ARYAN INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY,
BHUBANESWAR
Module IV: Complex Analysis
Course Code: 23BS1004
Presented by:
Ashoka Kumar Sethi
Asst. Prof. in Maths
CONTENTS
• Introduction
• Limit
• Left hand &Right hand Limits
• Algebra of Limits
• Continuity and its types.
• Limits & Continuity Connection
• Real World Applications
• Cauchy-Riemann Equations
• Derivations of C-R Equations
• Example &Applications
• Laplace’s Equations
INTRODUCTION
This presentation explores fundamental concepts from mathematical analysis and their applications in complex variables
and differential equations. It is structured to build a strong foundational understanding of: Limit of a function and the
behavior of functions near specific points, including Left-hand and Right-hand Limits. The Algebra of Limits, essential for
simplifying and computing limits. Continuity of functions, including various types and their implications. The critical
relationship between Limits and Continuity, which is the basis for defining differentiability. Real-world scenarios where
these foundational ideas are applied. A transition into Complex Analysis with the Cauchy-Riemann Equations, which define
conditions for differentiability of complex functions. Detailed derivations and applications of the Cauchy-Riemann
conditions. Lastly, an in-depth exploration of Laplace’s Equation, a cornerstone in potential theory and partial differential
equations, with its mathematical and practical significance. Together, these topics connect key ideas in calculus, real
analysis, and complex variables, forming the mathematical backbone for engineering, physics, and advanced mathematical
modelling.
What is a Limit?
• Definition:
• The limit of a function f(x) as x approaches a number a is the value
that f(x) gets closer to as x gets closer to a.
• Formula:
• lim(x→a) f(x) = L
Left-Hand and Right-Hand Limits
• Left-Hand Limit:
• lim(x→a⁻) f(x)
• Right-Hand Limit:
• lim(x→a⁺) f(x)
• The limit exists if and only if both one-sided limits are equal.
Algebra of Limits
• If lim(x→a) f(x) = L and lim(x→a) g(x) = M:
• Sum Rule:
• lim(x→a) [f(x) + g(x)] = L + M
• Product Rule:
• lim(x→a) [f(x)·g(x)] = L·M
• Quotient Rule:
• lim(x→a) [f(x)/g(x)] = L/M, if M ≠ 0
Introduction to Continuity
• A function f(x) is continuous at x = a if:
• 1. f(a) is defined
• 2. lim(x→a) f(x) exists
• 3. lim(x→a) f(x) = f(a)
Types of Discontinuity
• 1. Removable: Hole in the graph
• 2. Jump: Left and right limits differ
• 3. Infinite: Function tends to infinity
• Example:
• f(x) = (x² - 1)/(x - 1) has a removable discontinuity at x = 1
Continuity Over an Interval
• A function is continuous on an interval if it is continuous at every
point in it.
• Open Interval: (a, b)
• Closed Interval: [a, b]
• Example: f(x) = x² is continuous on (-∞, ∞)
Limits and Continuity – Connection
• Check continuity by evaluating the limit first.
• Example:
• f(x) = x² if x ≠ 2, f(x) = 5 if x = 2
• lim(x→2) f(x) = 4 ≠ f(2) = 5 ⇒ Discontinuous at x = 2
Real-World Applications of Limits
• Physics: Instantaneous velocity
• Biology: Population models
• Economics: Marginal cost analysis
• Engineering: Signal processing
• Example: Derivative as a limit of average rate of change
Cauchy-Riemann Equations
Introduction to Complex Functions
• A complex function: f(z), where z = x + iy
• f(z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y), with u, v ∈ ℝ
• Example: f(z) = z² = x² - y² + 2ixy
Differentiability of Complex
Functions
• A function f(z) is differentiable at z₀ if:
• lim(Δz→0) [f(z₀ + Δz) - f(z₀)] / Δz exists
• It must be independent of the approach direction.
Cauchy-Riemann Equations
• Let f(z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y). Then:
• ∂u/∂x = ∂v/∂y, ∂u/∂y = -∂v/∂x
• These are the Cauchy-Riemann equations.
Derivation of C-R Equations
• Start from:
• f'(z) = lim(Δz→0) [f(z + Δz) - f(z)] / Δz
• Evaluate in directions Δz = Δx and Δz = iΔy.
• Set expressions equal to derive C-R equations.
Example 1 – f(z) = z²
• f(z) = (x + iy)² = x² - y² + 2ixy
• u = x² - y², v = 2xy
• ∂u/∂x = 2x = ∂v/∂y
• ∂u/∂y = -2y = -∂v/∂x → Satisfies C-R → Analytic
Example 2 – f(z) = conjugate(z)
• f(z) = x - iy
• u = x, v = -y
• ∂u/∂x = 1 ≠ ∂v/∂y = -1 → Not analytic
• Fails C-R equations.
Applications
• Used in:
• - Electromagnetism
• - Fluid dynamics
• - Conformal mapping
• - Potential theory
• Also: u and v satisfy Laplace’s equation.
What is Laplace's Equation?
• Laplace's equation is a second-order partial differential equation:
• ∇²φ = 0
• Also written as:
• (∂²φ/∂x²) + (∂²φ/∂y²) + (∂²φ/∂z²) = 0
The Laplace Operator (∇²)
• The Laplacian (∇²) is a differential operator given by:
• In 2D: ∇²φ = ∂²φ/∂x² + ∂²φ/∂y²
• In 3D: ∇²φ = ∂²φ/∂x² + ∂²φ/∂y² + ∂²φ/∂z²
Laplace’s Equation in Polar
Coordinates
• In 2D polar coordinates (r, θ):
• ∇²φ = (1/r) ∂/∂r(r ∂φ/∂r) + (1/r²) ∂²φ/∂θ²
• Used in circular/symmetric regions.
Laplace’s Equation in Spherical
Coordinates
• In 3D spherical coordinates:
• ∇²φ = (1/r²) ∂/∂r(r² ∂φ/∂r) + ...
• Useful in spherical domains (e.g., gravity fields).
SUMMARY
Limits: Understand the behaviour of a function as it approaches a point. Essential for
calculus and analysis. Algebra of Limits: Apply basic rules for adding, subtracting,
multiplying, and dividing limits to simplify expressions. Continuity and Its Types: A function
is continuous at a point if the limit exists and equals the function value. Types include
pointwise, uniform, and discontinuities. Limit-Continuity Connection: Continuity is directly
based on the existence and equality of the function’s limit and actual value. Real-World
Applications: Used in modelling motion, electrical currents, fluid flow, and population
change. Cauchy-Riemann Equations. Conditions for complex differentiability and analyticity.
Derivation of C-R Equations: Derived from the definition of a complex derivative, showing
the interplay between real and imaginary parts. Examples & Applications: Solve problems in
complex potential flow, electrostatics, and image processing. Laplace’s Equation.
Thank you for
listening!
