Large scale Propagation Models

• Large Scale propagation models predicts the mean signal strength for
an arbitrary transmitter-receiver(T-R) separation, since they
characterize the signal strength over large T-R separation(several
hundreds or thousands of meters) .[Also called as pathloss models]
• Propagation models that predict the mean signal strength for large T-
R separation are called large scale propagation models.

Examples:
Friis free space propagation model
Log distance path loss model
Two-ray ground reflection model
Single-Knife edge diffraction model
Hata-Okumura Model etc..
Practical Link Budget Design Using Path Loss
Models
Mobile Radio propagation models are derived using both
1.empirical methods: collect measurement, fit curves.
2. analytical methods :Model the propagation
mechanisms mathematically and derive equations for path loss
1.Long distance path loss model
Empirical and analytical models show that received signal power
decreases logarithmically with distance for both indoor and
outdoor channels
Log-distance Path Loss Model

1
Path Loss Exponent for Different Environments
• “bar” means the average of many PL values at a given value of d (T-R
sep.)
• n depends on the propagation environment
• “typical” values based on measured data
Environment Pathloss exponent(n)
Free space 2
Urban area cellular radio 2.75 to 3.5
Shadowed urban cellular radio 3 to 5
In building LOS 1.6 to 1.8
Obstructed in building 4 to 6
Obstructed in factories 2 to 3
Table: Pathloss exponents for Different Environments
2.Log-Normal Shadowing
Log-Normal Shadowing
Log-normal Shadowing- Received Power
Outdoor Propagation Models
• We will look to the propagation from a transmitter in an outdoor
environment
• The coverage area around a tranmitter is called a cell.
• Coverage area is defined as the area in which the path loss is at or below a
given value.
• The shape of the cell is modeled as hexagon, but in real life it has much more
irregular shapes.
• By playing with the antenna (tilting and changing the height), the size of the
cell can be controlled.
We will look to the propagation characteristics of outdoor environments
Okumura Model
L50(d)(dB) = LF(d)+ Amu(f,d) – G(hte) – G(hre) – GAREA
• L50 50th percentile (i.e., median) of path loss
• LF(d) ------free space propagation pathloss.
• Amu(f,d) ---median attenuation relative to free space
• G(hte) ------base station antenna heigh gain factor
• G(hre) ------mobile antenna height gain factor
• GAREA ----------gain due to type of environment
G(hte) = 20log(hte/200) 1000m > hte > 30m
G(hre) = 10log(hre/3) hre <= 3m
G(hre) = 20log(hre/3) 10m > hre > 3m
Hata Model
• Valid from 150MHz to 1500MHz
• A standard formula
• For urban area the formula is:
L50(urban,d)(dB) = 69.55 + 26.16log fc - 13.82loghte – a(hre) + (44.9 – 6.55loghte)
log(d)
Where,
fc is the frequency in MHz
hte is effective transmitter antenna height in meters (30-200m)
hre is effective receiver antenna height in meters (1-10m)
d is T-R separation in km
a(hre) is the correction factor for effective mobile antenna height which is a
function of coverage area and given as
a(hre) = (1.1logfc – 0.7)hre – (1.56logfc – 0.8) dB for a small to medium sized
city
Small-Scale propagation Models
• Small Scale propagation models characterizes the rapid fluctuations of
the received signal over very short travel distances(a few
wavelengths) or short durations(on the order of seconds).[Also called
as fading models]
Examples:
Rayleigh channel model
Ricean Channel model etc..
• Small Scale fading ,or simply fading , is used to describe the rapid
fluctuations of the amplitudes , phases , or multipath delays of a radio
signal over a short period of time or travel distances.
Small-scale and large-scale fading
Blue Color Line Indicates
large scale variations for
an indoor communication
system(gradual changes
can observed

Grey Color line indicates

rapid signal fluctuations
(small scale fading)

Figure:Samll-scale and large-scale fading

Small-Scale Multipath Propagation
Multipath in the radio channel create small-scale fading
effects. The three most important effects are:
• Rapid changes in signal strength over a small travel
distance or time interval.
• Random frequency Modulation due to varying Doppler
shifts on different multipath signals.
• Time dispersion(echoes) caused by multipath propagation
delays.
Factors influencing Small-Scale Fading
• Multipath propagation: Due to the presence of reflectors and
scatterers in the channel , multiple versions of Tx’d signal arrive at the
Rx antenna are displaced w.r.t one another in time and spatial
orientation. The random phase and amplitudes of these multipath
components cause fluctuations in signal strength, thereby inducing
small-scale fading , signal distortion , or both.

• Speed of the Mobile: The relative motion between BS and mobile

results in random frequency modulation due to different doppler
shifts on each of the multipath components.
Factors influencing Small-Scale Fading
Speed of the Surrounding Objects: Objects that are moving in radio
channel induce a time varying Doppler shift on Multipath components.

• If Speed of surrounding Objects > mobile speed ,then this effect

dominates the small-scale fading.
• If Speed of surrounding Objects < mobile speed, then motion of
surrounding objects may be ignored and only speed of the mobile
need to be consider.

The coherence time defines the “staticness” of the channel ,and is

directly impacted by the Doppler shift.
Factors influencing Small-Scale Fading
The Transmission B.W. of the signal:
If Tx’d Radio signal B.W > B.W of the multipath channel then the
Rx’d signal will be distorted ,but the Rx’d signal strength will not fade
much over a local area(i.e., the small scale signal fading will not be
significant).
Doppler Shift
Effect of Doppler shift:
B.W of signal could increase or decrease leading to
poor or missed reception.

Coherence Bandwidth:
Range of frequencies overwhich the channel has flat response.
or
Range of frequencies overwhich the signals are strongly
correlated in amplitude.
Impulse Response Model of a Multipath
Channel
• The wireless channel characteristics can be expressed by impulse
response function
• The channel is time varying channel when the receiver is moving.
• Let us assume first that time variation is strictly due to the receiver
motion (t = d/v)
• Since at any distance d = vt, the received power will be combination
of different incoming signals, the channel characteristics or the
impulse response function depends on the distance d between
transmitter and receiver.
Impulse Response Model of a Multipath
Channel
Impulse Response Model of a Multipath
Channel
• As shown in Figure 5.2 , a receiver is moving along the ground at
some constant velocity v. The multipath components that are
received at the receiver will have different propagation delays
depending on d.
• Hence the channel impulse response depends on d.
• Let x(t) represents the transmitted signal
y(d,t) represents the received sigal at position d.
h(d,t) represents the channel impulse response which is
dependent on d (hence time-varying d=vt).
Impulse Response Model of a Multipath
Channel
• The channel is linear time-varying channel, where the channel
characteristics changes with distance (hence time, t = d/v)
Impulse Response Model of a Multipath Channel
Complex Baseband model for RF systems
Complex Baseband model for RF systems
Discrete-time Impulse Response Model of
Multipath Channel
Baseband impulse response of the Channel
Discrete-Time Impulse Response
Model for a Multipath Channel
Time-Invariance Assumption
Power Delay Profile
PDP
• Plots of relative power as a function of excess delay
w.r.t. fixed delay reference.
• Delays are measured relative to the first detectable
signal arriving at the reciever at τo = 0
Parameters of Mobile Multipath Channels
1.Time Dispersion Parameters Grossly quantifies the multipath channel
These parameters are derived from Power Delay Profile include :
i.Mean excess delay
ii.RMS delay spread
iii.Excess Delay Spread (X dB)
2.Coherence Bandwidth
3.Doppler Spread and Coherence Time
Measuring PDPs
• Power Delay Profiles
• Are measured by channel sounding techniques
• Plots of relative received power as a function of excess delay
• They are found by averaging instantaneous power delay
measurements over a local area
• Local area: not greater than 6m outdoor
• Local area: not greater than 2m indoor
• Samples taken at λ /4 meters approximately
• For 450MHz – 6 GHz frequency range.
Timer Dispersion Parameters
• Used to compare different multipath channels
1. Mean excess delay is the first moment of the power delay profile and
is defined to be
2. rms delay spread is the square root of the second central moment of
the power delay profile.
These delays are measured relative to the first detectable signal
arriving at τo = 0.
typical values of rms delay spread -order of microseconds in outdoor
nanoseconds in indoor environment

3.Maximum Excess Delay (X dB): Defined as the time delay value after which the
multipath energy falls to X dB below the maximum multipath energy (not
necessarily belonging to the first arriving component). It is also called excess delay
spread.
Measured power delay profiles
• Some measured PDPs are as shown below
Indoor Power Delay Profile
Coherence Bandwidth(Bc)

• used to characterize the multipath channel In

frequency domain.
• Range of frequencies over which the channel is flat .
• It will provide same gain,amplitude and phase to all
signals within the given range of frequencies.
Coherence Bandwidth(Bc)
Coherence Time (TC)

• Delay spread and Coherence bandwidth describe the

time dispersive nature of the channel in a local area.

• Doppler Spread and Coherence time are parameters which

describe the time varying nature of the channel in a small-
scale region.
Doppler Spread (BD) and Coherence time(TC)
• Doppler spread is measure of spectral broadening caused by motion
• We know how to compute Doppler shift: fd

• Doppler spread is defined as the maximum doppler shift fd=v/λ

• If the baseband signal bandwidth is much greater than BD then effect of Doppler spread is negligible at
the receiver.
• Coherence time is the time duration over which the channel impulse response is essentially invariant.
• If the symbol period of the baseband signal (reciprocal of the baseband signal
bandwidth) is greater the coherence time, than the signal will distort, since channel
will change during the transmission of the signal.
Coherence time(TC)

Coherence time definition

implies that two signals arriving
with a time separation greater
than TC are affected differently
by the channel.
Types of Small-scale Fading
Flat Fading
• Occurs when the amplitude of the received signal changes with time
For example according to Rayleigh Distribution.
• Occurs when symbol period of the transmitted signal is much larger
than the Delay Spread of the channel (Bandwidth of the applied
signal is narrow).
• It may cause deep fades and to combat we have to increase
transmitted power.
Flat Fading
Frequency Selective Fading
• Occurs when channel multipath delay spread is greater than the
symbol period. Due to this Channel induces Intersymbol Interference
(ISI) .
Fast Fading and Slow fading
Different types of fading
Different types of fading
Fading Distributions
• Describes how the received signal amplitude changes with time.
Remember that the received signal is combination of multiple signals
arriving from different directions, phases and amplitudes. With the
received signal we mean the baseband signal, namely the envelope of
the received signal (i.e. r(t)).
• Its is a statistical characterization of the multipath fading.
• Two distributions
• Rayleigh Fading
• Ricean Fading
Statistical Models for Multipath Fading
Channels
• Clarke's Model for Flat Fading
• Two-ray Rayleigh Fading Model
• Saleh and Valenzuela Indoor Statistical Model
• l SIRCIM and SMRCIM Indoor and Outdoor Statistical Models
COnsider L=4

ao= 0.01

a1=0.1

a2=1

Calculate Max delay spread, RMS delay spread.

Max. delay spread =

2. Consider outdoor channel with delay spread 1microsecond. Compute 'Bc' for 2G and 3G system. Compare the results

WKT,