance (logarithmic
scale) of the receiver from the transmitter for the
propagation model including reflections
Source:
A. Goldsmith. Wireless communications. Cambridge
University Press, 2005.
 Introduction
• Multi-way propagation:
• Let's assume that the direct and reflected waves reach the car's antenna in the same phase: |d1 –
d2| = n·λ
• The effect of car’s shifting with: λ/4 or λ/2
• Overlapping of direct and reflected signals can cause amplification or compensation (fades) of the
received signal

• Example 1:
• f = 3 GHz: |d1 – d2| = 100 m = 1000λ (amplification or compensation ?)

• Example 2:
• f = 2.9985 GHz: |d1 – d2| = 100 m = 999.5λ (amplification or compensation ?)
 Introduction
• Power budget on the link
• Universal pattern:
• Signal to noise ratio:

• Thermal noise:
• K – Bolztmann’s constant
• T0 – absolute zero temperature
• B – signal bandwidth
• F – some constant (expresses the ration of attena gain to the level of noises)

• S/N expressed in decibels:

 Introduction
• Power balance on the link - example
• GSM connection. The required S / N ratio is 11. Assume a maximum transmitter power of 1.0 W (30
dBm), antenna gain at the terminal 0 dBd and 12 dBd at the base station (transmitter). Let's assume
losses on the link according to the Okumura-Hata’s city model with a carrier frequency fc = 850 MHz.
The height of the transmitting antenna is 30m, the mobile terminal is 1m. F value = 3 dB. What is the
maximum link range?
• Solution:
• Noise power:
• Gains of antennas: 0 dBd and 12 dBd (or 2.15 dBi and 14.15 dBi).
• Losses on the link L(dB):

• Result:
 Introduction
• Multipath fadings:
• The impact of the distance:
• The decrease of received power from P ~ d-2 to P ~ d-6 depending on the propagation environment
(ground propagation)
• slow fading (large-scale fading, long-term fading): the criterion is the duration of the
interference relative to the symbol duration
• changes in the surroundings of transmitting and receiving antennas, the appearance and
disappearance of possible propagation paths, and shadowing
• ionosphere fluctuations and changing atmospheric conditions
• fast fading (small-scale fading, short-term fading):
• superposition of signals coming in many ways to the receiving antenna (constructive and
destructive interference)
 Introduction
• Impact of outages on wireless system design - quantitative assessment
• Rayleigh's fades:
• Multi-diffusion path (many signals but with low amplitude and random phase). In such a model, the
probability distribution function of the level of the received signal (its voltage) is:

• The cumulative distribution function is:

• Margin (power) for the decay phenomenon - additionally the power loss included in the power balance
on the link in order to maintain (with high probability) the level of received signal power above a certain
minimum.
 Introduction
• Example:
Let's assume that we accept a decrease in received power below the sensitivity of the
receiver with a 1% probability. We're dealing with Rayleigh atrophy. What is the
required fading margin value in dB?
• Solution: From the task conditions we have: Pr [R <r] = 0.01.
• . We are looking for the limit level assuming the average signal value, so we set: rmean = 1, what
gives us  = 0.7979. Using the formula for the Rayleigh distribution function we get:

• If the signal envelope drops to 0.1131, then the signal's power drops to (0.1131)2 = 0.0128,
which corresponds to -18.9dB. Given that the average value is 1 (or 0 dB), the required fading
margin is: 0 - (−18.9) = 18.9 dB.
Introduction
• Multiple access methods (multiplexing)
Three dimensions: frequency, time, code space
FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access) - each user is assigned a
unique frequency range (frequency channel) that cannot be occupied
by any other user,
TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access) - the radio band is divided into
time slots (the so-called Slot). Only one user can send or receive in
each slot,
CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access) - each user is assigned a
special code (sequence 0 and 1), which modulates its own signal (bit
stream). All users can broadcast simultaneously (i.e. at the same time)
via the same channel (frequency)
Introduction – Frequency Division Multiple Access
• Principle of operation:
• FM (Frequency modulation) is used
• Frequency separation of different users' signals

• Advantages: Frequency

• The simplicity of the system

implementation Frequency
guard
• Disadvantages:
• low capacity (bandwidth is quite a
limited resource)
sensitivity to interference (feature of Time
analog transmission)
Introduction – Time Division Multiple Access
• TDMA working principle:
• Time separation of different users' signals
• Transmission organized into a frame structure with synchronous slots
• Advantages:
• Higher capacity than in systems with FDMA multiplexing
• Enables variable bandwidth (slot allocation changed over time)
• No bandwidth loss for the implementation of frequency guard intervals
• Disadvantages:
• Problems with synchronization
• Increasing system capacity requires a reduction in slot duration (with switching times and
user synchronization)
TDMA System FDMA/TDMA system
Frequency Guard period

Time
Introduction

• Multiple Access Methods – summary