Course 186: RF, CDMA/1xRTT and EV-DO Quickstart / Refresher RF, CDMA/1xRTT and EV-DO Quickstart / Refresher

186 - 1 J uly, 2013 RF, 1xRTT and EV-DO Quickstart -- 186 v1.
0 - (c) 2013 Scott Baxter

RF, CDMA/1xRTT and EV-DO
Quickstart / Refresher
RF, CDMA/1xRTT and EV-DO
Quickstart / Refresher
Download this course free at
http://scottbaxter.com/186.pdf
Be sure to visit the free library at scottbaxter.com. Youll find
more than 2,700 documents organized into more than 70 current
wireless technical topics. Slides of most of our courses are also in
the librarys courses folder.
Course 186
Scope and Target Audience
Scope
This two-day seminar introduces the wireless industry, current
technologies, basic wireless RF processes , devices and network
elements, and the internal functions, operation and call processing
within CDMA, 1xRTT, and 1xEV-DO systems.
Target Audience
Technical personnel new to the industry or to the CDMA, 1xRTT and
1xEV-DO systems, and those desiring to refresh their understanding
of networks and call processing.
186 - 2 J uly, 2013 RF, 1xRTT and EV-DO Quickstart -- 186 v1.0 - (c) 2013 Scott Baxter
Table of Contents
I. Wireless Industry Introduction
II. Radio Signals and Multiple Access Technologies
III. RF Propagation
IV. Antennas for Wireless Systems
VI. A Glimpse into Basic Traffic Engineering
VII. Introduction to CDMA
VIII. Introduction to EV-DO
Introduction to Wireless
Industry and Technologies
Introduction to Wireless
Industry and Technologies
Section I
186 - 5
The Big Picture
Commercial telegraphy led to telephony, then faded away
Telephony and Land Mobile Radio married, giving us cellular
IP networks developed, their usage and bandwidth are increasing
3G and 4G are the marriage of IP and Wireless!
1900s 2000s 1800s
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 10 20 30 50 60 70 80 90
Commercial Telegraphy
Commercial Switched Telephony
Wireless Voice and IP Data
40 50
Digital Switching
IMTS-Cellular-GSM-GPRS-WCDMA, HSPA, WiMax, 4G
IP Networks
The Internet, Voice over IP
Land Mobile Radio
HF, VHF, UHF, Trunked
Extinction!
Extinction?
Extinction?
6-2010 105 - 6 Course 186v1.0 (c)2013 Scott Baxter
From Early Science to
Telegraph and Telephone
1680 Basic Science
Basic electromagnetics, optics
Newton, others
1830: Basic Electricity
Faraday, Ohm, Volta, Watt
1835 Telegraph Invented Morse
1844 commercial lines
1857 submarine cable
1862 Civil War
1876 Telephone Invented A. G. Bell
1880 first commercial exchanges
1895 industry consolidation begins
1880 electric light - Edison
1862 Civil War Telegraph
Morse Submarine Cable
U
N S
A.G. Bell
1880 Line Crew
6-2010 105 - 7 186v1.0 (c)2013 Scott Baxter
Radios 115-year History
1888: Hertz demonstrates E-waves
1895: Marconis radio works over 3 km. path
1902: Marconis radio goes trans-atlantic
1902: Stubblefield demonstrates voice
1906: De Forest invents vacuum tube
1914: World War I: radio a valuable weapon
1920s: Commercial Broadcasting begins
1940s: World War II: RADAR first used
1950s: first crude Mobile Phone Systems
1961: Transistor invented
1961: IMTS better Mobile Phone systems
1970s: Integrated Circuits: LSI, VLSI, ASICs
1979, 1983: Analog Cellular systems
1992 Digital Cellular: TDMA, GSM, CDMA
1995 PCS Personal Communication Systems
2002 3G Systems, mobile data
MTS,
IMTS
Marconi
De Forest
U. S. Wireless Spectrum, Phase by Phase
Cellular 800 MHz. (~1983) the former TV Channels 70-83
First AMPS, later open for any technology
Expanded Spectrum extra room added to 800 MHz. in 1987
Also IDEN using frequencies originally for 2-way radio
J uly, 2013 Page 8 186v1.0 (c)2013 Scott Baxter
MHz 800 900
I
D
E
N
I
D
E
N
C
E
L
L

D
N
L
N
K
C
E
L
L

U
P
L
I
N
K
I
D
E
N
PCS (~1995) Personal Communications Services
Six Blocks of new space for wireless at 1900 MHz.
J uly, 2013 Page 9 RF, 1xRTT and EV-DO Quickstart -- 186 v1.0 (c)2013 Scott Baxter
800 900 1850 1990
I
D
E
N
I
D
E
N
C
E
L
L

D
N
L
N
K
C
E
L
L

U
P
L
I
N
K
PCS
Uplink
PCS
Down-
Link
Frequency, MegaHertz
MHz
I
D
E
N
AWS (~2003) Advanced Wireless Services
Six Blocks of new space
MHz 800 900 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200
I
D
E
N
I
D
E
N
C
E
L
L

D
N
L
N
K
C
E
L
L

U
P
L
I
N
K
AWS
Uplink
AWS
Down-
Link
PCS
Uplink
PCS
Down-
Link
I
D
E
N
700 MHz.(~2008) The former TV Channels 52-69
700 MHz 800 900 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200
700 MHz.
I
D
E
N
I
D
E
N
C
E
L
L

D
N
L
N
K
C
E
L
L

U
P
L
I
N
K
AWS
Uplink
AWS
Down-
Link
PCS
Uplink
PCS
Down-
Link
I
D
E
N
700 MHz.(~2008) The former TV Channels 52-69
700 MHz 800 900 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200
700 MHz.
I
D
E
N
I
D
E
N
C
E
L
L

D
N
L
N
K
C
E
L
L

U
P
L
I
N
K
AWS
Uplink
AWS
Down-
Link
PCS
Uplink
PCS
Down-
Link
Proposed AWS-2
A
W
S
?
S
A
T
S
A
T
I
D
E
N
J uly, 2013 Page 13 RF, 1xRTT and EV-DO Quickstart -- 186 v1.0 - (c) 2013 Scott Baxter
Frequencies Used by Wireless Systems
Overview of the Radio Spectrum
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 GHz
30,000,000,000 i.e., 3x10
10
Hz
Broadcasting Land-Mobile Aeronautical Mobile Telephony
Terrestrial Microwave Satellite
0.3 0.4 0.5 0/6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.4 3.0 GHz
3,000,000,000 i.e., 3x10
9
Hz
UHF TV 14-59 UHF GPS
DCS, PCS, AWS
700 + Cellular
0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.4 3.0 MHz
3,000,000 i.e., 3x10
6
Hz
AM LORAN Marine
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 MHz
30,000,000 i.e., 3x10
7
Hz
Short Wave -- International Broadcast -- Amateur CB
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 120 140 160 180 200 240 300 MHz
300,000,000 i.e., 3x10
8
Hz
FM VHF TV 7-13 VHF LOW Band VHF VHF TV 2-6
186 - 14
Advantages:
Simple system
Disadvantages:
Only one conversation per channel -- limited capacity!
Early Mobile Telephone Systems: MTS, IMTS
One giant base station
covers the entire
service area
186 - 15
Advantages:
More cells allow the same channels to be reused in multiple
areas, allowing more conversations and more capacity
Mobiles can be made smaller with lower transmit power
Disadvantages:
more complicated system: handoffs required
Modern Cellular Systems
A wireless system utilizes a large
number of low-power
transmitters
to create many cells.
186 - 16
Managing Handoffs
As a mobile travels through the
service area, it passes from the
coverage zone of one base
station into the coverage of
another
Signal strength measurements by
the mobile or the base station
trigger the BSC and switch to
hand off the call from base
station to base station, avoiding
dropped calls and interference
Each wireless technology uses its
own methods to implement the
handoffs. CDMA can even
simulcast to the mobile from
multiple base stations to reduce
fading effects (this is called soft
handoff)
A
B
C
D
Wireless Technologies:
Generations and their Data Speeds
Wireless Technologies:
Generations and their Data Speeds
Wireless Generations and Data Speeds
In the days before analog cellular, various wide-area mobile
telecommunications systems were used
They covered wide areas with only a few channels available
Voice calls only - the internet didn't even exist
J uly, 2013 Page 18 186 v1.0 (c)2013 Scott Baxter
EARLY ANALOG AutoTel MTS, IMTS
1G: When the first cellular systems launched, even though data
wasn't offered by the carriers, a few hardy users provided their own
(MNP10) modems for haphazard, slow data via dialup access
The internet wasn't a big factor yet!
EARLY ANALOG
1G
AMPS: Analog Cellular NMT450, NMT900
AutoTel MTS, IMTS
LMR, SMR
2G provided digital data but at low bit rates -- 9600 - 32k bps
Downloading a 2MB file took an hour or more (if it didn't drop in
the middle and require manually re-starting)
Travel agents with telephones were still faster than online res.
EARLY ANALOG
1G
2G
AutoTel MTS, IMTS
CDMA IS-95, J-Std 008 TDMA: NADC, IS-136 TDMA: GSM, HSCSD TDMA: IDEN
LMR, SMR
When 1xRTT, GPRS, and EDGE became available, suddenly it
was possible to do direct IP web access at speeds of 150 kbps or
higher. This was better than dial-up speeds, especially via hotel
switchboards. Nerds and even some normal people on the road
were finally free to stay connected on-line
EARLY ANALOG
1G
2G
200+
200+
153
153
AutoTel MTS, IMTS
2.5 G
LMR, SMR
CDMA-2000, 1xRTT GPRS, EDGE
When the true 3G services 1xEV-DO and WCDMA/UMTS/HSPA
became available, wireless speeds were boosted into the Mb/s
range for downloading and approaching 1 Mb/s for uploading
Now mobile users had almost normal internet access, although
many networks had heavy congestion in dense usage areas
EARLY ANALOG
1G
2G
3G
7M+
3M+
200+
200+
3.1M
1.8M
153
153
AutoTel MTS, IMTS
2.5 G
LMR, SMR
1xEV-DO UMTS WCDMA HSPA
The first WiMAX and LTE networks brought user speeds of up to
12 Mb/s and even 3G HSPA was enhanced to HSPA+, providing
nearly transparent internet usage for the first time.
4G Network buildouts were slow, with some carriers still building
only trial networks even in late 2013
EARLY ANALOG
1G
2G
3G
4G
44M
22M
HSPA+
7M+
3M+
200+
200+
100M
50M
3.1M
1.8M
153
153
AutoTel MTS, IMTS
2.5 G
LMR, SMR
WiMAX LTE
100M
50M
Within 2 years of initial LTE buildouts,
Widespread use of MIMO is expected to boost speed 3-4x
LTE-Advanced technology is expected to boost speeds to 500-
1000 Mb/s for stationary downlink users
EARLY ANALOG
1G
2G
3G
4G
44M
22M
HSPA+
7M+
3M+
200+
200+
100M
50M
3.1M
1.8M
153
153
AutoTel MTS, IMTS
2.5 G
LMR, SMR
WiMAX LTE
100M
50M
LTE adv.
1000M
500M
Finally the industry will settle on one or two VOIP standards for
LTE, voice traffic of legacy CDMA and GSM will finally go to LTE
Nearly all WiMax networks will finally convert to LTE
CDMA and LTE voice networks won't die until 2017 or even later!
EARLY ANALOG
1G
2G
3G
4G
44M
22M
HSPA+
7M+
3M+
200+
200+
100M
50M
3.1M
1.8M
153
153
AutoTel MTS, IMTS
2.5 G
LMR, SMR
LTE LTE adv.
1000M
500M
V
O
I
P
V
O
I
P
1G: Users provided their own modems for haphazard, slow data
2G provided digital data but at low bit rates -- 9600 - 32k bps
3G data users finally passed 1 Mb/s in EV-DO and HSPA
4G users finally get10 Mb/s+ but networks are often congested
EARLY ANALOG
1G
2G
3G
4G
44M
22M
HSPA+
7M+
3M+
200+
200+
100M
50M
3.1M
1.8M
153
153
AutoTel MTS, IMTS
2.5 G
LMR, SMR
WiMAX LTE
100M
50M
LTE adv.
1000M
500M
V
O
I
P
V
O
I
P
V
O
I
P
?
Largest US Wireless Providers YE 2013
J uly, 2013 186 - 27 RF, 1xRTT and EV-DO Quickstart -- 186 v1.0 2013 Scott Baxter
Bands and Technologies
CDMA EVDO LTE
GSM
UMTS
HSPA
CDMA
EVDO
GSM
HSPA+
CDMA
EVDO
LTE
CDMA
EVDO
LTE
CDMA
EVDO
LTE
CDMA
EVDO
LTE
CDMA
EVDO
CDMA
EVDO
LTE
Cellular
800
PCS
1900
AWS
1700/2100
700 Other
LTE
LTE
WiMAX
LTE-TDD
IDEN
MVNOs and
Affiliated Companies
N
a
t
i
o
n
a
l
R
e
g
i
o
n
a
l
S
u
b
s

(
M
)
109
103
56
34
8
11
12
333M total
The US CDMA Providers
CDMA EVDO LTE
CDMA
EVDO
CDMA
EVDO
LTE
CDMA
EVDO
LTE
CDMA
EVDO
LTE
CDMA
EVDO
LTE
CDMA
EVDO
CDMA
EVDO
LTE
Cellular
800
PCS
1900
AWS
1700/2100
700 Other
LTE
WiMAX
LTE-TDD
IDEN
MVNOs and
N
a
t
i
o
n
a
l
R
e
g
i
o
n
a
l
S
u
b
s

(
M
)
109
56
8
11
12
196M total
The US GSM Providers
GSM
UMTS
HSPA
GSM
HSPA+
Cellular
800
PCS
1900
AWS
1700/2100
700 Other
LTE
MVNOs and
N
a
t
i
o
n
a
l
R
e
g
i
o
n
a
l
S
u
b
s

(
M
)
103
34
137M total
Radio Signals and
Multiple Access Technologies
Radio Signals and
Multiple Access Technologies
Section II
J uly, 2013 Page 31 RF, 1xRTT and EV-DO Quickstart -- 186 v1.0 - (c) 2013 Scott Baxter
Multiple Access Methods
Power
TDMA
Power
FDMA
Power
CDMA
FDMA: AMPS & NAMPS
Each user occupies a private Frequency,
protected from interference through physical
separation from other users on the same
frequency
TDMA: IS-136, GSM
Each user occupies a specific frequency but
only during an assigned time slot. The
frequency is used by other users during
other time slots.
CDMA
Each user uses a signal on a particular
frequency at the same time as many other
users, but it can be separated out when
receiving because it contains a special code
of its own
The CDMA2000 Family of Technologies
1xEV-DO
Rev. A
IS-856
1250 kHz.
123 active
users
Higher
data rates
on data-
only CDMA
carrier
3.1 Mb/s
DL
1.8 Mb/s
UL
RL FL
Spectrum
1xEV-DO
Rev. 0
IS-856
1250 kHz.
59 active
users
High data
rates on
data-only
CDMA
carrier
2.4 Mb/s
DL
153 Kb/s
UL
CDMAone CDMA2000 / IS-2000
Technology
Generation
Signal
Bandwidth,
#Users
Features:
Incremental
Progress
1G
AMPS
Data
Capabilities
30 kHz.
1
First
System,
Capacity
&
Handoffs
None,
2.4K by
modem
2G
IS-95A/
J-Std008
1250 kHz.
20-35
First
CDMA,
Capacity,
Quality
14.4K
2G
IS-95B
1250 kHz.
25-40
Improve
d Access
Smarter
Handoffs
64K
2.5G? 3G
IS-2000:
1xRTT
1250 kHz.
50-80 voice
and data
Enhanced
Access
Channel
Structure
153K
307K
230K
3G
1xEV-DV
1xTreme
1250 kHz.
Many packet
users
High data
rates on
Data-Voice
shared
CDMA
carrier
5 Mb/s
3G
IS-2000:
3xRTT
F: 3x 1250k
R: 3687k
120-210 per
3 carriers
Faster
data rates
on shared
3-carrier
bundle
1.0 Mb/s
RL FL RL FL RL FL RL FL RL FL RL FL RL FL
The GSM/ETSI Family of Technologies
Integrated
voice/data
(Future rates
to 12 MBPS
using adv.
modulation?)
Technology
Generation
Signal
Bandwidth,
#Users
Features:
Incremental
Progress
1G
various
analog
Data
Capabilities
various
various
various
2G
GSM
200 kHz.
7.5 avg.
Europes
first Digital
wireless
none
2.5G or 3?
GPRS
200 kHz.
Many
Pkt. users
Packet IP
access
Multiple
attached
users
9-160 Kb/s
(conditions
determine)
3G
EDGE
200 kHz.
fast data
many users
8PSK for
3x Faster
data rates
than GPRS
384 Kb/s
mobile user
3G
UMTS
UTRA
WCDMA
3.84 MHz.
up to 200+
voice users
and data
2Mb/s
static user
The American TDMA Migration Path to 3G
2G
CDPD
30 kHz.
Many
Pkt Usrs
19.2
kbps
US
Packet
Data
Svc.
Technology
Generation
Signal
Bandwidth,
#Users
Features:
Incremental
Progress
Data
Capabilities
2G
TDMA
IS-54
IS-136
30 kHz.
3 users
USAs
first
Digital
wireless
none
2.5G or 3?
GPRS
200 kHz.
Many
Pkt. users
Packet IP
access
Multiple
attached
users
9-160 Kb/s
(conditions
determine)
3G
EDGE
200 kHz.
fast data
many users
8PSK for
3x Faster
data rates
than GPRS
384 Kb/s
mobile user
3G
UMTS
UTRA
WCDMA
3.84 MHz.
up to 200+
voice users
and data
Integrated
voice/data
(Future rates
to 12 MBPS
using adv.
modulation?)
1G
AMPS
30 kHz.
1
First
System,
Capacity
&
Handoffs
None,
2.4K by
modem
2Mb/s
static user
2G
GSM
200 kHz.
7.5 avg.
Europes
first
Digital
wireless
none
the familiar GSM path!
Spectrum Usage Capacity Considerations:
Signal Bandwidth, C/I and Frequency Reuse
Each wireless technology
(AMPS, NAMPS, D-AMPS,
GSM, CDMA) uses a specific
modulation type with its own
unique signal characteristics
Signal Bandwidth
determines how many RF
signals will fit in the
operators licensed
spectrum
Robustness of RF signal
determines tolerable level of
interference and necessary
physical separation of
cochannel cells
Number of users per RF
signal directly affects
capacity
GSM
AMPS, D-AMPS, N-AMPS
CDMA
30 30 10 kHz Bandwidth
200 kHz
1250 kHz
1 3 1 Users
8 Users
22 Users
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
3
4
4
3
2
5
6
1
7
Typical Frequency Reuse N=7
Vulnerability:
C/I ~ 17 dB
Vulnerability:
C/I ~ 6.5-9 dB
Vulnerability:
E
b
N
o
~ 6 dB
Sending Information over Radio Signals
The purpose of telecommunications is to
send information from one place to another
A radio signal has no inherent meaning, but
its characteristics can be varied and the
variations can be observed at receivers
located in other place far away
Our human civilization exploits the nature
of radio signals, using changes in the signal
to represent information we desire to send
To convey information, some characteristic
of the radio signal must be altered (I.e.,
modulated) to represent the information
Characteristics of a radio signal which can
be arbitrarily changed to convey
information include:
Amplitude (strength, power)
Frequency
Phase
SIGNAL CHARACTERISTICS
S(t) = A cos [ e
c
t + ]
The complete, time-
varying radio signal
Amplitude (strength)
of the signal
Natural Frequency
of the signal
Phase of the signal
Compare these Signals:
Different
Amplitudes
Different
Frequencies
Different
Phases
Modulation Techniques of 1x Technologies
1xRTT and 1xEV-DO are wireless
technologies based on CDMA spread-
spectrum principles.
1xRTT means same speed (as original
CDMA) advanced Radio Transmission
Technology
1xRTT uses only QPSK modulation and
steady circuit-switched data paths
delivers data speeds not much faster
than dial-up modems
1xEV DO means 1x Evolved, Data
Optimized
1xEV-DO uses QPSK/8PSK/16QAM,
dynamically choosing fastest method
possible for present RF conditions
Data speeds up to 3.1 Mbps downlink,
1.8 Mbps uplink
supports only packet data, too slow for
practical VOIP
Originated by Qualcomm under the
name High Data Rates (HDR).
QPSK
CDMA IS-95,
1xRTT and
1xEV-DO in bad
RF conditions
8PSK
1xEV-DO
under medium
RF conditions
16QAM
1xEV-DO
under best
RF conditions
Claude Shannon:
The Einstein of Information Theory and Signal Science
The core idea that makes CDMA
possible was first explained by
Claude Shannon, a Bell Labs
research mathematician
Shannon's work relates amount
of information carried, channel
bandwidth, signal-to-noise-ratio,
and detection error probability
It shows the theoretical
upper limit attainable
In 1948 Claude Shannon published his landmark paper on information theory,
A Mathematical Theory of Communication. He observed that "the
fundamental problem of communication is that of reproducing at one point
either exactly or approximately a message selected at another point." His
paper so clearly established the foundations of information theory that his
framework and terminology are standard today.
Shannon died Feb. 24, 2001, at age 84.
Digital Modulation Systems
Each symbol of a digitally
modulated RF signal conveys
a number of bits of information
determined by the number
of degrees of modulation
freedom
More complex modulation
schemes can carry more bits
per symbol in a given
bandwidth, but require better
signal-to-noise ratios
The actual number of bits per
second which can be
conveyed in a given bandwidth
under given signal-to-noise
conditions is described by
Shannons equations
Modulation
Scheme
Shannon Limit,
BitsHz
BPSK 1 b/s/hz
QPSK 2 b/s/hz
8PSK 3 b/s/hz
16 QAM 4 b/s/hz
32 QAM 5 b/s/hz
64 QAM 6 b/s/hz
256 QAM 8 b/s/hz
SHANNONS
CAPACITY EQUATION
C = B
e
log
2
[ 1 + ]
S
N
B
e
= bandwidth in Hertz
C = channel capacity in bits/second
S = signal power
N = noise power
RF Propagation RF Propagation
Section III
Working in Decibels
Although a calculator
can be used for precise
db calculations with the
formulas above, this isn't
often done
Quick db answers in the
field can be done by
remembering a few
basic db values and
adding or subtracting
186 - 41 J uly, 2013 RF and 1xRTT/EV-DO Quickstart -- 186 v1.0 - (c) 2013 Scott Baxter
db = 10 * Log ( X )
Ratio to Decibels
X = 10
(db/10)
Decibels to Ratio
1 x
10 x
100 x
1,000 x
10,000 x
100,000 x
1,000,000 x
.1 x
.01 x
.001 x
.0001 x
.00001 x
.000001 x
+10 db
+20 db
+40 db
+50 db
+60 db
0 db
-10 db
-20 db
-30 db
-40 db
-50 db
-60 db
+30 db
2 x
4 x +6 db
+3 db
GAIN and LOSS
Ratio vs. dB
1 mw
10 mw
100 mw
1,000 mw
10,000 mw
100,000 mw
1,000,000 mw
.1 mw
.01 mw
.001 mw
.0001 mw
.00001 mw
.000001 mw
+10 dbm
+20 dbm
+40 dbm
+50 dbm
+60 dbm
0 dbm
-10 dbm
-20 dbm
-30 dbm
-40 dbm
-50 dbm
-60 dbm
+30 dbm
2 mw
4 mw +6 dbm
+3 dbm
POWER
Milliwatts vs. dBm
Introduction to Propagation
Propagation is a key process within every radio link. During propagation, many
processes act on the radio signal.
attenuation
the signal amplitude is reduced by various natural mechanisms; if there is
too much attenuation, the signal will fall below the reliable detection
threshold at the receiver. Attenuation is the most important single factor
in propagation.
multipath and group delay distortions
the signal diffracts and reflects off irregularly shaped objects, producing a
host of components which arrive in random timings and random RF
phases at the receiver. This blurs pulses and also produces intermittent
signal cancellation and reinforcement. These effects are combatted
through a variety of special techniques
time variability - signal strength and quality varies with time, often dramatically
space variability - signal strength and quality varies with location and distance
frequency variability - signal strength and quality differs on different
frequencies
Effective mastery of propagation relies on
Physics: understand the basic propagation processes
Measurement: obtain data on propagation behavior in area of interest
Statistics: characterize what is known, extrapolate to predict the unknown
Modelmaking: formalize all the above into useful models
Influence of Wavelength on Propagation
Radio signals in the atmosphere
propagate at almost speed of light
= wavelength
C = distance propagated in 1 second
F = frequency, Hertz
The wavelength of a radio signal
determines many of its propagation
characteristics
Antenna elements size are
typically in the order of 1/4 to 1/2
wavelength
Objects bigger than a wavelength
can reflect or obstruct RF energy
RF energy can penetrate into a
building or vehicle if they have
apertures a wavelength in size, or
larger
/2
= C / F
for AMPS: F= 870 MHz
= 0.345 m = 13.6 inches
for PCS-1900: F = 1960 MHz
= 0.153 m = 6.0 inches
Dominant Mechanisms of Mobile Propagation
Most propagation in the mobile
environment is dominated by these
three mechanisms:
Free space
No reflections, no obstructions
first Fresnel Zone clear
Signal spreading is only mechanism
Signal decays 20 dB/decade
Reflection
Reflected wave 180out of phase
Reflected wave not attenuated much
Signal decays 30-40 dB/decade
Knife-edge diffraction
Direct path is blocked by obstruction
Additional loss is introduced
Formulae available for simple cases
Well explore each of these further...
Knife-edge
Diffraction
Reflection
with partial cancellation
B
A
d
D
Free Space
Free-Space Propagation
The simplest propagation mode
Antenna radiates energy which spreads in space
Path Loss, db (between two isotropic antennas)
= 36.58 +20*Log
10
(F
MHZ
)+20Log
10
(Dist
MILES
)
Path Loss, db (between two dipole antennas)
= 32.26 +20*Log
10
(F
MHZ
)+20Log
10
(Dist
MILES
)
Notice the rate of signal decay:
6 db per octave of distance change, which is
20 db per decade of distance change
Free-Space propagation is applicable if:
there is only one signal path (no reflections)
the path is unobstructed (i.e., first Fresnel zone
is not penetrated by obstacles)
First Fresnel Zone =
{Points P where AP + PB - AB < /2 }
Fresnel Zone radius d = 1/2 (D)^
(1/2)
1st Fresnel Zone
B
A
d
D
Free Space
Spreading Loss
energy intercepted
by receiving
antenna is
proportional to 1/r
2
r
Reflection With Partial Cancellation
Mobile environment characteristics:
Small angles of incidence and reflection
Reflection is unattenuated (reflection coefficient =1)
Reflection causes phase shift of 180 degrees
Analysis
Physics of the reflection cancellation predicts signal
decay of 40 dB per decade of distance
Heights Exaggerated
for Clarity
HT
FT
HT
FT
D
MILES
Comparison of Free-Space and Reflection Propagation Modes
Assumptions: Flat earth, TX ERP =50 dBm, @ 1950 MHz. Base Ht =200 ft, Mobile Ht =5 ft.
Received Signal in
Free Space, DBM
Received Signal in
Reflection Mode
Distance
MILES
-52.4
-69.0
1
-58.4
-79.2
2
-64.4
-89.5
4
-67.9
-95.4
6
-70.4
-99.7
8
-72.4
-103.0
10
-75.9
-109.0
15
-78.4
-113.2
20
Path Loss [dB ]= 172 + 34 x Log (D
Miles
)
- 20 x Log (Base Ant. Ht
Feet
)
- 10 x Log (Mobile Ant. Ht
Feet
)
SCALE PERSPECTIVE
Signal Decay Rates in Various Environments
Weve seen how the signal decays
with distance in two basic modes
of propagation:
Free-Space
20 dB per decade of distance
6 db per octave of distance
Reflection Cancellation
40 dB per decade of distance
12 db per octave of distance
Real-life wireless propagation
decay rates are typically
somewhere between 30 and 40
dB per decade of distance
Signal Level vs. Distance
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
Distance, Miles
1 3.16 10 2 5 7 8 6
One Octave
of distance (2x)
One Decade
of distance (10x)
Knife-Edge Diffraction
Sometimes a single well-defined
obstruction blocks the path, introducing
additional loss. This calculation is fairly
easy and can be used as a manual tool
to estimate the effects of individual
obstructions.
First calculate the diffraction parameter
v from the geometry of the path
Next consult the table to obtain the
obstruction loss in db
Add this loss to the otherwise-
determined path loss to obtain the total
path loss.
Other losses such as free space and
reflection cancellation still apply, but
computed independently for the path as
if the obstruction did not exist
H
R
1
R
2
v
atten
dB
0
-5
-10
-15
-20
-25
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 -5
v = -H
R1 R2
2 ( R1 + R2)
Combating Rayleigh Fading: Space Diversity
Fortunately, Rayleigh fades are
very short and last a small
percentage of the time
Two antennas separated by
several wavelengths will not
generally experience fades at the
same time
Space Diversity can be
obtained by using two receiving
antennas and switching instant-
by-instant to whichever is best
Required separation D for good
decorrelation is 10-20
12-24 ft. @ 800 MHz.
5-10 ft. @ 1900 MHz.
Signal received
by Antenna 1
Signal received
by Antenna 2
Combined
Signal
D
Types Of Propagation Models And Their Uses
Simple Analytical models
Used for understanding and
predicting individual paths and
specific obstruction cases
General Area models
Primary drivers: statistical
Used for early system
dimensioning (cell counts, etc.)
Point-to-Point models
Primary drivers: analytical
Used for detailed coverage
analysis and cell planning
Local Variability models
Primary drivers: statistical
Characterizes microscopic level
fluctuations in a given locale,
confidence-of-service probability
Simple Analytical
Free space (Friis formula)
Reflection cancellation
Knife-edge diffraction
Area
Okumura-Hata
Euro/Cost-231
Walfisch-Betroni/Ikegami
Point-to-Point
Ray Tracing
- Lees Method, others
Tech-Note 101
Longley-Rice, Biby-C
Local Variability
Rayleigh Distribution
Normal Distribution
J oint Probability Techniques
Examples of various model types
General Principles Of Area Models
Area models mimic an average
path in a defined area
Theyre based on measured data
alone, with no consideration of
individual path features or
physical mechanisms
Typical inputs used by model:
Frequency
Distance from transmitter to
receiver
Actual or effective base
station & mobile heights
Average terrain elevation
Morphology correction loss
(Urban, Suburban, Rural, etc.)
Results may be quite different
than observed on individual paths
in the area
RSSI,
dBm
-120
-110
-100
-90
-80
-70
-60
-50
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33
Distance from Cell Site, km
Field
Strength,
dBV/m
+90
+80
+70
+60
+50
+40
+30
+20
Green Trace shows actual measured signal
strengths on a drive test radial, as determined
by real-world physics.
Red Trace shows the Okumura-Hata
prediction for the same radial. The smooth
curve is a good fit for real data. However, the
signal strength at a specific location on the
radial may be much higher or much lower
than the simple prediction.
The Okumura Model: General Concept
The Okumura model is based on detailed analysis of exhaustive drive-test measurements
made in Tokyo and its suburbs during the late 1960s and early 1970s. The collected
date included measurements on numerous VHF, UHF, and microwave signal sources,
both horizontally and vertically polarized, at a wide range of heights.
The measurements were statistically processed and analyzed with respect to almost every
imaginable variable. This analysis was distilled into the curves above, showing a
median attenuation relative to free space loss Amu (f,d) and correlation factor Garea
(f,area), for BS antenna height ht = 200 m and MS antenna height hr = 3 m.
Okumura has served as the basis for high-level design of many existing wireless
systems, and has spawned a number of newer models adapted from its basic
concepts and numerical parameters.
M
e
d
i
a
n

A
t
t
e
n
u
a
t
i
o
n

A
(
f
,
d
)
,

d
B
1
2
5
40
70
80
100
100 3000 500
Frequency f, MHz
10
50
70
Urban Area
d
,

k
m
30
850
26
35
100 200 300 500 700 1000 2000 3000
Frequency f, (MHz)
5
10
15
20
25
30
C
o
r
r
e
c
t
i
o
n

f
a
c
t
o
r
,

G
a
r
e
a
(
d
B
)
9 dB
850 MHz
Structure of the Okumura Model
The Okumura Model uses a combination of terms from basic physical
mechanisms and arbitrary factors to fit 1960-1970 Tokyo drive test data
Later researchers (HATA, COST231, others) have expressed Okumuras
curves as formulas and automated the computation
Path Loss [dB] = L
FS
+ A
mu
(f,d) - G(H
b
) - G(H
m
) - G
area
Free-Space
Path Loss
Base Station
Height Gain
= 20 x Log (H
b
/200)
Mobile Station
Height Gain
= 10 x Log (H
m
/3)
A
mu
(f,d) Additional
Median Loss
from
Okumuras Curves
M
e
d
i
a
n

A
t
t
e
n
u
a
t
i
o
n

A
(
f
,
d
)
,

d
B
1
2
5
40
70
80
100
100 3000 500
Frequency f, MHz
10
50
70
Urban Area
d
,

k
m
30
850
26
Morphology Gain
0 dense urban
5 urban
10 suburban
17 rural
35
100
200 300 500 700 1000 2000 3000
Frequency f, (MHz)
5
10
15
20
25
30
C
o
r
r
e
c
t
i
o
n

f
a
c
t
o
r
,

G
a
r
e
a

(
d
B
)
850 MHz
Examples of Morphological Zones
Suburban: Mix of
residential and business
communities. Structures
include 1-2 story houses
50 feet apart and 2-5
story shops and offices.
Urban: Urban residential
and office areas (Typical
structures are 5-10 story
buildings, hotels,
hospitals, etc.)
Dense Urban: Dense
business districts with
skyscrapers (10-20 stories
and above) and high-rise
apartments
Suburban Suburban
Urban Urban
Dense Urban
Dense Urban
Although zone definitions are arbitrary, the examples and definitions illustrated above
are typical of practice in North American PCS designs.
Example Morphological Zones
Rural - Highway:
Highways near open
farm land, large
open spaces, and
sparsely populated
residential areas.
Typical structures
are 1-2 story
houses, barns, etc.
Rural - In-town:
Open farm land,
large open spaces,
and sparsely
populated residential
areas. Typical
structures are 1-2
story houses, barns,
etc. Suburban
Rural
Suburban
Rural
Rural - Highway Rural - Highway
Notice how different zones may abruptly adjoin one another. In the case immediately
above, farm land (rural) adjoins built-up subdivisions (suburban) -- same terrain, but
different land use, penetration requirements, and anticipated traffic densities.
Typical Model Results
Including Environmental Correction
Tower
Height,
m
EIRP
(watts)
C,
dB
Range,
km
f = 870 MHz.
Dense Urban
Urban
Suburban
Rural
30
30
30
50
200
200
200
200
-2
-5
-10
-26
4.0
4.9
6.7
26.8
Okumura/Hata
Tower
Height,
m
EIRP
(watts)
C,
dB
Range,
km
f =1900 MHz.
Dense Urban
Urban
Suburban
Rural
30
30
30
50
200
200
200
200
0
-5
-10
-17
2.52
3.50
4.8
10.3
COST-231/Hata
Propagation at 1900 MHz. vs. 800 MHz.
Propagation at 1900 MHz. is similar to 800 MHz., but all effects are
more pronounced.
Reflections are more effective
Shadows from obstructions are deeper
Foliage absorption is more attenuative
Penetration into buildings through openings is more effective,
but absorbing materials within buildings and their walls
attenuate the signal more severely than at 800 MHz.
The net result of all these effects is to increase the contrast of hot
and cold signal areas throughout a 1900 MHz. system, compared
to what would have been obtained at 800 MHz.
Overall, coverage radius of a 1900 MHz. BTS is approximately
two-thirds the distance which would be obtained with the same
ERP, same antenna height, at 800 MHz.
Walfisch-Betroni/Walfisch-Ikegami Models
Ordinary Okumura-type models do work in
this environment, but the Walfisch models
attempt to improve accuracy by exploiting
the actual propagation mechanisms
involved
Path Loss = L
FS
+ L
RT
+ L
MS
L
FS
= free space path loss (Friis formula)
L
RT
= rooftop diffraction loss
L
MS
= multiscreen reflection loss
Propagation in built-up portions of cities is
dominated by ray diffraction over the tops of
buildings and by ray channeling through
multiple reflections down the street canyons
-20 dBm
-30 dBm
-40 dBm
-50 dBm
-60 dBm
-70 dBm
-80 dBm
-90 dBm
-100 dBm
-110 dBm
-120 dBm
Signal
Level
Legend
Area View
Elements of Typical Measurement Systems
Wireless
Receiver
PC or
Collector
GPS
Receiver
Dead
Reckoning
Main Features
Field strength measurement
Accurate collection in real-time
Multi-channel, averaging
capability
Location Data Collection Methods:
Global Positioning System (GPS)
Dead reckoning on digitized map
database using on-board
compass and wheel revolutions
sensor
A combination of both methods is
recommended for the best results
Ideally, a system should be calibrated
in absolute units, not just raw
received power level indications
Record normalized antenna gain,
measured line loss
Typical Test Transmitter Operations
Typical Characteristics
portable, low power needs
weatherproof or weather resistant
regulated power output
frequency-agile: synthesized
Operational Concerns
spectrum coordination and proper
authorization to radiate test signal
antenna unobstructed
stable AC power
SAFETY:
people/equipment falling due to
wind, or tripping on obstacles
electric shock
damage to rooftop
Antennas For
Wireless Systems
Antennas For
Wireless Systems
Section IV
Understanding Antenna Radiation
The Principle Of Current Moments
An antenna is just a passive
conductor carrying RF current
RF power causes the current
flow
Current flowing radiates
electromagnetic fields
Electromagnetic fields cause
current in receiving antennas
The effect of the total antenna is the
sum of what every tiny slice of the
antenna is doing
Radiation of a tiny slice is
proportional to its length times
the magnitude of the current in
it, at the phase of the current
TX
RX
Width of band
denotes current
magnitude
Zero current
at each end
Maximum current
at the middle
Current induced in
receiving antenna
is vector sum of
contribution of every
tiny slice of
radiating antenna
each tiny
imaginary slice
of the antenna
does its share
of radiating
Antenna Gain
Antennas are passive devices: they do not produce
power
Can only receive power in one form and pass
it on in another, minus incidental losses
Cannot generate power or amplify
However, an antenna can appear to have gain
compared against another antenna or condition. This
gain can be expressed in dB or as a power ratio. It
applies both to radiating and receiving
A directional antenna, in its direction of maximum
radiation, appears to have gain compared against a
non-directional antenna
Gain in one direction comes at the expense of less
radiation in other directions
Antenna Gain is RELATIVE, not ABSOLUTE
When describing antenna gain, the
comparison condition must be stated or
implied
Omni-directional
Antenna
Directional
Antenna
Reference Antennas
Defining Gain And Effective Radiated Power
Isotropic Radiator
Truly non-directional -- in 3 dimensions
Difficult to build or approximate physically,
but mathematically very simple to describe
A popular reference: 1000 MHz and above
PCS, microwave, etc.
Dipole Antenna
Non-directional in 2-dimensional plane only
Can be easily constructed, physically
practical
A popular reference: below 1000 MHz
800 MHz. cellular, land mobile, TV & FM
Isotropic
Antenna
(watts or dBm) ERP Effective Radiated Power Vs. Dipole
Effective Radiated Power Vs. Isotropic
Gain above Dipole reference
Gain above Isotropic radiator
(watts or dBm) EIRP
dBd
dBi
Quantity Units
Dipole Antenna
Notice that a dipole
has 2.15 dB gain
compared to an
isotropic antenna.
Radiation Patterns
Key Features And Terminology
An antennas directivity is
expressed as a series of patterns
The Horizontal Plane Pattern graphs
the radiation as a function of azimuth
(i.e..,direction N-E-S-W)
The Vertical Plane Pattern graphs the
radiation as a function of elevation (i.e..,
up, down, horizontal)
Antennas are often compared by noting
specific landmark points on their
patterns:
-3 dB (HPBW), -6 dB, -10 dB
points
Front-to-back ratio
Angles of nulls, minor lobes, etc.
Typical Example
Horizontal Plane Pattern
0 (N)
90
(E)
180 (S)
270
(W)
0
-10
-20
-30 dB
Notice -3 dB points
Front-to-back Ratio
10 dB
points
Main
Lobe
a Minor
Lobe
nulls or
minima
In phase
Out of
phase
How Antennas Achieve Their Gain
Quasi-Optical Techniques (reflection, focusing)
Reflectors can be used to concentrate
radiation
technique works best at microwave frequencies,
where reflectors are small
Examples:
corner reflector used at cellular or higher
frequencies
parabolic reflector used at microwave
frequencies
grid or single pipe reflector for cellular
Array techniques (discrete elements)
Power is fed or coupled to multiple
antenna elements; each element radiates
Elements radiation in phase in some
directions
In other directions, a phase delay for each
element creates pattern lobes and nulls
Types Of Arrays
Collinear vertical arrays
Essentially omnidirectional in
horizontal plane
Power gain approximately
equal to the number of
elements
Nulls exist in vertical pattern,
unless deliberately filled
Arrays in horizontal plane
Directional in horizontal
plane: useful for sectorization
Yagi
one driven element, parasitic
coupling to others
Log-periodic
all elements driven
wide bandwidth
All of these types of antennas are
used in wireless
RF
power
RF
power
Omni Antennas
Collinear Vertical Arrays
The family of omni-directional wireless
antennas:
Number of elements determines
Physical size
Gain
Beamwidth, first null angle
Models with many elements have
very narrow beamwidths
Require stable mounting and
careful alignment
Watch out: be sure nulls do
not fall in important coverage
areas
Rod and grid reflectors are
sometimes added for mild directivity
Examples: 800 MHz.: dB803, PD10017, BCR-
10O, Kathrein 740-198
1900 MHz.: dB-910, ASPP2933
beamwidth
Angle
of
first
null
u
-3
d
B
Vertical Plane Pattern
Number of
Elements
Power
Gain
Gain,
dB
Angle
u
0.00 n/a
3.01 26.57
4.77 18.43
6.02 14.04
6.99 11.31
7.78 9.46
8.45 8.13
9.03 7.13
9.54 6.34
10.00 5.71
10.41 5.19
10.79 4.76
11.14 4.40
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14 11.46 4.09
Typical Collinear Arrays
Sector Antennas
Reflectors And Vertical Arrays
Typical commercial sector
antennas are vertical combinations
of dipoles, yagis, or log-periodic
elements with reflector (panel or
grid) backing
Vertical plane pattern is
determined by number of
vertically-separated
elements
varies from 1 to 8, affecting
mainly gain and vertical plane
beamwidth
Horizontal plane pattern is
determined by:
number of horizontally-spaced
elements
shape of reflectors (is reflector
folded?)
Up
Down
Horizontal Plane Pattern
N
E
S
W
Example Of Antenna Catalog Specifications
Frequency Range, MHz.
Gain - dBd/dBi
VSWR
Beamwidth (3 dB from maximum)
Polarization
Maximum power input - Watts
Input Impedance - Ohms
Lightning Protection
Termination - Standard
J umper Cable
Electrical Data
Antenna Model ASPP2933 ASPP2936 dB910C-M
1850-1990 1850-1990 1850-1970
3/5.1
<1.5:1
32
Vertical
400
50
Direct Ground
N-Female
Order Sep.
6/8.1
<1.5:1
15
Vertical
400
50
Direct Ground
N-Female
Order Sep.
10/12.1
<1.5:1
5
Vertical
400
50
Direct Ground
N-Female
Order Sep.
Mechanical Data
Antenna Model
Overall length - in (mm)
Radome OD - in (mm)
Wind area - ft2 (m2)
Wind load @ 125 mph/201 kph lb-f (n)
Maximum wind speed - mph (kph)
Weight - lbs (kg)
Shipping Weight - lbs (kg)
Clamps (steel)
ASPP2933
24 (610)
1.1 (25.4)
.17 (.0155)
4 (17)
140 (225)
4 (1.8)
11 (4.9)
ASPA320
ASPP2936
36 (915)
1.0 (25.4)
.25 (.0233)
6 (26)
140 (225)
6 (2.7)
13 (5.9)
ASPA320
dB910C-M
77 (1955)
1.5 (38)
.54 (.05)
14 (61)
125 (201)
5.2 (2.4)
9 (4.1)
Integral
Example Of Antenna Catalog Radiation Pattern
E-Plane (elevation plane)
Gain: 10 dBd
Dipole pattern is superimposed at
scale for comparison (not often
shown in commercial catalogs)
Frequency is shown
Pattern values shown in dBd
Note 1-degree indices through
region of main lobe for most
accurate reading
Notice minor lobe and null detail!
Other Parts of
Antenna Systems
Other Parts of
Antenna Systems
Antenna Systems
Antenna systems include more
than just antennas
Transmission Lines
Necessary to connect
transmitting and receiving
equipment
Other Components necessary to
achieve desired system function
Filters, Combiners,
Duplexers - to achieve
desired connections
Directional Couplers,
wattmeters - for
measurement of
performance
Manufacturers system may
include some or all of these
items
Remaining items are added
individually as needed by
system operator
F R
D
u
p
l
e
x
e
r
Combiner
BPF
TX
RX
TX
T
r
a
n
s
m
i
s
s
i
o
n

L
i
n
e
Jumper
Jumpers
Directional
Coupler
Antenna
Types of Transmission Lines
Physical Characteristics
Type of line
Coaxial, stripline, open-
wire
Balanced, unbalanced
Physical configuration
Dielectric:
air
foam
Outside surface
unjacketed
jacketed
Size (nominal outer diameter)
1/4,1/2, 7/8, 1-1/4, 1-
7/8, 2-1/4, 3
Foam
Dielectric
Air
Dielectric
Typical coaxial cables
Used as feeders in wireless applications
Attenuation, Impedance, Velocity, Power Handling
Electrical Characteristics
Attenuation
Varies with frequency, size, dielectric
characteristics of insulation
Usually specified in dB/100 ft and/or
dB/100 m
Characteristic impedance Z
0
(50 ohms is the
usual standard; 75 ohms is sometimes used)
Value set by inner/outer diameter ratio
and dielectric characteristics of
insulation
Connectors must preserve constant
impedance (see figure at right)
Velocity factor
Determined by dielectric characteristics
of insulation.
Power-handling capability
Varies with size, conductor materials,
dielectric characteristics
d D
Characteristic Impedance
of a Coaxial Line
Z
o
= ( 138 / ( c
1/2
) ) Log
10
( D / d )
c = Dielectric Constant
= 1 for vacuum or dry air
Transmission Lines
Important Installation Practices
Respect specified minimum
bending radius!
Inner conductor must
remain concentric,
otherwise Z
o
changes
Dents, kinks in outer
conductor change Z
o
Dont bend large, stiff lines (1-
5/8 or larger) to make direct
connection with antennas
Use appropriate jumpers,
weatherproofed properly.
Secure jumpers against wind
vibration.
Observe
Minimum
Bending
Radius!
Transmission Lines
Important Installation Practices, Continued
During hoisting
Allow line to support its own
weight only for distances
approved by manufacturer
Deformation and stretching
may result, changing the Z
o
Use hoisting grips,
messenger cable
After mounting
Support the line with proper
mounting clamps at
manufacturers
recommended spacing
intervals
Strong winds will set up
damaging metal-fatigue-
inducing vibrations
200 ft
~60 m
Max.
3-6 ft
RF Filters
Types And Applications
Filters are the basic building
blocks of duplexers and more
complex devices
Most manufacturers network
equipment includes internal
bandpass filters at receiver input
and transmitter output
Filters are also available for
special applications
Number of poles (filter elements)
and other design variables
determine filters electrical
characteristics
Bandwidth rejection
Insertion loss
Slopes
Ripple, etc.
Notice construction: RF input
excites one quarter-wave
element and electromagnet
fields propagate from element
to element, finally exciting the
last element which is directly
coupled to the output.
Each element is individually set
and forms a pole in the filters
overall response curve.
Typical RF Bandpass Filter
~/4
RF Filters
Basic Characteristics And Specifications
Types of Filters
Single-pole:
pass
reject (notch)
Multi-pole:
band-pass
band-reject
Key electrical characteristics
Insertion loss
Passband ripple
Passband width
upper, lower cutoff frequencies
Attenuation slope at band edge
Ultimate out-of-band attenuation
Typical bandpass filters have
insertion loss of 1-3 dB. and
passband ripple of 2-6 dB.
Bandwidth is typically 1-20% of
center frequency, depending on
application. Attenuation slope
and out-of-band attenuation
depend on #of poles & design
Typical RF bandpass filter
0
A
t
t
e
n
u
a
t
i
o
n
,

d
B
Frequency, megaHertz
passband ripple
insertion
loss
-3 dB
passband
width
Basics Of Transmitting Combiners
Allows multiple transmitters to feed single
antenna, providing
Minimum power loss from
transmitter to antenna
Maximum isolation between
transmitters
Combiner types
Tuned
low insertion loss ~1-3 dB
transmitter frequencies must be
significantly separated
Hybrid
insertion loss -3 dB per stage
no restriction on transmitter
frequencies
Linear amplifier
linearity and intermodulation are
major design and operation issues
Typical tuned combiner
application
TX TX TX TX TX TX TX TX
Antenna
Typical hybrid combiner
application
TX TX TX TX TX TX TX TX
Antenna
~-3 dB
~-3 dB
~-3 dB
Duplexer Basics
Duplexer allows simultaneous
transmitting and receiving on one
antenna
Nortel 1900 MHz BTS RFFEs
include internal duplexer
Nortel 800 MHz BTS does not
include duplexer but commercial
units can be used if desired
Important duplexer specifications
TX pass-through insertion loss
RX pass-through insertion loss
TX-to-RX isolation at TX
frequency (RX intermodulation
issue)
TX-to-RX isolation at RX
frequency (TX noise floor issue)
Internally-generated IMP limit
specification
f
R
f
T
RX TX
Antenna
Duplexer
Principle of operation
Duplexer is composed of individual
bandpass filters to isolate TX from
RX while allowing access to antenna
for both. Filter design determines
actual isolation between TX and RX,
and insertion loss TX-to-Antenna
and RX-to-Antenna.
Directional Couplers
Couplers are used to measure
forward and reflected energy in a
transmission line; it has 4 ports:
Input (from TX),
Output (to load)
Forward and Reverse Samples
Sensing loops probe E& I in line
Equal sensitivity to E & H fields
Terminations absorb induced
current in one direction,
leaving only sample of other
direction
Typical performance specifications
Coupling factor ~20, ~30,
~40 dB., order as appropriate
for application
Directivity ~30-~40 dB., f($)
defined as relative
attenuation of unwanted
direction in each sample
Principle of operation
Z
LOAD
=
50O
Input
Reverse Sample
Forward Sample
R
T
R
T
Typical directional coupler
Main lines E & I induce equal signals in
sense loops. E is direction-independent,
but Is polarity depends on direction and
cancels sample induced in one direction.
Thus sense loop signals are directional.
One end is used, the other terminated.
Testing Antenna Systems Testing Antenna Systems
Testing Communications Feedlines and Antennas
AC power wiring and voice telephone wiring do not
require extremely critical wiring practices
just make sure the connections and insulation are
good, heat is not allowed to build up, and youll have
good results
AC power frequencies and audio signal frequencies
have wavelengths of many miles
a few feet of wire wont radiate much energy
High frequency RF wiring practice is much more critical
since signal wavelengths are only a few inches or feet
any bend or protruding bit of wire can serve as an
unintentional antenna, leaking energy
even splices and connections can leak energy unless
their shape and dimensions are closely controlled
abrupt changes in cable shape reflect energy back
down the transmission line, causing many problems
Precisely shaped cables and connectors, careful
installation and accurate testing are required to avoid
significant antenna system performance problems
Forward and Reflected Energy
In a perfect antenna system, the transmission line and the
antenna have the same impedance
we say they are impedance matched
All the energy from the transmitter passes through and is radiated
from the antenna
virtually no energy is reflected back to the transmitter
Transmission Line
Antenna
Transmitter
Forward Power
Virtually no reflected power
50 50
50
Forward and Reflected Energy
Transmission Line
Antenna
Transmitter
Significant Reflected Power
50
42-j17
Forward Power
dent or kink
37
In a damaged antenna system, the impedance match is not good
there could be a dent, kink, or a spot with water in the transmission
line
the different impedance in the line at this spot will cause some of
the energy to be reflected backwards
the antenna could be damaged or dangling, causing it to have an
altered impedance
the antennas different impedance will reflect some of the energy
backwards down the line
The Site Master
Distance-To-Fault mode will be helpful in finding the

location of the damage
How Much Reflection? Four Ways to Say It
There are four ways of expressing how
much energy is being reflected
different users like different methods
Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR)
(used by hobbyists and consumers)
the reflected voltage is in phase with the
incident voltage at some places and out
of phase at others
VSWR is the ratio of Vmax/Vmin
Reflected Power as % of Forward Power
(used by field personnel in some industries)
just divide Rev by Fwd, use percent
Return Loss (used by field personnel)
how many db weaker is the reflected
energy than the forward energy
Reflection Coefficient (academic users)
vector ratio of reflected/incident voltage
or current
usually expressed as a polar vector, with
magnitude and phase
V
max
V
min
SWR: Standing Wave Ratio
=V
max
/ V
min
FORWARD
REFLECTED
Reflected Power (%)
=100 x
RevPwr
FwdPwr
FORWARD
REFLECTED
Return Loss (db)
= 10 x Log
10
RevPwr
FwdPwr
FORWARD
REFLECTED
Reflection Coefficient (vector ratio)
V
reflected
V
incident
=
Comparing Reflection Reports in Different Forms
Reflection expressed in one form can be
converted and expressed in the other forms
For example, consider a VSWR of 1.5 : 1
this is 4% reflected power
this is a return loss of 14 db
to calculate the reflection coefficient, the
phase of the reflection is also needed
VSWR vs. Return Loss
VSWR
0
10
20
30
40
50
1 1.5 2 2.5 3
FORWARD
REFLECTED
Reflected Power (%)
=100 x
RevPwr
FwdPwr
FORWARD
REFLECTED
Return Loss (db)
= 10 x Log
10
RevPwr
FwdPwr
FORWARD
REFLECTED
Reflection Coefficient (vector ratio)
V
reflected
V
incident
=
V
max
V
min
SWR: STANDINGWAVERATIO
=V
max
/ V
min
=
Reflected Power
Forward Power
Reflected Power
Forward Power
1 +
1 -
The Anritsu
/Wiltron Site Master
The Site Master
is one of the
most convenient and popular
combination instruments for
testing communications
feedlines and antennas
Built Into a Site Master
are:
sweep signal generator
directional coupler
signal detector
processing software to
display return loss and
distance to fault
Optional: Spectrum
Analyzer
Optional: Power Meter
Battery and charging circuit
The Site Master
is a combination
instrument not much larger than a cigar box.
In the field, it provides the functions of a
spectrum analyzer with tracking sweep
generator, directional coupler, and power
meter. In the past, a trunk full of instruments
were required to test communications
antenna systems. Today, a Site Master
can
even be carried to the tower top if needed.
Estimating Isolation Between Antennas
Often multiple antennas are needed at a
site and interaction is troublesome
Electrical isolation between antennas
Coupling loss between isotropic
antennas one wavelength apart is
22 dB
6 dB additional coupling loss with
each doubling of separation
Add gain or loss referenced from
horizontal plane patterns
Measure vertical separation
between centers of the antennas
vertical separation usually is very
effective
One antenna should not be mounted in
main lobe and near-field of another
Typically within 10 feet @ 800 MHz
Typically 5-10 feet @ 1900 MHz
Types Of Downtilt
Mechanical downtilt
Physically tilt the antenna
The pattern in front goes
down, and behind goes up
Popular for sectorization
and special omni
applications
Electrical downtilt
Incremental phase shift is
applied in the feed network
The pattern droops all
around, like an inverted
saucer
Common technique when
downtilting omni cells
A Glimpse into
Basic Traffic Engineering
A Glimpse into
Basic Traffic Engineering
Section V
A Game of Avoiding Extremes
The traffic engineer must walk a fine line
between two problems:
Overdimensioning
too much cost
insufficient resources to construct
traffic revenue is too low to
support costs
very poor economic efficiency!
Underdimensioning
blocking
poor technical performance
(interference)
capacity for billable revenue is low
revenue is low due to poor quality
users unhappy, cancel service
very poor economic efficiency!
Basics of Traffic Engineering
Terminology & Concept of a Trunk
Traffic engineering in telephony is focused on the voice paths
which users occupy. They are called by many different names:
trunks
circuits
radios (AMPS, TDMA), transceivers (TRXs in GSM),
channel elements (CDMA)
Some other common terms are:
trunk group
a trunk group is several trunks going to the same
destination, combined and addressed in switch
translations as a unit , for traffic routing purposes
member
one of the trunks in a trunk group
Units of Traffic Measurement
General understanding of telephone traffic engineering began
around 1910. An engineer in the Danish telephone system,
Agner Krarup Erlang, was one of the first to master the science
of trunk dimensioning and publish the knowledge for others. In
his honor, the basic unit of traffic is named the Erlang.
An Erlang of traffic is one circuit continuously used during an
observation period one hour long.
Other units have become popular among various users:
CCS (Hundred-Call-Seconds)
MOU (Minutes Of Use)
Its easy to convert between traffic units if the need arises:
1 Erlang = 60 MOU = 36 CCS
Traffic is expressed in units of Circuit Time
How Much Traffic Can One Trunk Carry?
Traffic studies are usually for periods of one hour
In one hour, one trunk can carry one hour of traffic -- One Erlang
If nothing else matters, this is the limit!
If anyone else wants to talk -- sorry!
Absolute Maximum Capacity
of One Trunk
One Trunk
One Erlang
Constant
Talker
We must not plan to keep trunks busy all the time. There must be
a reserve to accommodate new talkers! How much reserve? next!
Traffic Engineering And Queuing Theory
Traffic engineering is an application of a
science called queuing theory
Queuing theory relates user arrival
statistics, number of servers, and
various queue strategies, with the
probability of a user receiving service
If waiting is not allowed, and a blocked
call simply goes away, Erlang-B
formula applies (popular in wireless)
If unlimited waiting is allowed before a
call receives service, the Erlang-C
formula applies
If a wait is allowed but is limited in
time, Binomial &Poisson formulae
apply
Engset formulae apply to rapid,
packet-like transactions such as
paging channels
Ticket counter analogy
User population
Queue
Servers
Queues we face in
everyday life
1) for telephone calls
2) at the bank
3) at the gas station
4) at the airline counter
Offered And Carried Traffic
Offered traffic is what users attempt to
originate
Carried traffic is the traffic actually
successfully handled by the system
Blocked traffic is the traffic that could
not be handled
Since blocked call attempts never
materialize, blocked traffic must be
estimated based on number of
blocked attempts and average
duration of successful calls
Carried
Traffic
BTS BTS BTS BTS BTS BTS
Offered
Traffic
BSC MTX
Blocked
Traffic
PSTN or other
Wireless user
T
Off
= NCA x TCD
T
Off
= Offered traffic
NCA = Number of call attempts
TCD = Average call duration
Offered Traffic =
Carried Traffic + Blocked Traffic
Blocking is inability to get a circuit when one is needed
Probability of Blocking is the likelihood that blocking will
happen
In principle, blocking can occur anywhere in a wireless system:
not enough radios, the cell is full
not enough paths between cell site and switch
not enough paths through the switching complex
not enough trunks from switch to PSTN
Blocking probability is usually
expressed as a percentage
using a shorthand notation:
P.02 is 2% probability, etc.
Blocking probability sometimes
is called Grade Of Service
Most blocking in cellular systems
occurs at the radio level.
P.02 is a common goal at the
radio level in a system
Principles of Traffic Engineering
Blocking Probability / Grade of Service
PSTN Office
DMS-MTX
Cell
Cell
Cell
P.001 P.005
P.02
P.005
Typical Wireless System
Design Blocking Probabilities
Number of Trunks
vs. Utilization Efficiency
Imagine a cell site with just one voice channel. At a P.02
Grade of Service, how much traffic could it carry?
The trunk can only be used 2% of the time, otherwise the
blocking will be worse than 2%.
98% availability forces 98% idleness. It can only carry
.02 Erlangs. Efficiency 2%!
Adding just one trunk relieves things greatly.
Now we can use trunk 1 heavily, with trunk 2
handling the overflow. Efficiency rises to 11%
The Principle of Trunking Efficiency
For a given grade of service, trunk
utilization efficiency increases as the
number of trunks in the pool grows larger.
For trunk groups of several hundred,
utilization approaches 100%.
#Trunks
Efficiency %
Capacity,
Erlangs
1 50
80%
41
Erl Eff% Trks
1
2
0.02
0.22
2%
11%
Erlang-B P.02 GOS
Number of Trunks,
Capacity, and Utilization Efficiency
The graph at left illustrates
the capacity in Erlangs of a
given number of trunks, as
well as the achievable
utilization efficiency
For accurate work, tables of
traffic data are available
Capacity, Erlangs
Blocking Probability
(GOS)
Number of Trunks
Notice how capacity and
utilization behave for the
numbers of trunks in typical
cell sites
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
Capacity and Trunk Utilization
Erlang-B for P.02 Grade of Service
Trunks
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
50 40 30 20 10 0
Utilization
Efficiency
Percent
Capacity,
Erlangs
Traffic Engineering & System Dimensioning
Using Erlang-B Tables to determine Number of Circuits Required
A = f (E,n)
Probability
of blocking
0.0001 0.002 0.02
7
E
n
1
2
300
2.935
0.2
Capacity
in Erlangs
Number of
available
circuits
Erlang-B Traffic Tables
Abbreviated - For P.02 Grade of Service Only
Wireless Traffic Variation with Time:
A Cellular Example
Peak traffic on cellular systems
is usually daytime business-
related traffic; on PCS systems,
evening traffic becomes much
more important and may actually
contain the system busy hour
Evening taper is more gradual
than morning rise
Wireless systems for PCS and
LEC-displacement have peaks
of residential traffic during early
evening hours, like wireline
systems
Friday is the busiest day,
followed by other weekdays in
backwards order, then Saturday,
then Sunday
There are seasonal and
annual variations, as well as
long term growth trends
Typical Traffic Distribution
on a Cellular System
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
Hour
SUN
MON
TUE
WED
THU
FRI
SAT
Actual traffic from a cellular system in the
mid-south USA in summer 1992. This
system had 45 cells and served an area
of approximately 1,000,000 population.
Busy-Hour
In telephony, it is customary to collect and analyze traffic in hourly
blocks, and to track trends over months, quarters, and years
When making decisions about number of trunks required, we
plan the trunks needed to support the busiest hour of a normal
day
Special events (disasters, one-of-a-kind traffic tie-ups, etc.)
are not considered in the analysis (unless a marketing-
sponsored event)
Which Hour should be used as the Busy-Hour?
Some planners choose one specific hour and use it every day
Some planners choose the busiest hour of each individual day
(floating busy hour)
Most common preference is to use floating (bouncing) busy
hour determined individually for the total system and for each
cell, but to exclude special events and disasters
In the example just presented, 4 PM was the busy hour every
day
Wireline telephone systems have a big
advantage in traffic planning.
They know the addresses where
their customers generate the traffic!
Wireless systems have to guess where
the customers will be next
on existing systems, use
measured traffic data by sector and
cell
analyze past trends
compare subscriber forecast
trend into future, find overloads
for new systems or new cells,
we must use all available clues
11
7
11
10
19
8
5
7
6
5
2
7
3
8
16
7
16
6
9
9
7
Existing System
Traffic In Erlangs
Where is the Traffic?
Traffic Clues
Subscriber Profiles:
Busy Hour Usage, Call Attempts, etc.
Market Penetration:
#Subscribers/Market Population
use Sales forecasts, usage forecasts
Population Density
Geographic Distribution
Construction Activity
Vehicular Traffic Data
Vehicle counts on roads
Calculations of density on major
roadways from knowledge of vehicle
movement, spacing, market
penetration
Land Use Database: Area Profiles
Aerial Photographs: Count Vehicles!
22,100
3620 6620
1230
5110
4215
920
Vehicular Traffic
Land Use
Databases
Population Density
27 mE/Sub in BH
103,550 Subscribers
1,239,171 Market Population
adding 4,350 subs/month
new
Shopping Center
Traffic Density Along Roadways
Number of lanes and speed are the main
variable determining number of vehicles on
major highways
Typical headway ~1.5 seconds
Table and figure show capacity of 1
lane
When traffic stops, users generally increase
calling activity
Multiply number of vehicles by percentage
penetration of population to estimate number
of subscriber vehicles
Vehicle
Speed,
MPH
Vehicle
Spacing,
feet
Vehicles
per mile,
per lane
0 20 264
10 42 126
20 64 83
30 86 61
45 119 44
60 152 35
Vehicle spacing 20 ft. @stop
Running Headway 1.5 seconds
Vehicles per mile
Vehicle Spacing At Common Roadway Speeds
0
50 MPH
40 MPH
30 MPH
20 MPH
10 MPH
0 MPH
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 feet
Technical
Introduction to CDMA
Technical
Introduction to CDMA
Section VII
BASE STATION
CONTROLLER
SUPPORT
FUNCTIONS
BASE STATIONS
Mobile Telephone
Switching Office
PSTN
Local Carriers
Long Distance
Carriers
ATM Link
to other CDMA
Networks
(Future)
Structure of a Typical CDMA System
Voice Mail System
SWITCH
HLR Home Location Register
(subscriber database)
Two Types of CDMA
Two main categories of CDMA:
Frequency-Hopping
Each users narrowband signal hops
among discrete frequencies, and the
receiver follows in sequence
Frequency-Hopping Spread
Spectrum (FHSS) CDMA is NOT
currently used in wireless systems,
although used by the military
Direct Sequence
narrowband input from a user is
coded (spread) by a user-unique
broadband code, then transmitted
broadband signal is received;
receiver knows, applies users code,
recovers users data
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum
(DSSS) CDMA IS the method used
in IS-95 commercial systems
User 1
Code 1
Composite
Time Frequency
+
=
Direct Sequence CDMA
User 1 User 2 User 3 User 4
Frequency Hopping CDMA
User 3 User 4 User 1 unused User 2
User 1 User 4 User 3 User 2 unused
Frequency
unusedUser 1 User 2 User 4 User 3
CDMA: Using A New Dimension
All CDMA users occupy the same frequency
at the same time! Frequency and time are
not used as discriminators
CDMA operates by using CODING to
discriminate between users
CDMA interference comes mainly from
nearby users
Each user is a small voice in a roaring
crowd -- but with a uniquely recoverable
code
CDMA
Figure of Merit: C/I
(carrier/interference ratio)
AMPS: +17 dB
TDMA: +14 to +17 dB
GSM: +7 to 9 dB.
CDMA: -10 to -17 dB.
CDMA: E
b
/N
o
~+6 dB.
DSSS Spreading: Time-Domain View
At Originating Site:
Input A: Users Data @
19,200 bits/second
Input B: Walsh Code #23
@ 1.2288 Mcps
Output: Spread
spectrum signal
At Destination Site:
Input A: Received
spread spectrum signal
Input B: Walsh Code #23
@ 1.2288 Mcps
Output: Users Data @
19,200 bits/second just
as originally sent
Drawn to actual scale and time alignment
via air interface
XOR
Exclusive-OR
Gate
1
1
Input A: Received Signal
Input B: Spreading Code
Output: Users Original Data
Input A: Users Data
Input B: Spreading Code
Spread Spectrum Signal
XOR
Exclusive-OR
Gate
Originating Site
Destination Site
Spreading from a Frequency-Domain View
Traditional technologies try
to squeeze signal into
minimum required
bandwidth
CDMA uses larger
bandwidth but uses
resulting processing gain to
increase capacity
Spread Spectrum Payoff:
Processing Gain
Spread Spectrum
TRADITIONAL COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEM
Slow
Information
Sent
TX
Slow
Information
Recovered
RX
Narrowband
Signal
SPREAD-SPECTRUM SYSTEM
Fast
Spreading
Sequence
Slow
Information
Sent
TX
Slow
Information
Recovered
RX
Fast
Spreading
Sequence
Wideband
Signal
The CDMA Spread Spectrum Benefit:
Better Reception, More Capacity, or a Combination?
Shannon's work suggests that a certain
bit rate of information deserves a
certain bandwidth
If one CDMA user is carried alone by a
CDMA signal, the processing gain is
large - roughly 21 db for an 8k vocoder.
Each doubling of the number of
users consumes 3 db of the
processing gain
Somewhere above 32 users, the
signal-to-noise ratio becomes
undesirable and the ultimate
capacity of the sector is reached
Practical CDMA systems restrict the
number of users per sector to ensure
processing gain remains at usable
levels
# Users Processing Gain
1 21 db
2 18 db
4 15 db
8 12 db
16 9 db
32 6 db
64..Uh, Regis, can I just
take the money I've already
won, and go home now?
CDMA Spreading Gain
Consider a user with a 9600
bps vocoder talking on a
CDMA signal 1,228,800 hz
wide. The processing gain is
1,228,800/9600 =128, which
is 21 db. What happens if
additional users are added?
CDMA Uses Code Channels
A CDMA signal uses many chips to convey just
one bit of information
Each user has a unique chip pattern, in effect a
code channel
To recover a bit, integrate a large number of chips
interpreted by the users known code pattern
Other users code patterns appear random and
integrate in a random self-canceling fashion, dont
disturb the bit decoding decision being made with
the proper code pattern
Building a
CDMA Signal
Bits
from Users Vocoder
Symbols
Chips
Forward Error
Correction
Coding and
Spreading
CDMAs Nested Spreading Sequences
CDMA combines three different spreading sequences to create
unique, robust channels
The sequences are easy to generate on both sending and receiving
ends of each link
What we do, we can undo
Spreading
Sequence
A
Spreading
Sequence
B
Spreading
Sequence
C
Spreading
Sequence
C
Spreading
Sequence
B
Spreading
Sequence
A
Input
Data
X
Recovered
Data
X
X+A X+A+B X+A+B+C X+A+B X+A
Spread-Spectrum Chip Streams
ORIGINATING SITE DESTINATION
One of the CDMA Spreading Sequences:
The Family of Walsh Codes
64 Magic Sequences, each 64 chips long
Each Walsh Code is precisely Orthogonal
with respect to all other Walsh Codes
its simple to generate the codes, or
theyre small enough to use from ROM
WALSH CODES
# ---------------------------------- 64-Chip Sequence ------------------------------------------
0 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000
1 0101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101
2 0011001100110011001100110011001100110011001100110011001100110011
3 0110011001100110011001100110011001100110011001100110011001100110
4 0000111100001111000011110000111100001111000011110000111100001111
5 0101101001011010010110100101101001011010010110100101101001011010
6 0011110000111100001111000011110000111100001111000011110000111100
7 0110100101101001011010010110100101101001011010010110100101101001
8 0000000011111111000000001111111100000000111111110000000011111111
9 0101010110101010010101011010101001010101101010100101010110101010
10 0011001111001100001100111100110000110011110011000011001111001100
11 0110011010011001011001101001100101100110100110010110011010011001
12 0000111111110000000011111111000000001111111100000000111111110000
13 0101101010100101010110101010010101011010101001010101101010100101
14 0011110011000011001111001100001100111100110000110011110011000011
15 0110100110010110011010011001011001101001100101100110100110010110
16 0000000000000000111111111111111100000000000000001111111111111111
17 0101010101010101101010101010101001010101010101011010101010101010
18 0011001100110011110011001100110000110011001100111100110011001100
19 0110011001100110100110011001100101100110011001101001100110011001
20 0000111100001111111100001111000000001111000011111111000011110000
21 0101101001011010101001011010010101011010010110101010010110100101
22 0011110000111100110000111100001100111100001111001100001111000011
23 0110100101101001100101101001011001101001011010011001011010010110
24 0000000011111111111111110000000000000000111111111111111100000000
25 0101010110101010101010100101010101010101101010101010101001010101
26 0011001111001100110011000011001100110011110011001100110000110011
27 0110011010011001100110010110011001100110100110011001100101100110
28 0000111111110000111100000000111100001111111100001111000000001111
29 0101101010100101101001010101101001011010101001011010010101011010
30 0011110011000011110000110011110000111100110000111100001100111100
31 0110100110010110100101100110100101101001100101101001011001101001
32 0000000000000000000000000000000011111111111111111111111111111111
33 0101010101010101010101010101010110101010101010101010101010101010
34 0011001100110011001100110011001111001100110011001100110011001100
35 0110011001100110011001100110011010011001100110011001100110011001
36 0000111100001111000011110000111111110000111100001111000011110000
37 0101101001011010010110100101101010100101101001011010010110100101
38 0011110000111100001111000011110011000011110000111100001111000011
39 0110100101101001011010010110100110010110100101101001011010010110
40 0000000011111111000000001111111111111111000000001111111100000000
41 0101010110101010010101011010101010101010010101011010101001010101
42 0011001111001100001100111100110011001100001100111100110000110011
43 0110011010011001011001101001100110011001011001101001100101100110
44 0000111111110000000011111111000011110000000011111111000000001111
45 0101101010100101010110101010010110100101010110101010010101011010
46 0011110011000011001111001100001111000011001111001100001100111100
47 0110100110010110011010011001011010010110011010011001011001101001
48 0000000000000000111111111111111111111111111111110000000000000000
49 0101010101010101101010101010101010101010101010100101010101010101
50 0011001100110011110011001100110011001100110011000011001100110011
51 0110011001100110100110011001100110011001100110010110011001100110
52 0000111100001111111100001111000011110000111100000000111100001111
53 0101101001011010101001011010010110100101101001010101101001011010
54 0011110000111100110000111100001111000011110000110011110000111100
55 0110100101101001100101101001011010010110100101100110100101101001
56 0000000011111111111111110000000011111111000000000000000011111111
57 0101010110101010101010100101010110101010010101010101010110101010
58 0011001111001100110011000011001111001100001100110011001111001100
59 0110011010011001100110010110011010011001011001100110011010011001
60 0000111111110000111100000000111111110000000011110000111111110000
61 0101101010100101101001010101101010100101010110100101101010100101
62 0011110011000011110000110011110011000011001111000011110011000011
63 0110100110010110100101100110100110010110011010010110100110010110
EXAMPLE:
Correlation of Walsh Code #23 with Walsh Code #59
#23 0110100101101001100101101001011001101001011010011001011010010110
#59 0110011010011001100110010110011010011001011001100110011010011001
Sum 0000111111110000000011111111000011110000000011111111000000001111
Correlation Results: 32 1s, 32 0s: Orthogonal!!
Unique Properties:
Mutual Orthogonality
In CDMA2000, user data comes at various speeds, and different lengths of walsh codes can exist.
See Course 332 for more details on CDMA2000 1xRTT fast data channels and additional Walsh codes.
The Other Two Spreading Sequences:
The Pseudo-random Noise (PN) codes
Other CDMA sequences are
generated in shift registers
Plain shift register: no fun,
sequence = length of register
Tapped shift register generates a
wild, self-mutating sequence 2
N
-1
chips long (N=register length)
Such sequences match if
compared in step (no-brainer,
any sequence matches itself)
Such sequences appear
approximately orthogonal if
compared with themselves not
exactly matched in time
false correlation typically <2%
A Tapped, Summing Shift Register
Sequence repeats every 2
N
-1 chips,
where N is number of cells in register
An Ordinary Shift Register
Sequence repeats every N chips,
where N is number of cells in register
A Special Characteristic of Sequences
Generated in Tapped Shift Registers
Compared In-Step: Matches Itself
Complete Correlation: All 0s Sum:
Self, in sync:
Sequence:
Compared Shifted: Little Correlation
Practically Orthogonal: Half 1s, Half 0s Sum:
Self, Shifted:
Sequence:
Original IS-95 CDMA PN Scrambling
Short PN
Scrambling
New CDMA2000 1x Complex Scrambling
Another CDMA Spreading Sequence:
The Short PN Code, used for Scrambling
The short PN code consists of
two PN Sequences, I and Q, each
32,768 chips long
Generated in similar but
differently-tapped 15-bit shift
registers
the two sequences scramble
the information on the I and Q
phase channels
Figures to the right show how one
users channel is built at the bTS
I
Q
32,768 chips long
26-2/3 ms.
(75 repetitions in 2 sec.)
E
RF: cos et
RF: sin et
users
symbols
QPSK-
modulated
RF
Output
Same
information
duplicated
on I and Q
Walsh
I-sequence
Q-sequence
E
RF:
cos et
sin et
RF
users
symbols
Q
P
S
K

O
u
t
p
u
t
Walsh
S
e
r
i
a
l

t
o
P
a
r
a
l
l
e
l
E
E
+
Different
Information
on I and Q
Complex Scrambling
I-sequence
Q-sequence
-
+
+
Another CDMA Spreading Sequence:
The PN Long Code
Every phone and every BTS channel element has a Long Code generator
Long Code State Register makes long code at system reference timing
A Mask Register holds a user-specific unique pattern of bits
Each clock pulse drives the Long Code State Register to its next state
State register and Mask register contents are added in the Summer
Summer contents are modulo-2 added to produce just a single bit output
The output bits are the Long Code, but shifted to the users unique offset
LONG CODE STATE REGISTER dynamic contents, zero timing shift
MASK REGISTER unique steady contents cause unique timing shift
SUMMER holds dynamic modulo-2 sum of LC State and Mask registers
Each clock cycle, all the Summer bits are
added into a single-bit modulo-2 sum
The shifted Long Code emerges, chip by chip!
clock
Different Masks Produce
Different Long PN Offsets
Ordinary mobiles use their ESNs and
the Public Long Code Mask to
produce their unique Long Code PN
offsets
main ingredient: mobile ESN
Mobiles needing greater privacy use
the Private Long Code Mask
instead of 32-bit ESN, the mask
value is produced from SSD
Word B in a calculation similar to
authentication
Each BTS sector has an Access
Channel where mobiles transmit for
registration and call setup
the Access Channel Long Code
Mask includes Access Channel
#, Paging Channel #, BTS ID,
and Pilot PN
The BTS transmits all of these
parameters on the Paging
Channel
fixed AC# PC# BASE_ID PILOT PN
LONG CODE STATE REGISTER
SUMMING REGISTER
SUMMING REGISTER
fixed PERMUTED ESN
SUMMING REGISTER
calculated PRIVATE LONG CODE MASK
ACCESS CHANNEL (IDLE MODE)
USING THE ACCESSCHANNELLONG CODEMASK
TRAFFIC CHANNEL NORMAL
USING THE PUBLIC LONG CODE MASK
TRAFFIC CHANNEL PRIVATE
USING THE PRIVATE LONG CODE MASK
CDMA Core Principles CDMA Core Principles
J uly, 2013 186 123 Course 186 2013 Scott Baxter
Downlink Signals of a 3-sector CDMA Site
In a system with just one Carrier Frequency
PN OFFSET PN OFFSET
A
The word carrier is sometimes used to mean just the sine wave of a radio
signal with no modulation. In CDMA the signal is 1.25 MHz. wide whether it is
carrying any traffic or empty, and we always call the whole signal a carrier.
Inside a CDMA carrier, multiple streams of data for multiple users are all
carried in the form of unique codes. There is no way to extract a users data
by listening on a particular frequency within the CDMA signal; the whole
signal must be demodulated and then the specific users information can be
extracted using a decoding process.
Example:
1931.25
MHz.
Channel 25
Sector
Alpha
Sector
Beta
Sector
Gamma
Forward Link Signals of a 3-sector CDMA Site
Using Only One Carrier Frequency
PN OFFSET PN OFFSET
Each sectors signal uses the PN Short code but with a unique timing delay.
To hear this sector, a mobile makes the short PN code in step with this sector.
A
Example:
1931.25
MHz.
Channel 25
Sector
Alpha
Sector
Beta
Sector
Gamma
PN OFFSET PN OFFSET
Inside the signal of one sector, every users call or data session has its own
private Walsh code. The administrative Pilot, Sync, and Paging channels
also have their own Walsh codes. There are 64 or 128 Walsh codes available,
depending on configuration. Each sector is completely free to use its own
walsh codes any way it wishes, just as a hotel numbers its own rooms.
A
Example:
1931.25
MHz.
Channel 25
Sector
Alpha
Sector
Beta
Sector
Gamma
Walsh
Codes
Walsh
Codes
Walsh
Codes
PN OFFSET PN OFFSET
Inside the signal of one sector, every users call or data session has its own
private Walsh code. The administrative Pilot, Sync, and Paging channels
also have their own Walsh codes. There are 64 or 128 Walsh codes available,
depending on configuration. Each sector is completely free to use its own
walsh codes any way it wishes, just as a hotel numbers its own rooms.
All the sectors of this base station are on the same frequency, and the
bandwidth of the transmitted signals are about 1.25 MHz.
Example:
1931.25
MHz.
Channel 25
Sector
Alpha
Sector
Beta
Sector
Gamma
CARRIER F1
The Capacity of One Carrier
PN OFFSET PN OFFSET
PN
OFFSET
If the inherent capacity of one carrier is not enough to meet traffic demand,
additional carrier frequencies can be added to sectors as desired.
A
Example:
1931.25
MHz.
Channel 25
Sector
Alpha
Sector
Beta
Sector
Gamma
Walsh Codes
Walsh Codes
In original IS-95 CDMA, and in the RC3 mode of 1xRTT CDMA, a sector can
have up to 64 walsh codes active in its signal. Three have administrative
functions, leaving 61 available to carry individual users calls.
Best-case, each sector could carry 61 calls, for a total of 183 calls being
carried by the base station.
In the RC4 mode,
In the real world,
CARRIER F3
CARRIER F2
CARRIER F1
More Carriers for More Capacity
PN OFFSET PN OFFSET
PN
OFFSET
PN OFFSET PN OFFSET
PN
OFFSET
PN OFFSET PN OFFSET
PN
OFFSET
Several methods are available to dynamically assign the mobiles among the
available carriers.
Example:
1931.25
MHz.
Channel 25
Example:
1932.50
MHz.
Channel 50
Example:
1940.00
MHz.
Channel 200
Sector
Alpha
Sector
Beta
Sector
Gamma
Sector
Alpha
Sector
Beta
Sector
Gamma
Sector
Alpha
Sector
Beta
Sector
Gamma
CDMA Mobile Transmit (Reverse Link)
Each mobile uses the PN Long Code at a unique timing shift different from any
other mobile. This allows the mobile to be heard by the correct sector or
combination of sectors without conflict from any other mobile.
The forward link and reverse links are on different frequencies.
In the 1900 MHz. band, the duplex separation is 80 MHz.
In the 800/900 MHz. bands, the duplex separation is 45 MHz.
The mobiles transmit on the low frequency of the pair.
Example:
1851.25
MHz.
Channel
50
CARRIER F3
CARRIER F2
CARRIER F1
Different Mobiles on Different Carriers
Each mobile transmits 80 MHz. below the forward link carrier it is using. The
noise level on each sector is caused just by the mobiles on that carrier.
Example:
1851.25
MHz.
Channel
25
Example:
1852.50
MHz.
Channel
50
Example:
1860.00
MHz.
Channel
200
CDMA: Using A New Dimension
All CDMA users occupy the same frequency
at the same time! Frequency and time are
not used as discriminators
CDMA operates by using CODING to
discriminate between users
CDMA interference comes mainly from
nearby users
Each user is a small voice in a roaring
crowd -- but with a uniquely recoverable
code
CDMA
Figure of Merit: C/I
(carrier/interference ratio)
AMPS: +17 dB
TDMA: +14 to +17 dB
GSM: +7 to 9 dB.
CDMA: -10 to -17 dB.
CDMA: E
b
/N
o
~+6 dB.
CDMA: E
c
/I
o
>-14 dB.
We watch Ec/Io because it is available use it for deciding handoff partners
Our end-result Traffic Channel bit power vs noise
Raw RF of one channel vs all the energy
IS-95 CDMA Forward and
Reverse Channels
IS-95 CDMA Forward and
Reverse Channels
The Original IS-95 CDMA Code Channels
Existing IS-95A/J Std-008 CDMA uses the channels above for call setup and
traffic channels all call processing transactions use these channels
traffic channels are 9600 bps (rate set 1) or 14400 bps (rate set 2)
IS-2000 CDMA is backward-compatible with IS-95, but offers additional
radio configurations and additional kinds of possible channels
These additional modes are called Radio Configurations
IS-95 Rate Set 1 and 2 are IS-2000 Radio Configurations 1 & 2
FORWARD CHANNELS
BTS
W0: PILOT
W32: SYNC
W1: PAGING
Wn: TRAFFIC
REVERSE CHANNELS
ACCESS
TRAFFIC
The Code Channels of 1xRTT Rev. 0
CDMA2000 1xRTT has a rich
variety of traffic channels for
voice and fast data
There are also optional
additional control channels
for more effective operation
Includes Power
Control Subchannel
Enhanced
Access Channel
Common
Control Channel
Dedicated
Control Channel
Reverse Fundamental
Channel (IS95B comp.)
Reverse
Supplemental Channel
Access Channel
(IS-95B compatible)
R-TRAFFIC
REVERSE CHANNELS
R-Pilot
R-CCCH
R-DCCH
R-FCH
R-SCH
R-EACH
1
1
0 or 1
0 or 1
0 to 2
R-ACH or
1
BTS
Dedicated
Control Channel
Same coding as IS-95B,
Backward compatible
Backward compatible
Backward compatible
Broadcast Channel
Quick Paging Channel
Common
Power Control Channel
Common
Assignment Channel
Common
Control Channels
Forward
Traffic Channels
Fundamental Channel
Supplemental
Channels IS-95B only
Supplemental
Channels RC3,4,5
F-TRAFFIC
FORWARD CHANNELS
F-Pilot
F-Sync
PAGING
F-BCH
F-QPCH
F-CPCCH
F-CACH
F-CCCH
F-DCCH
1
1
1 to 7
0 to 8
0 to 3
0 to 4
0 to 7
0 to 7
0 or 1
F-FCH
F-SCH
F-SCH
1
0 to 7
0 to 2
IS-95B only
Users:
0 to many
How many
Possible:
See Course 332 for more details.
Walsh Codes in 1xRTT
Data Rates are different, but
Chip Rates must stay the same!
SYMBOLS of 2G VOICE or DATA
One Symbol of Information
64 chips of Walsh Code
1,228,800 walsh chips/second
19,200 symbols/second
DATA
SYMBOLS
WALSH
CODE
SYMBOLS of 3G 153.6 kb/s DATA
One Symbol of Fast Data
4 Chips of Walsh Code 1,228,800 walsh chips/second
307,200 symbols/second
DATA
SYMBOLS
WALSH
CODE
The Famous Walsh Codes from IS-95 Days
64 Magic Sequences, each 64 chips long
Each Walsh Code is precisely Orthogonal with
respect to all other Walsh Codes and their
opposites too!
its simple to generate the codes, or
theyre small enough to use from ROM
WALSH CODES
# ---------------------------------- 64-Chip Sequence ------------------------------------------
0 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000
1 0101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101
2 0011001100110011001100110011001100110011001100110011001100110011
3 0110011001100110011001100110011001100110011001100110011001100110
4 0000111100001111000011110000111100001111000011110000111100001111
5 0101101001011010010110100101101001011010010110100101101001011010
6 0011110000111100001111000011110000111100001111000011110000111100
7 0110100101101001011010010110100101101001011010010110100101101001
8 0000000011111111000000001111111100000000111111110000000011111111
9 0101010110101010010101011010101001010101101010100101010110101010
10 0011001111001100001100111100110000110011110011000011001111001100
11 0110011010011001011001101001100101100110100110010110011010011001
12 0000111111110000000011111111000000001111111100000000111111110000
13 0101101010100101010110101010010101011010101001010101101010100101
14 0011110011000011001111001100001100111100110000110011110011000011
15 0110100110010110011010011001011001101001100101100110100110010110
16 0000000000000000111111111111111100000000000000001111111111111111
17 0101010101010101101010101010101001010101010101011010101010101010
18 0011001100110011110011001100110000110011001100111100110011001100
19 0110011001100110100110011001100101100110011001101001100110011001
20 0000111100001111111100001111000000001111000011111111000011110000
21 0101101001011010101001011010010101011010010110101010010110100101
22 0011110000111100110000111100001100111100001111001100001111000011
23 0110100101101001100101101001011001101001011010011001011010010110
24 0000000011111111111111110000000000000000111111111111111100000000
25 0101010110101010101010100101010101010101101010101010101001010101
26 0011001111001100110011000011001100110011110011001100110000110011
27 0110011010011001100110010110011001100110100110011001100101100110
28 0000111111110000111100000000111100001111111100001111000000001111
29 0101101010100101101001010101101001011010101001011010010101011010
30 0011110011000011110000110011110000111100110000111100001100111100
31 0110100110010110100101100110100101101001100101101001011001101001
32 0000000000000000000000000000000011111111111111111111111111111111
33 0101010101010101010101010101010110101010101010101010101010101010
34 0011001100110011001100110011001111001100110011001100110011001100
35 0110011001100110011001100110011010011001100110011001100110011001
36 0000111100001111000011110000111111110000111100001111000011110000
37 0101101001011010010110100101101010100101101001011010010110100101
38 0011110000111100001111000011110011000011110000111100001111000011
39 0110100101101001011010010110100110010110100101101001011010010110
40 0000000011111111000000001111111111111111000000001111111100000000
41 0101010110101010010101011010101010101010010101011010101001010101
42 0011001111001100001100111100110011001100001100111100110000110011
43 0110011010011001011001101001100110011001011001101001100101100110
44 0000111111110000000011111111000011110000000011111111000000001111
45 0101101010100101010110101010010110100101010110101010010101011010
46 0011110011000011001111001100001111000011001111001100001100111100
47 0110100110010110011010011001011010010110011010011001011001101001
48 0000000000000000111111111111111111111111111111110000000000000000
49 0101010101010101101010101010101010101010101010100101010101010101
50 0011001100110011110011001100110011001100110011000011001100110011
51 0110011001100110100110011001100110011001100110010110011001100110
52 0000111100001111111100001111000011110000111100000000111100001111
53 0101101001011010101001011010010110100101101001010101101001011010
54 0011110000111100110000111100001111000011110000110011110000111100
55 0110100101101001100101101001011010010110100101100110100101101001
56 0000000011111111111111110000000011111111000000000000000011111111
57 0101010110101010101010100101010110101010010101010101010110101010
58 0011001111001100110011000011001111001100001100110011001111001100
59 0110011010011001100110010110011010011001011001100110011010011001
60 0000111111110000111100000000111111110000000011110000111111110000
61 0101101010100101101001010101101010100101010110100101101010100101
62 0011110011000011110000110011110011000011001111000011110011000011
63 0110100110010110100101100110100110010110011010010110100110010110
EXAMPLE:
Correlation of Walsh Code #23 with Walsh Code #59
#23 0110100101101001100101101001011001101001011010011001011010010110
#59 0110011010011001100110010110011010011001011001100110011010011001
Sum 0000111111110000000011111111000011110000000011111111000000001111
Correlation Results: 32 1s, 32 0s: Orthogonal!!
Unique Properties:
Mutual Orthogonality
Families of the Walsh Codes
All Walsh codes can be built to any size from a
single zero by replicating and inverting
All Walsh matrixes are square -- same number
of codes and number of chips per code
WALSH CODES
# ---------------------------------- 64-Chip Sequence ------------------------------------------
0 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000
1 0101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101
2 0011001100110011001100110011001100110011001100110011001100110011
3 0110011001100110011001100110011001100110011001100110011001100110
4 0000111100001111000011110000111100001111000011110000111100001111
5 0101101001011010010110100101101001011010010110100101101001011010
6 0011110000111100001111000011110000111100001111000011110000111100
7 0110100101101001011010010110100101101001011010010110100101101001
8 0000000011111111000000001111111100000000111111110000000011111111
9 0101010110101010010101011010101001010101101010100101010110101010
10 0011001111001100001100111100110000110011110011000011001111001100
11 0110011010011001011001101001100101100110100110010110011010011001
12 0000111111110000000011111111000000001111111100000000111111110000
13 0101101010100101010110101010010101011010101001010101101010100101
14 0011110011000011001111001100001100111100110000110011110011000011
15 0110100110010110011010011001011001101001100101100110100110010110
16 0000000000000000111111111111111100000000000000001111111111111111
17 0101010101010101101010101010101001010101010101011010101010101010
18 0011001100110011110011001100110000110011001100111100110011001100
19 0110011001100110100110011001100101100110011001101001100110011001
20 0000111100001111111100001111000000001111000011111111000011110000
21 0101101001011010101001011010010101011010010110101010010110100101
22 0011110000111100110000111100001100111100001111001100001111000011
23 0110100101101001100101101001011001101001011010011001011010010110
24 0000000011111111111111110000000000000000111111111111111100000000
25 0101010110101010101010100101010101010101101010101010101001010101
26 0011001111001100110011000011001100110011110011001100110000110011
27 0110011010011001100110010110011001100110100110011001100101100110
28 0000111111110000111100000000111100001111111100001111000000001111
29 0101101010100101101001010101101001011010101001011010010101011010
30 0011110011000011110000110011110000111100110000111100001100111100
31 0110100110010110100101100110100101101001100101101001011001101001
32 0000000000000000000000000000000011111111111111111111111111111111
33 0101010101010101010101010101010110101010101010101010101010101010
34 0011001100110011001100110011001111001100110011001100110011001100
35 0110011001100110011001100110011010011001100110011001100110011001
36 0000111100001111000011110000111111110000111100001111000011110000
37 0101101001011010010110100101101010100101101001011010010110100101
38 0011110000111100001111000011110011000011110000111100001111000011
39 0110100101101001011010010110100110010110100101101001011010010110
40 0000000011111111000000001111111111111111000000001111111100000000
41 0101010110101010010101011010101010101010010101011010101001010101
42 0011001111001100001100111100110011001100001100111100110000110011
43 0110011010011001011001101001100110011001011001101001100101100110
44 0000111111110000000011111111000011110000000011111111000000001111
45 0101101010100101010110101010010110100101010110101010010101011010
46 0011110011000011001111001100001111000011001111001100001100111100
47 0110100110010110011010011001011010010110011010011001011001101001
48 0000000000000000111111111111111111111111111111110000000000000000
49 0101010101010101101010101010101010101010101010100101010101010101
50 0011001100110011110011001100110011001100110011000011001100110011
51 0110011001100110100110011001100110011001100110010110011001100110
52 0000111100001111111100001111000011110000111100000000111100001111
53 0101101001011010101001011010010110100101101001010101101001011010
54 0011110000111100110000111100001111000011110000110011110000111100
55 0110100101101001100101101001011010010110100101100110100101101001
56 0000000011111111111111110000000011111111000000000000000011111111
57 0101010110101010101010100101010110101010010101010101010110101010
58 0011001111001100110011000011001111001100001100110011001111001100
59 0110011010011001100110010110011010011001011001100110011010011001
60 0000111111110000111100000000111111110000000011110000111111110000
61 0101101010100101101001010101101010100101010110100101101010100101
62 0011110011000011110000110011110011000011001111000011110011000011
63 0110100110010110100101100110100110010110011010010110100110010110
WALSH CODES
# ----------- 32-Chip Sequence -------------
0 00000000000000000000000000000000
1 01010101010101010101010101010101
2 00110011001100110011001100110011
3 01100110011001100110011001100110
4 00001111000011110000111100001111
5 01011010010110100101101001011010
6 00111100001111000011110000111100
7 01101001011010010110100101101001
8 00000000111111110000000011111111
9 01010101101010100101010110101010
10 00110011110011000011001111001100
11 01100110100110010110011010011001
12 00001111111100000000111111110000
13 01011010101001010101101010100101
14 00111100110000110011110011000011
15 01101001100101100110100110010110
16 00000000000000001111111111111111
17 01010101010101011010101010101010
18 00110011001100111100110011001100
19 01100110011001101001100110011001
20 00001111000011111111000011110000
21 01011010010110101010010110100101
22 00111100001111001100001111000011
23 01101001011010011001011010010110
24 00000000111111111111111100000000
25 01010101101010101010101001010101
26 00110011110011001100110000110011
27 01100110100110011001100101100110
28 00001111111100001111000000001111
29 01011010101001011010010101011010
30 00111100110000111100001100111100
31 01101001100101101001011001101001
WALSH
# ---- 16-Chips -------
0 0000000000000000
1 0101010101010101
2 0011001100110011
3 0110011001100110
4 0000111100001111
5 0101101001011010
6 0011110000111100
7 0110100101101001
8 0000000011111111
9 0101010110101010
10 0011001111001100
11 0110011010011001
12 0000111111110000
13 0101101010100101
14 0011110011000011
15 0110100110010110
WALSH
# 8-Chips
0 00000000
1 01010101
2 00110011
3 01100110
4 00001111
5 01011010
6 00111100
7 01101001
WALSH
# 4-Chips
0 0000
1 0101
2 0011
3 0110
WALSH
# 2-Chips
0 00
1 01
WALSH
# 1-Chip
0 0
64x64
32x32
16x16
8x8
4x4
2x2
Walsh Level Mapping
The Walsh Codes shown here are in logical
state values 0 and 1.
Walsh Codes also can exist as physical
bipolar signals. Logical zero is the signal
value +1 and Logical 1 is the signal value -1.
Mapping: Logical 0,1 > +1, -1 Physical
Walsh Code Names
W12
32
=Walsh Code #12, 32 chips long.
Walsh Code Trees and Interdependencies
Entire Walsh matrices can be built by replicating and inverting -- Individual
Walsh codes can also be expanded in the same way.
CDMA adds each symbol of information to one complete Walsh code
Faster symbol rates therefore require shorter Walsh codes
If a short Walsh code is chosen to carry a fast data channel, that walsh
code and all its replicative descendants are compromised and cannot be
reused to carry other signals
Therefore, the supply of available Walsh codes on a sector diminishes
greatly while a fast data channel is being transmitted!
CDMA2000 Base stations can dip into a supply of quasi-orthogonal codes
if needed to permit additional channels during times of heavy loading
0110
1001
0110
0110
0110
0110 0110 0110 0110
0110 0110 1001 1001
1001 0110 1001 0110
1001 0110 1001 0110
1001 0110 1001 0110 1001 0110 1001 0110
1001 0110 1001 0110 1001 0110 1001 0110
1001 0110 1001 0110
1001 0110 1001 0110
1001 0110 1001 0110
1001 0110 1001 0110
0110 0110 1001 1001
0110 0110 1001 1001 0110 0110 1001 1001
0110 0110 1001 1001
0110 0110 0110 0110 0110 0110 0110 0110
0110 0110 0110 0110 1001 1001 1001 1001
W3
4
W3
8
W7
8
W7
16
W11
16
W3
16
W15
16
W7
32
W23
32
W15
32
W31
32
W27
32
W11
32
W19
32
W3
32
W3
64
W35
64
W19
64
W51
64
W11
64
W43
64
W27
64
W59
64
W7
64
W39
64
W23
64
W55
64
W15
64
W47
64
W31
64
W63
64
Walsh Code Families and Exclusions
Consider a forward link supplemental
channel being transmitted with a data
rate of 307,200 symbols/second
Each symbol will occupy 4 chips at
the 1x rate of 1,228,800 c/s.
A 4-chip walsh code will be used for
this channel
If Walsh Code #3 (4 chips) is chosen for
this channel:
Use of W3
4
will preclude other usage
of the following 64-chip walsh codes:
3, 35, 19, 51, 11, 43, 27, 59, 7, 39,
23, 55, 15, 47, 31, 63 -- all forbidden!
16 codes are tied up since the data is
being sent at 16 times the rate of
conventional 64-chip walsh codes
The BTS controller managing this sector
must track the precluded walsh codes
and ensure they arent assigned
WALSH CODES
# ---------------------------------- 64-Chip Sequence ------------------------------------------
0 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000
1 0101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101
2 0011001100110011001100110011001100110011001100110011001100110011
3 0110011001100110011001100110011001100110011001100110011001100110
4 0000111100001111000011110000111100001111000011110000111100001111
5 0101101001011010010110100101101001011010010110100101101001011010
6 0011110000111100001111000011110000111100001111000011110000111100
7 0110100101101001011010010110100101101001011010010110100101101001
8 0000000011111111000000001111111100000000111111110000000011111111
9 0101010110101010010101011010101001010101101010100101010110101010
10 0011001111001100001100111100110000110011110011000011001111001100
11 0110011010011001011001101001100101100110100110010110011010011001
12 0000111111110000000011111111000000001111111100000000111111110000
13 0101101010100101010110101010010101011010101001010101101010100101
14 0011110011000011001111001100001100111100110000110011110011000011
15 0110100110010110011010011001011001101001100101100110100110010110
16 0000000000000000111111111111111100000000000000001111111111111111
17 0101010101010101101010101010101001010101010101011010101010101010
18 0011001100110011110011001100110000110011001100111100110011001100
19 0110011001100110100110011001100101100110011001101001100110011001
20 0000111100001111111100001111000000001111000011111111000011110000
21 0101101001011010101001011010010101011010010110101010010110100101
22 0011110000111100110000111100001100111100001111001100001111000011
23 0110100101101001100101101001011001101001011010011001011010010110
24 0000000011111111111111110000000000000000111111111111111100000000
25 0101010110101010101010100101010101010101101010101010101001010101
26 0011001111001100110011000011001100110011110011001100110000110011
27 0110011010011001100110010110011001100110100110011001100101100110
28 0000111111110000111100000000111100001111111100001111000000001111
29 0101101010100101101001010101101001011010101001011010010101011010
30 0011110011000011110000110011110000111100110000111100001100111100
31 0110100110010110100101100110100101101001100101101001011001101001
32 0000000000000000000000000000000011111111111111111111111111111111
33 0101010101010101010101010101010110101010101010101010101010101010
34 0011001100110011001100110011001111001100110011001100110011001100
35 0110011001100110011001100110011010011001100110011001100110011001
36 0000111100001111000011110000111111110000111100001111000011110000
37 0101101001011010010110100101101010100101101001011010010110100101
38 0011110000111100001111000011110011000011110000111100001111000011
39 0110100101101001011010010110100110010110100101101001011010010110
40 0000000011111111000000001111111111111111000000001111111100000000
41 0101010110101010010101011010101010101010010101011010101001010101
42 0011001111001100001100111100110011001100001100111100110000110011
43 0110011010011001011001101001100110011001011001101001100101100110
44 0000111111110000000011111111000011110000000011111111000000001111
45 0101101010100101010110101010010110100101010110101010010101011010
46 0011110011000011001111001100001111000011001111001100001100111100
47 0110100110010110011010011001011010010110011010011001011001101001
48 0000000000000000111111111111111111111111111111110000000000000000
49 0101010101010101101010101010101010101010101010100101010101010101
50 0011001100110011110011001100110011001100110011000011001100110011
51 0110011001100110100110011001100110011001100110010110011001100110
52 0000111100001111111100001111000011110000111100000000111100001111
53 0101101001011010101001011010010110100101101001010101101001011010
54 0011110000111100110000111100001111000011110000110011110000111100
55 0110100101101001100101101001011010010110100101100110100101101001
56 0000000011111111111111110000000011111111000000000000000011111111
57 0101010110101010101010100101010110101010010101010101010110101010
58 0011001111001100110011000011001111001100001100110011001111001100
59 0110011010011001100110010110011010011001011001100110011010011001
60 0000111111110000111100000000111111110000000011110000111111110000
61 0101101010100101101001010101101010100101010110100101101010100101
62 0011110011000011110000110011110011000011001111000011110011000011
63 0110100110010110100101100110100110010110011010010110100110010110
0110 W3
4
Which Walsh Codes get tied up by another?
Wxx
yy
ties up every YYth Walsh Code starting with #XX.
Forward Link Walsh Codes in 1xRTT
9,600
4,800
2,400
sps
307200
sps
153,600
sps
76,800
sps
38,400
sps
19,200
sps
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
1
2
8

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Code#
Code#
7 3 5 1 6 2 4 0
3 1 2 0
15 7 11 3 13 5 9 1 14 6 10 2 12 4 8 0
31 15 23 7 27 11 19 3 29 13 21 5 25 9 17 1 30 14 22 6 26 10 18 2 28 12 20 4 24 8 16 0
5
4
1
2
7
6
3
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5
3
1
1
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1 7
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1
2
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1
0
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4
3
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1
1
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5
1
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3
1
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9
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3
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6
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3
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6
9 5
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2
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8
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3
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4
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3
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6
13
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3
2
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3
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76.8
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76.8
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76.8
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76.8
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76.8
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76.8
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76.8
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76.8
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76.8
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76.8
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76.8
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76.8
ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
307.2 ksps
F-SCH
307.2 ksps
3
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.
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76.8
ksps
This way of arranging Walsh codes is called bit reversal order. It shows each Walsh
codes parents and children. Remember, we cannot use any Walsh code if another
Walsh code directly above it or below it is in use.
IS-95 Today Typical Usage:
Pilot, Paging Sync, up to 61 Voice Users
But if the users are highly mobile, forward power may exhaust at typically 30-40 users.
In fixed-wireless or stadium type applications, all walsh codes may be usable.
9,600
4,800
2,400
sps
307200
sps
153,600
sps
76,800
sps
38,400
sps
19,200
sps
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
1
2
8

c
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p
s
4

c
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8

c
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1
6

c
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3
2

c
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s
6
4

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Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
7 3 5 1 6 2 4 0
3 1 2 0
15 7 11 3 13 5 9 1 14 6 10 2 12 4 8 0
31 15 23 7 27 11 19 3 29 13 21 5 25 9 17 1 30 14 22 6 26 10 18 2 28 12 20 4 24 8 16 0
5
4
1
2
7
6
3
9
5
3
1
1
1
1
4
7
7
9
1
5
1
1
9
5
5
8
7
2
3
1
0
3
3
9
7
1 7
1
2
3
5
9
9
1
2
7
1
0
7
4
3
7
5
1
1
1
1
5
5
1
8
3
1
9
9
9
3
5
6
7 3
1
2
5
6
1
9
3
2
9
1
0
9
4
5
7
7
1
3
1
1
7
5
3
8
5
2
1
1
0
1
3
7
6
9 5
1
2
1
5
7
8
9
2
5
1
0
5
4
1
7
3 9
1
1
3
4
9
8
1
1
8
9
7
3
3
6
5 1
1
2
6
6
2
9
4
3
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1
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4
6
7
8
1
4
1
1
8
8
6
2
2
1
0
2
3
8
7
0 6
1
2
2
5
8
9
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2
6
1
0
6
4
2
7
4
1
0
1
1
4
5
0
8
2
1
8
9
8
3
4
6
6 2
1
2
4
6
0
9
2
2
8
1
0
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4
4
7
6
1
2
1
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6
6
8 4
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8
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2
4
1
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4
4
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2 8
1
1
2
4
8
8
0
1
6
9
6
3
2
6
4 0
0
3
2
1
6
4
88
4
0
2
4
5
64
3
6
2
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2
1
2
4
4
2
8
6
02
3
4
1
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0
1
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3
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3
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21
3
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1
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4
99
4
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3
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1
1
4
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5
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3
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76.8
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76.8
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76.8
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76.8
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76.8
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76.8
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76.8
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76.8
ksps
76.8
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76.8
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76.8
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76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
307.2 ksps
F-SCH
307.2 ksps
3
8
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4
k
3
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??? ? ? ? ?
Traffic Channels
Voice or Data
9.6k/14.4k
76.8
ksps
3
8
.
4
k
Mixed IS-95 / 1xRTT RC3 Voice Typical Usage:
FCHs of 1xRTT RC3 users consume less power, so more total users are possible than in
IS-95. The BTS will probably have enough forward power to carry calls on all 61 walsh codes!
9,600
4,800
2,400
sps
307200
sps
153,600
sps
76,800
sps
38,400
sps
19,200
sps
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
1
2
8

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4

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2

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Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
7 3 5 1 6 2 4 0
3 1 2 0
15 7 11 3 13 5 9 1 14 6 10 2 12 4 8 0
31 15 23 7 27 11 19 3 29 13 21 5 25 9 17 1 30 14 22 6 26 10 18 2 28 12 20 4 24 8 16 0
5
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76.8
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76.8
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76.8
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76.8
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76.8
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76.8
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76.8
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76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
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76.8
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76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
307.2 ksps
F-SCH
307.2 ksps
3
8
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2
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1
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2
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1
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1
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2
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1
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.
2
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1
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.
2
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1
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.
2
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F-FCHs mixed
RC1,2,3 Voice
76.8
ksps
? ?
A Possible 1xRTT RC3 BTS Dynamic State:
1 F-SCH, 27 Voice IS-95/1xRTT RC3 Users, 16 Active Data Users
The data users can rapidly share the one F-SCH for 153 kb/s peak, ~9Kb/s avg. user rates.
But so many active data users F-FCHs consume a lot of capacity, reduce number of voice users!
9,600
4,800
2,400
sps
307200
sps
153,600
sps
76,800
sps
38,400
sps
19,200
sps
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
1
2
8

c
h
i
p
s
4

c
h
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s
8

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1
6

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3
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4

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Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
7 3 5 1 6 2 4 0
3 1 2 0
15 7 11 3 13 5 9 1 14 6 10 2 12 4 8 0
31 15 23 7 27 11 19 3 29 13 21 5 25 9 17 1 30 14 22 6 26 10 18 2 28 12 20 4 24 8 16 0
5
4
1
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3
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3
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4
1
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3
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13
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1
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1
1
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3
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76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
307.2 ksps
F-SCH
307.2 ksps
3
8
.
4
k
3
8
.
4
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3
8
.
4
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3
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3
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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2
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1
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2
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1
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.
2
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1
9
.
2
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1
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.
2
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1
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.
2
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1
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.
2
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1
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.
2
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1
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.
2
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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2
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1
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.
2
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1
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.
2
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1
9
.
2
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1
9
.
2
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1
9
.
2
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1
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.
2
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1
9
.
2
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1
9
.
2
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1
9
.
2
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1
9
.
2
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1
9
.
2
k
1
9
.
2
k
1
9
.
2
k
1
9
.
2
k
1
9
.
2
k
1
9
.
2
k
1
9
.
2
k
1
9
.
2
k
1
9
.
2
k
1
9
.
2
k
1
9
.
2
k
1
9
.
2
k
1
9
.
2
k
1
9
.
2
k
1
9
.
2
k
1
9
.
2
k
1
9
.
2
k
1
9
.
2
k
1
9
.
2
k
1
9
.
2
k
F-SCH 153K RC3
F-FCHs 9.6k
RC3 Data
F-FCHs 9.6k
RC3 Voice
F-FCHs 9.6k
RC3 Voice
76.8
ksps
A Possible 1xRTT RC3 BTS Dynamic State:
1 F-SCH, 39 IS-95/1xRTT RC3 Voice Users, 4 Active+12 Dormant Data Users
But it takes seconds to move various data users from Dormant to Active!
Data users will get 153 kb/s peak, ~9 kb/s average, but latency will be high.
9,600
4,800
2,400
sps
307200
sps
153,600
sps
76,800
sps
38,400
sps
19,200
sps
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
1
2
8

c
h
i
p
s
4

c
h
i
p
s
8

c
h
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p
s
1
6

c
h
i
p
s
3
2

c
h
i
p
s
6
4

c
h
i
p
s
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
7 3 5 1 6 2 4 0
3 1 2 0
15 7 11 3 13 5 9 1 14 6 10 2 12 4 8 0
31 15 23 7 27 11 19 3 29 13 21 5 25 9 17 1 30 14 22 6 26 10 18 2 28 12 20 4 24 8 16 0
5
4
1
2
7
6
3
9
5
3
1
1
1
1
4
7
7
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1
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3
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1
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7
3
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1
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6
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4
3
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1
1
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4
6
7
8
1
4
1
1
8
8
6
2
2
1
0
2
3
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7
0 6
1
2
2
5
8
9
0
2
6
1
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6
4
2
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1
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2
1
8
9
8
3
4
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6 2
1
2
4
6
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9
2
2
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1
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4
4
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1
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3
6
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6
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1
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8
0
1
6
9
6
3
2
6
4 0
0
3
2
1
6
4
88
4
0
2
4
5
64
3
6
2
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5
2
1
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4
4
2
8
6
02
3
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1
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3
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3
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76.8
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76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
307.2 ksps
F-SCH
307.2 ksps
3
8
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3
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3
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2
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1
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2
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1
9
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2
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F-FCHs 9.6k
RC3 Voice
F-FCHs 9.6k
RC3 Voice
F-FCHs 9.6k
RC3 Voice
F
-
F
C
H
s
D
a
t
a
F-SCH 153K RC3
76.8
ksps
Slightly Improved 1xRTT RC3 BTS Dynamic State:
1 F-SCH, 37 IS-95/1xRTT RC3 Voice Users, 4 Active+12 Control-Hold Data Users
Instead of sending 16 data users to Dormant State, let them time-share 2 F-DCCH for
Control Hold state. Data users will get 153 kb/s peak, ~9 kb/s average, good latency.
Not yet available or implemented.
9,600
4,800
2,400
sps
307200
sps
153,600
sps
76,800
sps
38,400
sps
19,200
sps
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
1
2
8

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Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
7 3 5 1 6 2 4 0
3 1 2 0
15 7 11 3 13 5 9 1 14 6 10 2 12 4 8 0
31 15 23 7 27 11 19 3 29 13 21 5 25 9 17 1 30 14 22 6 26 10 18 2 28 12 20 4 24 8 16 0
5
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76.8
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76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
307.2 ksps
F-SCH
307.2 ksps
3
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4
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1
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1
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1
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2
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1
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1
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2
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2
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1
9
.
2
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1
9
.
2
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1
9
.
2
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1
9
.
2
k
F-FCHs 9.6k
RC3 Voice
F-FCHs 9.6k
RC3 Voice
F-FCHs 9.6k
RC3 Voice
F
-
F
C
H
s
D
a
t
a
F-SCH 153K RC3
F
-
D
C
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H
s
76.8
ksps
1xRTT RC4 Voice Only:
Wow! 118 users! But RC4 users F-FCHs consume as much power as old IS-95 calls.
BTS may run out of forward power before the all walsh codes are used.
9,600
4,800
2,400
sps
307200
sps
153,600
sps
76,800
sps
38,400
sps
19,200
sps
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
1
2
8

c
h
i
p
s
4

c
h
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p
s
8

c
h
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1
6

c
h
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3
2

c
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4

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Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
7 3 5 1 6 2 4 0
3 1 2 0
15 7 11 3 13 5 9 1 14 6 10 2 12 4 8 0
31 15 23 7 27 11 19 3 29 13 21 5 25 9 17 1 30 14 22 6 26 10 18 2 28 12 20 4 24 8 16 0
5
4
1
2
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6
3
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5
3
1
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76.8
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76.8
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76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
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76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
307.2 ksps
F-SCH
307.2 ksps
3
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1
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2
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1
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2
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1
9
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2
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1
9
.
2
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1
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2
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1
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2
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1
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2
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1
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2
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1
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2
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1
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2
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1
9
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2
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1
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2
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1
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2
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1
9
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2
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1
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2
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1
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.
2
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1
9
.
2
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F-FCHs 9.6k
RC4 Voice
F-FCHs 9.6k
RC4 Voice
F-FCHs 9.6k
RC4 Voice
F-FCHs 9.6k
RC4 Voice
??? ? ? ? ?
76.8
ksps
1xRTT RC4 Voice and Data:
1 F-SCH, 80 1xRTT RC4 Voice Users, 4 Active+12 Control-Hold RC4 Data Users
16 data users time-share 2 F-DCCH for Control Hold state. Data users will get 38.4,
76.4, 153.6 or 307.2 kb/s peak, ~19 kb/s average, good latency. But fwd power may exhaust!
9,600
4,800
2,400
sps
307200
sps
153,600
sps
76,800
sps
38,400
sps
19,200
sps
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
1
2
8

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4

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Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
7 3 5 1 6 2 4 0
3 1 2 0
15 7 11 3 13 5 9 1 14 6 10 2 12 4 8 0
31 15 23 7 27 11 19 3 29 13 21 5 25 9 17 1 30 14 22 6 26 10 18 2 28 12 20 4 24 8 16 0
5
4
1
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6
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3
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4
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76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
307.2 ksps
F-SCH
307.2 ksps
3
8
.
4
k
3
8
.
4
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3
8
.
4
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3
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4
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3
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1
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1
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2
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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2
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1
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2
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1
9
.
2
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1
9
.
2
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1
9
.
2
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1
9
.
2
k
F-SCH 307K RC4
F-FCHs 9.6k
RC4 Voice
F-FCHs 9.6k
RC4 Voice
F-FCHs 9.6k
RC4 Voice
?? ? ?
F
-
F
C
H
s
F
-
D
C
C
H
s
76.8
ksps
Mature 1xRTT Mixed-Mode Voice and Data:
1 RC3/RC4 Shared F-SCH, 20 RC3 Voice Users, 38 RC4 Voice Users,
4 Active+12 Control-Hold RC3 and RC4 Data Users
16 data users time-share 2 F-DCCH for Control Hold state. Data users will get
38.4, 76.4, 153.6 or 307.2 kb/s peak, ~9 or 19 kb/s average, good latency. Fwd power tight!
9,600
4,800
2,400
sps
307200
sps
153,600
sps
76,800
sps
38,400
sps
19,200
sps
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
1
2
8

c
h
i
p
s
4

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8

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1
6

c
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3
2

c
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s
6
4

c
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p
s
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
7 3 5 1 6 2 4 0
3 1 2 0
15 7 11 3 13 5 9 1 14 6 10 2 12 4 8 0
31 15 23 7 27 11 19 3 29 13 21 5 25 9 17 1 30 14 22 6 26 10 18 2 28 12 20 4 24 8 16 0
5
4
1
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6
3
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3
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0
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3
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2
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1
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3
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3
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99
4
1
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5
5
75
3
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2
1
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3
1
3
4
5
2
9
6
13
3
5
1
9
5
1
1
1
4
3
2
7
5
97
3
9
2
3
5
5
1
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4
7
3
1
6
3
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Q
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76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
307.2 ksps
F-SCH
307.2 ksps
3
8
.
4
k
3
8
.
4
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3
8
.
4
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3
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1
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1
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1
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2
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1
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1
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1
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1
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2
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1
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1
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1
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2
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1
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1
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1
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2
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1
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2
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1
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2
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1
9
.
2
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1
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2
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1
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2
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2
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1
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1
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2
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1
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.
2
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1
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2
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1
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2
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1
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.
2
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1
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.
2
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1
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.
2
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1
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.
2
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1
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.
2
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1
9
.
2
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1
9
.
2
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1
9
.
2
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1
9
.
2
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1
9
.
2
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1
9
.
2
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1
9
.
2
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1
9
.
2
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1
9
.
2
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1
9
.
2
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1
9
.
2
k
1
9
.
2
k
1
9
.
2
k
F-SCH 153K RC3
or
F-SCH 307K RC4
F-FCHs 9.6k
RC4 Voice
F-FCHs 9.6k
RC4 Voice
F-FCHs 9.6k
RC4 Voice
F-FCHs 9.6k
RC3 Voice
F-FCHs 9.6k
RC3 Voice
F-FCHs 9.6k
RC3 Voice
F
-
F
C
H
s
F
-
D
C
C
H
s
?? ? ?
76.8
ksps
CDMA Network Architecture CDMA Network Architecture
CDMA Network for Circuit-Switched Voice Calls
The first commercial IS-95 CDMA systems provided only circuit-
switched voice calls
t1 t1
v
CE
SEL
t1
PSTN
BTS
(C)BSC/Access Manager
Switch
Voice Call Path through the CDMA Network
BSC-BSM MTX BTS
Ch. Card ACC
E
o
E
|
E
_
TFU1
GPSR
BSM
CDSU
CDSU
SBS
Vocoders
Selectors
CDSU
CDSU
CDSU
CDSU
CDSU
CM SLM
LPP LPP ENET
DTCs
DMS-BUS
Txcvr
A
Txcvr
B
Txcvr
C
RFFE
A
RFFE
B
RFFE
C
TFU
GPSR
GPS
GPS
IOC
PSTN
CDSU DISCO CDSU
DISCO 1
DISCO 2
DS0 in T1
Packets
Chips
RF
Channel
Element
Vocoder,
Selector
1x Data Call Path through the CDMA Network
BSC-BSM MTX BTS
Ch. Card ACC
E
o
E
|
E
_
TFU1
GPSR
BSM
CDSU
CDSU
SBS
Vocoders
Selectors
CDSU
CDSU
CDSU
CDSU
CDSU
CM SLM
LPP LPP ENET
DTCs
DMS-BUS
Txcvr
A
Txcvr
B
Txcvr
C
RFFE
A
RFFE
B
RFFE
C
TFU
GPSR
GPS
GPS
IOC
PSTN
CDSU DISCO CDSU
DISCO 1
DISCO 2
Packets
Chips
RF
Channel
Elements
(FCH, SCH)
Selector
PDSN
Internet
VPNs
R-P
Interface
CDMA 1xRTT Voice and Data Network
CDMA2000 1xRTT networks added two new capabilities:
channel elements able to generate and carry independent streams of
symbols on the I and Q channels of the QPSK RF signal
this roughly doubles capacity compared to IS-95
a separate IP network implementing packet connections from the mobile
through to the outside internet
including Packet Data Serving Nodes (PDSNs) and a dedicated direct
data connection (the Packet-Radio Interface) to the heart of the BSC
The overall connection speed was still limited by the 1xRTT air interface
t1 t1
v
CE
SEL
t1
PDSN
Foreign Agent
PDSN
Home Agent
Backbone
Network
Internet
VPNs
PSTN
Authentication
Authorization
Accounting
AAA
BTS
Switch
06-2013 155 (c)2013 Scott Baxter and Associates
Simple IP Network Architecture
In a Simple IP network, the mobile is able to connect to the external
packet networks directly through the PDSN attached to the local BSC
The IP address for the internet connection is assigned by the local
PDSN from the pool of addresses available to it
If the mobile moves into a different network, the data session ends
The mobile can establish an entirely new connection through the
new network, if desired
t1 t1
v
CE
SEL
t1
R-P Interface
PDSN
PSTN
T
Authentication
Authorization
Accounting
AAA
CIRCUIT-SWITCHED VOICE TRAFFIC
BTS
Switch
Wireless
Mobile Device
POINT-TO-POINT PACKETS
FAST IP PACKET TRAFFIC
Simple IP
-IP Based
transport to data
networks
-Dynamic/static
connection from
local PDSN
-No mobility
beyond serving
PDSN
Internet
VPNs
rf
Fast!
Mobile IP in a Multi-Market Network
PSTN PSTN PSTN
Regional
Data
Center
Internet
Private IP
Networks
Operator's Private Network
PDSN
FA
Switch
BSC
PDSN
FA
Switch
Access
Mgr.
PDSN/FA
Switch
CBSC
PCF
RP Interface
RP
RP
Voice Voice Voice
IP Data IP Data IP Data
Home
Agent
Home
Agent
Nortel System Lucent System Motorola System
AAA
Server
Mobile IP
Subscribers IP routing service is
provided by a public IP network
Mobile station is assigned a static IP
address belonging to its Home Agent
Mobile can maintain the static IP
address even for handoff between
radio networks connected to separate
PDSNs!
Mobile IP capabilities will be
especially important for mobiles on
system boundaries
Without Mobile IP roaming
capability, data service for border-
area mobiles will be erratic
MOBILE IP
IMPLICATIONS
Handoffs possible between
PDSNs
Mobile can roam in the
public IP network
Mobile termination is
possible while Mobile is in
dormant or active mode
How the PDSN HA and FA Forward Your Packets
Mobile IP is a packet-
forwarding
arrangement that
allows the mobile user
to send and receive
packets just as if they
were physically present
at their home agent
location.
158766
158767
158768
158769
158770
158771
158772
158773
158774
158775
158776
158778
158779
158780
158781
158782
158783
158784
158785
158786
158787
158788
158789
158790
158791
158792
158793
158794
158795
158796
158797
F
e
d
E
x
F
e
d
E
x
Secure Tunneling
Forward and Reverse
Encapsulation
Home
Agent
Foreign
Agent
Mobile
User
This box is the
mobile user's
Postal address
J ust like
Home!
IS-95 Operational Details
Vocoding, Multiplexing, Power Control
IS-95 Operational Details
Vocoding, Multiplexing, Power Control
Variable Rate Vocoding & Multiplexing
Vocoders compress speech, reduce bit
rate, greatly increasing capacity
CDMA uses a superior Variable Rate
Vocoder
full rate during speech
low rates in speech pauses
increased capacity
more natural sound
Voice, signaling, and user secondary
data may be mixed in CDMA frames
DSP QCELP VOCODER
Codebook
Pitch
Filter
Formant
Filter
Coded Result
Feed-
back
20ms Sample
Frame Sizes bits
Full Rate Frame
1/2 Rate Frame
1/4 Rt.
1/8 24/36
48/72
96/144
192/288
Frame Contents: can be a mixture of
Primary
Traffic
(Voice or
data)
Signaling
(System
Messaging)
Secondary
(On-Air
activation, etc)
How Power Control Works
800 Power Control Bits per second!
TX RF Digital
BTS BSC
Eb/No
Setpoint
Bad FER?
Raise Setpoint
Stronger than
setpoint?
Open
Loop
Closed
Loop
Reverse Link
REVERSE LINK POWER ADJUSTMENT
RX RF Digital
IS-95, 1xRTT
ALL SAME METHOD
TXPO=-(RX
dbm
) -C+TXGA
MOBILE
FEI Bits Mark Bad Frames Received
BSC
Sync
Pilot
Paging
Short PN
Trans-
mitter,
Sector X
E I Q User 1
User 2
User 3
Voc-
oder
BTS (1 sector)
Forward Link
FORWARD LINK POWER ADJUSTMENT
Selec-
tor
MOBILE
Eb/No
Setpoint
FEI Bits
Bad Frame
Counter
PMRMPOWER MEAS. REPORT MSG 2 bad in last 4, Help!!
POWER CONTROL BITSTREAMRIDING ON MOBILE PILOT
DGU
IS-95 RS1
Method
IS-95 RS2
Method
1xRTT
Method
Details of Reverse Link Power Control
TXPO Handset Transmit Power
Actual RF power output of the
handset transmitter, including
combined effects of open
loop power control from
receiver AGC and closed
loop power control by BTS
cant exceed handsets
maximum (typ. +23 dBm)
TXGA Transmit Gain Adjust
Sum of all closed-loop
power control commands
from the BTS since the
beginning of this call
TXPO
DUP x
~
IF
LNA
Subscriber Handset
R
R
R
S
Rake
E
Viterbi
Decoder
Vocoder
~
FEC
Orth
Mod
Long PN
x
x
x
IF Mod
I
Q
x ~
LO
Open Loop
LO
Closed Loop Pwr Ctrl
IF
Receiver>>
<<Transmitter
PA
BTS
Typical TXPO:
+23 dBm in a coverage hole
0 dBm near middle of cell
-50 dBm up close to BTS
0 dB
-10 dB
-20 dB
Typical Transmit Gain Adjust
Time, Seconds
TXPO = -(RX
dbm
) -C + TXGA
C = +73 for 800 MHz. systems
= +76 for 1900 MHz. systems
A Quick Introduction to
CDMA Messages and Call Processing
A Quick Introduction to
CDMA Messages and Call Processing
Messages in CDMA
In CDMA, most call processing events are driven by messages
Some CDMA channels exist for the sole purpose of carrying
messages; they never carry users voice traffic
Sync Channel (a forward channel)
Paging Channel (a forward channel)
Access Channel (a reverse channel)
On these channels, there are only messages, continuously all
of the time
Some CDMA channels exist just to carry user traffic
Forward Traffic Channel
Reverse Traffic Channel
On these channels, most of the time is filled with traffic and
messages are sent only when there is something to do
All CDMA messages have very similar structure, regardless of the
channel on which they are sent
How CDMA Messages are Sent
CDMA messages on both forward
and reverse traffic channels are
normally sent via dim-and-burst
Messages include many fields of
binary data
The first byte of each message
identifies message type: this allows
the recipient to parse the contents
To ensure no messages are
missed, all CDMA messages bear
serial numbers and important
messages contain a bit requesting
acknowledgment
Messages not promptly
acknowledged are retransmitted
several times. If not acknowledged,
the sender may release the call
Field data processing tools capture
and display the messages for study
MSG_TYPE (00000110)
ACK_SEQ
MSG_SEQ
ACK_REQ
ENCRYPTION
ERRORS_DETECTED
POWER_MEAS_FRAMES
LAST_HDM_SEQ
NUM_PILOTS
PILOT_STRENGTH
RESERVED (0s)
8
3
3
1
2
5
10
2
4
6
0-7
NUM_PILOTS occurrences of this field:
Field
Length
(in bits)
EXAMPLE:
A POWER MEASUREMENT
REPORT MESSAGE
t
Message Vocabulary: Acquisition & Idle States
Sync Channel
Sync Channel Msg
Pilot Channel
No Messages
Paging Channel
Access Parameters Msg
System Parameters Msg
CDMA Channel List Msg
Extended System
Parameters Msg
Extended Neighbor
List Msg
Global Service
Redirection Msg
Order Msg
Base Station Acknowledgment
Lock until Power-Cycled
Maintenance required
many others..
Authentication
Challenge Msg
Status Request Msg
Feature Notification Msg
TMSI Assignment Msg
Channel Assignment
Msg
SSD Update Msg
Service Redirection Msg
General Page Msg
Null Msg Data Burst Msg
Access Channel
Registration Msg
Order Msg
Mobile Station Acknowldgment
Long Code Transition Request
SSD Update Confirmation
many others..
Origination Msg
Page Response Msg
Authentication Challenge
Response Msg
Status Response Msg
TMSI Assignment
Completion Message
Data Burst Msg
BTS
Message Vocabulary: Conversation State
Reverse Traffic Channel
Order Message
Mobile Sta. Acknowledgment
Long Code Transition
Request
SSD Update Confirmation
Connect
Authentication Challenge
Response Msg
Flash With
Information Msg
Data Burst Message
Pilot Strength
Measurement Msg
Power Measurement
Report Msg
Send Burst DTMF Msg
Origination
Continuation Msg
Handoff Completion Msg
Parameters Response
Message
Service Request Msg
Service Response Msg
Service Connect
Completion Message
Service Option Control
Message
Status Response Msg
TMSI Assignment
Completion Message
Forward Traffic Channel
Order Msg
Base Station Acknowledgment
Base Station Challenge
Confirmation
Message Encryption Mode
Authentication
Challenge Msg
Alert With
Information Msg
Data Burst Msg
Analog Handoff
Direction Msg
In-Traffic System
Parameters Msg
Neighbor List
Update Msg
Send Burst DTMF Msg
Power Control
Parameters Msg.
Retrieve Parameters Msg
Set Parameters Msg
SSD Update Msg
Flash With
Information Msg
Mobile Station
Registered Msg
Status Request Msg
Extended Handoff
Direction Msg
Service Request Msg
Service Response Msg
Service Connect Msg
Service Option
Control Msg
TMSI Assignment Msg
A Streamlined Visual Tour of
CDMA Call Processing Events
A Streamlined Visual Tour of
CDMA Call Processing Events
Whats In a Handset? How does it work?
Receiver
RF Section
IF, Detector
Transmitter
RF Section
Vocoder
Digital
Rake Receiver
Traffic Correlator
PN xxx Walsh xx
E
Traffic Correlator
PN xxx Walsh xx
Traffic Correlator
PN xxx Walsh xx
Pilot Searcher
PN xxx Walsh 0
Viterbi Decoder,
Convl. Decoder,
Demultiplexer
CPU
Duplexer
Transmitter
Digital Section
Long Code Gen.
O
p
e
n

L
o
o
p
Transmit Gain Adjust
Messages
Messages
Audio
Audio
Packets
Symbols
Symbols
Chips
RF
RF
AGC
t
i
m
e
-
a
l
i
g
n
e
d

s
u
m
m
i
n
g
p
o
w
e
r
Traffic Correlator
PN xxx Walsh xx
At
c
o
n
t
r
o
l
b
i
t
s
Let's Acquire The System! Let's Acquire The System!
Rake Receiver
1. Find the Strongest Pilot!
The pilot searcher of the phone spends about 3.4 seconds measuring the
pilot strength at every possible PN delay, in miniscule 1/8 chip delay steps,
to see how much energy is being received from every nearby sector
The sector with the strongest pilot is chosen
BTS
W0 PILOT
PN 168
#1 unassigned
#2 unassigned
#3 unassigned
#4 unassigned
Pilot Searcher
F
i
n
d

S
t
r
o
n
g
e
s
t
SCAN
TIME
E
c
/
I
o
0
0
32K
512
Chips
PN
Pilot Searcher Scans the Entire Range of PNs
0
-20
S
t
a
y

L
o
c
k
e
d
!
R
e
a
d

S
y
n
c

C
h
.

M
s
g
Rake Receiver
2. Read the Sync Channel Message
Great! We found a signal. Now we know:
The strongest pilot available
The exact timing of this pilot
We do NOT yet know
This pilots PN offset
20 msec frame timing of channels
Long Code State
The SYNC channel is a special channel timed
exactly in step with the short PN sequence
It tells us all these unknown quantities
BTS
W32
W0
SYNC
PILOT
SYN SYN SYN SYN SYN SYN SYN SYN SYN SYN SYN SYN SYN SYNSYN SYN SYN
PN 168
#1 PN168+0 W32
#2 PN168+2 W32
#3 PN168+9 W32
#4 PN168+5 W32
Pilot Searcher
TIME
The Sync Channel is a
Sesame Street for mobiles!
MSG_LENGTH, 28, 28 octets
MSG_TYPE, 1, Sync Channel Message
P_REV, 6, IS-2000 Revision 0
MIN_P_REV, 1, J-STD-008
SID 995,
NID 3,
PILOT_PN 168
LC_STATE, 0x00 25 93 12 7C FA,
SYS_TIME, 0x02 20 34 B7 53,
10/23/2001 11:02:54
LP_SEC, 13,
LTM_OFF, 54, -660 minutes
DAYLT, 1, Yes
PRAT, 1, 4800 bps
CDMA_FREQ, 274 (IS-95)
EXT_CDMA_FREQ, 274 (1xRTT)
SR1_BCCH_SUPPORTED, 0
SR3_INCL, 0, No
RESERVED, 0,
SYNC CHANNEL MESSAGE
Rake Receiver
T
h
e
T
i
m
i
n
g
C
h
a
n
g
e
3. The Timing Shift: Adjust all Internal Clocks
This timeline shows each step as the mobile acquires the system
First search all PNs to find the strongest pilot
Read the Sync Channel Message to learn times and LC state
The times and state refer to a future moment 320 ms after the end of the
Sync Channel superframe, minus the BTS PN offset. This waiting period
is called the Timing Change.
BTS
W32
W0
SYNC
PILOT
SYN SYN SYN SYN SYN SYN SYN SYN SYN SYN SYN SYN SYN SYNSYN SYN SYN
+320 ms
-PN
168
PN 168
Ref Time
#1 unassigned
#2 unassigned
#3 unassigned
#4 unassigned
Pilot Searcher
TIME
S
t
a
y

L
o
c
k
e
d
!
End of SCH
SuperFrame
4. Is This the Right System to Use?
Scan the PRL for Anything Better
Its not enough just to find a
CDMA signal
We want the CDMA
signal of our own system
or a favorite roaming
partner
Phones look in the PRL to
see if there is a more
preferred signal than
whatever they find first
They check frequencies
in the Acquisition Table
until they find the best
system, or look down the
list level by level
ROAMING LIST
Roaming List Type: IS-683A
Preferred Only: FALSE
Default Roaming Indicator: 0
Preferred List ID: 10018
ACQUISITION TABLE
INDEX ACQ TYPE CH1 CH2 CH3 CH4 CH5 CH6 CH7 CH8 CH9
0 6 500 425 825 575 850 325 625
1 6 575 625 500 425
2 6 50 100 75 475 825 850 175 250
3 6 25 200 350 375 725 50 475 175 250
4 1 Both
5 6 450 500 350 575 650
6 6 675 500 600 575 475
7 6 250 50 175
8 6 550 375 425 625
9 6 75 50 175 250
10 6 200 250 175 50
11 6 425 500 575 25 325 650
12 6 500 575 475 25 675
13 6 500 625 350 50 375 775 575 725 425
14 6 650 500 675 25 75 425 50 575
15 6 25 50 375 350 250 175
16 6 425 550 225 725 750 775
17 6 200 50 175 375 250
18 6 825 850 925
19 6 350 325 375 675 25 1175 725 600 100
20 6 750 725 775
21 6 325 725 350 750 375 775 425 575 625
22 6 1150 1175
23 6 350 875 325 375 1175
24 6 25 1175 825 200 75 175 250
25 6 50 200 25 100 250 75
26 6 500 1075 850 825
27 1 A
28 1 B
29 5 A
30 5 B
31 5 C
32 5 D
33 5 E
34 5 F
35 4 A
36 4 B
37 4 Both
38 6 350 825
39 6 25 100
40 6 675 600 750 850 1175 775
41 6 850
42 6 650
43 6 450 475
44 6 325 350 375 1025 1050 1075
45 6 150 475 625 675
46 6 1025 1050 1075
SYSTEM TABLE
INDEX SID NID
NEG/
PREF GEO PRI
ACQ
INDEX
ROAM
IND
296 4144 65535 Pref NEW SAME 13 1
297 4812 65535 Pref SAME MORE 21 1
298 205 65535 Pref SAME SAME 4 0
299 208 65535 Pref SAME MORE 37 0
300 208 65535 Pref SAME SAME 4 0
301 342 65535 Pref SAME MORE 37 0
302 342 65535 Pref SAME SAME 4 0
303 478 65535 Pref SAME SAME 4 0
304 1038 65535 Pref SAME SAME 4 0
305 1050 65535 Pref SAME SAME 4 0
306 1058 65535 Pref SAME SAME 4 0
307 1375 65535 Pref SAME SAME 4 0
308 1385 65535 Pref SAME MORE 4 0
309 143 65535 Pref SAME MORE 37 0
310 143 65535 Pref SAME MORE 4 0
311 4103 65535 Pref NEW SAME 3 1
312 4157 65535 Pref SAME MORE 2 1
313 312 65535 Pref SAME SAME 4 0
314 444 65535 Pref SAME MORE 37 0
315 444 65535 Pref SAME SAME 4 0
316 1008 65535 Pref SAME SAME 4 0
317 1012 65535 Pref SAME SAME 4 0
318 1014 65535 Pref SAME SAME 4 0
319 1688 65535 Pref SAME MORE 4 0
320 113 65535 Pref SAME MORE 37 0
321 113 65535 Pref SAME SAME 4 0
322 179 65535 Pref SAME MORE 37 0
323 179 65535 Pref SAME SAME 4 0
324 465 65535 Pref SAME SAME 4 0
325 2119 65535 Pref SAME MORE 4 0
326 2094 65535 Pref SAME MORE 4 0
327 1005 65535 Pref SAME SAME 4 0
328 1013 65535 Pref SAME SAME 4 0
a

G
E
O

G
R
O
U
P
a

G
E
O

G
R
O
U
P
C
l
i
m
b
!
PRL: Preferred Roaming List
Programmed into each phone by the system
operator; can be updated over the air.
Rake Receiver
Collect all the Configuration Messages
Absorb and store all their parameters.
5. Collect the Configuration Messages!
The Configuration Messages tell the mobile everything it needs to know to
successfully operate on the system
Access Parameters Message (how to behave on the access channel)
System Parameters Message (registration, handoff, window settings)
Extended System Parameters Message (how to identify; packet details)
Channel List Message (list of all carrier frequencies on this sector)
Neighbor List Message (list of nearby sectors to watch out for)
Global Service Redirection Message (dont stay here - go over there)
BTS
W1
W32
W0
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
SYN SYN SYN
ACK
SYN SYN SYN SYN SYN SYN SYN SYN SYN SYN SYNSYN SYN
ChASN ACK GPAG ChASN ACK
SYN
SYS CHN XSYS NBR GSRM APM
PN 168
Ref Time
#1 PN168+0 W1
#2 PN168+2 W1
#3 PN168+9 W1
#4 PN168+5 W1
Pilot Searcher
S
y
s
t
e
m
P
a
r
a
m
e
t
e
r
s
M
e
s
s
a
g
e
*
*

C
D
M
A
C
h
a
n
n
e
l
L
i
s
t

M
e
s
s
a
g
e
E
x
t
e
n
d
e
d
S
y
s
t
e
m
P
a
r
a
m
e
t
e
r
s
M
e
s
s
a
g
e
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
*
*

L
i
s
t
M
e
s
s
a
g
e
G
l
o
b
a
l

S
e
r
v
i
c
e
*
*

R
e
d
i
r
e
c
t
i
o
n
M
e
s
s
a
g
e
A
c
c
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s
s
P
a
r
a
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e
t
e
r
s
M
e
s
s
a
g
e
TIME
S
t
a
y

L
o
c
k
e
d
!
Collect all the Configuration Messages
(all config.messages are repeated every 1.28 sec)
Rake Receiver
Now monitor the
Paging Channel
for any
incoming calls
or messages
6. Welcome! Just Monitor the Paging Channel
Listen to see if you get any incoming calls or short messages!
BTS
W1
W32
W0
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
SYN SYN SYN
ACK
SYN SYN SYN SYN SYN SYN SYN SYN SYN SYN SYNSYN SYN
ChASN ACK GPAG ChASN ACK
SYN
SYS CHN XSYS NBR GSRM APM
PN 168
Ref Time
Pilot Searcher
#1 PN168+0 W1
#2 PN168+2 W1
#3 PN168+9 W1
#4 PN168+5 W1
TIME
Registration: Mobile, Sign In Please
After acquiring the system, the mobile must register
This allows the current system to update the HLR with the mobiles
location, so incoming calls can be delivered here
It also allows the mobile to tell the system if it wants to do slotted
mode paging, and if so, what Slot Cycle Index.
A holdoff timer delays initial registration 20 seconds after acquisition
This avoids needless registration by mobiles just being turned on to
check who is the owner, or other short power-on/off uses
Registration has many different controlling parameters, all declared by the
system on the paging channel in the System Parameters Message
BTS
W1
W32
W0
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
ACCESS CHANNEL
S
KS
R
20 sec.
20 seconds after system acquisition, the mobile
sends a Registration Message on the access
channel.
The BTS sends an ACK
on the Paging Channel.
The mobile is now
Registered and can begin
slotted mode paging.
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
AKX N C G KP K KSAKX NKP P C G P K KSAKX NKP P C G P K KSAKX NKP P C G P K SAKX N P GKSAKX NK P GKSAKX G P SA
TIME
Stretch Your Battery! IS-95 Slotted Mode Paging
Slotted Mode Paging is a battery-saving trick
After registering with the system, the mobile
goes into sleep mode with low battery drain
It wakes on a schedule to listen for pages
Page slots are 80 ms. Long
Slot cycles can be set to many lengths
Longer cycles give better battery life, but introduce
longer possible delays in call delivery
Each mobile uses Hashing with its IMSI and SCI
to determine which slot it should always monitor
W1
W32
W0
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
S
1 Slot Cycle
1 Slot 80 ms
N C G KG K KSAKX NKP P C G P K KSAKX NKP P C G P K KSGKX NKP P C G P K SAKX N P GKSAKX NK P GKSAKX G P SA
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 0 1 2 3 4
G K KSAK
5
1 Slot Cycle
Slot Cycle
Index (SCI)
Number Slots
in Cycle
Length of
Cycle, sec.
0 16 1.28 sec.
1 32 2.56 sec.
2 64 5.12 sec.
3 128 10.24 sec.
4 256 20.48 sec.
5 512 40.96 sec.
6 1024 81.92 sec.
7 2048 163.84 sec.
Battery
Drain
Each mobile has a preferred SCI
programmed by the vendor. The system
also declares a maximum slot cycle
index, which mobiles may not exceed.
Rake Receiver
#1 PN168+0 W1
#2 PN168+2 W1
#3 PN168+9 W1
#4 PN168+5 W1
Pilot Searcher
TIME
Mobile listens during its slot, every cycle
BTS
Even Better: CDMA2000 Slotted Mode Paging
Using the Quick Paging Channel (QPCH)
IS-95 mobiles must monitor their PCH
slots during every slot cycle
Must wake up 1000s of times per
hour and run high-drain message
parsers, even if they are not paged
The Quick Paging Channel (QPCH) is a
simpler bitstream which notifies a 1xRTT
mobile to monitor the PCH, only when a
page is coming for its IMSI group
There are at least xx IMSI groups. A
mobile knows its group by hashing.
BTS
W48
W32
W0
QPCH
SYNC
PILOT
S
Paging Channel Slots
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 0 1 2 3 4 5
Paging Channel Slots
Battery
Drain
Rake Receiver
#1 PN168+0 W1
#2 PN168+2 W1
#3 PN168+9 W1
#4 PN168+5 W1
Pilot Searcher
TIME
PAGING N C G KG K KSAKX NKP P C G P K KSAKX NKP P C G P K KSGKX NKP P C G P K SAKX N P GKSAKX NK P GKSAKX G P SA G K KSAK W1
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 0 1 2 3 4 6 5 1
Mobile hashes using its IMSI to
recognize which indicator bits it should
monitor. If the bits are on, the mobile
wakes up and listen to the next PCH
slot somebody watching those bits
will be paged.
20
ms
80 ms
100 ms
QPCH SLOT
GenPG
PCH SLOT
80 ms
Mobile listens to PCH only when QPCH requires
QPCH Slots QPCH Slots
Idle Mode Handoff
An idle mobile always uses the best available signal
In idle mode, it isnt possible to do soft handoff and listen to multiple
sectors or base stations at the same time -- the paging channel
information stream is different on each sector, not synchronous -- just
like ABC, NBC, CBS, and CNN TV news programs arent in word-sync
for simultaneous viewing
Since a mobile cant combine signals, the mobile must switch quickly,
always enjoying the best available signal
The mobiles pilot searcher is constantly checking neighbor pilots
A Mobile might change pilots for either of two reasons:
It notices another pilot at least 3 db stronger than the current active
pilot, and it stays this good continuously for at least five seconds:
mobile switches at end of the next superframe
Mobile loses the current paging channel. If another signal is better
than the old active sector, change immediately to the new one.
On the new paging channel, if the mobile learns that registration is
required, it re-registers on the new sector
Idle Mode on the Paging Channel:
Meet the Neighbors, track the Strongest Pilot
E
c
/
I
o
All PN Offsets
0
0
32K
512
Chips
PN
0
-20
Neighbor Set
The phones pilot searcher constantly checks
the pilots listed in the Neighbor List Message
If the searcher ever notices a neighbor pilot substantially stronger than
the current reference pilot, it becomes the new reference pilot
and the phone switches over to its paging channel on the next superframe.
This is called an idle mode handoff.
Rake Fingers
Reference PN
Active Pilot
SRCH_WIN_A
SRCH_WIN_N
Mobile Rake RX
Srch PN??? W0
F1 PN168 W01
F2 PN168 W01
F3 PN168 W01
Receiving An Incoming Call Receiving An Incoming Call
J uly, 2013 186v1.0 - 183 186v1.0 - (c) 2013 Scott Baxter
Incoming Call Termination Voice
BTS
W1
W32
W0
W23
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
TRAFFIC
ACCESS
TRAFFIC
S SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
N G ACK KS CHasn C P K NKP P C G P K KSGKX NKP P C G P K SAKX N P GKSAKX NK P GKSAKX G P SA G K KS GenPag P C P G K K GSAKX N P GKSAK
SSSSSSSSSSSS
TIME
Rake Receiver
#1 PN168+0 W01
#2 PN168+2 W01
#3 PN168+9 W01
#4 PN168+5 W01
Pilot Searcher
_
|
o
PSTN
switch
HLR VLR
SS7
BSC BTS A MSC
A
BTS
W1
W32
W0
W23
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
TRAFFIC
ACCESS
TRAFFIC
N G ACK KS CHasn C P K NKP P C G P K KSGKX NKP P C G P K SAKX N P GKSAKX NK P GKSAKX G P SA G K KS GenPag P C P G K K GSAKX N P GKSAK
SSSSSSSSSSSS
TIME
Scotts mobile,
are you there?
You have a call.
_
|
o
PSTN
switch
HLR VLR
SS7
BSC BTS A MSC
Rake Receiver
#1 PN168+0 W01
#2 PN168+2 W01
#3 PN168+9 W01
#4 PN168+5 W01
Pilot Searcher
A
BTS
W1
W32
W0
W23
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
TRAFFIC
ACCESS
TRAFFIC
N G ACK KS CHasn C P K NKP P C G P K KSGKX NKP P C G P K SAKX N P GKSAKX NK P GKSAKX G P SA G K KS
PgResp
GenPag P C P G K K GSAKX N P GKSAK
SSSSSSSSSSSS
TIME
Scotts mobile,
are you there?
You have a call.
Im here! What
should I do?
_
|
o
PSTN
switch
HLR VLR
SS7
BSC BTS A MSC
Rake Receiver
#1 PN168+0 W01
#2 PN168+2 W01
#3 PN168+9 W01
#4 PN168+5 W01
Pilot Searcher
A
BTS
W1
W32
W0
W23
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
TRAFFIC
ACCESS
TRAFFIC
PgResp
SSSSSSSSSSSS
TIME
Scotts mobile,
are you there?
You have a call.
Im here! What
should I do?
I hear you.
J ust a moment.
_
|
o
PSTN
switch
HLR VLR
SS7
BSC BTS A MSC
Rake Receiver
#1 PN168+0 W01
#2 PN168+2 W01
#3 PN168+9 W01
#4 PN168+5 W01
Pilot Searcher
A
BTS
W1
W32
W0
W23
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
TRAFFIC
ACCESS
TRAFFIC
PgResp
SSSSSSSSSSSS
TIME
Scotts mobile,
are you there?
You have a call.
Im here! What
should I do?
I hear you.
J ust a moment.
_
|
o
PSTN
switch
HLR VLR
SS7
BSC BTS A MSC
Rake Receiver
#1 PN168+0 W01
#2 PN168+2 W01
#3 PN168+9 W01
#4 PN168+5 W01
Pilot Searcher
A
BTS
W1
W32
W0
W23
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
TRAFFIC
ACCESS
TRAFFIC
PgResp
SSSSSSSSSSSS
TIME
Scotts mobile,
are you there?
You have a call.
Im here! What
should I do?
I hear you.
J ust a moment.
_
|
o
PSTN
switch
HLR VLR
SS7
BSC BTS A MSC
Your channel
Is ready!
Walsh 23
Rake Receiver
#1 PN168+0 W01
#2 PN168+2 W01
#3 PN168+9 W01
#4 PN168+5 W01
Pilot Searcher
A
BTS
W1
W32
W0
W23
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
TRAFFIC
ACCESS
TRAFFIC
PgResp
SSSSSSSSSSSS
TIME
Scotts mobile,
are you there?
You have a call.
Im here! What
should I do?
I hear you.
J ust a moment.
Rake Receiver
#1 PN168+0 W23
#2 PN168+2 W23
#3 PN168+9 W23
#4 PN168+5 W23
Pilot Searcher
_
|
o
PSTN
switch
HLR VLR
SS7
BSC BTS A MSC
Your channel
Is ready!
Walsh 23
I see
frames!
A
BTS
W1
W32
W0
W23
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
TRAFFIC
ACCESS
TRAFFIC
PgResp
SSSSSSSSSSSS
TIME
Scotts mobile,
are you there?
You have a call.
Im here! What
should I do?
I hear you.
J ust a moment.
Your channel
Is ready!
Walsh 23
I see
frames!
I see
frames!
_
|
o
PSTN
switch
HLR VLR
SS7
BSC BTS A MSC
Rake Receiver
#1 PN168+0 W23
#2 PN168+2 W23
#3 PN168+9 W23
#4 PN168+5 W23
Pilot Searcher
A
BTS
W1
W32
W0
W23
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
TRAFFIC
ACCESS
TRAFFIC
PgResp
ACK
SSSSSSSSSSSS
TIME
Scotts mobile,
are you there?
You have a call.
Im here! What
should I do?
I hear you.
J ust a moment.
Your channel
Is ready!
Walsh 23
I see
frames!
I see
frames!
I see you!
_
|
o
PSTN
switch
HLR VLR
SS7
BSC BTS A MSC
Rake Receiver
#1 PN168+0 W23
#2 PN168+2 W23
#3 PN168+9 W23
#4 PN168+5 W23
Pilot Searcher
A
BTS
W1
W32
W0
W23
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
TRAFFIC
ACCESS
TRAFFIC
PgResp
ACK
ACK
SSSSSSSSSSSS
TIME
Scotts mobile,
are you there?
You have a call.
Im here! What
should I do?
I hear you.
J ust a moment.
Your channel
Is ready!
Walsh 23
I see
frames!
I see
frames!
I see you!
I see you,
too!
_
|
o
PSTN
switch
HLR VLR
SS7
BSC BTS A MSC
Rake Receiver
#1 PN168+0 W23
#2 PN168+2 W23
#3 PN168+9 W23
#4 PN168+5 W23
Pilot Searcher
A
BTS
W1
W32
W0
W23
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
TRAFFIC
ACCESS
TRAFFIC
PgResp
ACK
ACK
SVCcon
SSSSSSSSSSSS
TIME
Scotts mobile,
are you there?
You have a call.
Im here! What
should I do?
I hear you.
J ust a moment.
Your channel
Is ready!
Walsh 23
I see
frames!
I see
frames!
I see you!
I see you,
too!
Then lets use
Service Option
X, for voice
with 8k EVRC
_
|
o
PSTN
switch
HLR VLR
SS7
BSC BTS A MSC
Rake Receiver
#1 PN168+0 W23
#2 PN168+2 W23
#3 PN168+9 W23
#4 PN168+5 W23
Pilot Searcher
A
BTS
W1
W32
W0
W23
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
TRAFFIC
ACCESS
TRAFFIC
PgResp
ACK
ACK
SVCcon
SVCncmp
SSSSSSSSSSSS
TIME
Scotts mobile,
are you there?
You have a call.
Im here! What
should I do?
I hear you.
J ust a moment.
Your channel
Is ready!
Walsh 23
I see
frames!
I see
frames!
I see you!
I see you,
too!
Then lets use
Service Option
X, for voice
with 8k EVRC
I accept.
_
|
o
PSTN
switch
HLR VLR
SS7
BSC BTS A MSC
Rake Receiver
#1 PN168+0 W23
#2 PN168+2 W23
#3 PN168+9 W23
#4 PN168+5 W23
Pilot Searcher
A
BTS
W1
W32
W0
W23
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
TRAFFIC
ACCESS
TRAFFIC
PgResp
ACK
ACK
SVCcon
SVCncmp
GenPag P C P G K K
Alert/Inf
GSAKX N P GKSAK
SSSSSSSSSSSS
TIME
Scotts mobile,
are you there?
You have a call.
Im here! What
should I do?
I hear you.
J ust a moment.
Your channel
Is ready!
Walsh 23
I see
frames!
I see
frames!
I see you!
I see you,
too!
Then lets use
Service Option
X, for voice
with 8k EVRC
I accept.
OK! Then start
ringing and
show this:
615-300-0124
_
|
o
PSTN
switch
HLR VLR
SS7
BSC BTS A MSC
Rake Receiver
#1 PN168+0 W23
#2 PN168+2 W23
#3 PN168+9 W23
#4 PN168+5 W23
Pilot Searcher
A
BTS
W1
W32
W0
W23
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
TRAFFIC
ACCESS
TRAFFIC
PgResp
ACK
ACK
SVCcon
SVCncmp
GenPag P C P G K K
Alert/Inf
ACK
GSAKX N P GKSAK
SSSSSSSSSSSS
TIME
Scotts mobile,
are you there?
You have a call.
Im here! What
should I do?
I hear you.
J ust a moment.
Your channel
Is ready!
Walsh 23
I see
frames!
I see
frames!
I see you!
I see you,
too!
Then lets use
Service Option
X, for voice
with 8k EVRC
I accept.
OK! Then start
ringing and
show this:
615-300-0124
I am.
_
|
o
PSTN
switch
HLR VLR
SS7
BSC BTS A MSC
Rake Receiver
#1 PN168+0 W23
#2 PN168+2 W23
#3 PN168+9 W23
#4 PN168+5 W23
Pilot Searcher
A
BTS
W1
W32
W0
W23
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
TRAFFIC
ACCESS
TRAFFIC
PgResp
ACK
ACK
SVCcon
SVCncmp
GenPag P C P G K K
Alert/Inf
ACK Con
GSAKX N P GKSAK
SSSSSSSSSSSS
TIME
Scotts mobile,
are you there?
You have a call.
Im here! What
should I do?
I hear you.
J ust a moment.
Your channel
Is ready!
Walsh 23
I see
frames!
I see
frames!
I see you!
I see you,
too!
Then lets use
Service Option
X, for voice
with 8k EVRC
I accept.
OK! Then start
ringing and
show this:
615-300-0124
I am.
My owner answered!
Connect the audio.
SEND
_
|
o
PSTN
switch
HLR VLR
SS7
BSC BTS A MSC
Rake Receiver
#1 PN168+0 W23
#2 PN168+2 W23
#3 PN168+9 W23
#4 PN168+5 W23
Pilot Searcher
A
BTS
W1
W32
W0
W23
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
TRAFFIC
ACCESS
TRAFFIC
PgResp
V
ACK
ACK
SVCcon
SVCncmp
GenPag P C P G K K
Alert/Inf
ACK Con
ACK V
GSAKX N P GKSAK
SSSSSSSSSSSS
TIME
Scotts mobile,
are you there?
You have a call.
Im here! What
should I do?
I hear you.
J ust a moment.
Your channel
Is ready!
Walsh 23
I see
frames!
I see
frames!
I see you!
I see you,
too!
Then lets use
Service Option
X, for voice
with 8k EVRC
I accept.
OK! Then start
ringing and
show this:
615-300-0124
I am.
My owner answered!
Connect the audio.
OK.
SEND
_
|
o
PSTN
switch
HLR VLR
SS7
BSC BTS A MSC
Rake Receiver
#1 PN168+0 W23
#2 PN168+2 W23
#3 PN168+9 W23
#4 PN168+5 W23
Pilot Searcher
Making an Outgoing Call! Making an Outgoing Call!
G ACK KS C P G K KS P C P G K K G C P G
Outgoing Call Origination IS-95 Voice
BTS
W1
W32
W0
W23
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
TRAFFIC
ACCESS
TRAFFIC
N CHasnK NKP P C G P K KSGKX NKP P C G P K SAKX N P GKSAKX NK P GKSAKX G P SAGSAKX N P GKSAK
SSSSSSSSSSSS
TIME
SEND
6 1 5 5 5 5 1 2 3 4
Rake Receiver
#1 PN168+0 W01
#2 PN168+2 W01
#3 PN168+9 W01
#4 PN168+5 W01
Pilot Searcher
_
|
o
PSTN
switch
HLR VLR
SS7
BSC BTS A MSC
The mobile user dials,
Then presses SEND.
A
BTS
W1
W32
W0
W23
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
TRAFFIC
ACCESS
TRAFFIC
N CHasnK NKP P C G P K KSGKX NKP P C G P K SAKX N P GKSAKX NK P GKSAKX G P SA
Origination
GSAKX N P GKSAK
SSSSSSSSSSSS
TIME
Hey system! I am
615-300-0124,
ESN 2E5FC31. Let me
call 615-555-1234
using EVRC voice.
SEND
6 1 5 5 5 5 1 2 3 4
Rake Receiver
#1 PN168+0 W01
#2 PN168+2 W01
#3 PN168+9 W01
#4 PN168+5 W01
Pilot Searcher
_
|
o
PSTN
switch
HLR VLR
SS7
BSC BTS A MSC
A
BTS
W1
W32
W0
W23
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
TRAFFIC
ACCESS
TRAFFIC
Origination
GSAKX N P GKSAK
SSSSSSSSSSSS
TIME
Hey system! I am
615-300-0124,
ESN 2E5FC31. Let me
call 615-555-1234
using EVRC voice.
I hear you.
J ust a moment.
SEND
6 1 5 5 5 5 1 2 3 4
Rake Receiver
#1 PN168+0 W01
#2 PN168+2 W01
#3 PN168+9 W01
#4 PN168+5 W01
Pilot Searcher
_
|
o
PSTN
switch
HLR VLR
SS7
BSC BTS A MSC
A
BTS
W1
W32
W0
W23
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
TRAFFIC
ACCESS
TRAFFIC
Origination
GSAKX N P GKSAK
SSSSSSSSSSSS
TIME
Hey system! I am
615-300-0124,
ESN 2E5FC31. Let me
call 615-555-1234
using EVRC voice.
I hear you.
J ust a moment.
SEND
6 1 5 5 5 5 1 2 3 4
Rake Receiver
#1 PN168+0 W01
#2 PN168+2 W01
#3 PN168+9 W01
#4 PN168+5 W01
Pilot Searcher
_
|
o
PSTN
switch
HLR VLR
SS7
BSC BTS A MSC
A
BTS
W1
W32
W0
W23
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
TRAFFIC
ACCESS
TRAFFIC
Origination
GSAKX N P GKSAK
SSSSSSSSSSSS
TIME
Hey system! I am
615-300-0124,
ESN 2E5FC31. Let me
call 615-555-1234
using EVRC voice.
I hear you.
J ust a moment.
SEND
6 1 5 5 5 5 1 2 3 4
Rake Receiver
#1 PN168+0 W01
#2 PN168+2 W01
#3 PN168+9 W01
#4 PN168+5 W01
Pilot Searcher
Your channel
Is ready!
Walsh 23
_
|
o
PSTN
switch
HLR VLR
SS7
BSC BTS A MSC
A
BTS
W1
W32
W0
W23
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
TRAFFIC
ACCESS
TRAFFIC
Origination
GSAKX N P GKSAK
SSSSSSSSSSSS
TIME
Hey system! I am
615-300-0124,
ESN 2E5FC31. Let me
call 615-555-1234
using EVRC voice.
I hear you.
J ust a moment.
Your channel
Is ready!
Walsh 23
I see
frames!
SEND
6 1 5 5 5 5 1 2 3 4
Rake Receiver
#1 PN168+0 W23
#2 PN168+2 W23
#3 PN168+9 W23
#4 PN168+5 W23
Pilot Searcher
_
|
o
PSTN
switch
HLR VLR
SS7
BSC BTS A MSC
A
BTS
W1
W32
W0
W23
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
TRAFFIC
ACCESS
TRAFFIC
Origination
GSAKX N P GKSAK
SSSSSSSSSSSS
TIME
Hey system! I am
615-300-0124,
ESN 2E5FC31. Let me
call 615-555-1234
using EVRC voice.
I hear you.
J ust a moment.
Your channel
Is ready!
Walsh 23
I see
frames!
I see
frames!
SEND
6 1 5 5 5 5 1 2 3 4
_
|
o
PSTN
switch
HLR VLR
SS7
BSC BTS A MSC
Rake Receiver
#1 PN168+0 W23
#2 PN168+2 W23
#3 PN168+9 W23
#4 PN168+5 W23
Pilot Searcher
A
BTS
W1
W32
W0
W23
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
TRAFFIC
ACCESS
TRAFFIC
Origination
ACK
GSAKX N P GKSAK
SSSSSSSSSSSS
TIME
Hey system! I am
615-300-0124,
ESN 2E5FC31. Let me
call 615-555-1234
using EVRC voice.
I hear you.
J ust a moment.
Your channel
Is ready!
Walsh 23
I see
frames!
I see
frames!
I see you!
SEND
6 1 5 5 5 5 1 2 3 4
_
|
o
PSTN
switch
HLR VLR
SS7
BSC BTS A MSC
Rake Receiver
#1 PN168+0 W23
#2 PN168+2 W23
#3 PN168+9 W23
#4 PN168+5 W23
Pilot Searcher
A
BTS
W1
W32
W0
W23
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
TRAFFIC
ACCESS
TRAFFIC
Origination
ACK
ACK
GSAKX N P GKSAK
SSSSSSSSSSSS
TIME
Hey system! I am
615-300-0124,
ESN 2E5FC31. Let me
call 615-555-1234
using EVRC voice.
I hear you.
J ust a moment.
Your channel
Is ready!
Walsh 23
I see
frames!
I see
frames!
I see you!
I see you,
too!
SEND
6 1 5 5 5 5 1 2 3 4
_
|
o
PSTN
switch
HLR VLR
SS7
BSC BTS A MSC
Rake Receiver
#1 PN168+0 W23
#2 PN168+2 W23
#3 PN168+9 W23
#4 PN168+5 W23
Pilot Searcher
A
BTS
W1
W32
W0
W23
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
TRAFFIC
ACCESS
TRAFFIC
Origination
ACK
ACK
SVCcon
GSAKX N P GKSAK
SSSSSSSSSSSS
TIME
Hey system! I am
615-300-0124,
ESN 2E5FC31. Let me
call 615-555-1234
using EVRC voice.
I hear you.
J ust a moment.
Your channel
Is ready!
Walsh 23
I see
frames!
I see
frames!
I see you!
I see you,
too!
Then lets use
Service Option
X, for voice
with 8k EVRC
SEND
6 1 5 5 5 5 1 2 3 4
_
|
o
PSTN
switch
HLR VLR
SS7
BSC BTS A MSC
Rake Receiver
#1 PN168+0 W23
#2 PN168+2 W23
#3 PN168+9 W23
#4 PN168+5 W23
Pilot Searcher
A
BTS
W1
W32
W0
W23
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
TRAFFIC
ACCESS
TRAFFIC
Origination
ACK
ACK
SVCcon
SVCncmp
GSAKX N P GKSAK
SSSSSSSSSSSS
TIME
Hey system! I am
615-300-0124,
ESN 2E5FC31. Let me
call 615-555-1234
using EVRC voice.
I hear you.
J ust a moment.
Your channel
Is ready!
Walsh 23
I see
frames!
I see
frames!
I see you!
I see you,
too!
Then lets use
Service Option
X, for voice
with 8k EVRC
I accept.
SEND
6 1 5 5 5 5 1 2 3 4
_
|
o
PSTN
switch
HLR VLR
SS7
BSC BTS A MSC
Rake Receiver
#1 PN168+0 W23
#2 PN168+2 W23
#3 PN168+9 W23
#4 PN168+5 W23
Pilot Searcher
A
BTS
W1
W32
W0
W23
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
TRAFFIC
ACCESS
TRAFFIC
Origination
ACK
ACK
SVCcon
SVCncmp
ACK
GSAKX N P GKSAK
SSSSSSSSSSSS
TIME
Hey system! I am
615-300-0124,
ESN 2E5FC31. Let me
call 615-555-1234
using EVRC voice.
I hear you.
J ust a moment.
Your channel
Is ready!
Walsh 23
I see
frames!
I see
frames!
I see you!
I see you,
too!
Then lets use
Service Option
X, for voice
with 8k EVRC
I accept.
OK!
SEND
6 1 5 5 5 5 1 2 3 4
Rake Receiver
#1 PN168+0 W23
#2 PN168+2 W23
#3 PN168+9 W23
#4 PN168+5 W23
Pilot Searcher
_
|
o
PSTN
switch
HLR VLR
SS7
BSC BTS A MSC
A
BTS
W1
W32
W0
W23
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
TRAFFIC
ACCESS
TRAFFIC
Origination
Voice conversation
ACK
ACK
SVCcon
SVCncmp
ACK Voice conversation
GSAKX N P GKSAK
SSSSSSSSSSSS
TIME
Hey system! I am
615-300-0124,
ESN 2E5FC31. Let me
call 615-555-1234
using EVRC voice.
I hear you.
J ust a moment.
Your channel
Is ready!
Walsh 23
I see
frames!
I see
frames!
I see you!
I see you,
too!
Then lets use
Service Option
X, for voice
with 8k EVRC
I accept.
OK!
SEND
6 1 5 5 5 5 1 2 3 4
Rake Receiver
#1 PN168+0 W23
#2 PN168+2 W23
#3 PN168+9 W23
#4 PN168+5 W23
Pilot Searcher
_
|
o
PSTN
switch
HLR VLR
SS7
BSC BTS A MSC
Downloading Data on a
Forward Link Supplemental Channel
Downloading Data on a
Forward Link Supplemental Channel
Forward Supplemental Channel Assignment
BTS
W1
W32
W0
W23
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
F-FCH
ACCESS CHANNEL
R-FCH
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
G K KS P C G P K KSA G K KSAK N NKG K S G P SA G K KS P C G P K KSA G K KSAK N NKG K S G P SA G K KS P C P K G K KSAK N NKG K S G P SA
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
ESCAM
PN 168
TIME
W2 F-SCH
Supplemental
Channel Burst
ESCAM
Supplemental
Channel Burst
Mobile: Watch
Walsh Code 2
Starting in 320 ms
For 1000 ms.
Mobile: Watch
Walsh Code 2
Starting in 320 ms
For 1000 ms.
Uploading Data on a
Reverse Link Supplemental Channel
Uploading Data on a
Reverse Link Supplemental Channel
Reverse Supplemental Channel Assignment
BTS
W1
W32
W0
W23
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
F-FCH
ACCESS CHANNEL
R-FCH
ESCAM
PN 168
TIME
R-SCH
Supplemental
Channel Burst
ESCAM
Supplemental
Channel Burst
SCRM SCRM
Mobile: Send
Walsh Code 1
Starting in 320 ms
For 1000 ms.
Mobile: Send
Walsh Code 1
Starting in 320 ms
For 1000 ms.
System: I need to
Send you the
Following blocks:
System: I need to
Send you the
Following blocks:
Ending A Call Ending A Call
Normal End of Call
When a call ends normally, it is because the caller on one side of the
conversation decided to hang up
The side ending the call sends a Release Normal order
The other side sends a Release No reason order
It may send an acknowledgment first, if it cannot give the release
order immediately
After the system receives a release order from the mobile, it releases the
resources it used for the call
After the mobile receives a release order from the base station, it stops
listening to the traffic channel and freshly reacquires the system
BTS
W1
W32
W0
W23
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
TRAFFIC
ACCESS CHANNEL
TRAFFIC CHANNEL
G K KS P C G P K KSA G K KSAK
Voice
Voice
RELnorm
RELnoRsn
N NKG K S G P SA
SYN SYN SYN
ACK
SYN SYN SYN SYN SYN
ChASN
SYN
SYS CHN XSYS NBR
Ref Time Ref Time
MOBILE REACQUIRES SYSTEM NORMALLY
SCAN
TIME
Abnormal End of Call Forward Link Failure
The mobile is always counting and tracking the bad frames it
receives on the forward link
Forward Link Fade Timer: If the mobile does not receive any good
frames during a 5-second period, it aborts the call
If a mobile receives 10 consecutive bad frames, it mutes its
transmitter until at least 2 consecutive good frames are heard
If the mobile stays muted 5 seconds, the BTS will release too
After a call ends for any reason, the mobile tries to reacquire the
system, making an independent cold start
BTS
W1
W32
W0
W23
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
TRAFFIC
ACCESS CHANNEL
TRAFFIC CHANNEL
Voice
Voice
N NKG K S G P SA
SYN SYN SYN
ACK
SYN SYN SYN SYN
ChASN
SYN
SYS CHN XSYS
Ref Time Ref Time
MOBILE REACQUIRES SYSTEM, if available
SCAN
Mute! No pc
All bad frames
5s timer
5s timer
TIME
S
Abnormal End of Call Reverse Link Failure
The BTS is always counting and tracking the bad frames it
receives on the reverse link from the mobile
Reverse Link Fade Timer: If the BTS does not receive any good
frames during a 5-second period, it releases the call
After a call ends for any reason, the mobile tries to reacquire the
system, making an independent cold start
BTS
W1
W32
W0
W23
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
TRAFFIC
ACCESS CHANNEL
TRAFFIC CHANNEL
Voice
Voice
N NKG K S G P SA
All bad frames
5s timer
SYN SYN SYN
ACK
SYN SYN SYN SYN
ChASN
SYN
SYS CHN XSYS
Ref Time Ref Time
MOBILE REACQUIRES SYSTEM, if available
SCAN
RELnoRsn
A
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
KS N K G P SA
TIME
Feature Notification:
You Have Voicemail!
Feature Notification:
You Have Voicemail!
Feature Notification
98/06/30 21:16:44.368 [PCH] Feature Notification Message
MSG_LENGTH =144 bits
MSG_TYPE =Feature Notification Message
ACK_SEQ =0
MSG_SEQ =0
ACK_REQ =1
VALID_ACK =0
ADDR_TYPE =IMSI
ADDR_LEN =56 bits
IMSI_CLASS =0
IMSI_CLASS_0_TYPE =3
RESERVED =0
MCC =302
IMSI_11_12 =00
IMSI_S =9055170325
RELEASE =0
RECORD_TYPE =Message Waiting
RECORD_LEN =8 bits
MSG_COUNT =1
RESERVED =0
FEATURE NOTIFICATION MESSAGE
The Feature Notification Message on
the Paging Channel tells a specific
mobile it has voice messages waiting.
There are other record types to notify
the mobile of other features.
The mobile confirms it has received the
notification by sending a Mobile Station
Acknowledgment Order on the access
channel.
MOBILE STATION ACKNOWLEDGMENT
CDMA Handset Architecture
CDMA Handoffs
CDMA Handset Architecture
CDMA Handoffs
Whats In a Handset? How does it work?
Receiver
RF Section
IF, Detector
Transmitter
RF Section
Vocoder
Digital
Rake Receiver
Traffic Correlator
PN xxx Walsh xx
E
Traffic Correlator
PN xxx Walsh xx
Traffic Correlator
PN xxx Walsh xx
Pilot Searcher
PN xxx Walsh 0
Viterbi Decoder,
Convl. Decoder,
Demultiplexer
CPU
Duplexer
Transmitter
Digital Section
Long Code Gen.
O
p
e
n

L
o
o
p
Transmit Gain Adjust
Messages
Messages
Audio
Audio
Packets
Symbols
Symbols
Chips
RF
RF
AGC
t
i
m
e
-
a
l
i
g
n
e
d

s
u
m
m
i
n
g
p
o
w
e
r
Traffic Correlator
PN xxx Walsh xx
At
c
o
n
t
r
o
l
b
i
t
s
The Rake Receiver
Every frame, handset uses combined outputs of the three traffic
correlators (rake fingers)
Each finger can independently recover a particular PN offset and
Walsh code
Fingers can be targeted on delayed multipath reflections, or even on
different BTSs
Searcher continuously checks pilots
Handset
Rake Receiver
RF
PN Walsh
PN Walsh
PN Walsh
Searcher
PN W=0
E
Voice,
Data,
Messages
Pilot E
c
/I
o
BTS
BTS
CDMA Soft Handoff Process
CDMA soft handoff is driven by the handset
Handset continuously checks available pilots
Handset tells system pilots it currently sees
System assigns sectors (up to 6 max.), tells handset
Handset assigns its fingers accordingly
All messages sent by dim-and-burst, no muting!
Each end of the link chooses what works best, on a frame-by-frame
basis!
Users are totally unaware of handoff
Handset
Rake Receiver
RF
PN Walsh
PN Walsh
PN Walsh
Searcher
PN W=0
E
Voice,
Data,
Messages
Pilot E
c
/I
o
BTS
BSC Switch
BTS
Sel.
Triggering Soft Handoffs
The Handset considers pilots in sets
Active: pilots of sectors actually in use
Candidates: pilots mobile requested, but
not yet set up & transmitting by system
Neighbors: pilots told to mobile by system,
as nearby sectors to check
Remaining: any pilots used by system but
not already in the other sets (div. by PILOT_INC)
Handset sends Pilot Strength Measurement
Message to the system whenever:
It notices a pilot in neighbor or remaining set
exceeds T_ADD
An active set pilot drops below T_DROP for
T_TDROP time
A candidate pilot exceeds an active by
T_COMP
The System may set up all requested handoffs,
or it may apply special manufacturer-specific
screening criteria and only authorize some
6
5
Remaining
Active
Candidate
Neighbor 20
PILOT SETS
#

R
e
q
d
`
.

B
y

S
t
d
.
T_COMP
T_ADD T_DROP
T_TDROP
HANDOFF
PARAMETERS
Exercise: How does a pilot
in one set migrate into
another set, for all cases?
Identify the trigger, and the
messages involved.
I
S
-
9
5
/
J
-
S
t
d
0
0
8
I
S
-
9
5
B
/
1
x
R
T
T
6
10
40
Softer Handoff
Each BTS sector has unique PN offset & pilot
Handset will ask for whatever pilots it wants
If multiple sectors of one BTS simultaneously serve a handset, this is
called Softer Handoff
Handset cant tell the difference, but softer handoff occurs in BTS in
a single channel element
Handset can even use combination soft-softer handoff on multiple
BTS & sectors
Handset
Rake Receiver
RF
PN Walsh
PN Walsh
PN Walsh
Searcher
PN W=0
E
Voice,
Data,
Messages
Pilot E
c
/I
o
BTS
BSC Switch
Sel.
What is Ec/Io?
Ec/Io is the measurement mobiles
use to gauge strengths of the various
nearby sectors they encounter
Ec means the energy per chip of
the pilot of the observed sector
Io means the total power currently
being picked up by the mobile
~
x
LO
~
RX Level
(from AGC)
IF LNA
BW
~30
MHz.
BW
1.25
MHz.
Handset Receiver
R
R
R
S
Rake
Why cant the mobile just measure the signal strength of a sector
directly with its receiver?
all sectors are on the same frequency
the measurable signal strength on that frequency is just the
sum of all the individual signal powers
to distinguish them individually CDMA decoding must be used
Each sector dedicates 10-15% of its power to a steady test signal
called the pilot. Mobiles can easily measure the pilot of a sector,
determining its strength as a percentage of total received power
Light Traffic Loading
Heavily Loaded
How Ec/Io Varies with Traffic Loading
Each sector transmits a certain
amount of power, the sum of:
pilot, sync, and paging
any traffic channels in use
at that moment
Ec/Io is the ratio of pilot power
to total power
On a sector with nobody
talking, Ec/Io is typically
about 50%, which is -3 db
On a sector with maximum
traffic, Ec/Io is typically
about 20%, which is -7 db.
Ec/Io = (2/4)
= 50%
= -3 db.
Ec/Io = (2/10)
= 20%
= -7 db.
2w
1.5w
Pilot
Paging
Sync
I
0
E
C
T
r
a
f
f
i
c

C
h
a
n
n
e
l
s
6w
0.5w
2w
1.5w
Pilot
Paging
Sync
I
0
E
C
0.5w
Many Sectors, Nobody Dominant
One Sector Dominant
How Ec/Io varies with RF Environment
In a clean situation, one
sector is dominant and the
mobile enjoys an Ec/Io just
as good as it was when
transmitted
In pilot pollution, too many
sectors overlap and the
mobile hears a soup made
up of all their signals
Io is the power sum of all
the signals reaching the
mobile
Ec is the energy of a
single sectors pilot
The large Io overrides the
weak Ec; Ec/Io is low!
Io =-90 dbm
Ec =-96 dbm
Ec/Io =-6 db
Io = 10 signals
each -90 dbm
= -80 dbm
Ec of any one
sector = -96
Ec/Io = -16 db
2w
1.5w
Pilot
Paging
Sync
I
0
E
C
T
r
a
f
f
i
c
C
h
a
n
n
e
l
s
4w
0.5w
BTS1
I
0
E
C
BTS2
BTS3
BTS4
BTS5
BTS6
BTS7
BTS8
BTS9
BTS10
Pilot
Sync & Paging
Traffic
Pilot
Sync & Paging
Traffic
Pilot
Sync & Paging
Traffic
Pilot
Sync & Paging
Traffic
Pilot
Sync & Paging
Traffic
Pilot
Sync & Paging
Traffic
Pilot
Sync & Paging
Traffic
Pilot
Sync & Paging
Traffic
Pilot
Sync & Paging
Traffic
Pilot
Sync & Paging
Traffic
Handoffs and
Pilot Set Management
Handoffs and
Pilot Set Management
Here are some example handoffs, showing the way the
handoff parameters are applied.
J uly, 2013 233
54 102 134 200 248 300 328 396 416 420 488 504
SYSTEM ACQUISITION
At turn-on, and after the end of every call, a mobile
makes a fresh attempt to acquire the system. It scans
all the PN offsets in tiny steps to be sure no pilot
signal is missed. After the scan is complete, the mobile
locks to the strongest pilot it has found.
-25
-20
-3
-6
-10
0
-15
E
C
/
I
O
d
b
.
Strongest
J uly, 2013 234
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b
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54 102 134 200 248 300 328 396 416 420 488 504
IDLE MODE
The strongest pilot is now the only Active pilot.
The mobile puts its rake fingers on this PN and decodes
Walsh Code 32, the Sync channel.
The Sync channel announces the system (SID) and
network (NID); how to make the long code properly
synchronized (Long Code State); and when the 20 ms.
frames begin on the Paging and traffic channels.
Now the mobile knows how to receive the paging channel!
It begins continuously listening to the paging channel.
Soon it receives the neighbor list message.
-25
-20
-3
-6
-10
0
-15
E
C
/
I
O
d
b
.
J uly, 2013 235
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A
c
t
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P
i
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b
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w

A
c
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b
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54 102 134 200 248 300 328 396 416 420 488 504
3 Db, 5 sec.
IDLE MODE
HANDOFF
In idle mode, listening to the paging channel, the mobile can have only
one active pilot at a time. Soft handoff is not possible during idle mode,
since the messages on one sectors paging channel do not match the
messages on another sectors paging channel.
The mobiles pilot searcher is continuously checking
both the active pilot (to keep the rake fingers aligned
on the best multipath signals) and the neighbor pilots.
If a neighbor pilot is noticed at least 3 db stronger than
the current active pilot, and it remains so for 5
seconds, the mobile just stops listening to the old
active and the stronger neighbor becomes the new
active pilot. If the current active pilot should fade and
the mobile loses the paging channel, it is allowed to
switch to another stronger sector immediately without
waiting 5 seconds.
The system does not even know the mobile has done an idle mode handoff, since no
messages are exchanged. The mobile just starts listening to a different sector!
Of course, if the mobile notices that the new sector has a different SID or NID from the old
sector, it will register to let the new system know it has arrived.
(Settable parameters)
-25
-20
-3
-6
-10
0
-15
E
C
/
I
O
d
b
.
J uly, 2013 236
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a
b
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T
_
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b
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a
b
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_
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b
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54 102 134 200 248 300 328 396 416 420 488 504
T_ADD
T_DROP
IN CALL
-25
-20
-13
-3
-6
-10
0
-15
When a mobile begins a call, it has only one active pilot the same
sector it was listening to in idle mode. It remembers the same neighbor
list from its idle time.
During a call, the mobiles pilot searcher is scanning alternately the
active pilot and each pilot on the neighbor list.
If the mobile notices any pilots with E
C
/I
O
above T_Add, it will
immediately send a PSMM to the system, asking for handoff with them.
E
C
/
I
O
d
b
.
PSMM: PN248, -5, keep;
PN134, -10, keep;
PN102, -11.5, keep
BTS
SEE ADDITIONAL
PILOTS >T_ADD,
SEND PSMM!!
J uly, 2013 237
R
e
q
u
e
s
t
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
R
e
q
u
e
s
t
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
54 102 134 200 248 300 328 396 416 420 488 504
IN CALL
T_ADD
T_DROP
-25
-20
-13
-3
-6
-10
0
-15
E
C
/
I
O
d
b
.
After the mobile has sent the PSMM, the newly-requested pilots are
considered Candidates. The mobile cannot begin listening to them
yet, because they do not have channel elements set up yet to simulcast
the traffic channel, and the mobile must also be told which walsh codes
have been assigned for it to listen to.
The mobile patiently waits for the Extended Handoff Direction Message.
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
WAIT
for EHDM
J uly, 2013 238
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
A
c
t
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v
e

P
i
l
o
t
54 102 134 200 248 300 328 396 416 420 488 504
T_ADD
T_DROP
-25
-20
-13
-3
-6
-10
0
-15
E
C
/
I
O
d
b
.
EHDM: PN248, W14;
PN134, W08;
PN102, W52
BTS
IN CALL With approximately 500 ms after sending the PSMM, the mobile receives
the Extended Handoff Direction Message (EHDM). The base station has
authorized the handoff on all the requested sectors, and included the
walsh codes the mobile must know in order to hear the sectors.
After beginning to use the new pilots, the mobile confirms by sending a
Handoff Completion Message. Then the system sends the mobile a new
Neighbor List Update message.
N
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RECEIVE
EHDM
J uly, 2013 239
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54 102 134 200 248 300 328 396 416 420 488 504
T_ADD
T_DROP
IN CALL
-25
-20
-13
-3
-6
-10
0
-15
One of the active pilots, PN134, has faded below T_Drop.
The mobile puts PN134 on a probation watch waiting to see if it
remains below T_Drop for T_TDrop seconds .
E
C
/
I
O
d
b
.
AN ACTIVE PILOT
FALLS BELOW
T_DROP
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
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A
c
t
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P
i
l
o
t
!
T_TDrop
J uly, 2013 240
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54 102 134 200 248 300 328 396 416 420 488 504
T_ADD
T_DROP
IN CALL
-25
-20
-13
-3
-6
-10
0
-15
If PN134 recovers, becoming stronger than T_Drop before the T_TDrop
time has passed, the mobile forgives its earlier weakness and will not
send a PSMM to request any change.
E
C
/
I
O
d
b
.
PILOT RECOVERS,
REMAINS ACTIVE
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
!
<T_TDrop
J uly, 2013 241
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e
i
g
h
b
o
r
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
54 102 134 200 248 300 328 396 416 420 488 504
T_ADD
T_DROP
IN CALL
-25
-20
-13
-3
-6
-10
0
-15
PN134 has faded below T_Drop again.
The mobile puts PN134 on a probation watch waiting to see if it
remains below T_Drop for T_TDrop seconds .
E
C
/
I
O
d
b
.
AN ACTIVE PILOT
FALLS BELOW
T_DROP
AGAIN
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
!
T_TDrop
J uly, 2013 242
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
54 102 134 200 248 300 328 396 416 420 488 504
T_ADD
T_DROP
IN CALL
-25
-20
-13
-3
-6
-10
0
-15
If PN134 remains below T_Drop for T_TDrop seconds, the mobile sends
a PSMM requesting to drop it from the handoff.
E
C
/
I
O
d
b
.
PSMM: PN248, -5, keep;
PN134, -16, drop;
PN102, -11.5, keep
BTS
PILOT REMAINS
BELOW T_DROP
FOR T_TDROP
SECONDS.
SEND PSMM
TO REMOVE!
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
>T_TDrop
!
J uly, 2013 243
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
54 102 134 200 248 300 328 396 416 420 488 504
T_ADD
T_DROP
IN CALL
-25
-20
-13
-3
-6
-10
0
-15
The mobile waits for an Extended Handoff Direction Message (EHDM),
giving permission to drop the pilot from the Active set.
E
C
/
I
O
d
b
.
WAIT FOR
EHDM
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
J uly, 2013 244
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
54 102 134 200 248 300 328 396 416 420 488 504
T_ADD
T_DROP
IN CALL
-25
-20
-13
-3
-6
-10
0
-15
PN134 is now dropped from the Active set, and becomes a neighbor.
The mobile continues with Active pilots PN102 and PN248.
E
C
/
I
O
d
b
.
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
Receive
EHDM,
Drop
Pilot
EHDM: PN248, W14;
PN102, W52
BTS
J uly, 2013 245
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r

a
b
o
v
e

T
_
A
d
d
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r

a
b
o
v
e

T
_
A
d
d
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r

a
b
o
v
e

T
_
A
d
d
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r

a
b
o
v
e

T
_
A
d
d
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r

a
b
o
v
e

T
_
A
d
d
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r

a
b
o
v
e

T
_
A
d
d
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r

a
b
o
v
e

T
_
A
d
d
54 102 134 200 248 300 328 396 416 420 488 504
T_ADD
T_DROP
-25
-20
-13
-3
-6
-10
0
-15
E
C
/
I
O
d
b
.
IN CALL
SEE ADDITIONAL
PILOTS >T_ADD,
SEND PSMM!!
The mobile has just noticed several neighbor pilots have risen above T_ADD. It will immediately send a
PSMM requesting to add them in handoff. It quickly sends a PSMM requesting handoff with them.
PSMM: PN248, -5, keep; PN300, -3.5, keep;
PN134, -10.5, keep; PN488, -10.5, keep;
PN102, -11.5, keep; PN328, -11.5, keep;
PN200, -12, keep; PN396, -12.5, keep;
PN420, -12, keep; PN504, -12, keep
BTS
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r

a
b
o
v
e

T
_
A
d
d
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
J uly, 2013 246
R
e
q
u
e
s
t
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
R
e
q
u
e
s
t
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
R
e
q
u
e
s
t
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
R
e
q
u
e
s
t
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
R
e
q
u
e
s
t
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
R
e
q
u
e
s
t
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
R
e
q
u
e
s
t
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
54 102 134 200 248 300 328 396 416 420 488 504
T_ADD
T_DROP
-25
-20
-13
-3
-6
-10
0
-15
E
C
/
I
O
d
b
.
IN CALL
WAIT
for EHDM
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
R
e
q
u
e
s
t
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
J uly, 2013 247
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
U
n
a
s
s
i
g
n
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
U
n
a
s
s
i
g
n
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
U
n
a
s
s
i
g
n
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
U
n
a
s
s
i
g
n
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
54 102 134 200 248 300 328 396 416 420 488 504
RECEIVE
EHDM
T_ADD
T_DROP
-25
-20
-13
-3
-6
-10
0
-15
E
C
/
I
O
d
b
.
EHDM: PN300, W31; PN248, W14;
PN134, W08; PN488, W10;
PN328, W27; PN102, W52
BTS
IN CALL
The mobile receives the Extended Handoff Direction Message, and implements the handoff with the pilots
listed in the message. The BSC has chosen the strongest six pilots requested in the previous PSMM. Only
the strongest 6 signals requested by the mobile are chosen to be active.
PN 200, PN396, PN420 and PN504 are Unassigned Candidates.
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
J uly, 2013 248
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r

a
b
o
v
e

T
_
A
d
d
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
R
e
q
u
e
s
t
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
R
e
q
u
e
s
t
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
R
e
q
u
e
s
t
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
R
e
q
u
e
s
t
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
54 102 134 200 248 300 328 396 416 420 488 504
T_ADD
T_DROP
-25
-20
-13
-3
-6
-10
0
-15
E
C
/
I
O
d
b
.
IN CALL
PN134, -10.5, keep; PN488, -10.5, keep;
PN102, -11.5, keep; PN328, -11.5, keep;
PN200, -12, keep; PN396, -12.5, keep;
PN416, -10.5, keep; PN420, -12, keep;
PN504, -12, keep
BTS
The mobile notices that PN416 has just grown stronger, and is now above T_Add. It sends a PSMM
requesting handoff with it and the other 10 signals above T_Add.
SEE ADDITIONAL
PILOTS >T_ADD,
SEND PSMM!!
J uly, 2013 249
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
R
e
q
u
e
s
t
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
R
e
q
u
e
s
t
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
R
e
q
u
e
s
t
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
R
e
q
u
e
s
t
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
54 102 134 200 248 300 328 396 416 420 488 504
T_ADD
T_DROP
-25
-20
-13
-3
-6
-10
0
-15
E
C
/
I
O
d
b
.
IN CALL
R
e
q
u
e
s
t
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
WAIT
for EHDM
J uly, 2013 250
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
U
n
a
s
s
i
g
n
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
U
n
a
s
s
i
g
n
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
U
n
a
s
s
i
g
n
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
54 102 134 200 248 300 328 396 416 420 488 504
T_ADD
T_DROP
-25
-20
-13
-3
-6
-10
0
-15
E
C
/
I
O
d
b
.
IN CALL
The mobile receives the Extended Handoff Direction Message, and implements the handoff with the pilots
listed in the message. The BSC has chosen the strongest six pilots requested in the previous PSMM. Only
the strongest 6 signals requested by the mobile are chosen to be active.
Notice that PN416 replaces PN102. PN102, PN200, PN396, PN420 and PN504 are Unassigned Candidates.
RECEIVE
EHDM
EHDM: PN300, W31; PN248, W14;
PN134, W08; PN488, W10;
PN416, W52; PN396, W34
BTS
U
n
a
s
s
i
g
n
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
U
n
a
s
s
i
g
n
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
J uly, 2013 251
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
R
e
q
u
e
s
t
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
R
e
q
u
e
s
t
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
R
e
q
u
e
s
t
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
54 102 134 200 248 300 328 396 416 420 488 504
T_ADD
T_DROP
-25
-20
-13
-3
-6
-10
0
-15
E
C
/
I
O
d
b
.
IN CALL
Suppose T_COMP = 4 db. The mobile notices that the strongest candidate, PN396, has grown T_COMP db
stronger than the weakest active pilot, PN328.
This triggers the mobile to send a new PSMM including all the pilots above T_ADD. All of them were already
either actives or candidates, but the new PSMM includes the new current strength of each pilot.
Notice T_COMP
trigger, send
EHDM
R
e
q
u
e
s
t
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
R
e
q
u
e
s
t
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
PN134, -10.5, keep; PN488, -10.5, keep;
PN102, -11.5, keep; PN328, -14, keep;
PN200, -12, keep; PN396, -10, keep;
PN416, -10.5, keep; PN420, -12, keep;
PN504, -12, keep
BTS
T_COMP
J uly, 2013 252
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
R
e
q
u
e
s
t
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
R
e
q
u
e
s
t
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
R
e
q
u
e
s
t
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
54 102 134 200 248 300 328 396 416 420 488 504
T_ADD
T_DROP
-25
-20
-13
-3
-6
-10
0
-15
E
C
/
I
O
d
b
.
IN CALL
WAIT
for EHDM
R
e
q
u
e
s
t
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
R
e
q
u
e
s
t
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
T_COMP
Both before and after the mobile sends the PSMM, the active pilots are
the same and the candidate pilots are the same. The mobile patiently
waits for the Extended Handoff Direction Message, which may cause
some of the pilots to change sets.
J uly, 2013 253
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
U
n
a
s
s
i
g
n
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
U
n
a
s
s
i
g
n
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
54 102 134 200 248 300 328 396 416 420 488 504
T_ADD
T_DROP
-25
-20
-13
-3
-6
-10
0
-15
E
C
/
I
O
d
b
.
IN CALL
Notice that PN396 has become Active, replacing PN328.
RECEIVE
EHDM
U
n
a
s
s
i
g
n
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
U
n
a
s
s
i
g
n
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
U
n
a
s
s
i
g
n
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
EHDM: PN300, W31; PN248, W14;
PN134, W08; PN488, W10;
PN416, W52; PN328, W27
BTS
Following A Soft Handoff
On a CDMA Network
Following A Soft Handoff
On a CDMA Network
Basic Soft/Softer Handoff
BTS
W1
W32
W0
W41
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
TRAFFIC
BTS
W1
W32
W0
W23
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
TRAFFIC
ACCESS CHANNEL
TRAFFIC CHANNEL
PN 168
PN 344
!!
TIME
Rake Receiver
#1 PN168+0 W23
#2 PN168+2 W23
#3 PN168+9 W23
#4 PN168+5 W23
Pilot Searcher
_
|
o
ctrl
BTSC
_
|
o
BTSC
BSC
BTS A BTS B
A
BTS
W1
W32
W0
W41
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
TRAFFIC
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
GKS P C G P K KSA N G K S G P SA
BTS
W1
W32
W0
W23
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
TRAFFIC
ACCESS CHANNEL
TRAFFIC CHANNEL
G K KS P C G P K KSA G K KSAK N NKG K S G P SA G K KS P C P K G K KSAK N NKG K S G P SA
PN 168
PN 344
!!
TIME
Wow! PN344
is above
T_ADD!
Rake Receiver
#1 PN168+0 W23
#2 PN168+2 W23
#3 PN168+9 W23
#4 PN168+5 W23
Pilot Searcher
_
|
o
ctrl
BTSC
_
|
o
BTSC
BSC
BTS A BTS B
A
BTS
W1
W32
W0
W41
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
TRAFFIC
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
BTS
W1
W32
W0
W23
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
TRAFFIC
ACCESS CHANNEL
TRAFFIC CHANNEL PSMM
PN 168
PN 344
!!
TIME
Wow! PN344
is above
T_ADD!
Rake Receiver
#1 PN168+0 W23
#2 PN168+2 W23
#3 PN168+9 W23
#4 PN168+5 W23
Pilot Searcher
_
|
o
ctrl
BTSC
_
|
o
BTSC
BSC
BTS A BTS B
Hey system! I want:
PN168 (ref), -6, keep
PN344, -11, keep
A
BTS
W1
W32
W0
W41
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
TRAFFIC
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
BTS
W1
W32
W0
W23
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
TRAFFIC
ACCESS CHANNEL
ACK
PN 168
PN 344
!!
TIME
Wow! PN344
is above
T_ADD!
Rake Receiver
#1 PN168+0 W23
#2 PN168+2 W23
#3 PN168+9 W23
#4 PN168+5 W23
Pilot Searcher
_
|
o
ctrl
BTSC
_
|
o
BTSC
BSC
BTS A BTS B
Hey system! I want:
PN344, -11, keep
I hear you.
Hang on
A
BTS
W1
W32
W0
W41
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
TRAFFIC
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
BTS
W1
W32
W0
W23
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
TRAFFIC
ACCESS CHANNEL
ACK
PN 168
PN 344
!!
TIME
Wow! PN344
is above
T_ADD!
Rake Receiver
#1 PN168+0 W23
#2 PN168+2 W23
#3 PN168+9 W23
#4 PN168+5 W23
Pilot Searcher
_
|
o
ctrl
BTSC
_
|
o
BTSC
BSC
BTS A BTS B
Hey system! I want:
PN344, -11, keep
I hear you.
Hang on
A
BTS
W1
W32
W0
W41
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
TRAFFIC
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
BTS
W1
W32
W0
W23
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
TRAFFIC
ACCESS CHANNEL
ACK EHDM
EHDM
PN 168
PN 344
!!
TIME
Wow! PN344
is above
T_ADD!
Rake Receiver
#1 PN168+0 W23
#2 PN168+2 W23
#3 PN168+9 W23
#4 PN168+5 W23
Pilot Searcher
Hey system! I want:
PN344, -11, keep
I hear you.
Hang on
OK! You can use:
PN 168 W23
PN 344 W41
_
|
o
ctrl
BTSC
_
|
o
BTSC
BSC
BTS A BTS B
A
BTS
W1
W32
W0
W41
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
TRAFFIC
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
BTS
W1
W32
W0
W23
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
TRAFFIC
ACCESS CHANNEL
ACK EHDM
ACK
EHDM
PN 168
PN 344
!!
TIME
Wow! PN344
is above
T_ADD!
Rake Receiver
#1 PN168+0 W23
#2 PN168+2 W23
#3 PN168+9 W23
#4 PN168+5 W23
Pilot Searcher
Hey system! I want:
PN344, -11, keep
I hear you.
Hang on
OK! You can use:
PN 168 W23
PN 344 W41
OK
_
|
o
ctrl
BTSC
_
|
o
BTSC
BSC
BTS A BTS B
A
BTS
W1
W32
W0
W41
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
TRAFFIC
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
BTS
W1
W32
W0
W23
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
TRAFFIC
ACCESS CHANNEL
ACK EHDM
ACK HOcomp
EHDM
PN 168
PN 344
TIME
Wow! PN344
is above
T_ADD!
!!
Rake Receiver
#1 PN344+0 W41
#2 PN168+0 W23
#3 PN168+9 W23
#4 PN168+5 W23
Pilot Searcher
Hey system! I want:
PN344, -11, keep
I hear you.
Hang on
OK! You can use:
PN 168 W23
PN 344 W41
OK Great! Im using
PN168 +PN344
_
|
o
ctrl
BTSC
_
|
o
BTSC
BSC
BTS A BTS B
A
BTS
W1
W32
W0
W41
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
TRAFFIC
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
BTS
W1
W32
W0
W23
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
TRAFFIC
ACCESS CHANNEL
ACK EHDM
ACK HOcomp
EHDM ACK
ACK
PN 168
PN 344
TIME
Wow! PN344
is above
T_ADD!
Hey system! I want:
PN344, -11, keep
I hear you.
Hang on
OK! You can use:
PN 168 W23
PN 344 W41
OK Great! Im using
PN168 +PN344
OK
_
|
o
ctrl
BTSC
_
|
o
BTSC
BSC
BTS A BTS B
!!
Rake Receiver
#1 PN344+0 W41
#2 PN344+3 W41
#3 PN168+2 W23
#4 PN168+5 W23
Pilot Searcher
A
BTS
W1
W32
W0
W41
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
TRAFFIC
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
BTS
W1
W32
W0
W23
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
TRAFFIC
ACCESS CHANNEL
ACK EHDM
ACK HOcomp
EHDM ACK
ACK NLum
NLum
PN 168
PN 344
TIME
Wow! PN344
is above
T_ADD!
Hey system! I want:
PN344, -11, keep
I hear you.
Hang on
OK! You can use:
PN 168 W23
PN 344 W41
OK Great! Im using
PN168 +PN344
OK
OK. Heres your new
Neighbor list:
PN164 PN172 PN340
PN420 PN084 PN132
PN434 PN504 PN016
PN028 PN508 PN372
_
|
o
ctrl
BTSC
_
|
o
BTSC
BSC
BTS A BTS B
!!
Rake Receiver
#1 PN344+0 W41
#2 PN344+3 W41
#3 PN168+2 W23
#4 PN168+5 W23
Pilot Searcher
A
BTS
W1
W32
W0
W41
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
TRAFFIC
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
BTS
W1
W32
W0
W23
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
TRAFFIC
ACCESS CHANNEL
ACK EHDM
ACK HOcomp
EHDM ACK
ACK NLum
NLum
ACK
PN 168
PN 344
TIME
Wow! PN344
is above
T_ADD!
Hey system! I want:
PN344, -11, keep
I hear you.
Hang on
OK! You can use:
PN 168 W23
PN 344 W41
OK Great! Im using
PN168 +PN344
OK
OK. Heres your new
Neighbor list:
PN164 PN172 PN340
PN420 PN084 PN132
PN434 PN504 PN016
PN028 PN508 PN372
OK
_
|
o
ctrl
BTSC
_
|
o
BTSC
BSC
BTS A BTS B
!!
Rake Receiver
#1 PN344+0 W41
#2 PN344+3 W41
#3 PN168+2 W23
#4 PN168+5 W23
Pilot Searcher
J uly, 2013 186 - 266 RF and 1xRTT/EV-DO Quickstart - 186 v1.0 (c) 2013 Scott Baxter
PN Search Windows PN Search Windows
What Are Search Windows?
Each CDMA sector uses the PN short code, generated late by a precise amount
which we call a PN offset.
This allows mobiles to distinguish the signals of the sector(s) they are using, by
setting their internal short code timing to exactly match the desired sector(s)
short code timing.
But the precisely timed signals transmitted by base stations are delayed a little bit
more on their way to the mobile.
The extra delay is about 6.7 chips for every mile travelled.
So mobiles are actually receiving signals which are slightly more delayed than the
claim, and the distance from base station(s) to mobile determines the delay.
A mobile locks its internal circuitry in step with the strongest, cleanest base station
signal it is currently using. That signal is called the reference PN. The signals from
other base stations will appear to be later than announced, if they have come from
farther away; or earlier than announced if they have come from closer.
Since most observed signals wont exactly match up with their announced PNs, the
mobile is authorized to overlook a little timing error when looking for signals from
other base stations. This amount of slack is called a search window and the
window overall widths are expressed in chips, and commanded to the mobile in
base station messages.
If the search windows are set too narrow, the mobile may not recognize neighbor
signals and fail to have handoffs. If the windows are extremely over-wide, the
mobile may mistakenly identify signals and have false handoffs and dropped calls.
Short PN Basics:
PN Offsets Distinguish Sectors
Each sector uses the short PN code, but at a different timing delay called
its PN offset
PN delays are settable in 64-chip steps called "PN offsets"
For example, PN offset 100 means 6,400 chips of delay
PN short code is 32,768 chips long - room for 512 different PN offsets
In the rake finger of a mobile in soft handoff, the short PN code is
generated in step with just one sector the mobile is trying to hear
The rake finger hears the matching sector's signal, ignores all others
The rake finger next decodes the walsh code of the desired channel
from that sector, ignoring all other users on that sector
A
B
C
D
~
x
LO
IF LNA
BPF
Phone
Rake Receiver
~
BPF
PN A Walsh X
PN B Walsh Y
PN C Walsh Z
Pilot Searcher
Decoding Vocoder
x
Mobile Timing: the Reference PN
Mobile System Acquisition Process
Scan entire range of PNs
Lock to strongest Pilot found
Put rake fingers on multipaths
Earliest arriving multipath is "reference PN"
Read sync channel message
Learn what PN this is!
But there's no way to know how many chips of propagation delay have
happened before this signal was received
The mobile is "blind" to whatever this error may be; so the mobile's
internal PN reference is late by an unknown amount
Every pilot the mobile looks for will appear to be early or late too!
Rake Fingers
Reference PN
Active Pilot
E
c
/
I
o
0
0
32K
512
Chips
PN
Pilot Searcher Scans All PNs
All PN Offsets
0
-20
98/05/24 23:14:09.817 [SCH]
MSG_LENGTH = 208 bits
MSG_TYPE = Sync Channel Msg
P_REV = 3, MIN_P_REV = 2
SID = 179 NID = 0
PILOT_PN = 168 Offset Index
LC_STATE = 0x0348D60E013
SYS_TIME = 98/05/24 3:14:10.160
LP_SEC = 12
LTM_OFF = -300 minutes
DAYLT = 0, PRAT = 9600 bps
SYNC CHANNEL MESSAGE
UNKNOWN EXTRA
PROPAGATION DELAY
How many chips????
A Practical "Rule of Thumb" to Remember
The signal of a base station roughly 10 miles distant will SEEM to
be one PN higher than it was transmitted
Transmitted:
PN 100
6,400 chips offset
BTS
ABCDEFGHIJ KLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ1234567890abcdefghijkmnopqrstuvwxyz!@#$%^&*()_+
9.70 miles =64 chips =1 PN
Mobile
The PN chips SEEN by the mobile are what the base station
transmitted 64 chips in the past! What the base station is really
doing now, its true PN offset, is 64 chips later than what the mobile
sees. So the base station's signal at the mobile seems to be one
PN lower than it was actually transmitted.
Received:
PN 101
6,464 chips delay
What are the Available Search Window Values?
Search windows can't be set to the exact number
of chips desired; each window can be set to a
value from the list at right
Remember the widths are total and apply with the
mobile's reference at the center.
For example, SRCH_WIN_N = 10 means
when the mobile is checking for neighbor
pilots, it will search a range 100 chips wide,
centered on what it thinks is the reference PN.
The mobile will search from 50 chips
earlier to 50 chips later than the exact PN
it expects to find
Search windows should be wide enough to include
needed signals, but not unnecessarily wide
Grossly over-wide search windows will slow
down the mobiles' overall pilot searching
speed
SRCH_WIN_val
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
Width, Chips
4 (2)
6 (3)
8 (4)
10 (5)
14 (7)
20 (10)
28 (14)
40 (20)
60 (30)
80 (40)
100 (50)
130 (65)
160 (80)
226 (113)
330 (165)
452 (226)
Search Window Settings: Neighbor Set
The neighbor search window must be set
wide enough to include the energy of any
needed neighbor pilot
The mobile at right is using PN200 as its
reference (and only active) pilot
To the mobile, the pilot of neighbor sector
PN360 seems 33 chips late
SRCH_WIN_N must be set to at least 2 x
33 = 66 chips wide so the PN360 pilot can
be noticed by the mobile
The closest search window setting above
66 chips is SRCH_WIN_N = 9, which is 80
chips wide
10 KM
41 chips
2 KM
8 chips
PN200
PN360
360
+41
+8
360+33c
SRCH_WIN_N
Neighbor Search Window
Example
Active
Sector
Neighbor
Sector
Worst-Case Wide Neighbor Window Situation
In some terrain, it is possible for a mobile to be very close to one BTS
and far from another BTS, yet need them both in soft handoff
This occurs when local terrain or buildings obstruct the signal of the near
BTS, making it much weaker than normal
The far BTS may have much more favorable conditions, such as an
over-water path
The signals of the two BTSs may seem equally strong!
Almost the entire distance between the BTSs appears as timing skew
If near BTS is reference PN, distant BTS is late this number of chips
If far BTS is reference PN, near BTS is late by this number of chips
BTS A
BTS B
12 miles
1/2
mile
Safe Initial Neighbor Search Window Value
Examine a cell map for an area of your system
Identify the farthest-apart pair of cells likely to
be used in soft handoff
Their distance separation determines
maximum timing skew a mobile could ever
possibly encounter in this part of the
system
Calculate the timing skew in chips
6.7 chips times miles or 4.1 chips times
kilometers
Safe required window size = two times the
skew
Refer to table to convert required window size
in chips to required value of SRCH_WIN_N
After thorough drive-test data is available, it
may be possible to reduce SRCH_WIN_N if
observed delay spread is significantly
narrower than the window
Determining Safe
Initial SRCH_WIN_N
Required Window
= 4.1 x 11.5 x 2 = 94.3 chips
SRCH_WIN_N = 10
If locations exist near site A
where mobiles are in handoff with
site F, mobiles could encounter
neighbor pilot timing skews as
large as the A-F distance. If
locked to A, F looks late by this
amount. If locked to F, A looks
early by this amount. Window
must be twice the skew value.
11.5 KM
A
B
C
E
F
D
Search Window Settings: Remaining Set
Remaining set search window size is
determined by maximum possible timing
skew in the same way as for neighbor set
window
Recommended SRCH_WIN_R is one or two
steps greater than SRCH_WIN_N
Remaining set pilots can be requested by the
mobile in a PSMM but the system cannot
assign traffic channels since it uses the
Neighbor Pilot Database as its cross-
reference for identification of their base
stations
There is still value in allowing mobiles to find
and request remaining pilots, since the
requests help system RF engineers identify
missing pilots that should be added to the
neighbor lists of various sectors
11.5 KM
A
B
C
E
F
D
Search Window Initial Settings: Active Set
Neighbor and Remaining search window
centers are indexed against the mobiles
Reference PN
Each active search window is different a
floating window centered over the earliest
observed multipath energy during the previous
mobile searcher scan of that individual pilot
Active search windows need not accommodate
distance-based timing skews they float
centered on their respective pilots!
The only timing variations they must
accommodate are multipath delay spreads
Multipath delay spreads are determined by
terrain and clutter-driven scattering and
reflection of the signal
Measurements are better than predictions to
set SRCH_WIN_A
The earliest arriving multipath
seen by the mobile during this
searcher sweep will be used
as the center of this active
window on the next searcher
sweep! This makes each
active search window "track"
individually with its pilot.
Earliest Detected
Multipath
Active Search Window
40 chips wide (typical)
0 +20 -20
E
c
/
I
o
SRCH_WIN_A Settings from Measurements
Typical active set delay spread from actual drive-tests
Notice the narrow distribution of energy!
28-chip width, SRCH_WIN_A = 6, is enough for this case
Drive-test your own system to determine your own value of spread
It is determined by the signal-scattering characteristics of your terrain
The Potential for PN Problems and Conflicts
After seeing the skewing effects of propagation, it is easy to
anticipate problems of PN confusion and misidentification!
There are many different kinds of possible PN problems:
Two same-PN base stations with areas of coverage overlap
Mobiles can't distinguish them, experience horrible FER
Combining unintended signals into the handoff mix being heard
The new signals cause interference instead of helping
Mistaken identity of signals when requesting handoff
The wrong base station is added, the mobile can't hear it
Running out of available PNs due to bad parameter choices
Fortunately, these problems can be avoided by careful planning!
Co-Active PN Demodulation Errors
Mobile is midway between two BTSs with the same PN, in a call on BTS A
PN energy of BTS A and B is indistinguishable in active search window
Rake fingers may be assigned to both A and B energy
If the walsh code used on A also happens to be in use by someone on
BTS B, demodulation of B will cause severe FER
The mobile audio will frequently clip and mute, and the call may drop
All the while, the phone will see very good Ec/Io since both A and B
are recognized as good energy!
Solution: Two different BTS covering the same area should never have
the same PN offset. Change the PN offset for one of the sectors involved.
BTS B
PN 142
BTS A
PN 142
x miles x miles
ACTIVE SEARCH WINDOW
Adjacent-Active-PN Demodulation Errors
Mobile is in a call on BTS A from 1 mile away; A is the reference PN
The signal from BTS B on PN 99 travels 11 miles to the mobile and is
approximately as strong as BTS A due to terrain effects
Due to propagation delay, the signal of B is skewed and falls inside the
active search window of the mobile for A
A and B energy are indistinguishable to the mobile
Rake fingers may be assigned to both A and B multipaths
If the walsh code used by the mobile on A also is in use by someone
else on B, the mobile may demodulate their symbols and combine
them with its own symbols from BTS A
This would cause severe FER and possibly a dropped call
Solution: The PNs of the two BTSs are too close together. Use a different
PN offset for BTS B.
BTS B
PN 99
BTS A
PN 100
1 mile 11 miles
ACTIVE SEARCH WINDOW
PILOT_INC Helps Avoid PN Problems
Imagine a network with base stations spaced
approximately 10 miles apart - this is 1 PN offset!
Recall if we use adjacent PNs for adjacent base
stations, there will be locations where their PNs are
close together or even indistinguishable
It would be smart to assign PNs farther apart!
If properly set, PILOT_INC can prevent this problem
Only PNs divisible by PILOT_INC are allowed to
be assigned to sectors
PILOT_INC can be chosen from 1 to 16
If too small, interfering PNs can be assigned
If too large, the pool of available PNs is small
PILOT_INC is set based on the density of cells
3 or 4 in typical cities with suburban density
2 in dense urban environments
6 or 8 in very rural areas
D
Adjacent-Neighbor PN Recognition Errors
Mobile is in a call on BTS A, PN 100
Mobile checks neighbor PN 200 to see if handoff needed with BTS F
Energy from distant BTS G on PN 198 is skewed so that it falls in the
neighbor search window for PN 200; mobile asks for handoff with F
The system sets up a traffic channel on BTS F - but mobile hears G!
If the walsh code assigned on F happens also to be in use on G, the mobile
may put a rake finger on it and include it in the mix
Severe FER and a possible dropped call will result!
Solution: Careful RF design to avoid such "pockets" of distant coverage
If signal of G can't be reduced by RF methods, assign it to a different PN
BTS A
PN 100
BTS
BTS BTS
BTS F
PN 200
BTS G
PN 198
X
20 miles
NEIGHBOR SEARCH WINDOW
Sector PN Assignments:
Consecutive Assignment
Use only PNs divisible by PILOT_INC.
PILOT_INC is chosen large enough to
prevent aliasing of pilots in adjacent cells
Assign PNs in sequence to the sectors of all
the base stations
Common Usage: This is the typical default
method used in Nortel and Motorola CDMA
networks
Advantage
Simple assignment
When adjacent PNs are observed in the
field, they are known to be from sister
sectors of the same BTS or from nearby
BTSs
4
8
12
16
20
24
28
32
36
40
44
48
52
56
60
64
68
72
76
80
84
88
92
96
100
104
108
112
116
120
Sector PN Assignments:
Segment Assignment
Assign only PNs divisible by PILOT_INC
PILOT_INC is chosen to avoid aliasing
Different ranges of PN values are reserved
First 1/3 of PN offsets for alpha sectors
Second 1/3 of PN offsets for beta sectors
Third 1/3 of PN offsets for gamma sectors
Although 512/3 = 170.666, the value 168 is
usually used for the inter-sector PN increment
Common Usage: default in Lucent networks
Advantage: In the field, interference is
suddenly noticed from PN 468. Quickly, what
is the source of it?
Definitely some cells gamma sector!
4
172
340
8
176
344
12
180
348
16
184
352
20
188
356
24
192
360
28
196
364
32
200
368
36
204
372
40
208
376
The Key Features
and Structure of 1xEV-DO
The Key Features
and Structure of 1xEV-DO
Section VIII
Channel Structure of 1xEV-DO vs. 1xRTT
CHANNEL STRUCTURE
IS-95 and 1xRTT
many simultaneous users, each
with steady forward and reverse
traffic channels
transmissions arranged,
requested, confirmed by layer-3
messages with some delay
1xEV-DO -- Very Different:
Forward Link goes to one user at a
time like TDMA!
users are rapidly time-multiplexed,
each receives fair share of
available sector time
instant preference given to user
with ideal receiving conditions, to
maximize average throughput
transmissions arranged and
requested via steady MAC-layer
walsh streams very immediate!
BTS
IS-95 AND 1xRTT
Many users simultaneous forward
and reverse traffic channels
W0
W32
W1
W17
W25
W41
W3
W53
PILOT
SYNC
PAGING
F-FCH1
F-FCH2
F-FCH3
F-SCH
F-FCH4
AP
1xEV-DO AP
(Access Point)
ATs
(Access Terminals)
1xEV-DO Forward Link
Power Management of 1xEV-DO vs. 1xRTT
POWER MANAGEMENT
IS-95 and 1xRTT:
sectors adjust each users
channel power to maintain a
preset target FER
1xEV-DO IS-856:
sectors always operate at
maximum power
sector output is time-
multiplexed, with only one
user served at any instant
The transmission data rate is
set to the maximum speed
the user can receive at that
moment
PILOT
PAGING
SYNC
Maximum Sector Transmit Power
User 1
2
3
4
5
5
5
6
7
8
time
p
o
w
e
r
IS-95: VARIABLE POWER
TO MAINTAIN USER FER
time
p
o
w
e
r
1xEV-DO: MAX POWER ALWAYS,
DATA RATE OPTIMIZED
Some EV-DO Terminology
Phone,
Mobile,
Handset, or
Subscriber
Terminal
AT
Access
Terminal
Base Station,
BTS,
Cell Site
AP
Access
Point
IS-95, IS-2000, 1xRTT EV-DO
1xEV-DO Technical Details
Data Flow and Channels
1xEV-DO Transmission Timing
Forward Link
All members of the CDMA family - IS-95, IS-95B,
1xRTT, 1xEV-DO and 1xEV-DV transmit
Frames
IS-95, IS-95B, 1xRTT frames are usually 20
ms. long
1xEV-DO frames are 26-2/3 ms. long
same length as the short PN code
each 1xEV-DO frame is divided into
1/16ths, called slots
The Slot is the basic timing unit of 1xEV-DO
forward link transmission
Each slot is directed toward somebody and
holds a subpacket of information for them
Some slots are used to carry the control
channel for everyone to hear; most slots are
intended for individual users or private groups
Users dont own long continuing series of slots
like in TDMA or GSM; instead, each slot or small
string of slots is dynamically addressed to
whoever needs it at the moment
One 1xEV-DO Frame
One Slot
One Cycle of PN Short Code
Whats In a Slot?
The main cargo in a slot is the DATA being sent to a user
But all users need to get continuous timing and administrative
information, even when all the slots are going to somebody else
Twice in every slot there is regularly-scheduled burst of timing and
administrative information for everyone to use
MAC (Media Access Control) information such as power
control bits
a burst of pure Pilot
allows new mobiles to acquire the cell and decide to use it
keeps existing user mobiles exactly on sector time
mobiles use it to decide which sector should send them
their next forward link packet
SLOT DATA
M
A
C
P
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M
A
C
DATA DATA
M
A
C
P
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M
A
C
DATA
400 chips 64 96 64 400 chips 400 chips 64 96 64 400 chips
Slot 1024 chips Slot 1024 chips
empty empty empty empty
What if theres No Data to Send?
Sometimes there may be no data waiting to be sent on a sectors
forward link
When theres no data to transmit on a slot, transmitting can be
suspended during the data portions of that slot
But---the MAC and PILOT must be transmitted!!
New and existing mobiles on this sector and surrounding
sectors need to monitor the relative strength of all the sectors
and decide which one to use next, so they need the pilot
Mobiles TRANSMITTING data to the sector on the reverse link
need power control bits
So MAC and PILOT are always transmitted, even in an empty
slot
SLOT
M
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C
P
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M
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C
M
A
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P
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M
A
C
Slot
Slots and Frames
SLOT
FRAME
1 Frame =16 slots 32k chips 26-2/3 ms
DATA
M
A
C
P
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L
O
T
M
A
C
DATA DATA
M
A
C
P
I
L
O
T
M
A
C
DATA
Two Half-Slots make a Slot
16 Slots make a frame
Frames and Control Channel Cycles
A Control Channel Cycle is 16 frames (thats 426-2/3 ms, about 1/2
second)
The first half of the first frame has all of its slots reserved for possible use
carrying Control Channel packets
The last half of the first frame, and all of the remaining 15 frames, have
their slots available for ordinary use transmitting subpackets to users
FRAME
16 Frames 524k chips 426-2/3 ms
CONTROL
CHANNEL
USER(S) DATA CHANNEL
16-FRAME
CONTROL CHANNEL
CYCLE
Slot
Thats a lot of slots!
16 x 16 = 256
Forward Link Frame and Slot Structure:
Big Picture Summary
Slots make Frames and Frames make Control Channel Cycles!
Shorter Control Channel Cycles can be used for fast setup (PTT)
SLOT
FRAME
16 Frames 524k chips 426-2/3 ms
CONTROL
CHANNEL
USER(S) DATA CHANNEL
16-FRAME
CONTROL CHANNEL
CYCLE
DATA
M
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P
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M
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DATA DATA
M
A
C
P
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M
A
C
DATA
Reverse Link Frame and Slot Structure:
Big Picture Summary
Reverse Link frames are the same length as forward link frames
The mobile does not include separate MAC and Pilot bursts
Its MAC and pilot functions are carried inside its signal by
simultaneous walsh codes
There is no need for slots for dedicated control purposes since the
mobile can transmit on the access channel whenever it needs to
SLOT
FRAME
DATA
1 Subframe
holds
1 Subpacket
Subframe Subframe Subframe
Rev. A Reverse Channel Sub-Frame Structure
The mobile transmits sub-packets occupying four reverse link
slots, called a reverse link sub-frame.
If multiple subpackets are required to deliver a packet, the
additional subpackets are spaced in every third subframe until
done
RRI
ACK DSC ACK DSC ACK DSC ACK DSC
DATA CHANNEL
DRC CHANNEL
AUXILIARY PILOT CHANNEL
PILOT CHANNEL
1 Sub-Frame
1 Slot 1 Slot 1 Slot 1 Slot
EV-DO Rev. A Channels
The channels are not continuous like ordinary 1xRTT CDMA
Notice the differences between the MAC channels and the Rev. 0
MAC channels these are the heart of the Rev. 0/A differences
IN THE WORLD OF CODES
S
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9
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P
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ACCESS
FORWARD CHANNELS
Access
Point
(AP)
REVERSE CHANNELS
Pilot
Data
Primary Pilot
Data
ACK
Pilot
Control
Traffic
MAC
MAC
FORWARD
Rev Activity
DRCLock
RPC
RRI
W
64
W2
64
W0
64
Wx
16
Wx
16
W12
32
W1
2
W4
16
W0
16
W2
4
W0
16
M
A
C
Access
Terminal
(User
Terminal)
Walsh
code
Walsh
code
Access Channel
for session setup
from Idle Mode
Traffic Channel
as used during
a data session
ARQ
Auxiliary Pilot
DRC
DSC
W28
32
W8
16
W12
32
S
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I
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-
9
5
FORWARD
CHANNELS
Access
Point
(AP)
Pilot
Control
Traffic
MAC
Rev Activity
DRCLock
RPC
W
64
W2
64
W0
64
Wx
16
Wx
16
M
A
C
Walsh
code
ARQ
Functions of Rev. A Forward Channels
Access terminals watch the Pilot to select the
strongest sector and choose burst speeds
The Reverse Activity Channel tells
ATs If the reverse link loading is too
high, requiring rate reduction
Each connected AT has MAC channel:
DRCLock indication if sector busy
RPC (Reverse Power Control)
ARQ to halt reverse link subpackets as
soon as complete packet is recovered
The Control channel carries
overhead messages for idle ATs but
can also carry user traffic
Traffic channels
carry user data to
one user at a time
DATA
M
A
C
P
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T
M
A
C
DATA DATA
M
A
C
P
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M
A
C
DATA
Forward Link Slot Structure (16 slots in a 26-2/3 ms. frame)
AP
Auxiliary Pilot on traffic channel
allows synchronous detection
during high data rates
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ACCESS
REVERSE CHANNELS
Pilot
Data
Primary Pilot
Data
ACK
MAC
RRI
W2
4
W0
16
Access
Terminal
(User
Terminal)
Walsh
code
Access Channel
for session setup
from Idle Mode
Traffic Channel
as used during
a data session
Auxiliary Pilot
DRC
DSC
Functions of Rev. A Reverse Channels
The Pilot is used as a preamble
during access probes
Data channel during access
carries mobile requests
Primary Pilot on traffic channel
allows synchronous detection and
also carries the RRI channel
RRI reverse rate indicator tells AP
what rate is being sent by AT
DRC Data Rate Control channel
tells desired downlink speed
ACK channel allows AT to signal
successful reception of a packet
DATAchannel during traffic
carries the ATs traffic bits
DSC Data Source Control channel
tells which sector will send burst
W12
32
W1
2
W4
16
W0
16
W28
32
W8
16
W12
32
Rev. A MAC Index Values and Their Uses
114 MAC indices are available for regular single-user packets
3 MAC indices are earmarked for control channel packets
5 MAC indices are reserved for multi-user packets
1 MAC index is reserved for broadcast packets, or single-users
4 MAC indices are not used due to conflicts with multiplexing patterns
MAC INDEX MAC CHANNEL USE PREAMBLE USE PREAMBLE LENGTH
0, 1 Not Used Not Used N/A
2 Not Used Control 76.8 kbps 512
3 Not Used Control 38.4 kbps 1024
4 RA Channel Not Used N/A
5 RPC, DRC LOCK, ARQ Fwd TC if no Bcst Variable
64 and 65 Not Used Not Used N/A
66 Not Used Multi-User 128, 256, 512, 1024 256
67 Not Used Multi-User 2048 128
68 Not Used Multi-user 3072 64
71 Not Used Control 19.2, 38.4, 76.8 1024
6-63 and 72-127 RPC, DRC LOCK, ARQ Fwd TC, Single User Variable
Rev. A MAC Index and I/Q Channel Contents
Available Link Rates in 1xEV-DO Rev. A
The 1xEV-DO Rev. A reverse link has seven available modes
offering higher speeds than available in Rev. 0
Modulation formats are hybrids defined in the standard
The 1xEV-DO Rev. A forward has two available modes offering
higher speeds than available in Rev. 0.
FORWARD LINK REVERSE LINK
DRC
Index
Slots
Preamble
Chips
Payload
Bits
Raw
kb/s
0x0 n/a n/a 0 null rate
0x1 16 1024 1024 38.4
0x2 8 512 1024 76.8
0x3 4 256 1024 153.6
0x4 2 128 1024 307.2
0x5 4 128 2048 307.2
0x6 1 64 1024 614.4
0x7 2 64 2048 614.4
0x8 2 64 3072 921.6
0x9 1 64 2048 1,228.8
0xa 2 64 4096 1,228.8
0xb 1 64 3072 1,843.2
0xc 1 64 4096 2,457.6
0xd 2 64 5120 1,536.0
0xe 1 64 5120 3,072.0
C/I
db
n/a
-11.5
-9.2
-6.5
-3.5
-3.5
-0.6
-0.5
+2.2
+3.9
+4.0
+8.0
+10.3
+8.3
+11.3
Modu-
lation
QPSK
QPSK
QPSK
QPSK
QPSK
QPSK
QPSK
QPSK
QPSK
QPSK
16QAM
8PSK
16QAM
16QAM
16QAM
Payload
Bits
128
256
512
768
1024
1536
2048
3072
4096
6144
8192
12288
Modu-
lation
B4
B4
B4
B4
B4
Q4
Q4
Q2
Q2
Q4Q2
Q4Q2
E4E2
Effective Rate kbps after:
4 slots
1843
1228
921
614
461
307
230
153
115
76
38
19.2
8 slots
921
614
461
307
230
153
115
76.8
57.6
38.4
19.2
9.6
12 slots
614
409
307
204.8
153.6
102.4
76.8
51.2
38.4
25.6
12.8
6.4
16 slots
460.8
307.2
230.4
153.6
115.2
76.8
57.6
38.4
28.8
19.2
9.6
4.8
Code Rate (repetition) after
4 slots 8 slots12 slots16 slots
1/5 1/5 1/5 1/5
1/5 1/5 1/5 1/5
1/4 1/5 1/5 1/5
3/8 1/5 1/5 1/5
1/2 1/4 1/5 1/5
3/8 1/5 1/5 1/5
1/2 1/4 1/5 1/5
3/8 1/5 1/5 1/5
1/2 1/4 1/5 1/5
1/2 1/4 1/5 1/5
2/3 1/3 2/9 1/5
2/3 1/3 1/3 1/3
Information Flow Over 1xEV-DO
The system notifies a mobile when data for it is waiting to be sent
The mobile chooses which sector it hears best at that instant, and requests
the sector to send it a packet
there are 16 possible transmission formats the mobile may request, called
DRC Indices. Each DRC Index value is really a combined specification
including specific values for:
what data speed will be transmitted
how big a chunk of waiting data will be sent (that amount of data will be
cut of the front of the waiting data stream and will be the Packet
transmitted)
what kind of encoding will be done to protect the data (3x Turbo, 5x
Turbo, etc.) and the symbol repetition, if any
after the symbols are formed, how many SUBpackets they will be
divided into
Then, the sector starts transmitting the SUBpackets in SLOTS on the
forward link
The first slot will begin with a header that the mobile will recognize so it can
begin the receiving process
AP
Data Ready
DRC: 5
Data from PDSN for the Mobile
MP3, web page, or other content
Transmission of a Packet over EV-DO
AP
Data Ready
A user has initiated a1xEV-DO data session on their AT,
accessing a favorite website.
The requested page has just been received by the PDSN.
The PDSN and Radio Network Controller send a Data Ready
message to let the AT know it has data waiting.
AP
Data Ready
A user has initiated a1xEV-DO data session on their AT, accessing
a favorite website.
The requested page has just been received by the PDSN.
The PDSN and Radio Network Controller send a Data Ready
message to let the AT know it has data waiting.
The AT quickly determines which of its active sectors is the
strongest. On the ATs DRC channel it asks that sector to send it
a packet at speed DRC Index 5.
The mobiles choice, DRC Index 5, determines everything:
The raw bit speed is 307.2 kb/s.
The packet will have 2048 bits.
There will be 4 subpackets (in slots 4 apart).
The first subpacket will begin with a 128 chip preamble.
DRC: 5
DRC
Index
Slots
Preamble
Chips
Payload
Bits
Raw
kb/s
0x1 16 1024 1024 38.4
0x2 8 512 1024 76.8
0x3 4 256 1024 153.6
0x4 2 128 1024 307.2
0x5 4 128 2048 307.2
0x6 1 64 1024 614.4
0x7 2 64 2048 614.4
0x8 2 64 3072 921.6
0x9 1 64 2048 1,228.8
0xa 2 64 4096 1,228.8
0xb 1 64 3072 1,843.2
0xc 1 64 4096 2,457.6
0xd 2 64 5120 1,536.0
0xe 1 64 5120 3,072.0
C/I
db
n/a
-11.5
-9.2
-6.5
-3.5
-3.5
-0.6
-0.5
+2.2
+3.9
+4.0
+8.0
+10.3
in Rev. A
in Rev. A
Modu-
lation
QPSK
QPSK
QPSK
QPSK
QPSK
QPSK
QPSK
QPSK
QPSK
QPSK
16QAM
8PSK
16QAM
16QAM
16QAM
AP
Data Ready
DRC: 5
2048 bits
Interleaver
+ D
+
+
D D
+
+
+
+
+ D
+
+
D D
+
+
+
+
Turbo Coder
PACKET
Symbols
Using the specifications for the
mobiles requested DRC index,
the correct-size packet of bits is
fed into the turbo coder and the
right number of symbols are
created.
DRC
Index
Slots
Preamble
Chips
Payload
Bits
Raw
kb/s
0x1 16 1024 1024 38.4
0x2 8 512 1024 76.8
0x3 4 256 1024 153.6
0x4 2 128 1024 307.2
0x5 4 128 2048 307.2
0x6 1 64 1024 614.4
0x7 2 64 2048 614.4
0x8 2 64 3072 921.6
0x9 1 64 2048 1,228.8
0xa 2 64 4096 1,228.8
0xb 1 64 3072 1,843.2
0xc 1 64 4096 2,457.6
0xd 2 64 5120 1,536.0
0xe 1 64 5120 3,072.0
C/I
db
n/a
-11.5
-9.2
-6.5
-3.5
-3.5
-0.6
-0.5
+2.2
+3.9
+4.0
+8.0
+10.3
in Rev. A
in Rev. A
Modu-
lation
QPSK
QPSK
QPSK
QPSK
QPSK
QPSK
QPSK
QPSK
QPSK
QPSK
16QAM
8PSK
16QAM
16QAM
16QAM
AP
Data Ready
DRC: 5
2048 bits
Interleaver
+ D
+
+
D D
+
+
+
+
+ D
+
+
D D
+
+
+
+
Turbo Coder
Block Interleaver
PACKET
Symbols
created.
To guard against bursty errors in
transmission, the symbols are
completely stirred up in a block
interleaver.
DRC
Index
Slots
Preamble
Chips
Payload
Bits
Raw
kb/s
0x1 16 1024 1024 38.4
0x2 8 512 1024 76.8
0x3 4 256 1024 153.6
0x4 2 128 1024 307.2
0x5 4 128 2048 307.2
0x6 1 64 1024 614.4
0x7 2 64 2048 614.4
0x8 2 64 3072 921.6
0x9 1 64 2048 1,228.8
0xa 2 64 4096 1,228.8
0xb 1 64 3072 1,843.2
0xc 1 64 4096 2,457.6
0xd 2 64 5120 1,536.0
0xe 1 64 5120 3,072.0
C/I
db
n/a
-11.5
-9.2
-6.5
-3.5
-3.5
-0.6
-0.5
+2.2
+3.9
+4.0
+8.0
+10.3
in Rev. A
in Rev. A
Modu-
lation
QPSK
QPSK
QPSK
QPSK
QPSK
QPSK
QPSK
QPSK
QPSK
QPSK
16QAM
8PSK
16QAM
16QAM
16QAM
AP
Data Ready
DRC: 5
2048 bits
Interleaver
+ D
+
+
D D
+
+
+
+
+ D
+
+
D D
+
+
+
+
Turbo Coder
Block Interleaver
PACKET
Symbols
Interleaved Symbols
created.
interleaver.
The re-ordered stream of
symbols is now ready to transmit.
DRC
Index
Slots
Preamble
Chips
Payload
Bits
Raw
kb/s
0x1 16 1024 1024 38.4
0x2 8 512 1024 76.8
0x3 4 256 1024 153.6
0x4 2 128 1024 307.2
0x5 4 128 2048 307.2
0x6 1 64 1024 614.4
0x7 2 64 2048 614.4
0x8 2 64 3072 921.6
0x9 1 64 2048 1,228.8
0xa 2 64 4096 1,228.8
0xb 1 64 3072 1,843.2
0xc 1 64 4096 2,457.6
0xd 2 64 5120 1,536.0
0xe 1 64 5120 3,072.0
C/I
db
n/a
-11.5
-9.2
-6.5
-3.5
-3.5
-0.6
-0.5
+2.2
+3.9
+4.0
+8.0
+10.3
in Rev. A
in Rev. A
Modu-
lation
QPSK
QPSK
QPSK
QPSK
QPSK
QPSK
QPSK
QPSK
QPSK
QPSK
16QAM
8PSK
16QAM
16QAM
16QAM
AP
Data Ready
DRC: 5
2048 bits
Interleaver
+ D
+
+
D D
+
+
+
+
+ D
+
+
D D
+
+
+
+
Turbo Coder
Block Interleaver
PACKET
Symbols
Interleaved Symbols
created.
interleaver.
The re-ordered stream of
symbols is now ready to transmit.
The symbols are divided into the
correct number of subpackets,
which will occupy the same
number of transmission slots,
spaced four apart.
Its up to the AP to decide when it
will start transmitting the stream,
taking into account any other
pending subpackets for other
users, and proportional
fairness.
S
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b
p
a
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t

1
S
u
b
p
a
c
k
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t

2
S
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b
p
a
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k
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t

3
S
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b
p
a
c
k
e
t

4
DRC
Index
Slots
Preamble
Chips
Payload
Bits
Raw
kb/s
0x1 16 1024 1024 38.4
0x2 8 512 1024 76.8
0x3 4 256 1024 153.6
0x4 2 128 1024 307.2
0x5 4 128 2048 307.2
0x6 1 64 1024 614.4
0x7 2 64 2048 614.4
0x8 2 64 3072 921.6
0x9 1 64 2048 1,228.8
0xa 2 64 4096 1,228.8
0xb 1 64 3072 1,843.2
0xc 1 64 4096 2,457.6
0xd 2 64 5120 1,536.0
0xe 1 64 5120 3,072.0
C/I
db
n/a
-11.5
-9.2
-6.5
-3.5
-3.5
-0.6
-0.5
+2.2
+3.9
+4.0
+8.0
+10.3
in Rev. A
in Rev. A
Modu-
lation
QPSK
QPSK
QPSK
QPSK
QPSK
QPSK
QPSK
QPSK
QPSK
QPSK
16QAM
8PSK
16QAM
16QAM
16QAM
AP
Data Ready
DRC: 5
2048 bits
1 2 3 4
Interleaver
+ D
+
+
D D
+
+
+
+
+ D
+
+
D D
+
+
+
+
Turbo Coder
Block Interleaver
PACKET
SLOTS
Symbols
Interleaved Symbols
When the AP is ready, the first
subpacket is actually
transmitted in a slot.
The first subpacket begins with a
preamble carrying the users
MAC index, so the user
knows this is the start of its
sequence of subpackets,
and how many subpackets
are in the sequence..
The user keeps collecting
subpackets until either:
1) it has been able to reverse-
turbo decode the packet
contents early, or
2) the whole schedule of
subpackets has been
transmitted.
Subpackets
DRC
Index
Slots
Preamble
Chips
Payload
Bits
Raw
kb/s
0x1 16 1024 1024 38.4
0x2 8 512 1024 76.8
0x3 4 256 1024 153.6
0x4 2 128 1024 307.2
0x5 4 128 2048 307.2
0x6 1 64 1024 614.4
0x7 2 64 2048 614.4
0x8 2 64 3072 921.6
0x9 1 64 2048 1,228.8
0xa 2 64 4096 1,228.8
0xb 1 64 3072 1,843.2
0xc 1 64 4096 2,457.6
0xd 2 64 5120 1,536.0
0xe 1 64 5120 3,072.0
C/I
db
n/a
-11.5
-9.2
-6.5
-3.5
-3.5
-0.6
-0.5
+2.2
+3.9
+4.0
+8.0
+10.3
in Rev. A
in Rev. A
Modu-
lation
QPSK
QPSK
QPSK
QPSK
QPSK
QPSK
QPSK
QPSK
QPSK
QPSK
16QAM
8PSK
16QAM
16QAM
16QAM
Ec/Io and C/I
There are two main ways of expressing
signal quality in 1xEV-DO
C/I is the ratio of serving sector power to
everything else
C/I determines the forward data rate
mobiles measure C/I during the pilot
burst period, then from it decide what
data rate to request on the DRC
Ec/Io is the ratio of one sectors pilot power to
the total received power
the mobile uses Ec/Io to choose which
sectors to request for its active set
Ec/Io and C/I are related, and one can be
calculated from the other
EVDO Ec/Io is close to 0 db near a sector,
and ranges down to -10 at a cells edge
EVDO C/I can be above +10 db near a
sector, and -20 or lower at the edge
AP
Relationship of
C/I and E
c
/I
o
For EV-DO Signals
I
o
Power from
Serving Sector
I
Interference Power
from other cells
E
c
C
0
mobile receive power
C/I, db
-30 -20 -10 0 +10 +20
E
c
/
I
o
,

d
b
-30
-20
-10
0
-30
-25
-20
-15
-10
-5
0
-30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20
C/I, db
E
c
/
I
o
,

d
b

Relationship of Ec/Io and C/I in 1xEV-DO Systems
E
c
/
I
o
,

d
b
C
/
I
,

d
b
-0.04 20
-0.14 15
-0.17 14
-0.21 13
-0.27 12
-0.33 11
-0.41 10
-0.51 9
-0.64 8
-0.79 7
-0.97 6
-1.19 5
-1.46 4
-1.76 3
-2.12 2
-2.54 1
-3.01 0
-3.54 -1
-4.12 -2
-4.76 -3
-5.46 -4
-6.97 -6
-8.64 -8
-10.41 -10
-12.27 -12
1xEV-DO Active Set and Forward Bursting
Animation - Proportional Fairness
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Node
(User
Terminal)
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Point
(AP)
DO-RNC
Access
Point
(AP)
NEIGHBOR
A
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Node
(User
Terminal)
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Point
(AP)
NEIGHBOR NEIGHBOR
ACTIVE
NEIGHBOR
NEIGHBOR
NEIGHBOR
Route Update
A
DO-RNC
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Node
(User
Terminal)
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Point
(AP)
ACTIVE ACTIVE
ACTIVE
ACTIVE
NEIGHBOR
NEIGHBOR
A
These sectors are your ACTIVE SET.
You may send DRC requests to any of them anytime.
Maybe youll get some data in response!
DO-RNC
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Node
(User
Terminal)
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Point
(AP)
ACTIVE ACTIVE
ACTIVE
ACTIVE
NEIGHBOR
NEIGHBOR
DRC
A
Good Signal!
PACKET PLEASE!
@ x speed
DO-RNC
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Node
(User
Terminal)
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Point
(AP)
ACTIVE ACTIVE
ACTIVE
ACTIVE
NEIGHBOR
NEIGHBOR
DRC
A
FOR YOU!
DO-RNC
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Node
(User
Terminal)
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Point
(AP)
ACTIVE ACTIVE
ACTIVE
ACTIVE
NEIGHBOR
NEIGHBOR
DRC
A
Good Signal!
PACKET PLEASE!
@ y speed
DO-RNC
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Node
(User
Terminal)
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Point
(AP)
ACTIVE ACTIVE
ACTIVE
ACTIVE
NEIGHBOR
NEIGHBOR
DRC
A
FOR YOU!
DO-RNC
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Node
(User
Terminal)
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Point
(AP)
ACTIVE ACTIVE
ACTIVE
ACTIVE
NEIGHBOR
NEIGHBOR
DRC
A
Good Signal!
PACKET PLEASE!
@ z speed
DO-RNC
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Node
(User
Terminal)
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Point
(AP)
ACTIVE ACTIVE
ACTIVE
ACTIVE
NEIGHBOR
NEIGHBOR
DRC
A
This isnt one of his
better receiving
moments. I think Ill
serve somebody
better this time.
DO-RNC
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Node
(User
Terminal)
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Point
(AP)
ACTIVE ACTIVE
ACTIVE
ACTIVE
NEIGHBOR
NEIGHBOR
A
Nothing
did it forget
me?
DO-RNC
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Node
(User
Terminal)
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Point
(AP)
ACTIVE ACTIVE
ACTIVE
ACTIVE
NEIGHBOR
NEIGHBOR
DRC
A
Good Signal!
PACKET PLEASE!
@ x speed
DO-RNC
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Node
(User
Terminal)
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Point
(AP)
ACTIVE ACTIVE
ACTIVE
ACTIVE
NEIGHBOR
NEIGHBOR
DRC
A
FOR YOU!
DO-RNC
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Node
(User
Terminal)
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Point
(AP)
ACTIVE ACTIVE
ACTIVE
ACTIVE
NEIGHBOR
NEIGHBOR
DRC
A
Good Signal!
PACKET PLEASE!
@ x speed
DO-RNC
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Node
(User
Terminal)
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Point
(AP)
ACTIVE ACTIVE
ACTIVE
ACTIVE
NEIGHBOR
NEIGHBOR
DRC
THIS IS
FOR YOU!
Good Signal!
PACKET PLEASE!
@ x speed
DO-RNC
1xEV-DO Network Architecture 1xEV-DO Network Architecture
1xEV-DO Overlaid On Existing 1xRTT Network
1xEV-DO requires faster resource management than 1x BSCs can give
this is provided by the new Data Only Radio Network Controller (DO-RNC)
A new controller and packet controller software are needed in the BTS to
manage the radio resources for EV sessions
in some cases dedicated channel elements and even dedicated backhaul is
used for the EV-DO traffic
The new DO-OMC administers the DO-RNC and BTS PCF addition
Existing PDSNs and backbone network are used with minor upgrading
The following sections show Lucent, Motorola, and Nortels specific solutions
t1 t1
v
CE
SEL
t1
PDSN
Foreign Agent
PDSN
Home Agent
Backbone
Network
Internet
VPNs
PSTN
Authentication
Authorization
Accounting
AAA
BTS
Switch
CE
DO
Radio
Network
Controller
DO-OMC
Simple IP Network Architecture
In a Simple IP network, the mobile is able to connect to the external
packet networks directly through the PDSN attached to the local BSC
The IP address for the internet connection is assigned by the local
PDSN from the pool of addresses available to it
If the mobile moves into a different network, the data session ends
The mobile can establish an entirely new connection through the
new network, if desired
t1 t1
v
CE
SEL
t1
R-P Interface
PDSN
PSTN
T
Authentication
Authorization
Accounting
AAA
CIRCUIT-SWITCHED VOICE TRAFFIC
BTS
Switch
Wireless
Mobile Device
POINT-TO-POINT PACKETS
FAST IP PACKET TRAFFIC
Simple IP
-IP Based
transport to data
networks
-Dynamic/static
connection from
local PDSN
-No mobility
beyond serving
PDSN
Internet
VPNs
rf
Fast!
Mobile IP in a Multi-Market Network
PSTN PSTN PSTN
Regional
Data
Center
Internet
Private IP
Networks
Operator's Private Network
PDSN
FA
Switch
BSC
PDSN
FA
Switch
Access
Mgr.
PDSN/FA
Switch
CBSC
PCF
RP Interface
RP
RP
Voice Voice Voice
IP Data IP Data IP Data
Home
Agent
Home
Agent
Nortel System Lucent System Motorola System
AAA
Server
Mobile IP
Subscribers IP routing service is
provided by a public IP network
Mobile station is assigned a static IP
address belonging to its Home Agent
Mobile can maintain the static IP
address even for handoff between
radio networks connected to separate
PDSNs!
Mobile IP capabilities will be
especially important for mobiles on
system boundaries
Without Mobile IP roaming
capability, data service for border-
area mobiles will be erratic
MOBILE IP
IMPLICATIONS
Handoffs possible between
PDSNs
Mobile can roam in the
public IP network
Mobile termination is
possible while Mobile is in
dormant or active mode
How the PDSN HA and FA Forward Your Packets
Mobile IP is a packet-
forwarding
arrangement that
allows the mobile user
to send and receive
packets just as if they
were physically present
at their home agent
location.
158766
158767
158768
158769
158770
158771
158772
158773
158774
158775
158776
158778
158779
158780
158781
158782
158783
158784
158785
158786
158787
158788
158789
158790
158791
158792
158793
158794
158795
158796
158797
F
e
d
E
x
F
e
d
E
x
Secure Tunneling
Forward and Reverse
Encapsulation
Home
Agent
Foreign
Agent
Mobile
User
This box is the
mobile user's
Postal address
J ust like
Home!
1xEV-DO / 1xRTT
Interoperability
1xEV-DO / 1xRTT
Interoperability
1xEV-DO/1xRTT Interoperability
The CDMA2000 1xEV-DO Standard IS-856 makes no provision for
any kind of handoff to or from any other technology
Driven by Operator interest, a Hybrid mode has been developed
to provide some types of handoff functions to the best extent
possible
Hybrid Mode
is a mobile only function neither the EV nor 1xRTT network
knows anything about it
is a proprietary feature with vendor-specific implementation
has no standard-defined RF triggers; no hooks
In the 1xEV rev. A standard, some new features will be provided
the 1xEV control channel will be able to carry 1xRTT pages too
this and other changes may make the hybrid mode
unnecessary and obsolete
What Handoffs are Possible in Hybrid Mode?
All switching between systems occurs in Idle Mode
there are no handoffs in active traffic state in either mode
Sessions can be transferred from one system to the other, but
NOT in active traffic state
If there is a connection, it can be closed and then re-originated
on the other system
In some cases this can be accomplished automatically without
the end-users awareness in other cases, this is not possible
Hybrid Mode Transition Scenarios
DO systems will be Implemented in Several Configurations
1:1 overlays in busy core areas
1:1 or 1:N overlays in less dense areas
Many EV>1x and 1x>EV transition events may occur as a user
transitions from area to area
Initial system acquisition is also involved as a user activates their
AT in different locations
These transitions are dependent on the Hybrid mode
implementation in the AT
The following pages show some possible transitions assuming
Mobile IP and AT Hybrid Mode are implemented
EV-DO, F2
1xRTT, F1
1:2 Deployment 1:1 Deployment 1:1 Deployment
1xRTT / 1xEV-DO Hybrid Idle Mode
1xRTT/1xEV-DO Hybrid Mode
depends on being able to hear pages on both
systems 1xRTT and 1xEV-DO
is possible because of slotted mode paging
1xRTT and 1xEV-DO paging slots do not occur
simultaneously
mobile can monitor both
During 1xEV-DO traffic operation, the hybrid-aware
mobile can still keep monitoring 1xRTT paging
channel
During 1xRTT traffic operation, the hybrid-aware
mobile is unable to break away; 1xRTT traffic
operation is continuous
no opportunity to see 1xEV-DO signal
This hybrid Idle mode capability is the foundation
for all 1xRTT/1xEV mode transfers
the network does not trigger any transfers
1
x
R
T
T

A
c
t
i
v
e
1
x
R
T
T

I
d
l
e
1
x
E
V
-
D
O
I
d
l
e
1
x
E
V
-
D
O

A
c
t
i
v
e
Idle
Mode
Idle
Mode
Hybrid
Mode
Hybrid Dual-Mode Idle Operation
1xRTT / 1xEV-DO Paging Interoperability
A dual-mode 1xRTT/1xEV-DO mobile using slotted-mode paging can
effectively watch the paging channels of both 1xRTT and 1xEV-DO at the
same time
How is it possible for the mobile to monitor both at the same time?
The paging timeslots of the two technologies are staggered
Three of the 16 timeslots in 1xRTT conflict with the control channel slots
of 1xEV-DO
However, conflicts can be avoided by page repetition, a standard
feature in systems of both technologies
16-frame Control Channel Cycle
16 slots of 26-2/3 ms =426-2/3 ms
1xRTT Minimum Slot Cycle Index: 16 slots of 80 ms each =48 26-2./3 ms frames 1xRTT Minimum Slot Cycle Index: 16 slots of 80 ms each =48 26-2./3 ms frames
16-frame Control Channel Cycle
16 slots of 26-2/3 ms =426-2/3 ms
LONGEST POSSIBLE
PACKET
DRC16 Subpackets
1
x
R
T
T

A
c
t
i
v
e
1
x
R
T
T

I
d
l
e
1
x
E
V
-
D
O
I
d
l
e
1
x
E
V
-
D
O

A
c
t
i
v
e
Initial System Acquisition by Hybrid Mobile
Idle
Mode
Acquire
1xRTT
System
driven by
PRL
Register
with
1xRTT
Network
Acquire
1xEV-DO
System
driven by
PRL
Classical 1xRTT
Idle Mode
no, cant see EV
Voice
Page!
1xRTT
Voice
Call
Idle
Mode
Release
when 1xEV-DO is NOT Available
After entering this state, the
mobile will not search for
1xEV service again
1
x
R
T
T

A
c
t
i
v
e
1
x
R
T
T

I
d
l
e
1
x
E
V
-
D
O
I
d
l
e
1
x
E
V
-
D
O

A
c
t
i
v
e
Initial System Acquisition by Hybrid Mobile
Idle
Mode
Acquire
1xRTT
System
driven by
PRL
Register
with
1xRTT
Network
Acquire
1xEV-DO
System
driven by
PRL
Set Up or
Re-establish
1xEVDO
Data
Session
yes, found EV
Idle
Mode
Idle
Mode
Hybrid
Mode
1xEV
Traffic
AT Data
Ready!
AN Data
Page!
Data
Connection
Closed
Voice
Page!
1xEV
Traffic
1xRTT
Voice
Call
Idle
Mode
Hybrid
Mode
Idle
Mode
Idle
Mode
Hybrid
Mode
Release
when 1xEV-DO is Available
interrupted
during
1xRTT
voice call
Triggers:
In-Traffic: EV-DO Fade with 1xRTT Available
1
x
R
T
T

A
c
t
i
v
e
1
x
R
T
T

I
d
l
e
1
x
E
V
-
D
O
I
d
l
e
1
x
E
V
-
D
O

A
c
t
i
v
e
Traffic Mode,
Data Transfer
Idle
Mode
Fade
Fade
Close
Connection
Reestablish
Call
PPP
Resync
MIP
Registr.
Resume
Data Transfer
Transfer
Finished
Dormant
/Idle
Dormant
/Idle
DO
System
Acquired
Same
DO
Subnet?
Get New
UATI
no
PPP
Resync
MIP
Registr.
Traffic Mode,
Data Transfer
AT data ready
AN data ready
1
x
R
T
T

A
c
t
i
v
e
1
x
R
T
T

I
d
l
e
1
x
E
V
-
D
O
I
d
l
e
1
x
E
V
-
D
O

A
c
t
i
v
e
Transition In-Traffic: Lost EV-DO and 1xRTT
Fade
Idle
Mode
Fade
Fade
Close
Connection
Lost
Signal!!
Use 1x PRL,
Search for
1xRTT
No
Signal
Found!!
Traffic Mode,
Data Transfer
DO PRL,
Search for
DO
Found
New DO
Signal!!
Idle
Mode
Same DO
Subnet?
Get New
UATI
No
Idle
Mode Yes
Use 1x PRL,
Search for
1xRTT
No Signal Found!!
Idle
Mode
Hybrid
Mode
No 1x Signal,
Continue EV
Operation
Set Up or
Re-establish
1xEVDO
Data
Session
1xEV
Traffic
AT Data
Ready!
AN Data
Page!
Triggers:
Idle
Mode
Dormant Session, EV-DO Lost > 1xRTT > 1xEV-DO
1
x
R
T
T

A
c
t
i
v
e
1
x
R
T
T

I
d
l
e
1
x
E
V
-
D
O
I
d
l
e
1
x
E
V
-
D
O

A
c
t
i
v
e
Idle
Mode
Fade
Fade
Traffic Mode,
Data Transfer
DO PRL,
Search for
DO
Found
New DO
Signal!!
Same DO
Subnet?
Get New
UATI
No
Idle
Mode Yes
Idle
Mode
Hybrid
Mode
Idle
Mode
Data Finished,
Call Dormant
Coverage
Edge
No
Signal
Found!!
PPP
Resync
MIP
Registr.
Idle
Mode
DO PRL,
DO
Available?
PPP
Resync
MIP
Registr.
DO PRL,
DO
Available?
No
Signal
Found!!
No
Signal
Found!!
DO PRL,
DO
Available?

Course 186: RF, CDMA/1xRTT and EV-DO Quickstart / Refresher RF, CDMA/1xRTT and EV-DO Quickstart / Refresher

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186 - 1 J uly, 2013 RF, 1xRTT and EV-DO Quickstart -- 186 v1.

0 - (c) 2013 Scott Baxter

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