Wireless and Cellular

Communication
PAVITHRA M
ASST PROF
DEPT OF ECE
RNSIT
MODULE 1
• Evolution of Mobile broadband
In last few decades there is a great
progress in wireless networks , namely
from 1G to 4G.
• 1G
• 2G
• 3G
• 4G
 1G
1st Generation of wireless communication.
Was launched in Japan in 1979-1980.
Involve the technology AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone System)
1G uses analog signals.
➢ Uses FDMA technique
 Features
Allows the voice calls in one country.

Drawbacks
Poor voice quality
Poor battery life
Large phone size
No security
2G
Uses digital technology.
Uses digital signals.
Introduced in Finland 1991-2000.
Data transfer rate is 10kbps.
Features
Allows text messages , picture messages and MMS

Technology

GSM is the technology of 2G.

At start GSM stands for Group Special Module. Later on it
changes to Global System for mobile communications
 Problem

Require strong digital signals for data transmission ,

in case of no network coverage , signals become
weak.

Unable to handle videos.

 2.5G
Follows the packet switching methodology.
From 2010 the technology named GPRS.
GPRS stands for General Packet Radio Service.
GPRS support the transmission of data in form of
packets . And these packets are transmit through air
(Radio).
GPRS refers to data rate of about 64-144 kbps.
 Features
Phone calls
Send/receive email messages
Web browsing
Camera phones
Take 6-9 minutes to download a 3 min mp3
song.

Problem

Data rate is less

 3G
Introduced in 2000.
Data transfer rate is 384kbps – 2Mbps

Features
Faster communication
Send / receive large email messages
High speed web
High security
Video conferencing
3D gaming
TV streaming
11 – 90 sec to download a 3 minutes mp3 song.
 4G LTE
The target was set to100-200Mbps

Introduced in 2009.
After a long time research and working this target is
achieved. That’s why its is called Long Term Evolution.
Building Blocks of communication
Mobile Radio
Propagation
Contents
❑ Free space propagation
❑ Basic Propagation models
o Reflection
o Diffraction
o Scattering
❑ Path Loss and Shadowing Models
Wave Propagation
❑ Radio, microwave, infrared and visible light portions of the spectrum can all be
used to transmit information
o By modulating the amplitude, frequency, or phase of the waves.
❑The amount of information a wireless channel can carry is related to its
bandwidth
❑ Wavelength dictates the optimum size of the receiving antenna
Characteristics of Radio Waves
❑ Easy to generate
❑ Can travel long distances
❑ Can penetrate buildings
❑ Used for both indoor and outdoor communication
❑Can be narrowly focused at high frequencies (greater than
100MHz) using parabolic antennas (like satellite dishes)
❑ Subject to interference from other radio wave sources
Characteristics of Radio Waves(cont.)
Properties of radio waves are frequency dependent
❑At low frequencies, they can pass through obstacles , but the
power falls off sharply with increase in distance from the source
❑At high frequencies, they tend to travel in straight lines and
bounce of obstacles (they can also be
LOS path
absorbed by rain)

Reflected Wave
Communication Channels
❑ Wired Channel
o Stationary
o Predictable
❑ Wireless channel
o Random
o Typical to analyze
o Susceptible to noise, interference, other time varying channel
impairments
Channel models for Wireless
Communication
❑Physical models: Considers exact profile of the propagation
environment.
oModes of propagation considered: Free-space or LOS, reflection, and
diffraction.
❑ Statistical models: Takes an empirical approach.
oThe model is developed on measuring propagation characteristics in a
variety of environments. They are easy to describe and use than physical
models.
Need for Propagation models
Propagations models can be used to determine
❑ Coverage area of a transmitter
❑ Transmit power requirement
❑ Battery lifetime
❑Modulation and coding schemes required to improve the
channel quality
❑ Maximum achievable channel capacity of the system
Propagation models
Large-scale propagation models
o Characterize signal strength for large T-R separation (several hundreds or thousands of
meters)
o Compute local average received power by averaging signal measurements over a track of 5
 to 40 
o Received signal decrease gradually
o Useful for estimating the coverage area of transmitters
Small-scale propagation models
o Characterize rapid fluctuations in the received signal strength over very short travel
distances (a few wavelengths)
o Signal is the sum of many contributors coming from different directions. Thus phasesof
received signals are random and the sum behave like a noise (Rayleigh fading)
o Received power may vary by as much as 3 or 4 orders of magnitude (30 or 40 dB)
Free-Space Propagation Model
❑ Predict the
received signal strength when transmitter and receiver have clear, unobstructed LOS
path between them.
o Ex: Satellite communication system, microwave LOSsystem

❑ The received power decays as a function of T-R separation raised to some power.
❑ Free space power received by a receiver antenna is given by Friis free-space equation

o Pt is transmitted power o Pr(d) is the received power

oGt, Gr is the Tx, Rx antenna gain o d is T-R separation distance in meters
(dimensionless quantity) o  is wavelength in meters
o L is system loss factor not related to propagation (𝐿≥ 1).L = 1 indicates no loss in system
hardware (we consider L = 1 in our calculations)
Free-Space Propagation Model (cont.)
❑ The gain of an antenna G is related to its affective aperture Ae by G = 4Ae / 2 where
o Ae is related to the physical size of theantenna
o  is related to the carrier frequency ( = c/f = 2c / c ) where
o f is carrier frequency in Hertz o c is speed of light in meters/sec
o c is carrier frequency in radians per second
❑Isotropic radiator generally considered as reference antenna in wireless systems; radiates power
with unit gain uniformly in all directions.
❑Effective isotropic radiated power (EIRP) is the amount of power that a theoretical isotropic
antenna emits to produce peak power density in the direction of maximum antenna gain.
EIRP = PtGt
❑ Antenna gains are given in units of dBi (dB gain with respect to an isotropic antenna)
What is Decibel (dB)
❑A logarithmic unit used to describe a ratio between two values of a physical
quantity (usually measured in units of power or intensity)
oThe ratio of two values 𝑃1and 𝑃2in dB is
✓ 10 log (𝑃1/𝑃2)dB
oExample:
𝑃1=100𝑊and 𝑃2=1𝑊
The ratio is 10log(100/1)=𝟐𝟎𝒅𝑩
dB unit is generally used to describe ratios of numbers with modest size.
dBm
❑ Indicates power ratio in dB with 1mW as the reference power
❑ Example: Transmit power = 100𝑊 in dBm is
Transmit power (dBm)= 10log(100𝑊/1𝑚𝑊)
= 10log(100,000)
= 50𝑑𝐵𝑚
Similarly

1 mW = 0 dBm 1 W = 30 dBm 10 W = 40 dBm

100 W = 50 dBm 10^6 W = 90 dBm
 dBW
❑ Indicates power ratio in dB with 1𝑊 as the reference power level.
❑ Example: Transmit power = 100W in dBW is
Transmit power (𝑑𝐵𝑊) = 10log(100𝑊/1𝑊)
=10log100
=20𝑑𝐵𝑊
Similarly

1 mW = -30 dBm 1 W = 0 dBm 10 W = 10 dBm

100 W = 20 dBm 106W = 60 dBm
 Free-Space Path Loss
❑Path loss is defined as the difference (in dB) between the effective transmitted
power and the received power
❑ Free-space path loss is defined as the path loss of the free-space model
𝑃𝐿(𝑑𝐵)=10𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑃𝑡/𝑃𝑟)=−10𝑙𝑜𝑔[(𝐺𝑡𝐺𝑟𝜆2)/(4𝜋)2𝑑2]
❑Friis equation holds when distance 𝑑is in the far-field of the transmitting
antenna
❑ The far-field or Fraunhofer region of a transmitting antenna is defined as the
region beyond the far-field distance 𝑑𝑓given by:
o𝑑𝑓=2𝐷^2/𝜆,

𝐷is the largest physical dimension of the antenna

o Additionally 𝑑𝑓 >> 𝐷 an𝑑 𝑑𝑓 >> 𝜆
Reference Distance, 𝑑0
❑ Friis free space eq. does not hold for 𝑑 = 0
❑ Received power reference point, 𝑑0is used
𝑑𝑓 ≤ 𝑑0 ≤ 𝑑
𝑑0should be smaller than any practical distance a mobile system uses
❑ The power received in free space at a distance greater than d0 is
Pr(𝑑)=Pr(𝑑0)(𝑑0/𝑑)^𝑛 where 𝑑𝑓 ≤ 𝑑0 ≤ 𝑑
❑ Reference distance d0 for practical systems:
o For frequncies in the range 1 to 2 GHz
➢ 1 m in indoor environments
➢ 100 m to 1 km in outdoor environments
 Radio propagation mechanisms

Source: Radio Frequency and Wireless Communications - Scientific Figure on Research Gate
Source: https://physicsweekly.weebly.com/uploads/2/5/8/4/25849299/6320607.jpg?332
 Broad band wireless channel
• The overall model describing the channel in discrete time is a simple tap delay
line(TDL):
• h[k,t]=𝐡𝐨 δ[k,t]+𝐡𝟏 δ[k-1,t]+… . +𝐡𝐯 δ[k-v,t]
• Here the discrete time channel changes with respect to t and has non
negligible values over a span of v+1 channel taps.
• The channel is sampled at a frequency fs=1/T where T is the sample period.
• Hence the duration of the channel is vT.
• Assuming that the channel is static over a period of (v+1)T seconds the output
of the channel can be described as
j=∞
• y k, t = j=−∞ h j, t x[k − j] = h k, t ∗ x[k]
σ
1
• Where x[k] is an input sequence of data symbols with rate .
T
• In a simple notation the channel can be represented as a time
varying (v+1)× 𝑇 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 the output of the channel can then be
described as
• 𝒚 𝒌. 𝒕 = σ∞ −∞ 𝒉 𝒋, 𝒕 𝒙 𝒌 − 𝒋 = 𝒉 𝒌, 𝒕 ∗ 𝒙[𝒌] where x[k]is an
input sequence of data symbols with rate 1/T * denotes
convolution.
• Hence the channel can be represented as a time varying (v+1)x1
column vectors.
• h(t)=[ho(t) h1(t)……hv(t)]T.
• Although the tapped delay model is general and accurate it is
difficult to design a communication system for the channel without
knowing some of the key attributes about h(t).
 Pathloss
• Mainly due to the distance between the transmitter and receiver
• The empirical path loss formula 𝐏𝐫 = 𝐏𝐭 × 𝝺𝟐 𝐆𝐭 𝐆𝐫 /(𝟒𝛑𝐝𝟐 ) Where Pr
and Pt are the received and transmitted powers. Here we can see
that Pr∝ λ2 which means that Pr∝ 1/f 2 .
c
• Hence higher frequencies suffer greater power loss than lower
frequencies. Hence lower frequencies are desirable and more
crowded.
• Therefore bandwidths at higher carrier frequencies are easily
available and hence less expensive.
• Hence a high rate low cost system would generally prefer to work at
higher frequencies.
• But, the terrestrial propagation environment is not free space.
• The reflections from the Earth or other objects would actually
increase the received power since more energy would reach the
receiver.
• However, because a reflected wave often experiences a 180-degrees
phase shift, at relatively large distances the reflection serves to
create destructive interference.
• Empirical Path Loss Formula
• In order to more accurately describe different propagation environments,
empirical models are often developed using experimental data.
• One of the simplest and most common is
𝐝𝐨 ∝
• 𝐏𝐫 = 𝐏𝐭 𝐏𝐨 ( )
𝐝
• Where α is the path loss exponent and the measured path loss P0 at a
reference distance of d0.
 Shadowing
• Obstacles located between Transmitter & Receiver cause temporary
degradation in received signal strength.
• Modeling the locations of all objects in every possible communication
environment is generally impossible.
• Therefore, a random effect, called as shadowing, is introduced to measure
these variations.
• With shadowing, the empirical path loss formula becomes
𝐝𝐨 ∝
• 𝐏𝐫 = 𝐏𝐭 𝐏𝐨 𝞆( )
𝐝
• Where α is the path loss exponent and the measured path loss P0 at a
reference distance of d0.
• 𝞆 Is the sample of the shadowing random process. Shadowing is also called as
large scale fading.
• The shadowing value is modeled as log normal random variable given
𝐱
as 𝞆 = 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟎
• Where x ≈N(0,σ2s ) were N(0,σ2s ) is a gaussian distribution with mean 0
and variance σ2s .
• Thus, shadowing is an important effect in wireless networks because it
causes the received SINR to vary dramatically over long time scales.
• In some given cell, reliable high-rate communication may be nearly
impossible
*The Broadband Wireless Channel: Fading
• fading is caused by the reception of multiple versions of the same signal.
• The multiple received versions are caused by reflections that are referred to as
multipath.

Fig:The channel may have a few major paths with quite different lengths, and
then the receiver may see a number of locally scattered versions of those
paths.
• Depending on the phase difference between the arriving signals, the
interference can be either constructive or destructive.
• This causes a very large observed difference in the amplitude of the
received signal even over very short distances.
• Let us consider the time-varying tapped-delay line channel model.
• As either the Txr or Rxr move relative to each other, the channel response
h(t) will change.
• Movement in the propagation environment will also cause the channel
response to change over time.
• This channel response can be thought of as having two dimensions : a
delay dimension τ & a time dimension t
• Since the channel is highly variant in both the τ & t dimensions, in order
to be able to discuss what the channel response is we must use statistical
methods.
• The most important & fundamental function used to statistically describe
broadband fading channels is the two-dimensional auto correlation function,
A(∆τ, ∆t).
• And it is defined as
A(∆τ, ∆t) =E[h(τ1, t1)h∗(τ2, t2)]
=E[h(τ1, t)h*(τ2, t + ∆t)]
=E[h(τ, t)h∗(τ + ∆τ, t + ∆t)]
Can be considered as 2 simpler functions 𝐴τ (∆τ) and 𝐴𝑡 (∆t) by setting ∆t and
∆τ respectively.
• The channels described by this auto correlation function are referred to as
Wide Sense Stationary Uncorrelated Scattering (WSSUS).
• τ in microseconds
• t in milliseconds
Wireless channel parameters

Delay spread
• It specifies the duration of the channel impulse response h(τ, t).
• the amount of time that elapses between the first arriving path and the last
arriving path.
• Can be found by setting ∆t =0 in autocorrelation function
• 𝐴τ (∆τ) is called multipath intensity profile or power delay profile.
• The maximum delay spread that can occur is represented by τmax .
• This decides number of taps v in channel representation ,where v is number of
taps
• v= τmax /𝑇𝑠 (sampling time)
Coherence Bandwidth:

• The coherence bandwidth gives the measure of the maximum separation between
a frequency f1 and a frequency f2 where the channel frequency response is
correlated.
• It’s the frequency domain dual of delay spread.
• It is represented by Bc
• f1 − f2 ≤ Bc = H(𝑓1 ) ≈ H(𝑓2 )
• f1 − f2 > Bc = H(𝑓1 ) and H(𝑓2 ) are uncorrelated
It also describes the range of frequencies over which the channel stays constant.
1
It is related to delay spread as Bc= .
5τmax
Doppler Spread:
• It is the motion between transmitter and the receiver.
• If the transmitter and the receiver are moving fast the Doppler is large and the channel will change
much more frequently.
• It is given as fD=fcv/c
were fc is the carrier frequency and c is the speed of light.
It’s the fourier transform of 𝐴τ (∆t)

Coherence Time, Tc
It is the period of time for which the channel is correlated.
It is mathematically given as
• t1 − t 2 < = 𝑻𝒄 , h(𝑡1 ) ≈ h(𝑡2 )
• t1 − t 2 > 𝑻𝒄 , h(𝑡1 ) and h(𝑡2 ) are uncorrelated
• Coherence time and the Doppler spread are related as
𝟏
• 𝑻𝒄 =
𝐟𝐃
Angular Spread, θrms

• It refers to the statistical distribution of the angle of the arriving energy.

• A large θrms implies that the energy is coming in from many directions whereas
a small θrms implies that the received energy is more focused.

Coherence distance:
• It is the distance between any physical positions separated by a value d .
• The amplitude and phase of the received signal at these positions are
uncorrelated.
𝟎.𝟐𝝺
• 𝐃𝐜 ≈
θrms
• For Rayleigh fading
𝟗𝝺
which assumes a uniform angular spread the well-known
relation 𝐃𝐜 ≈ the coherent distance increases with the carrier wavelength λ
16π
so high frequency systems have shorter coherence distances.
• Its important in multi antenna techniques.
Broadband fading parameters
• Modeling broadband Fading channels:
• In order to design a wireless communication system it’s
important to design channel models that incorporate variations
in time frequency and space.
• The two major class of channel models are statistical and
empirical.
• Statistical models are simpler and are useful for analysis and
simulations.
• The empirical models represent a specific type of channel more
accurately.
A Pedagogy for Developing Statistical Models

• The methods for modeling wireless channels are broken into three
steps:
• Step 1: First consider just a single channel sample corresponding to a
single principle path between the transmitter & receiver that is
h(τ, t) → h0 δ(τ, t)
• Step 2: Next consider how this channel sample h0 evolves over time,
that is:
h(τ, t) → h0(t)δ(τ )
h(τ, t) is represented as a general time varying function.
Step 3: Approach is to model h(τ, t) as a general multipath channel with
v+1 values.
Statistical Channel Models

• The received signal in a wireless system is the superposition of numerous reflections

or multi path components.
• Here, overview of statistical methods that can be used to characterize the amplitude
& power of received signal r(t) when all the reflections arrive at about the same
time.

• The following statistical models are considered in this section:

1.Rayleigh Fading Model
2. Line-of-Sight Channels - The Ricean Distribution
3. A more general model: Nakagami - m fading
Rayleigh Fading Model
• Rayleigh fading is a reasonable model when there are many objects in the
environment that scatter the radio signal before it arrives at the receiver.
• The in-phase (cosine) and quadrature (sine) components of received signal r(t) follow
two independent time - correlated Gaussian random processes.

• The distribution of the envelope amplitude is given as r = (rI2 + rQ2 )is rayleigh
distribution.

• The received power r ^2 = (rI2 + rQ2 ) is exponentially distributed.

−x2
2x
• Formally it is given as f r x = e Pr , x>=0
Pr
 −x
1
• and fቚr|2 x = e
Pr ,x>=0
Pr
• Where Pr is the average received power due to
shadowing and path loss .The gaussian random variables
rI and rQ have zero mean and the variance is given as
2 Pr
σ = .
2
−1 rQ
• The phase of r(t) is given as θr =
tan ( ) which is
rI
uniformly distributed from 0 to 2π or equivalently from
π, −π .
• LoS Channels - The Ricean Distribution
• An important assumption in the Rayleigh fading model
is that, all the arriving reflections have a mean of zero.
• For LoS signal, the received envelope distribution is
more accurately modeled by a Ricean distribution.
x2 +μ2
x − xμ
• It is given by f r x = 2 e 2σ2 I0 ( 2) x≥ 0
σ σ
• Where μ2 is the power of the LOS component and I0 is
the 0th order modified Bessel function of the first kind.
• It is more generalization of the Rayleigh distribution
when µ = 0.
• Ricean distribution reduces to rayleigh in absence of
LOS componet.
• Ricean distribution depends on LOS component’s
power µ2 .
µ2
• Characterized by factor K =
2𝛔2
• K =0 , implies ricean distribution reduced to rayleigh
• K= ∞ ,implies only single LOS path exist and no
scattering.
• A more general model: Nakagami - m Fading
• used to model attenuation of wireless signals traversing multiple paths and
to study the impact of fading channels on wireless communications.
• The Probability Density Function (PDF) of Nakagami - m fading is
parameterized by m and is given as f r x =
−mx2ൗ
(2mm x 2m−1 /Γ(m)Prm )xe m≥ 0.5
Pr

• m = (𝐾 + 1)2 / (2K+1)
• m = 1, gives rayleigh distribution
• m = ∞ , received power will be a constant.
• The power distribution for nakagami fading is given as
m m m−1
Pr
) x −mx
• f|r|2 x = {( }e ൗPr .
Γ m
Reflection
❑Reflection occurs when wave impinges upon an obstruction
much larger in size compared to the wavelength of the signal
o Example: reflections from earth and buildings
❑Reflected waveform may interfere with the original signal
constructively or destructively
Reflection (cont.)
❑When a radio wave propagating in one medium impinges upon another medium having
different electrical properties, the wave is partially reflected and partially transmitted
oPerfect dielectric:
➢Part of the energy is transmitted into the second medium and part of the energy is reflected
back into the first medium
➢ no loss of energy in absorption
oPerfect conductor:
➢ All incident energy is reflected back into the first medium
➢ No loss of energy.

❑The fraction that is reflected is described by the Fresnel equation and is dependent upon the
incoming light's polarization and angle of incidence.
Reflection (cont.)
❑EM waves are transmitted in two orthogonal dimensions, referred to as
polarizations. Two commonly used orthogonal sets of polarizations are
o Horizontal and Vertical polarization
Vertical polarization is commonly used in terrestrial mobile radio
communication. In VHF band, vertical polarization produces a higher field
strength near the ground. Also, mobile antennas for vertical polarization are
more robust and convenient to implement.
o Left-hand and right-hand circular polarization
Often used in satellite communication. Can be used together for well-designed
communication links to double the transmission capacity in a given frequency
band.
• Incident angle- ϴi transmitted angle ϴt reflected angle ϴir

• Plane of incidence is plane containing incident, transmitted and reflected rays.

BREWSTER ANGLE
BREWSTER ANGLE
Ground Reflection (Two-Ray) Model
In a mobile radio channel, a single direct path between the BS and a
mobile is seldom the only physical means for propagation and the
Free space propagation model is inaccurate in most cases when used
alone. Two-ray model is
❑Based on geometric optics and it considers both the direct path and
a ground reflected propagation path
❑Reasonably accurate for predicting the large scale signal strength
over distances of several kilometers for mobile radio systems that use
tall towers.
Ground Reflection Model (cont.)
❑The total received E-field, ETOT
is a result of the direct LOS
component 𝐸𝐿𝑂𝑆 and the ground
reflected component 𝐸𝑟
𝐸𝑇𝑂𝑇 𝐸𝐿𝑂𝑆+𝐸𝑟
=
 Ground Reflection Model (cont.)
❑Using the method of images, path difference
between LOS and ground reflected path can be
calculated.
❑ For 𝑑≫ℎ𝑡+ℎ𝑟, path difference Δ is

❑Phase difference 𝜃∆between the two E-field

components and the time delay between arrival
of the two component
Diffraction
❑Diffraction occurs when radio
wave is obstructed by an
impenetrable body or a
surface with sharp
irregularities (edges)
❑Due to bending of radio
waves it enables
communication between
devices with no line-of-sight
path
Diffraction (cont.)
❑Secondary waves are present throughout the space including the
space behind the obstacle due to bending of waves around the
obstacle.
❑Enables communication even when a line of sight path does not
exist between transmitter and receiver.
❑At high frequencies, diffraction depends on the geometry of the
object, as well as the amplitude, phase and polarization of the incident
wave at the point of diffraction
Diffraction
Huygens’Principle
❑All points on a wavefront can be considered as point sources for
producing secondary wavelets
❑Secondary wavelets combine to produce new wavefront in the
direction of propagation
❑ Diffraction arises from propagation of secondary wavefront into
shadowed area
❑Field strength of diffracted wave in shadow region =  electric field
components of all secondary wavelets in the space around the obstacle
Fresnel zone geometry
 Cellular Telephone System
A cellular system comprises the following basic
components:
• Mobile Station (MS)
– This is the mobile handset.
• Cell
– A basic geographical unit of a cellular communication system
• Base Station (BS)
– Each cell contain an antenna, which is controlled by a small
office.
• Mobile Switching Center (MSC)
– Each BS is controlled by a switching office, called MSC.

6
7
Cellular Telephone System

Scheme diagram of a cellular telephone system

6
8
 Cellular Concept

• Cellular concept was

proposed in 1970.
• Divide the coverage area
into number of smaller
areas called as cells.
• The groups of cells is
known as clusters.
• Frequencies used in one
cell cluster can be reused
in other cell clusters.
Cellular concept in wireless &
mobile networks 10
Main features of cellular concept
• It employs variable low power transmitters.
• Cluster size is not fixed, it can be varied based
on the subscriber density & demand.
• Frequency reuse.
•Small cells will increase the network capacity.
Disadvantages:
• Co-channel interference (CCI)
• Increase in hardware cost as cluster size
increases.
70
Frequency Reuse
• Frequency reuse is the
core concept of cellular
system.
• Cells with the same
alphabet use the same
channel set.
• Reuse distance D is given
by: 𝐷= 3𝑁∙𝑅
where, N = # of channel sets (in fig. N = 7)
R = Radius of a cell

71
Reduction of Interference
• Reusing the same frequency channel in
different cells is limited by co-channel
interference (CCI).
• There are TWO ways to reduce this CCI:
– Sufficient distance between two co-channel cells.
– Use of directional antennas at the BS which is called
as cell sectoring.
• One more way is to avoid the assignment of
adjacent channels to the same cell.

72
Cellular concept
• Geographic Service divided into smaller “cells”
• Neighboring cells do not use same set of frequencies to prevent interference
• Often approximate coverage area of a cell by an idealized hexagon
• Increase system capacity by frequency reuse
• Why not a large radio tower and large service area?
– Number of simultaneous users would be very limited (to
total number of traffic channels T)
– Mobile handset would have greater power requirement
Cellular concept - small cells with frequency reuse
– Advantages
• lower power handsets
• Increases system capacity with frequency reuse
– Drawbacks:
• Cost of cells
• Handoffs between cells must be supported
• Need to track user to route incoming call/message
• In cellular systems, the service area is subdivided into smaller geographic areas
called cells.
• Each cell is served by its own base station (BS).
• In order to minimize interference between cells, the transmit power level of
each BS is regulated to be just enough to provide the required signal strength
at the cell boundaries.
• The same frequency channels can be reassigned to different cells, as long as
those cells are spatially isolated.
• The reuse of the same frequency channels should be intelligently planned in
order to maximize the geographic distance between the co-channel base
stations.
• Some advantages of Cellular systems are:
• Cellular systems allow the overall system capacity to increase by simply making
the cells smaller & turning down the power.
• Cellular systems support user mobility, seamless call transfer from one
cell to another is pro- vided.
• The handoff process provides a means of the seamless transfer of a connection
from one BS to another.
• Small cells give a large capacity & reduce power consumption.
• Primary drawbacks are, system needs more Base Stations, and their associated
hard- ware costs, and the need for frequent handoffs.
Standard figure of a hexagonal cellular system with f = 1/7
 Cell Sectoring:

• The performance of wireless cellular systems is significantly

limited by co-channel interference (CCI).
• This comes from other users in the same cell or from other cells.
• In Cellular Systems, Other Cell Interference (OCI) is a decreasing
function of the radius of the cell (R) & the distance to the center
of the neighboring co-channel cell and an increasing function of
transmit power.
• Since the SIR is so bad in most of the cell, it is desirable to find
techniques to improve it without sacrificing so much bandwidth.
• A popular technique is to sectorize the cells, which is effective if
frequencies are reused in each cell.
• Directional antennas are used instead of Omni-directional
antenna at the base station.
3-Sector (120-degree) and 6-Sector (60-degree) cells
Thank You