Unit 3

Measurement
Measurement is a relatively complex and demanding task, specially
so when it concerns qualitative or abstract phenomena
measure physical objects as well as abstract concepts
It is easy to assign numbers in respect of properties of some objects,
but it is relatively difficult in respect of others assigning numbers to
objects or observations
Need of Measurement
Example
Height
Weight
Male=0
Female=1
 Problems in measurement in management
Research
Test of Validity
Validity refers to the extent to which a test measures what the
researcher actually wishes to measure.
Test of Reliability
Reliability has to do with the accuracy and precision of a
measurement procedure.
 Sources of Errors in Measurement
Respondents
Situation
Interviewer
Measuring instrument
Measurement Scales/Levels of Measurement

Nominal Scale
Ordinal Scale
Ratio Scale
Interval Scale
 Nominal Scale
A Nominal Scale is a measurement scale, in which numbers serve as
“tags” or “labels” only, to identify or classify an object.
A nominal scale measurement normally deals only with non-numeric
(quantitative) variables or where numbers have no value.

Below is an example of Nominal level of measurement.

Please select the degree of discomfort of the disease:
 1-Mild
 2-Moderate
 3-Severe
Has no arithmetic origin.
 Ordinal Scales
 The ordinal scale places events in order, but there is no attempt to make the intervals
of the scale equal in terms of some rule. Rank orders represent ordinal scales and are
frequently used in research relating to qualitative phenomena. A student’s rank in his
graduation class involves the use of an ordinal scale.

 For instance, if Ram’s position in his class is 10 and Mohan’s position is 40, it cannot
be said that Ram’s position is four times as good as that of Mohan. The statement
would make no sense at all. Ordinal scales only permit the ranking of items from
highest to lowest. Ordinal measures have no absolute values, and the real differences
between adjacent ranks may not be equal.
 Interval Scale

Can have an arbitrary zero but not possible to determine the unique origin.
Does not have capacity to measure complete absence of a characteristic.
Provide more powerful measurement than ordinal scales.
There is the concept of equality of intervals.
Mean as an appropriate measure of central tendency.
Generally ‘t’ and ‘F’ tests are used for statistical significance.

EXAMPLE: THERMOMETER
 Ratio Scale
Have an absolute or true zero of measurement.
With ratio scale one can make statements like “Rama’s typing performance
was twice as good as that of Geeta”
Facilitates a kind of comparison which is not possible in case of an interval
scale.
Represents an actual amount of variables.
Multiplication and division can be used with this scale.
Geometric mean and harmonic mean can be used as measures of central
tendency.
Coefficient of variation can also be calculated.
Example: WEIGHING MACHINE
ATTITUDE SCALING
TECHNIQUES
 Meaning of Scaling

The procedure of assigning numbers to various degrees of opinion, attitudes

and other concepts.
A continuum consisting of the highest point in terms of some characteristic
and the lowest point along with several intermediate points between these
two extreme points.
Can be applied to the procedures for attempting to determine quantitative
measures of subjective abstract concepts.
RATING SCALE
Ranking Scale
 Important Scaling Techniques
1. Rating Scale
Likert Scale
Semantic Differential Scale
Constant Sum Scale
Graphic Rating Scale
2. Ranking Scales
 Paired Comparison
Forced ranking
Rating Scale
 The rating scale involves qualitative description of a limited number of aspects of a thing or
of traits of a person. When we use rating scales (or categorical scales), we judge an object in
absolute terms against some specified criteria i.e., we judge properties of objects without
reference to other similar objects.

 These ratings may be in such forms as

 “like-dislike”,
 ”, and so on.
 “above average, average, below average”,
 “like very much—like some what—neutral—dislike somewhat—dislike very much”;
 “excellent—good—average—below average—poor”,
 “always—often—occasionally—rarely—never
 There is no specific rule whether to use a two-points scale, three-points scale or scale with
still more points. In practice, three to seven points scales are generally used for the simple
Likert-type scales
 Likert-type scales are developed by utilizing the item analysis approach wherein a
particular item is evaluated on the basis of how well it discriminates between those persons
whose total score is high and those whose score is low. Those items or statements that best
meet this sort of discrimination test are included in the final instrument.
 summated scales consist of a number of statements which express either a favourable or
unfavourable attitude towards the given object to which the respondent is asked to react.
The respondent indicates his agreement or disagreement with each statement in the
instrument.

 For example, when asked to express opinion whether one considers his job quite pleasant,
the respondent may respond in any one of the following ways:

(i) strongly agree, (ii) agree, (iii) undecided, (iv) disagree, (v) strongly disagree.
Example
Semantic Differential Scale
Semantic differential scale or the S.D. scale developed by Charles E.
Osgood, G.J. Suci and P.H. Tannenbaum (1957), is an attempt to measure
the psychological meaning
This scaling consists of a set of bipolar rating scales, usually of 7 points,
by which one or more respondents rate one or more concepts on each scale
items of an object to an individual.
Constant sum scale

A constant sum scale is a type of question used in a market research

survey in which respondents are required to divide a specific number of
points or percents as part of a total sum. The allocation of points are
divided to detail the variance and weight of each category.
Constant sum scale
Q: What one factor is most important to you when buying a home? Select
one.

Using 100 points, please apply a number of points to each factor based on
how important each are to you when buying a home. You must total 100
points divided among the factors.
A: Price, Location, School District, Inside Features, etc.
The respondent is given 100 points. They may choose to apply 80 to price,
15 to location, and spread out the remaining 5 points among other factors.
When you analyze this data set, the differentiation between factors
becomes evident.
Graphic Rating Scale
is quite simple and is commonly used in practice.

Under it the various points are usually put along the line to form a continuum
and the rater indicates his rating by simply making a mark (such as ü) at the
appropriate point on a line that runs from one extreme to the other.

Scale-points with brief descriptions may be indicated along the line, their
function being to assist the rater in performing his job.

The following is an example of ten-points graphic rating scale when we wish to

ascertain people’s Pain :
Graphic Rating Scale
RANKING SCALES
A ranking scale is a survey question tool that measures people's
preferences by asking them to rank their views on a list of related items.
Paired comparisons:
Under it the respondent can express his attitude by making a choice
between two objects, say between a new flavour of soft drink and an
established brand of drink. But when there are more than two stimuli to
judge, the number of judgements required in a paired comparison is given
by the formula:
where N = number of judgements
n = number of stimuli or objects to be judged.
Forced ranking
Forced ranking, also known as a vitality curve, is a controversial management
tool which measures, ranks and grades employees' work performance based on
their comparison with each other instead of against fixed standards.
In forced ranking process employees are divided into three into groups: A, B,
or C.
- A group stands for the employees who are most engaged, motivated, passionate,
open to collaboration and committed. They make up the top 20%.
- B group stands for employees who are not as engaged or motivated but are crucial
to the company’s success because they are so abundant. They make up the middle
70%.
- C group stands for employees who are commonly non-producing procrastinators.
They make up the bottom 10%.
Forced ranking