Noise in Communication

Systems

Lecture 1

EE 305_ Noise in communication system

Introduction

Block diagram of communication system

EE 305_ Noise in communication system

Introduction
• How do you want to send data/information to someone who is
far from you?”
• “If the information that you want to send is your voice, how to
make sure that what your words are understood by your
friend?”
• “What is the source and technology available surround you
that can help?”
• In any communication system, during the transmission of the
signal, or while receiving the signal, some unwanted signal gets
introduced into the communication, making it unpleasant for
the receiver, questioning the quality of the communication.
Such a disturbance is called as Noise

EE 305_ Noise in communication system

1. Introduction
In electrical terms, noise is defined as the unwanted form of energy
which tends to interface with the proper reception and the
reproduction of transmitted signals.
Noise in an RF system is unwanted random fluctuations in a
desired signal.
Noise is a natural phenomenon and is always present in the
environment.
Noise is the UNDESIRABLE portion of an electrical signal that
interferes with the intelligence. Therefore,Noise is a general term
which is used to describe an unwanted signal which affects a
wanted signal.

EE 305_ Noise in communication system

Introduction cont…

EE 305_ Noise in communication system

 Effects of noise:
■ Interferes with detection of signal (hides the signal).
■ Causes errors in information transmission by changing signal.
■ Sometimes noise might imitate a signal falsely.
■ Degrade system performance for both analog and digital
system
■ The receiver cannot understand the original signal
■ The receiver cannot function as it should be.
■ Reduce the efficiency of communication system
 All communications system design and operation must account
for noise.

EE 305_ Noise in communication system 6

 Effects of noise:

■ Noise limits the operating range of the systems

■ Noise indirectly places a limit on the weakest signal that can be amplified by
an amplifier. The oscillator in the mixer circuit may limit its frequency because
of noise. A system’s operation depends on the operation of its circuits. Noise
limits the smallest signal that a receiver is capable of processing.
■ Noise affects the sensitivity of receivers
■ Sensitivity is the minimum amount of input signal necessary to obtain the
specified quality output. Noise affects the sensitivity of a receiver system,
which eventually affects the output

EE 305_ Noise in communication system

 Why is it important to study the effects of Noise?

a) Today’s telecom networks handle enormous volume of data

b) The switching equipment needs to handle high traffic volumes as
well
c) our ability to recover the required data without error is inversely
proportional to the magnitude of noise

EE 305_ Noise in communication system

What steps are taken to minimize the effects of noise?

a)Special encoding and decoding techniques used to optimize the

recovery of the signal
b)Transmission medium is chosen based on the bandwidth, end to end
reliability requirements, anticipated surrounding noise levels and the
distance to destination
c)Elaborate error detection and correction mechanisms utilized in the
communications systems
EE 305_ Noise in communication system
Classification of noise

EE 305_ Noise in communication system

Classification of noise
[Link] Noise: This type of noise is difficult to quantify and to solve for their sources are not
within the system and usually of natural Origin. External noise comes from sources over which we
have little or no control. Examples
 Interference, usually from a human source (man made)
 Interference :Interference arises for example, from other communication systems (cross talk), 50 Hz supplies
(hum) and harmonics, switched mode power supplies, thyristor circuits, ignition (car spark plugs) motors … etc.
 Naturally occurring random noise
 Natural Noise :Naturally occurring external noise sources include atmosphere disturbance (e.g. electric storms,
lighting, ionospheric effect etc), so called ‘Sky Noise’ or Cosmic noise which includes noise from galaxy, solar
noise and ‘hot spot’ due to oxygen and water vapour resonance in the earth’s atmosphere.

EE 305_ Noise in communication system

 ATMOSPHERIC NOISE
• Atmospheric noise also known as static
• It is caused by naturally occurring disturbances in the earth’s
atmosphere
• Caused by lightning discharges in thunderstorms and other
natural electric disturbances occurring in the atmosphere.
• Consist of spurious radio signal with components distributed
over a wide range of frequencies.
• It propagates over the earth in the same way as ordinary radio
waves of the same frequencies. Become less severe at
frequencies above 30MHz because:
• The higher frequencies are limited to line-of-sight propagation.
• Nature of the mechanism generating this noise is such that very little of
it is created in the VHF range and above.

EE 305_ Noise in communication system

 EXTRATERRESTRIAL NOISE

• SOLAR NOISE: Normal condition, there is a constant noise

radiation from the sun, simply because large body at a very high
frequency. Radiates over a very broad frequency spectrum.
• COSMIC NOISE: Stars radiate RF noise in the same manner of
sun. The noise received is called thermal noise and distributed fairly
uniformly over the entire sky.
• Gaussian Noise: The cumulative effect of all random noise generated
over a period of time (it includes all frequencies).

EE 305_ Noise in communication system

 INDUSTRIAL NOISE

• Noise made by man easily outstrips any other between the frequencies
of 1 to 600 MHz.
• Sources such as: automobile, aircraft, electric motors ignition, electric
motors, switching equipment, leakage from high voltage lines and other
heavy machine
• The nature of industrial noise is so variable that it is difficult to analyze

EE 305_ Noise in communication system

 How to reduce External Noise
• Place the receiver in the areas of less noise and proper shielding
• Use directional aerial and direct them in the direction of less noise.
• Choose the aerial of right polarization
• Use FM instead of AM for a given bandwidth. An AM is much
noisy.(i.e. good design, suppression, shielding etc)
• Use proper design of the channel.
• Use BPF or LPF at the receiver

EE 305_ Noise in communication system

 2. Internal Noise
Internal Noise are the type of Noise which are generated internally or within the Communication

System or in the receiver. Present in all electronic component and communications systems.
• This is the noise generated by any of the active or passive devices found in the receiver such as.

resistors, diodes, transistors and even wires or conductors within.

• This type of noise is random and difficult to treat on an individual basis but can be described

statistically.
• Random noise power is proportional to the bandwidth over which it is measured.

EE 305_ Noise in communication system

Examples of internal noise:
1. Thermal Noise (Johnson Noise)

EE 305_ Noise in communication system

1. Thermal Noise (Johnson Noise)

Experimental results (by Johnson) and

theoretical studies (by Nyquist) give the mean
square noise voltage as
_ 2
V  4 k TBR (volt 2 )
Where k = Boltzmann’s constant = 1.38 x 10 -23
Joules per K
T = absolute temperature
B = bandwidth noise measured in
(Hz)
R = resistance (ohms)
EE 305_ Noise in communication system
 2.1. Thermal Noise (Johnson Noise) (Cont’d)
The law relating noise power, N, to the temperature and bandwidth is

N = k TB watts

Thermal noise is often referred to as ‘white noise’ because it has a

uniform ‘spectral density’.

EE 305_ Noise in communication system

 2.2 SHOT NOISE
• Caused by the random arrival of carriers at the output
element of an electronic device.
• First observed in the anode current of a vacuum-tube
amplifier.
• The current carriers are not moving in continuous
steady flow.
• Randomly varying and superimposed onto any signal
present.
• Sometimes called transistor noise.

EE 305_ Noise in communication system

2.2. Shot Noise
• Shot noise was originally used to describe noise due to random
fluctuations in electron emission from cathodes in vacuum tubes
(called shot noise by analogy with lead shot).
• Shot noise also occurs in semiconductors due to the liberation of
charge carriers.
• For pn junctions the mean square shot noise current is
I n2  2I DC  2 I o q e B (amps) 2

Where
is the direct current as the pn junction (amps)
is the reverse saturation current (amps)
qe is the electron charge = 1.6 x 10-19 coulombs
B is the effective noise bandwidth (Hz)

• Shot noise is found to have a uniform spectral density as for thermal

noise EE 305_ Noise in communication system
Shot Noise: Results from the random arrival rate of discrete current
carriers at the output electrodes of semiconductor and vaccum tube
devices.

Noise current associated with shot noise can be computed as

In = √ 2qIf

In = Shot noise current in rms

q = charge of an electron
I = DC current flowing through the device
f = system bandwidth (Hz)

EE 305_ Noise in communication system

 2.3. Low Frequency or Flicker Noise

Active devices, integrated circuit, diodes, transistors etc also exhibits

a low frequency noise, which is frequency dependent (i.e. non
uniform) known as flicker noise or ‘one – over – f’ noise.

2.4. Excess Resistor Noise

Thermal noise in resistors does not vary with frequency, as previously
noted, by many resistors also generates as additional frequency
dependent noise referred to as excess noise.

2.5. Burst Noise or Popcorn Noise

Some semiconductors also produce burst or popcorn noise with a
2

spectral density which is proportional to  1 f 

EE 305_ Noise in communication system
2.6. Transit Time Noise
Transit time noise occurs when the electron transit time across a
junction is the same period as the signal.
For example, a semiconductor junction phenomenon in which carriers
in a high voltage gradient develop sufficient energy to dislodge
additional carriers through physical impact, creating ragged current
flows

EE 305_ Noise in communication system

How to reduce internal noise

• Choose proper components

• Use cooling system
• Use digital transmission
• Use BPF or LPF at the receiver

EE 305_ Noise in communication system

 7. General Comments

For frequencies below a few KHz (low frequency systems), flicker

and popcorn noise are the most significant, but these may be ignored
at higher frequencies where ‘white’ noise predominates.

EE 305_ Noise in communication system

The decibel (abbreviated dB) is the unit used to measure the
intensity of a sound.! The smallest audible sound (near total
silence) is 0 dB. A sound 10 times more powerful is 10 dB. A
sound 1,000 times more powerful than near total silence is 30
dB.

Here are some common sounds and their decibel ratings:

Normal conversation - 60 dB
A rock concert - 120 dB

It takes approximate 4 hours of exposure to a 120-dB sound to

cause damage to your ears, however 140-dB sound can result in
an immediate damage

EE 305_ Noise in communication system

 decibels
• The bel is a logarithmic unit of power ratios. One bel corresponds to an increase of
power by a factor of 10 relative to some reference power, Pref.
 P 
P[ bel ]  log10  
P 
 ref 
• The bel is a large unit, so that decibel (dB) is almost always used:

 P 
P[ dB ]  10 log10  
P 
 ref 
• The above equation may also be used to express a ratio of voltages (or field
strengths) provided that they appear across the same impedance (or in a medium
with the same wave impedance):
 V 
V[ dB ]  20 log10  
V 
 ref 
EE 305_ Noise in communication system
decibels
Unit Reference Power Application

dBW 1W Absolute power

dBm 1 mW Absolute power

P [dbW] = P [dBm] - 30
dBmV 1 mV Absolute voltage, typically at the input
terminals of a receiver
dB any Gain or loss of a network

dBmV/m 1 mV/m Electric field strength

dBi Power radiated by and isotropic Gain of an antenna

reference antenna
dBd Power radiated by a half-wave Gain of an antenna
dipole 0 dBd = 2.15 dBi

EE 305_ Noise in communication system

 Analysis of Noise In Communication Systems
Thermal Noise (Johnson noise)
This thermal noise may be represented by an equivalent circuit as shown below
____
V  4 k TBR (volt 2 )
2

(mean square value , power)

then VRMS = ____2  2 kTBR  V
V n

i.e. Vn is the RMS noise voltage.

A) System BW = B Hz
N= Constant B (watts) = KB
B) System BW
N= Constant 2B (watts) = K2B

For A, S  S For B, S  S
N KB N K 2B

EE 305_ Noise in communication system

 Analysis of Noise In Communication Systems (Cont’d)
Resistors in Series
Assume that R1 at
temperature T1 and R2 at
temperature T2, then
____ ___ ___
2 2 2
V V
n n1 V n2
____
2
V n1
____
 4 k T1 B R1
2
Vn 2  4 k T2 B R2
____
2
 Vn  4 k B (T1 R1  T2 R2 )
____
2
Vn  4 kT B ( R1  R2 )
i.e. The resistor in series at same temperature behave as a
single resistor EE 305_ Noise in communication system
 Analysis of Noise In Communication Systems (Cont’d)

Resistance in Parallel
R2 R1
Vo1  Vn1 Vo 2  V n 2
R1  R2 R1  R2

____ ___ ___

2 2 2
V V
n o1 V o2

R R 
V  R  R 2 R2 T1 R1 R1 T2 R2   R R 
____
2 2 4kB 2 1 2
n
1 2  1 2

_____
4kB R1 R2 (T1 R1 T2 R2 )
V 2

n
R1  R2 2
_____
 RR 
V n
2
 4kTB  1 2 
 R1  R2 

EE 305_ Noise in communication system

Signal to Noise Ratio
• A measure of the noise that enters a particular communication
system is done
• by comparing the wanted signal power level to the unwanted noise
power level.
• This is measure is achieved by the signal to noise ratio( SNR).

EE 305_ Noise in communication system

 Noise Evaluation
The essence of calculations and measurements is to determine the
signal power to Noise power ratio, i.e. the (S/N) ratio or (S/N)
expression in dB.  S  S
  
  ratio N
N
 S   S 
   10 log 10  
 N  dB N
Also recall that
 S ( mW ) 
S dBm  10 log 10  
 1 mW 
 N ( mW ) 
and N dBm  10 log 10  
 1mW 
 S 
i.e.   10 log 10 S  10 log 10 N
 N  dB
 S 
   S dBm  N dBm
 N  dB
EE 305_ Noise in communication system
Signal to Noise ratio: It is a ratio of signal power to
Noise power at some point in a Telecom system
expressed in decibels (dB)

It is typically measured at the receiving end of the

communications system BEFORE the detection of
signal.

SNR = 10 Log (Signal power/ Noise power) dB

SNR = 10 Log (Vs/VN)2 = 20 Log (Vs/VN)

EE 305_ Noise in communication system

1) The noise power at the output of receiver’s IF stage is
measured at 45 µW. With receiver tuned to test signal, output
power increases to 3.58 mW. Compute the SNR

SNR = 10 Log (Signal power/ Noise power) dB

= 10 Log (3.58 mW/ 45 µW) = 19 dB

2) A 1 kHZ test tone measured with an oscilloscope at the input of

receiver’s FM detector stage. Its peak to peak voltage is 3V. With test tone
at transmitter turned off, the noise at same test point is measure with an
rms voltmeter. Its value is 640 mV. Compute SNR in dB.

SNR = 20 Log (Vs/Vn) = 20 Log ((.707 x Vp-p/2)/Vn)

= 20 Log (1.06V/640 mV)
= 4.39 dB

EE 305_ Noise in communication system

 Signal to Noise cont…
The signal to noise ratio is given by
S Signal Power

N Noise Power
The signal to noise in dB is expressed by
S S
  dB  10 log 10  
N N
S 
  dB S dBm  N dBm for S and N measured in mW.
N

Noise Factor- Noise Figure

Consider the network shown below,

EE 305_ Noise in communication system

Noise factor
• Noise factor determines how noisy the system is.
• The amount of noise added by the network is embodied in the Noise
Factor F, which is defined by

EE 305_ Noise in communication system

Noise Factor (F) : It is a measure of How
Noisy A Device Is

Noise figure (NF) = Noise factor expressed

in dB

F = (Si/Ni) / (So/No)

NF = 10 Log F

EE 305_ Noise in communication system

• Noise factor F = S N 
S N 
IN

OUT

• F equals to 1 for noiseless network and in general F > 1.

The noise figure in the noise factor quoted in dB
i.e. Noise Figure F dB = 10 log10 FF ≥ 0 dB

• The noise figure / factor is the measure of how much a

network degrades the (S/N)IN, the lower the value of F,
the better the network.
EE 305_ Noise in communication system
 Noise Figure – Noise Factor for Active Elements
For active elements with power gain G>1, we have

S N 
= S IN N OUT S OUT  G S IN
S N 
IN
F= But
OUT
N IN S OUT
Therefore
S IN N OUT N
F  OUT
N IN G S IN G N IN
Since in general F v> 1 , then N OUT is increased by noise due to the active element i.e.

Na represents ‘added’ noise measured at the output. This added noise may be referred to the
input as extra noise, i.e. as equivalent diagram is

EE 305_ Noise in communication system

 Noise Figure – Noise Factor for Active Elements (Cont’d)

Ne is extra noise due to active elements referred to the input; the element is thus
effectively noiseless.

EE 305_ Noise in communication system

Noise Temperature

EE 305_ Noise in communication system

Noise Figure – Noise Factor for Passive Elements

EE 305_ Noise in communication system

 Cascaded Network
A receiver systems usually consists of a number of passive or active elements connected in
series. A typical receiver block diagram is shown below, with example

In order to determine the (S/N) at the input, the overall receiver noise figure or noise
temperature must be determined. In order to do this all the noise must be referred to the same
point in the receiver, for example to A, the feeder input or B, the input to the first amplifier.

Te or N e is the noise referred to the input.

EE 305_ Noise in communication system
 System Noise Figure
Assume that a system comprises the elements shown below,

Assume that these are now cascaded and connected to an aerial at the input, with N IN  N ae
from the aerial.

Now , N OUT  G3 N IN 3  N e 3 
 G3 N IN 3  F3  1 N IN 
Since N IN 3  G2 N IN 2  N e 2  G2 N IN 2  F2  1N IN 

similarly N IN 2  G1 N ae  F1  1N IN 

EE 305_ Noise in communication system
 System Noise Figure (Cont’d)
N OUT  G3 G2 G1 N ae  G1 F1  1N IN   G2 F2  1N IN   G3 F3  1N IN
The overall system Noise Factor is
N OUT N OUT
Fsys  
GN IN G1G 2 G3 N ae
N IN F2  1 N IN F3  1 N IN
 1  F1  1  
N ae G1 N ae G1G2 N ae

F2  1 F3  1 F4  1 Fn  1

Fsys  F1     ........... 
G1 G1G2 G1G2 G3 G1G2 ..........Gn 1
The equation is called FRIIS Formula.
EE 305_ Noise in communication system
System Noise Temperature

EE 305_ Noise in communication system

Relative power gain of a device can be expressed as

Ap = Po/Pi (Power levels are expressed in Watts)

Relative power gain of a device in decibels is

Ap(dB) = 10 Log Ap = 10 Log Po/Pi

Alternatively, the above equations can be represented as

Ap(dB) = 10 Log (Vo2/Ro)/(Vi2/Ri)

If (Ro = Ri)
Av(dB) = 10 Log (Vo/Vi)2 = 20 Log (Vo/Vi) = 20 Log Av
Po and Pi can be substituted with Pfin and Pinit as in
Final and initial values of power source

EE 305_ Noise in communication system

Ap is a relative power gain

Ap is not necessarily the power gain between output and input

Ap can be computed for comparing any two different power levels

e.g., You may be asked to compute a relative power gain ratio of an

amplifier which has been redesigned so that the maximum output power
has increased from .25W and 5W

Ap = 5/.25 = 20 and Ap(dB) = 10 x Log Ap = 10 x Log 20 = 13.01

If Ap(dB) = 20 dB and Po = 550mW, compute Pi

Ap = 10 Ap(dB)/10 = 100

Po/Pi = 100
Pi = 550/100 = 5.5 mW

EE 305_ Noise in communication system

A preamp has a voltage gain of 28dB. Compute the following:

a) If Vi = 2 mV then Vo = ?

A v(dB) = 20 Log Av
Av = 10 Av(dB)/20
Av = 25.11

b) If Vi increases from 2 to 5 mV, how many dB has the signal increased?

Av(dB) = 20 Log (Vfin/Vinit) = 20 Log (5/2) = 20 Log 2.5 = 7.95 dB

b) If Vi drops from 2 to 1 mV, how many dB has the signal dropped?

Av(dB) = 20 Log (Vfin/Vinit) = 20 Log (1/2) = 20 Log .5 = -6 dB

EE 305_ Noise in communication system

The absolute power gain is defined as “A unit of gain or loss expressed
as an absolute value based on 1 mW of standard reference”

Ap(dBm) = 10 Log (P/ 1 mW)

This represents an absolute Power gain based on a standard input level of

1 mW in to 50Ω , 600Ω or 900Ω depending on the impedance of the
Transmission media.

“P” represents Power level which can then be computed as follows:

P = 1 mW (10 (Ap(dBm)/10))

In terms of voltage, the above equation can then be represented as

(Vrms2/R) = 1 mW (10 (Ap(dBm)/10))

Vrms = √ 1 mW (10 (Ap(dBm)/10)) x R (where R = standardized value

obtained from the manufacturer)

EE 305_ Noise in communication system