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Subsuriace Radio Propagation Experiments
1
Carson K. H. Tsao and J. T. deBettencourt
Raytheon Company, Norwood, Mass. 02062, U.S.A.
experiments were conducted on Cape Cod, the Adirondack region of New York State,
and m Cheyenne Mountain in Colorado to determine the feasibility of communication vertical
linear antennas located in drill holes in the rock below overburden, and similar antennas located on
the surface of the ground.
The bulk conductivity of the propagation media, i.e., the average conductivity along the path he
tween the antennas, must be determined by measurements of propagation loss and transmission delay,
of the lack of homogeneity in the rock media. High values of bulk conductivity limited
ments I? the VI;F reJZion on Cape Cod and the Adirondacks, which involved ranges of 1.6 km and 5 krn.
respectively. D1stances up to 48 km in the LF region were achieved by upandover transmissions from
inside Cheyenne Mountain.
Analysis of the experimental results and theoretical considerations indicate that the usefulness
of the throu!lhtherock mechanism is severely limited by the bulk conductivity. For shallow antenna
depths, particularly if the overburden is thin or absent, substantial transmission ranges can be achieved
by using up-over-down propagation.
1. Introduction
;There has been considerable interest recently in
possibility of using subsurface rock strata for
. dened radio communications. With both trans-
)ting and receiving antennas situated in the bedrock
the .surface of the earth, propagation can be
hteved dtrectly through the rock medium between
e antennas. Through-the-rock propagation has been
,e principal concern of a series of investigations on
ape Cod, and in the Mineville and Black River areas
_ ated in northern New York State. The "up-and-over"
was also investigated in the Cheyenne
area in Colorado, between an antenna buried
,eply in the rock and an antenna located on the sur-
i!e of the ground. This paper reviews the various
and summarizes the experimental results
Jamed in the course of these investigations.
any programs of theoretical and experimental
estigations in this field have been conducted in
e past. References cited here are but a small portion
j or addition to, the bibliography to be found else-
,ere. To cite but a few publications, Hansen (1963)
.es an excellent survey that considers up-over-and
;wn propagation. Ames, et al. ( 1963) consider the
,tenttal of communicating via direct through-the-rock
.. smission. Biggs and Swarm (1963) treat the fields
rur from a buried antenna to antennas on the surface
elevated in the air, neglecting the influence of the
l'hi, work wu by thr Air Furcor Cambrid,:eo Res.tarch J aburatutie" undC"r
_net No. AF19162S)-2362 and. in 1ntrt. hy 1heo Raylheouo Cumpan;. Nurwnod MasF-.
ionosphere; this can be designated the up-and-over
mechanism. Wait (1963) develops the idea of a wave
guided in a low-loss horizontal layer in the earth's
crust. A thorough review of progress on the subject
is presented by deBettencourt (1966) .
2. Experimental Arrangements
In conducting through-the-rock propagation experi
ments, access to the rock is made by drilling vertical
holes through the overburden and into the rock.
Vertical linear antennas are placed in the holes below
the conducting overburden as shown in figure l. Since
the overburden generally is more conducting than the
rock below, the overburden serves as a reflecting
ground plane, allowing monopoles to be driven against
it. The antennas are connected by transmission lines
to the transmitter and receiver located on the surface
of the ground. The properties of antennas in drill holes
are discussed in detail by deBettencourt and Sutcliffe
(1962).
For these experiments a 100-W audio amplifier was
used as a transmitter, and either a low frequency
communication receiver or a narrowband wave ana-
lyzer was used as a receiver. The magnitudes and
phase angles of mutual impedances between the
transmitting and receiving antennas were obtained
through measurements. From these, the bulk con-
ductivity, i.e., the average conductivity, of the medium
between the antennas was deduced. The length of the
antennas in the drill holes varied from the 150-m
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l sachusetts. on Cape Cod used two drill holes 300 rn
! deep. separated by 1.6 km (Tsao. 1963). Transmissions
were made at frequencies below 7.5 kHz. Later, meas
urements were made in the Mineville area in New
York State, where two existing deeper drill holes,
separated by 1.6 krn, were used as antenna sites for
transmissions at frequencies up to 50 kHz (Tsao,
1964a). Subsequently, based on results obt ained in the
Mineville area, and also from supporting data from a
surface resistivity survey, two drill holes were made
available to establish a 5-km path in the Black River
area in New York State, where tntnsmissions were
made at frequencies below 100 kHz (Tsao, 1964b).
Later, experiments were conducted in the Cheyenne
1
Mountain area of Colorado to investigate the up-and
over transmission (Tsao, 1965). As shown in figure 2,
a transmitting antenna was placed in a slanted drill
hole such that the antenna was parallel to and about
210 m below the eastern slope of Cheyenne Mountain.
Access to the drill hole was made at Turnaround, a
point along a tunnel road leading into the NORAD
complex. The antenna orientation was selected to
favor up-and-over transmission to surface points
located east of the transmitting antenna.
I I .

TRANSMITTER
COAXIAL
CABLE
RECEIVER
COAXIAL
CABLE
DRILL HOLE
BEDROCK
ANTENNA
FIGURE 1. Schematic configuration for through-the-rock
propagation experiments.
50
40
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:r 30
0
0
20
:IE
'!!: 10
e
N
0
3
0
N 10

100 1000
FREQUENCY IN HZ
"'
\
\
\
\
\
10,000
FIGURE 3. Mutual impedance vs. frequency, I -mile path,
Cape Cod, Mass.
i1
Subsurface I
3 . Experiments ond of Results
Tronsmissions
3.1, 1.6-km Transmissions on Cape Cod
On Cape Cod, transmissions were made at frequen-
cies below 7.5 kHz over the 1.6-km path between
antennas inserted in the 305 m deep drill holes (Tsao,
1963). Figure 3 shows the magnitude of the mutual
impedance, i.e., the magnitude of ratio of the voltage
induced in the receiving antenna to the current at the
input terminal of the transmitting antenna. It is seen
that the magnitude of the mutual impedance is constant
at the lower end of the frequency scale. This is because
the electrical distance between the antennas is short.
and only the quasi-electric field is important. (In
case, the mutual impedance does not have an inductiv(
component and can be referred to as the mutua'
resistance.) As the frequency increases, the electrica
distance increases. Hence, the magnitude of tht
mutual impedance decreases rapidly, due to the in
creased importance of the exponential damping in th(
far field zone.
The measured phase angle of mutual impedance
a function of frequency for the Cape Cod path
shown in figure 4. The square root dependency ol
phase to frequency indicates that the rod
., 3000
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H5 METER
DRILL HOLE
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2DOO
METERS
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3000
-EAST

FIGURE 2. East -West cross section of Cheyenne Mountain
through Turnaround.
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-300
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FREQUENCY IN KHZ
FIGURE 4. Measured phase angle of mutual impedance,
1-mile path, Cape Cod, Mass.
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\tedium along the path has a large loss tangent. Meas- In the Black River experiment there is strong I
!i' ernent of the phase angle of the mutual impedance evidence that at frequencies above 50 kHz, signals
I :quires the use of common reference phases at both were received due mainly to propagation through the
i.: e transmitter the receiver. On Cod_, t?is air, i.e., the up-over-down or up-and-over mechanism.
:. ference was denved from a LORAN C transmissiOn This is shown in figure 6 by comparing the measured
Jiginating on Nantucket Island (Tsao and deBetten field intensities with the estimated strengths of sig-
1
. ourt, 1967). nals in air and in the earth, as shown by the solid and
i ': The bulk conductivity of the rock for the 1.6-km . the dashed curves, respectively. There is equally
i th on Cape Cod was deduced from the amplitude strong evidence that at frequencies below 50 kHz, the
pd phase data independently, and was found to be signals received in the hole were primarily due to the
'lpproximately I X 10- a mhos/m. direct or through-the-rock propagation. The bulk con-
ductivity in this area was found to be about 8 X 10-
5
f 3.2. 1.6-km Tronsmissi.ons ot Mineville, New York mhos/ m.
; Measurements of amplitude and phase of the mutual 3.4. Tronsmission From Inside Cheyenne Mountoin
(:
. pedance were also ma.de at Mineville between an-
. nnas in deeper drill holes 1.6-km apart. At Mineville,
.... easurements were made at frequencies up to 50
Hz (Tsao, 1964a). From these measurements, the
ttenuation and phase conSt!lnts of the propagation
_ edium were deduced as shown in figure 5. At the
wer frequency, the attenuation and the phase
onstants are equal and proportional to the square
:oot of the frequency due to the large loss tangent.
) frequencies near 50 kHz, as the loss tangent he-
.' mes small the phase constant becomes greater
. an the attenuation constant. Using a curve-fitting
ethod, these data provided a bulk conductivity of
,5 X 10-
4
mhos/m and a relative dielectric constant
.f 48. The corresponding theoretical attenuation and
hase constants are shown by the solid curved lines
figure 5.
; 3.3. 5-km Tronsmissions ot Block River, New York
t
. Transmission tests over a 5-km path were made
.. etween drill holes in the Black River area (Tsao,
a964b). Only the magnitudes of the field intensities
r ere measured. Field intensities measured in air and
Ill the hole at the receiving site (Wadhams, N.Y.) are
rown in figure 6.
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:RECEIVING ANT. 300 METER RGB : /3 t: t
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10 - - ' - -- l I . . . . . .L . .:.____L
0.1 I 10 100
FREQUENCY -KHZ
FIGURE 5 .
Attenuation and phase constants us. frequency,
1-mile path-Mineville.
Following the experiments. described above, propaga-
tion tests were made in the Cheyenne Mountain area
to determine whether transmissions could be made
from inside Cheyenne Mountain to receivers on the
surface east of the mountain (Ts ao, 1965). The through-
the-rock transmission was not attempted in this area.
An antenna buried 210 m below the surface of Chey-
enne Mountain (fig. 2) was used for transmission;
measurements of field intensity were made on the
surface of the ground. The trans mission path was
only partially through rock .
Measurements of surface field intensities due to
transmission from inside Cheyenne Mountain were
made along several 50-km radials from the trans-
mitter, at a frequency of 70 kHz. The measured fi eld
intensities, normalized to l A of input current to the
transmitting antennas , are shown in figure 7. The
field intensity along each radial varied inversely with
distance. The inverse distance dependency is charac-
teristic of groundwave propagation for the fre quency
and distances involved, because the ground attenua
tion is negligible. The bulk conductivity of the rock
surrounding the buried antenna was estimated to be
about 3.5 X I0-
4
mhos/m.
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1- - CALCULATED,IN AIR CUP-OVER)
--CALCULATED, IN HOLE(UP- OVER- DOWN)
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FREQUENCY- HZ

/
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FIGURE 6. Vertical field intensities, 3-mile transmission
path at Black River . .
. . . . ... . . . . . . : . :. . :-.:o . :.:
'to
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rr
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50
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reststtvlly data for correlation with the bulk condud
tivity data obtained from the more involved transmis: I
sion tests described above. 1
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ANTENNA CURRENT: I AMPERE ""
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ANTENNA LENGTH: 800FT INSULATED
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X NORTHEAST RADIAL
I:J. NORfH RADI AL
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6.4 11.2 16 48
DISTANCE- KILOMETERS
64 112 160
FIGURE 7. StLrface field intensity at 70 kHz due to trans-
missions from inside the mountain.
3.5. Comparison of Conductivity Values Deduced
From Transmission Tests and Surface Resistivity
Measurements
The conductivity and layer thickness of a horizon-
tally stratified region of the earth' s crust can be
deduced from measurements derived from the surface
resistivity method. In this method, the apparent
resistivity (conductivity) of the earth located below
horizontally polarized transmitting and receiving
dipoles located on the earth's surface is deduced from
measurements of mutual impedance, i.e., the ratio of
voltage induced in the receiving dipole to the current
Surface resistivity measurements on Cape Cod
yielded rock layer conductivities of 1.7 X 10-
4
til
2. 7 X 10-
4
mhos/m, depending on the variation h1
the estimates of the thickness and resistivity of
overburden. The bulk conductivity was found to havb
a much higher value of aoout 1 X 10-
3
mhos/m,
deduced from the rock strata radio propagation tests.
At Mineville in northern New York State, the dat'p
from surface resistivity measurements showed seriouE
scatter and were considered unusable for
interpretation. This difficulty was attributed to
geological inhomogeneity in the area. Nevertheless
radio transmission tests provided a measurable bull
conductivity of 2.5 X 10-
4
mhos/m.
At Black River, also in northern New York State
the gPology was considered more homogeneous thar
at Cape Cod or Mineville. Surface resistivity measure
ments at Black River yielded a rock conductivity o
5 X 10-
5
mhos/m. This agrees well with the bull
conductivity of 8 X 10- " mhos/m, determined fron
the through-the-rock radio transmission measurements
Apparently, surface resistivity measurements art
primarily useful in regions that consist of simplt
homogeneous layers. Analysis of data is quite difficu!
if there is severe lateral inhomogeneity in addition t1
horizontal layering in the geology, since interpretatio1
of the data depends on evaluation of the variation o
apparent resistivity with dipole-to-dipole separation
There is, however, an important advantage in usin
this method; because of its simplicity and with n
requirement to drill deep holes in the rock, it coul
be used as a tool for obtaining preliminary informatio
on the rock strata conductivity data. However, bul
conductivity of a through-the-rock path should ever
tually be determined direc tly through subsurfac
propagation measurements.
4. Discussion and Conclusion
4 .1. Separation of Transmission Modes
in the transmitting dipole. Various dipole configura- In experiments to test the transmission of signa
tions may be used. As the dipole spacing is changed, through the subsurface rock meJium, it is always 1
the apparent resistivity may vary in a manner to in- special concern to the experimenter and othe1
dicate the presence of several layers. The variation whether the received signal actually followed tl
of apparent resistivity with the separation of the through-the-rock path instead of some other pat"
dipoles provides the skilled analyst with the magnitude such as the up-over-and-down path, transmitter lea
of the conductivity and the thickness of the several age, or radiation from transmission lines.
: - .. .. ' ...... ..,! (
layers. Horizontal dipole separations are comparable The effects of transmitter leakage and poor receivo
to, or exceed, the range of depths desired. Past shielding may be simply evaluated by replacing tl
measurements used direct current; recently, alternat- antennas with dummy loads, to determine the
ing currents of a fraction of a Hertz to several Hertz of spurious radiation and pickup. In the through-th
have been employed. rock propagation experiments described above, the
Surface resistivity experiments using frequencies was no evidence that the tests were so contaminate
I
of less than l Hz were conducted on Cape Cod and in Measurement of relative field intensities in the c
northern New York State (Cantwell and Nelson, 1963). and in the ground is the simplest of the many possib
:aTh.,e meamemen" we'e wheth., P'opagation wa. achie"

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I
i fhrough the rock directly, or by the up-over-and-down experiment was conducted on Cape Cod. Short dipoles I
fransmission. were used for transmitting and receiving in two drill
I
: f In the Black River experiment, as an example, the holes separate<! by 1.6 km. Antennas were installed
' 'fuagnitudes of up-and-over and the up-over-and-down at the same depth. Field strengths at the receiving
: ijgnals in air and in rock were estimated from the antenna were measured as a function of depth of
ilverburden transmission losses at the transmitter both antennas. Figure 9 shows the resultant field
' ind receiver terminals. This loss was deduced from strengths at various frequencies relative to the mag-
fimultaneous measurements of the vertical electric nitude at 1 kHz, with the antennas just below the
field strengths of the atmospheric noise in the hole overburden. An enhancement in field strength is noted
'nd in the air (Tsao, l964b). Figure 8 shows the ratio for increased antenna depth, and this enhancement
' of the field strength of atmospheric noise in the air is greater at higher frequencies.
io the field strength of such noise in the hole. From
' Jhese experimentally deduced losses, the signals in
fr (up-and-over) and in the hole (up-over-and-down)
ft the receiving terminal were estimated as shown
m figure 6. Comparison of these estimated signal
with the measured values affords a means
f determining the relative importance of the up-over-
d-down transmissions and the rock propagated
. ignals.
Aside from the measurements of relative field
'trengths o{ a signal in air, on the surface, and in the
ock below it (due to a remote, buried antenna) the
ck propagated signal can be readily distinguished
. om the up-over-and-down signal by the phase delay
. ong its path, as measured in the experiments at
.. 'neville, N.Y., and on Cape Cod. The large phase
! . elays can only suggest transmissions through a
j 'ssipative medium.
I
. . The slopes of the at.tenuation and phase constants
,: educed from mutual Impedance measurements gen-
1' rally indicate the main characteristics of the trans-
ission media. Another possible observation is the
'henomenon of depth gain, which is associated with
ropagation in a rock medium in much the same way
height gain is associated with propagation in air
Carolan and deBettencourt, 1963). The depth gain
10
4
1------------------rliO
>nl>_
q ...
Eov s VERTICAL ELECTRIC FIELD
INTENSITY IN AIR
E lv s VERTICAL ELECTRIC FIEl.D
INTENSITY IN DRILL HOLE
70
110 "'
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&o.,
40
g
0
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FREQUENCY -HZ
FIGURE 8.
4.2. Potential Application to Subsurface Communication
The results of the subsurface propagation experi-
ments indicate that through-the-rock propagation can
be used for transmission between antennas buried in
rock. The useful range for this type of transmission
is limited and decreases rapidly with increased rock
conductivity. Furthermore, the useful frequency range
is very small. The range and frequency limitations are
caused by the exponential damping of the lossy
medium.
In addition to the transmission path through rock,
propagation may also take place through the up-over-
and-down mechanism. Here the depths of antennas
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0 50 100 150
DEPTH OF ANTENNAS BELOW OVERBURDEN IN METERS
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Overburden transmission loss for vertical electric
field at Black River drill hole. N.Y.
FIGURE 9. Relative depth gain vs. depth, /-mile path,
Cape Cod.
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below the surface become important, as the exponen
tial damping increases rapidly with antenna depths
and frequency. However. the up-over-and-down mech
anism suffers refraction losses near the terminals of
the path; these losses decrease inversely with the
square root of frequency.
The relative importance of the two transmission
mechanisms depends on the following factors: separa-
tion between antennas; antenna depths below the
surface; antenna orientations; the electrical charac-
teristics of the eart h. The through-the-rock signal is
maximized with transmitting and receiving electric
dipoles erected parallel and broadside to each other.
The up-over-and-down transmission is best with an-
tennas erected coaxial and parallel to the surface.
The advantage of the up-over-and-down transmission
will be enhanced with increased transmission range,
because of the additional exponential damping of the
longer path through the rock. However, if the rock is
separated from the air by a thick layer of highly con
ducting overburden, its shielding effect will greatly
increase the total propagation loss for the up-over-and-
down signal, but will have negligible effect on the rock
propagated signal. Furthermore, the reception in an
up-over-and-down transmission will likely be limited by
. atmospheric noise. Although increasing the depth of
I the receiving antenna will reduce the noise level, the

1
up-over-and-down signal will also be reduced by the
1
same amount.
1
In the subsurface experiments described in section
l
i 3, these limitations were aggravated by the relatively
shallow depths of the antennas and the lack of suffi
. ciently thick overburden. These factors combined to
' make the reception subject to serious interference
both from atmospheric noise and from signals which
entered through the air. Insofar as the future use of
the through-the-rock transmission is concerned, much
depends on the requirements for using subsurface
antennas, on the further development of geophysical
techniques to locate low conductivity rock s trat a deep
below the surface of the earth, and on the economics
involved in placing antennas at greater depths. (It
should be noted that there is theoretical evidence for
a waveguide mode of transmission in a layer of very
low conductivity bounded by more conducting layers
{Wait, 1963). We have not encountered the low con
ductivities required for such a low-loss mechanism
in our measurements.)
IlL
I
i1
The authors acknowledge the sponsorship of thi'
work by Air Force Cambridge Research Laboratorie
under contract AF19(628)-2362 and the effectiv
participation of Messrs. L. Ames, J. Frazier, ari
A. of its Microwave Physics Laboratory. '!
5. References
:!
Ames, L. A., J. T. deBettencourt, J. W. Frazier, and A. S. Oranm:
(1963), Radio communications via rock strata, IEEE Tranl't
Commun. Systems CS-11, No. 2,159-169.
Biggs, A. W ., and H. M. Swarm (1963), Radiation fields of an inclin '' .
electric dipole immersed in a semi-infinite conducting mediutn
IEEE Trans. Ant. Prop. AP-11, No.3, 306-311.
Cantwell, T., and P. Nelson (1963), Deep resistivity investigatioA.
in New York State, Sci. Rept. No. 4, Geoscience,
Cambndge, Mass., CFSTI Doc. No. AD 294-748. ._
1
Carolan, J., Jr., and J. T. deBettencoun (1963), Radio waves in
near overburden-rock interface, IEEE Trans. Ant. Prop.
No. 3, 336-338. :
deBettencoun, ]. T. (1966), Review of radio propagation below
earth's surface, Progress in Radio Science, 1963-1966, Intern:
Sci. Radio Union, Berkeley, Calif., 1967, Pt . 1, 697- 767.
deBettencourt, J. T., and R. A. Sutcliffe (1962), Studies in deep strata
radio communications, Final Rept. Raytheon Co., Norwood,
CFSTI Doc. No. AD 407-840. ::
Hansen, R. C. (1963}, Radiation and reception with buried and sub-
merged antennas and propagation, IEEE Trans. Ant. Prop.
AP-11, No. 3, 207-218. I
Tsao, C. K. H. (1963), Investigation of electrical characteristics of
rock medium on Cape Cod, Sci. Rept. No. 1, Raytheon Co:,
Norwood, Mass., contract AF 19(628)-2362, CFSTI Doc. No.
A043(}-7I9. .
Tsao, C. K. H. (1964a}, Investigation of electrical characteristics of
rock medium in northern New York State, Sci. Rept. No. 3,
Raytheon Co., Norwood, Mass., contract AF 19(628}-2362, CFSTI r,.
Doc. No. AD 6()(}-758.
Tsao, C. K. H. (l964b), Investigation of electrical characteristics
of the subsurface rock medium in Essex County, New York, Sci.
Rept. No. 5, Raytheon Co., Norwood, Mass., contract AF 19(628}-
2362, CFSTI Doc. No. AD 609-683.
Tsao, C. K. H. (1965), Subsurface radio transmission tests in Chey
enne Mountain Sci. Rept. No. 7, Raytheon Co., Norwood, Mass.,
contract AF 19(628)-2362, CFSTI Doc. No. AD 615-794.
Tsao, C. K. H., and J. T. deBettencourt (1967), Measurement ol
phase constant for rock-propagated signals,IEEE Trans. Commun.
Techno!. COM-15, No.4, 592-596.
Wait,]. R. (1963), The possibility of guided electromagnetic waves
in the earth's crust, IEEE Trans. Ant. Prop. AP-11, No. 3.
330-335.
(Paper 3-ll- 465)
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