4.

Classification of Steels, Welding of Mild Steels

4. Classification of Steels, Welding of Mild Steels

32

In the European Standard DIN EN

Definition of the term steel Steel is a material with a mass fraction if iron which is higher than of every other element, ist carbon content is, in general, lower than 2% and steel contains, moreover, also other elements. A limited number of chromium steels might contain a carbon content which is higher than 2%, but, however, 2% is the common boundary between steel and cast iron [DIN EN 10020 (07.00)].

10020 (July 2000), the designations (main symbols) for the classification of steels are standardised. Figure 4.1 shows the definition of the term steel and the classification of the steel grades in accordance with their

Classification in accordance with the chemical composition:

l

unalloyed steels stainless steels other, alloyed steels

chemical composition and the main quality classes.

Classification in accordance with the main quality class: unalloyed steels stainless steels other, alloyed steels - unalloyed quality steels - unalloyed special steels

- alloyed quality steels - alloyed special steels

ISF 2004

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Definition for the classification of steels

Figure 4.1

In accordance with the chemical composition the steel grades are classified into unalloyed, stainless and other alloyed steels. The mass fractions of the individual elements in unalloyed steels do not achieve the limit values which are indicated in Figure 4.2. Stainless steels are grades of steel with a mass fraction of chromium of at least 10,5 % and a maximum of 1,2 % of carbon. Other alloyed steels are steel grades which do not comply with the definition of stainless steels and where one alloying element exceeds the limit value indicated in Figure 4.2.
Figure 4.2

4. Classification of Steels, Welding of Mild Steels

33

As far as the main quality classes are concerned, the steels are classified in accordance with their main characteristics and main application properties into unalloyed, stainless and other alloyed steels. As regards unalloyed steels a distinction is made between unalloyed quality steels and unalloyed high-grade steels. Regarding unalloyed quality steels, prevailing demands apply, for example, to the toughness, the grain size and / or the forming properties. Unalloyed high-grade steels are characterised by a higher degree of purity than unalloyed quality steels, particularly with regard to non-metal inclusions. A more precise setting of the chemical composition and special diligence during the manufacturing and monitoring process guarantee better properties. In most cases these steels are intended for tempering and surface hardening. Stainless steels have a chromium mass fraction of at least 10,5 % and maximally 1,2 % of carbon. They are further classified in accordance with the nickel content and the main characteristics (corrosion resistance, heat resistance and creep resistance). Other alloyed steels are classified into alloyed quality steels and alloyed high-grade steels. Special demands are put on the alloyed quality steels, as, for example, to toughness, grain size and / or forming properties. Those steels are generally not intended for tempering or surface hardening. The alloyed high-grade steels comprise steel grades which have improved properties through precise setting of their chemical composition and also through special manufacturing and control conditions.

4. Classification of Steels, Welding of Mild Steels

34

The European Standard DIN EN 10027-1 (September 1992) stipulates the rules for the designation of the steels by means of code letters and identification numbers. The code letters and identification numbers give information about the main application field, about the mechanical or physical properties or about the composition. The code designations of the steels are divided into two groups. The code designations of the first group refer to the application and to the mechanical or physical properties of the steels. The code designations of the second group refer to the chemical composition of the steels.
l S = Steels for structural steel engineering e.g. S235JR, S355J0 l P = Steels for pressure vessel construction e.g. P265GH, P355M l L = Steels for pipeline construction e.g. L360A, L360QB l E = Engineering steels e.g. E295, E360 l B = Reinforcing steels e.g. B500A, B500B l Y = Prestressing steels e.g. Y1770C, Y1230H l R = Steels for rails (or formed as rails) e.g. R350GHT l H = Cold rolled flat-rolled steels with higher-strength drawing quality e.g. H400LA l D = Flat products made of soft steels for cold reforming e.g. DD14, DC04 l T = Black plate and tin plate and strips and also specially chromium-plated plate and strip e.g. TH550, TS550 l M = Magnetic steel sheet and strip e.g. M400-50A, M660-50D
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According to the utilization of the steel and also to the mechanical or physical properties, the steel grades of the first group are designated with different main symbols (Fig. 4.3).

Classification of steels in accordance with their designated use

Figure 4.3

4. Classification of Steels, Welding of Mild Steels

35

An example of the code designation structure with reference to the usage and the mechanical or physical properties for steels in structural steel engineering is explained in Figure 4.4.

Figure 4.4

4. Classification of Steels, Welding of Mild Steels

36

For designating special features of the steel or the steel product, additional symbols are added to the code designation. A distinction is made between symbols for special demands, symbols for the type of coating and symbols for the treatment condition. These additional symbols are stipulated in the ECISS-note IC 10 and depicted in Figures 4.5 and 4.6.

Symbol1)2) +A + AR + AS + AZ + CE + Cu + IC + OC +S + SE +T + TE +Z + ZA + ZE + ZF + ZN
1 2

Coating hot dipped aluminium, cladded by rolling coated with Al-Si alloy coated with Al-Tn alloy (>50% Al) electrolytically chromium-plated copper-coated inorganically coated organically coated hot-galvanised electrolytically galvanised upgraded by hot dipping with a lead-tin alloy electrolytically coated with a lead-tin alloy hot-galvised coated with Al-Zn alloy (>50% Zn) electrolytically galvanised diffusion-annealed zinc coatings (galvannealed, with diffused Fe) nickel-zinc coating (electrolytically)

) The symbols are separated from the preceding symbols by plus-signs (+) ) In order to avoid mix-ups with other symbols, the figure S may precede,

for example +SA

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Symbols for the coating type

Figure 4.5

Symbol1)2) +A + AC +C + Cnnn + CR + HC + LC +Q +S + ST +U

treatment condition softened annealed for the production of globular carbides work-hardened (e.g., by rolling and drawing), also a distinguishing mark for cold-rolled narrow strips) cold-rolled to a minimum tensile strength of nnn MPa/mm cold-rolled thermoformed/cold formed slightly cold-drawn or slightly rerolled (skin passed) quenched or hardened treatment for capacity for cold shearing solution annealed untreated

1 2

) The symbols are separated from the preceding symbols by plus-signs (+) ) In order to avoid mix-ups with other symbols, the figure T may precede,

for example +TA

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Symbols for the treatment condition

Figure 4.6

4. Classification of Steels, Welding of Mild Steels

37

Figure 4.7 shows an example of the novel designation of a steel for structural steel engineering which had formerly been labelled St37-2.

The steel St37-2 (DIN 17100) is, according to the new standard (DIN EN 10027-1), designated as follows:

S235 J 2 G3
Steel for structural steel engineering further property (RR = normalised) test temperature 20C impact energy 27 J
S = steels for structural steel engineering P = steels for pressure vessel construction L = steels for pipeline construction E = engineering steels B = reinforcing steels
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ReH 235 MPa/mm2

Steel designation in accordance with DIN EN 10027-1

Figure 4.7

Steel Stahl S355J0 (St 52-3) S500N (StE500) P295NH (HIV) S355J2G1W (WTSt510-3) S355G3S (EH36) Steel Stahl

C 0,20 0,21 0,26 0,15 0,18

Si 0,55

Mn 1,60

P 0,040 0,035 0,05

S 0,040 0,030 0,05 0,035 0,05

Cr / 0,30 / 0,40 0,80 /

Al / 0,020 / / /

Cu / 0,20 / 0,25 0,5 /

N 0,009 0,020 / / /

Mo / 0,1 / 0,30 /

Ni / 1 / 0,65 /

Nb / 0,05 / / /

V / 0,22 / 0,02 0,12 /

0,1 - 0,6 1 - 1,7 0,35 0,6

0,50 0,5 - 1,3 0,035 0,1 0,7 - 1,5 0,05 0,35

Tensile strength Zugfestigkeit RmRm [N/mm]

yield point Re Streckgrenze eH H [N/mm]

elongation after fracture Bruchdehnung A A [%]

0C S355J2G3 (St 52-3) S500N (StE500) P295NH (HIV) S355J2G1W (WTSt510-3) S355G3S (EH36)
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impact energy AV Kerbschlagarbeit V [J] -20C

510-680 610-780 460-550 510-610 400-490

355 500 285 355 355

20-22 16 >18 22 >22

27 31-47

27 21-39

49 (bei +20C)

76 (bei -10C)
ISF 2004

Chemical composition and mechanical parameters of different steel sorts

Figure 4.8

Figure 4.8 depicts the chemical composition and the mechanical parameters of different steel grades. The figure explains the influence of the chemical composition on the mechanical properties.

4. Classification of Steels, Welding of Mild Steels

38

The steel S355J2G2 represents the basic type of structural steels which are nowadays commonly used. Apart from a slightly increased Si content for desoxidisation it this an unalloyed steel. S500N is a typical fine-grained structural steel. A very fine-grained microstructure with improved tensile strength values is provided by the addition of carbide forming elements like Cr and Mo as well as by grain-refining elements like Nb and V. The boiler steel P295NH is a heat-resistant steel which is applied up to a temperature of 400 C. This steel shows a relatively low strength but very good toughness values which are caused by the increased Mn content of 0,6%. S355J2G1W is a weather-resistant structural steel with mechanical properties similar to S355J2G2. By adding Cr, Cu and Ni, formed oxide layers stick firmly to the workpiece surface. This oxide layer prevents further corrosion of the steel. S355G3S belongs to the group of shipbuilding steels with properties similar to those of usual structural steels. Due to special quality requirements of the classification companies (in this case: impact energy) these steels are summarised under a special group.

4. Classification of Steels, Welding of Mild Steels

39

The steel grades are classified into four subgroups according to the chemical composition (Fig. 4.9): Unalloyed steels (except free-cutting steels) with a Mn content of < 1 % Unalloyed steels with a medium Mn content > 1 %, unalloyed free-cutting steels and alloyed steels (except high-speed steels) with individual alloying element contents of less than 5 percent in weight Alloyed steels (except high-speed steels), if, at least for one alloying element the content is 5 percent in weight High-speed steels

The unalloyed steels with Mn contents of < 1% are labelled with the code letter C and a number which complies with the hundredfold of the mean value which is stipulated for the carbon content. Unalloyed steels with a medium Mn content > 1 %, unalloyed freecutting steels and alloyed steels (individual alloying element contents < 5 %) are labelled with a number which also complies with a hundredfold of the mean value which is stipulated for the carbon content, the chemical symbols for the alloying elements, ordered according to the decreasing contents of the alloying
Figure 4.9

elements and numbers, which in the sequence of the designating alloying

elements give reference about their content. The individual numbers stand for the medium content of the respective alloying element, the content had been multiplied

4. Classification of Steels, Welding of Mild Steels

40

by the factor as indicated in Fig. 4.9 / Table 4.1 and rounded up to the next whole number. The alloyed steels are labelled with the code letter X, a number which again complies with the hundredfold of the mean value of the range stipulated for the carbon content, the chemical symbols of the alloying elements, ordered according to decreasing contents of the elements and numbers which in sequence of the designating alloying elements refer to their content. High-speed steels are designated with the code letter HS and numbers which, in the following sequence, indicate the contents of elements:: tungsten (W), molybdenum (Mo), vanadium (V) and cobalt (Co).

The European Standard DIN EN 10027-2 (September 1992) specifies a numbering system for the designation of steel grades, which is also called material number system.. The structure of the material number is as follows: 1. XX XX (XX) Sequential number The digits inside the brackets are intended for possible future demands. Steel group number (see Fig. 4.10) Material main group number (1=steel)

4. Classification of Steels, Welding of Mild Steels Figure 4.10 specifies the material numbers for the material main group steel.

41

Figure 4.10

4. Classification of Steels, Welding of Mild Steels

42

The influence of the austenite grain size on the transformation behaviour has been explained in Chapter 2. Figure 4.11 shows the dependence between grain size of the austenite which develops during the welding cycle, the distance from the fusion line and the energy-per-unit length from the welding method. The higher the energy-peruntil length, the bigger the austen13
Energy-per-unit length in kJ/cm

ite grains in the HAZ and the width

18 36

Austenite grain size index according to DIN 50601

11

12

of

the

HAZ

in-

creases.

Such

coarsened austenite grain decreases the critical cooling

3 0
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0,2

0,4 0,6 Distance of the fusion line

0,8

mm

1,0
ISF 2004

time, thus increasing the tendency of the steel to harden.

Influence of the energy-per-unit length on the austenite grain size

Figure 4.11

With fine-grained structural steels it is tried to suppress the grain growth with alloying elements. Favourable are nitride and carbide forming alloys. They develop precipitations which suppress undesired grain growth. There is, however, a limitation due to the solubility of these precipitations, starting with a certain temperature, as shown in Figure 4.12. Steel 1 does not contain any precipitations and shows therefore a continuous grain growth related to temperature. Steel 2 contains AIN precipitations which are stable up to a temperature of approx. 1100 C, thus preventing a growth of the austenite grain.

4. Classification of Steels, Welding of Mild Steels With

mm 1 8 6 4 -4

43 higher temperatures, these

precipitations dissolve and cannot suppress a grain growth any more. Steel 3 contains mainly titanium carbonitrides of a much lower grainrefining effect than that of AIN. Steel 4 is a combination of the most effective properties of steels nos. 2 and 3.
Steel 1 Steel 2 Steel 3 Steel 4 1000 1100 1200 Austenitization temperature 1300 C 1400

-2

Grain size index according to DIN 50601

Medium fibre length

2
-1

10 8 6 4

2 10-2 8 6 10
-3

10

The importance of grain refinement for the mechanical properties of a steel is shown in Figure 4.13. Provided the temperature keeps constant, the yield strength of a steel increases with decreasing grain size. This influence on the yield point Rel is specified in 1 d the Hall-Petch-law:
ISF 2004

12 900

Steel 1 2 3 4
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%C 0,21 0,17 0,18 0,19

% Mn 1,16 1,35 1,43 1,34

% Al 0,004 0,047 0,004 0,060

%N 0,010 0,017 0,024 0,018

% Ti / / 0,067 0,140

Austenite grain size as a function of the austenitization temperature

Figure 4.12

Rel = i + K to the
900 N/mm 800
Yield point or 0,2 boundary

According

above-mentioned law, the increase of the yield point is inversely proportional to the root of the medium grain diameter d. i

Temperature in C:

700 600 500 400 300 200

-193 -185 -170 -155

-180

-100 -40 +20

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 -1/2 Grain size d 7 8 mm-1/2 10

stands for the internal friction stress of the grain measure material. The is a the

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ISF 2004

boundary
Figure 4.13

Connection between yield point and grain size

resistance K for

influence of the grain size on the forming mechanisms. Apart from this increase of the yield point, grain refinement also results in improved toughness values. As far as

4. Classification of Steels, Welding of Mild Steels

44

structural steels are concerned, this means the improvement of the mechanical properties without any further alloying. Modern fine-grained structural steels show improved mechanical properties with, at the same time, decreased content of alloying elements. As a consequence of this chemical composition the carbon equivalent decreases, the weldability is improved and processing of the steel is easier. The major advanSteel type Stahlsorte Yield point Streckgrenze Plate thickness Blechdicke Weld cross-section Nahtquerschnitt Welding wire Schweidraht 1.2 1.2 Welding wire costs Schweidrahtkosten Steel costs Stahlkosten Weld metal costs Schweigutkosten Special weld costs Spez. Schweinahtkosten Costs ratio inclusive base Kostenverhltnis inklusive materials Grundwerkstoffe

S235JR (St37-2) N/mm2 mm mm2 mm

Ratio Verhltnis Ratio Verhltnis Ratio Verhltnis Ratio Verhltnis

S355J2G3 (St52-3) 345 31 370 SG3 1 1,2 2,3 5,1

S690Q (StE690) 690 14,4 100 NiMoCr 2,4 1,9 1,5 1,8

S890Q (StE890) 890 11 60 X 90 3,2 2,3 1,16 1,18

S960Q (StE960) 960 10 50 X 96 3,3 2,4 1 1

Verhltnis Ratio S235JR - S960Q 1:5 5:1 17 : 1 1 : 3,3 1 : 2,4 5,3 : 1 12 : 1 5:1

tages of microalloyed fine-grained with are structural steels in comparison tural shown steels in conventional strucFigure

215 50 870 SG2 1 1 5,3 12

Randbedingungen: Boundary condition:

Schweiverfahren = MAG welding process = MAG

Deposition rate = 3 kg wire/h, weld /shape X -60 X - 60 Abschmelzleistung =welding 3 kg Schweidraht h, Nahtform Costs ofund labour and equipment = = 60 30/h LohnMaschinenkosten DM / h Special costs = weld filler materials + welding Spez. weld Schweinahtkosten = Schweizusatzwerkstoffe + Schweien

4.14. Due to the considerably better

ISF 2004

Berechnungsgrundlage =szul = Re / 1.5 Calculation base = szul = Re/1.5

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Influence of the steel selection on the producing costs of welded structures

mechanical properties of the finegrained structural steel in comparison

Figure 4.14

with unalloyed structural steel, substantial savings of material are possible. This leads also to reduced joint cross-sections and, in total, to lower costs when making welded steel constructions. Based Figure on 4.2, the
unalloyed steels

alloyed low-alloyed high-alloyed

classification

of Figmild steel higher-carbon steel Hardening Underbead cracking

ure 4.15 divides the steels with regard to their problematic processes during welding. When it comes to unalloyed
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rimmed steel cutting of segregation zones

killed steel duplex killed steel

hardening corrosion tool steels special properties are resistant steels achieved, for example: Hardening, special properties heat resistance, are achieved tempering resistant, high-pressure hydrogen resistance, toughness at low temperatures, surface treeatment condition, etc. ferritic grain increase in the weld interfaces pearlitic-martensitic hardening embrittlement formation of chromium carbide austenitic grain desintegration stress corrosion cracking hot cracks (sigma phase embrittlement)

cold brittleness (coarse-grained recrystallization after critical treatment) stress corrosion cracking safety from brittle fracture

Post-weld treatment for highest corrosion resistance

ISF 2004

steels, only ingot

Classification of steels with respect to problems during welding

Figure 4.15

4. Classification of Steels, Welding of Mild Steels

45

casts, rimmed and semi-killed steels are causing problems. Killing means the removal of oxygen from the steel bath. Figure 4.16 shows cross-sections of ingot blocks with different oxygen contents. Rimming steels with increased oxygen content show, from the outside to the inside, three different zones after solidification: 1.: a pronounced, very pure outer envelope, 2.: a typical blowhole formation (not critical, blowholes are forged together during rolling), 3.: in the centre a clearly zone segregated

where unfavourable elements like sulphur and phospho0,025 0,012 0,003

rus are enriched. During rolling, such zones are stretched

ISF 2004

fully killed steel

Figures: mass content of oxygen in %
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semi-killed steel

rimmed steel

along the complete length of the rolling profile.

Ingot cross-sections after different casting methods

Figure 4.16

Figure 4.17 shows important points to be observed during welding such steels. Due to their enrichment with alloy elements, the segregation zones are more transformation-inert than the outer envelope In to as, hotin
B
D C E

and are inclined to hardening. sensitive cracking, addition, they are

these zones, the elements phosphorus are and sulphur enriched.

Figure 4.17
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ISF 2004

Example of unfavourable (a) and favourable (b) welds

4. Classification of Steels, Welding of Mild Steels

46

Therefore, touching such segregation zones during welding must be avoided by all means. In the case of lowalloy
Microstructures Ferrite Austenite Perlite (granular) Perlite (lamellar) Sorbite Troostite Cementite Martensite Average Brinell Hardness (Approximately) 80 250 200 300 350 400 600 - 650 400 - 900

steels, of must

the HAZ

problem hardening welding observed. ness

during be Figure of

4.18 shows hardvalues various microstruc ISF 2004

Br-er-05-18.cdr

tures. The highest hardness martensite values and can be found with

Hardness of Several Microstructures

Figure 4.18

cementite. Hardness values of cementite are of minor importance for unalloyed and low-alloy steels because its proportion in these steels remains low due to the low Ccontent. However, hardening because of martensite formation is of greatest importance as the martensite proportion in the microstructure depends mainly on the cooling time. Figure 4.19 shows the essential influence of the martensite content in the HAZ on the crack formation of welded martensite joints. formaHardening through tion is not to be
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maximum hardness HV root cracking presumable root cracking possible no root cracking sufficient operational safety without heat treatment 400 400 - 350 350 280 HRC 41 41 - 36 36 28

strength, calculated at max. hardness N/mm2 1290 1290 - 1125 1125 900

with maximum martensite content % 70 70 - 60 60 30

If too much martensite develops in the heat affected zone during welding (below or next to the weld), a very hard zone will be formed which shows often cracks.

expected with pure carbon steels up to about 0,22%,

Figure 4.19

Influence of Martensite Content

4. Classification of Steels, Welding of Mild Steels

47

because the critical cooling rate with these low C-contents is so high that it normally wont be reached within the welding cycle. In general, such steels can be welded without special problems (e.g., S. 235). In addition to carIIW
C - qu. = C + Mn Cr + Mo + V Cu + Ni + + 6 5 15
Mo Ni Cu Mn Cr + Mn + + + 6 10 20 40

bon, all other alloy elements are important site when it in comes to martenformation the welding cycle, as they have substantial influence on the transformation behaviour of steels (see Fig. 2.12 ). It is not appropriate just

Stout

C - qu. = C +

Ito and Bessyo

PCM = C +

Si Mn + Cu + Cr Ni Mo V + + + + + 5B 30 20 60 15 10
Si Mn + Cu Cr Ni Mo V + + + + + 25 16 20 60 40 15

Mannesmann

C - qu.PLS = C +

Hoesch

C - qu. = C +

Si + Mn + Cu + Cr + Ni + Mo + V 20

Thyssen

C ET

Mn + Mo Cr + Cu Ni = C+ + + 10 20 40
PLS = pipeline steels PCM = cracking parameters (%)
ISF 2002

C-qu.= carbon equivalent (%)

Br-er-05-20.cdr

Definition of C - Equivalent

Figure 4.20

to take the carbon content as a measure for the hardening tendency of such steels. To estimate the weldability, several authors developed formulas for calculating the so-called carbon equivalent, which include the contribution of the other alloy elements to hardening tendency, (Fig. 4.20). As these approximation formulas are empirically determined and as for the
Tp [ C]
250 100

Tp == 750 CET - 150 Tp 750 CET - 150

200 80

delta Tp = 62 HD HD0,35 - 100 delta Tp = 62 - 100

0,35

delta Tp [C]

150

60

hardening tendency the general conditions like plate heat thickness,

100

40

50

20

0 0,2 0,3 0,4

d = 30 mm d = 30 mm HD HD =4 =4 1 kJ/mm Q =Q 1=kJ/mm
0,5

0 0 5 10 15 20

CET == 0,33 % CET 0,33 % = 30 mm d =d30 mm Q1 =1 kJ/mm Q= kJ/mm

25

Kohlenstoffquivalent CET [%] Carbon aquivalent

Wasserstoffgehalt HD Hydrogen content of des theSchweigutes weld metal [%]

60

delta Tp = 160 tanhtanh (d/35) (d/35) - 110 - 110 delta Tp = 160

40

delta Tp = (53 CET - 32)-Q - 53Q CET + 32 delta Tp = (53 CET 32) - 53 CET + 32
20

50

CET = 0,4 %
0

CET = 0,4 %

CET = 0,2 %

CET = 0,2 %

CET = 0,2 %

CET = 0,2 %

40

delta Tp [C]

delta Tp [C]

input, etc., are also of importance, the carbon equivalent cannot be a common limit value for the weldability.

-20

30

-40

20
-60

10

0 0 20 40 60 80

CET =0,4 0,4 CET = %% HD = 2 2 HD Q= =1 Q 1kJ/mm kJ/mm

100

-80

-100 0 0,5 1 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5 4

d =d50 mm = 50 mm =8 HDHD =8
4,5 5

Blechdicke d [mm] Plate thickness

Wrmeeinbringen Heat input Q [kJ/mm]

Tp =697 CET + 160 tanh (d/35) + 62 HD

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0,35

+ (53 CET - 32) Q - 328

ISF 2005

Source: Quelle: DIN EN 1011-2

Calculation of the preheating temperatures

For the determina- Figure 4.21

4. Classification of Steels, Welding of Mild Steels

48

tion of the preheating temperature Tp, the formula as shown in Figure 4.21 is used. The effects of the chemical composition which is marked by the carbon equivalent CET, the plate thickness d, the hydrogen content of the weld metal HD and the heat input Q are considered. The essential factor to martensite formaTmax

tion in the welding cycle is the cooling time. As a measure of cooling time, the
DT

Temperature T

800

500 t8/5

time of cooling from 800 to 500 C (t8/5) is defined (Fig. 4.22).

t800 Time t t500 s
ISF 2004

The

temperature

br-er-05-22.cdr

Definition of t8/5

range was selected in such a way that it covered the most

Figure 4.22

important structural transformations and that the time can be easily transferred to the TTT diagrams. Figure 4.23 measured temperature shows
2000

timedistriTemperature T

C
B

1500 A 1000 B 500 C 0 0

br-er-05-23.cdr

butions in the vicinity of a weld. Peak values and dwell times depend obviously on the location of the and measurement

10mm

50

100

150 Time t

200

250

300
ISF 2004

are clearly strongly determined by the heat conduction Figure 4.23 conditions.

Temperature-time curves in the adjacence of a weld

4. Classification of Steels, Welding of Mild Steels

49

With the use of thinner plates with complete heating of the cross-section during welding, the heat conductivity is only carried out in parallel to the plate surface, this is the two-dimensional heat dissipation. With thicker plates, e.g. during welding of a blind bead, heat dissipation can also be carried out in direction of plate thickness, heat dissipation is three-dimensional. These two cases are covered by the formulas given in Figure 4.24, which
2 - dimensional:
universal formula:

3 - dimensional:
universal formula:

K3
t8 / 5 = h U I 1 1 2 p l v 500 - T0 800 - T0 1 ) Uv I 500 - T 1 h N 3 800 - T0

extended formula For low-alloyed steel:

t8 / 5 = 0,67 - 5 10 - 4 T0

K2
t8 / 5 =
2 2 2 h2 1 1 U I 1 - 800 - T 4 p l r c v d 2 500 T 0 0

provide a method of calculating the cooling time t8/5 of low-alloyed steels. In the case of a
ISF 2004

extended formula For low-alloyed steel:

2 2 2 2 1 1 U I 1 t8 / 5 = 0,043 - 4,3 10 -5 T0 2 - h N 2 v d 500 - T0 800 - T0

formula for the transition thickness of low-alloyed steel:

d =

0,043 - 4,3 10 -5 T0 U I h 0,67 - 5 10 - 4 T0 v

1 1 500 - T + 800 - T 0 0

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Calculation equation for two- and three-dimensional heat dissipation

three-dimensional heat dissipation, t8/5 it independent of plate thickness.

Figure 4.24

In the case of two-dimensional heat dissipation it is clear that t8/5 becomes the shorter the thicker the plate thickness d is. Provided, the cooling times are equal, the plate thickness can be calculated from these relations where a two-dimensional heat dissipation changes to a three-dimensional heat dissipation. Figure 4.25 shows
welding methods

the influence of the welding method on the heat dissipation. With the same heat energy base depends input, which the is

TIG-(He)-welding TIG-(Ar)-welding MIG-(Ar)-welding MAG-(CO2)- welding Manual arc welding SA welding 0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 1

transferred to the material on the

Figure 4.25
Br-er-05-25.cdr

Relative thermal efficiency degree h

ISF 2004

Relative thermal efficiency degree of different welding methods

4. Classification of Steels, Welding of Mild Steels

50

welding method. This dependence is described by the relative thermal efficiency . The influence of the groove geType of weld 2-dimensional heat dissipation 1

weld factor 3-dimensional heat dissipation 1

ometry is covered by seam factors according to

0,45 - 0,67

0,67

Fig. 4.26. Empirically determined, these factors were introduced for an easier calculation. For other groove geometries, tests Figure 4.26 to measure the cooling time are recommended.
br-er-05-26.cdr

0,9

0,67

0,9

0,9

ISF 2004

Weld factors for different weld geometries

Fig. 4.27 shows the transition of the two-dimensional to the three-dimensional heat dissipation for two different preheating temperatures in form of a curve according to the equation of Fig. 4.24. Above the curve, t8/5 depends only on the energy input, but not on the plate thickness, heat dissipation is carried out three-dimensionally.

5 cm TA=20C cooling time t8/5 [s] 10 15 20 25 cooling time t8/5 [s] 10 20 30 TA=200C 30 40 60 100 2-dimensional 0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 2-dimensional 30 40 50 3-dimensional 60 80 100 150 40 50

Plate thickness

3 3-dimensional 2 1 0

Heat input E.h.Nn [kJ/cm]

Br-er-05-27.cdr ISF 2004

Transition From Two to Three Dimensional Heat Flow

Figure 4.27

4. Classification of Steels, Welding of Mild Steels

51 Fig. 4.28 shows the possible range of

20

heat input depend-spray arc

kJ/cm

ing on the electrode diameter. It is clear that a relatively large working

12

Heat input

-short arc

range is available
2,5 3,0 4,0 5,0 SA-welding

3,25 4 5 6 Manual metal arc welding

0,8 1,0 1,2 1,6 MAGC-, MAGMmethod

for
ISF 2004

arc

welding A the be of can

br-er-05-28.cdr

procedures. variation length

Heat Inputs of Various Welding Methods

energy-per-unit

Figure 4.28

carried out by alteration of the welding current, the welding voltage and the welding speed. Fig. 4.29 depicts variations of the heat
Stick electrode (mm) Current intensity (A) Current intensity (A)

2,5 90 75

3,25 135 120

4,0 180 140

5,0 235 190

6,0 275 250

input during manual metal arc welding. The shorter the fused electrode distance, i.e., the shorter the extracted length, the higher the energyper-unit length.

35 kJ/cm 25
Energy-per-unit length

20 15 10 5 0

6,0mm x 450mm

5,0mm x 450mm 4,0mm x 450mm 3,25mm x 350mm 2,5mm x 350mm

50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 mm 600 run-out length

br-er05-29.cdr

ISF 2004

Energy-per-unit length as a function of the run-out length

Figure 4.29

4. Classification of Steels, Welding of Mild Steels

52

In order to minimize calculation efforts in practice, the specified relations were transferred into nomograms from which permissible welding parameters can be read out, provided some additional data are available. Fig. 4.30 shows diagrams for twodimensional heat dissipation, where a dependence between energy-per-unit length, cooling time and preheating temperature is given, depending on the plate thickness. .

50 40 30 20 10 7 50 40 30 20 10 7 50 40 30 20 10 7 50 40 30 20 10 7
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T0 200C 150C 100C 20C d = 7,5 mm

Cooling time t8/5 in s

T0 200C 150C 100C 20C d = 10 mm

T0 200C 150C 100C 20C d = 15 mm

T0 200C 150C 100C transition to 3-dimensional heat flow 20C d = 20 mm

7 8 9 10

15 20

30

kJ/cm 50
ISF 2004

Heat input E

Dependence of E, t8/5 and d During SA - Welding

Figure 4.30

If a fine-grained structural steel is to be welded, the steel manufacturer presets a certain interval of cooling times, where the steel characteristics are not too negatively affected. The user lays down the plate thickness and, through the selection of a welding method, a specified range of heat input E. Based on the data E and t8/5 the diagram provides the required preheating temperature for welding the respective plate thickness.

4. Classification of Steels, Welding of Mild Steels

53

50 mm 40

With the transition to thicker plates,

aera of 3-dimensional heat flow
T0

Transition thickness d

the diagrams in Fig. 4.31 apply. The

0 C C 20 C 2 50 00 1 C 1 50 C 20

30

upper part of the figure determines whether a two-dimensional or a threedimensional heat dissipation is present. For the three-dimensional heat dissipation, the lower diagram applies
kJ/cm 50

20 15

10 9 8 7 50 s 40 30

area of 2-dimensional heat flow

7 8 9 10

15 20

30

Heat input E

where the same information can be determined, independent of plate thickness, as with Fig. 4.30.

Cooling time t8/5

20 15

25
0

C 0

20

C 0

15

C 10 0 C 20 C

10 9 8 7
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7 8 9 10

15 20

30

kJ/cm 50
ISF 2004

Heat input E

Dependence of E, T0, t8/5 And d

Figure 4.31

The

relation

be35 V 30
gas composition: C1 100% CO2 M21 82% Ar + 18% CO2 M23 92% Ar + 8% O2

tween current and voltage for MAG

Welding voltage

C1 M21 M23

welding is shown in Fig. 4.32 and the used shielding gas is one of the parameters. Welding voltage and welding current, or

25

20

15

short arc contact tube distance ~15mm

mixed arc

spray arc

contact tube distance ~19mm

150 3,5
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200 4,5 5,5

250 Welding current 7,0 Wire feed 8,0

A 9,0

300 10,5 m/min

ISF 2004

wire feed speed, determine the type of arc.

Figure 4.32

Dependence of Current And Voltage During MAG-Welding, Solid Wire, 1.2 mm

4. Classification of Steels, Welding of Mild Steels

54

The diagram in Fig. 4.33 demonh'UP = 1 h'MAG = 0,85 dU max = 32 mm dU min = 15 mm F3 = 0,67 F2 = 0,67 t8/5 max = 30 s t8/5 min = 6 s Emax = 66 kJ/cm Emin = 14 kJ/cm

strates the dependence of plate thickness, heat input E and cooling time t8/5 for fillet welds at a preheating

60 kJ/cm 50
toughness affection
25s

70
fillet welds T0= 150 C
30s

kJ/cm 59 53

temperature of T0 = 150 C. If d and t8/5 are given, the acceptable range of heat input can be determined with the help of this diagram. The kinks of the curves mark the transition between two-dimensional and threedimensional heat dissipation.

45

Heat input E SA - welding

40 35 30 25 20 15

20s

47 41

15s

35 29

10s

23 18

6s

10 5 0 0 5 10 15
cracking tendency

12 6 mm 0 40
ISF 2004

20 25 30 Plate thickness

br-er05-33.cdr

Permissible E-Range During SA - And MAG - Welding

Figure 4.33

Fig. 4.34 shows the same dependence for butt welds with V groove preparation.
h'UP = 1 h'MAG = 0,85 dU max = 34 mm dU min = 15 mm F3 = 0,9 F2 = 0,9 t8/5 max = 30 s t8/5 min = 6 s Emax = 49 kJ/cm Emin = 10 kJ/cm

Heat input E MAG - weldind

60 kJ/cm 50
toughness affection butt welds T0= 150 C

70 kJ/cm 59
30s

45

53 47

Heat input E SA - welding

40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 0 5 10 15
cracking tendency
15s 25s

41 35 29 23 18 12 6

20s

10s

6s

20 25 30 Plate thickness

mm

0 40
ISF 2004

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Permissible E-Range During SA - And MAG - Welding

Figure 4.34

Heat input E MAG - welding

4. Classification of Steels, Welding of Mild Steels

55

The curve family in Fig. 4.35 shows the dependence of the heat input from the welding speed as well as the acceptable working range. The parameters of the curves 1 to 8 in the table
curve V 25 kJ/cm 20
2 1 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

have been taken from Figures 4.32 and 4.34 and apply only for related wire welding conditions like wire diameter, feed,

29

27

24

22

20

19

18

17

300 275 250 225 200 175 150 125 5.5 4.5 3.5 3.0

vZ(m/min) 10.5 9.0 8.0 7.0

wor king rang

Heat input E

15 10 5 0
7 8 6 5

10

15

20

25

30 35 40 45 Welding speed vS

50 cm/min 60

voltage, etc.
ISF 2004

MAG/ M21 (82% Ar, 18% CO)

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E as a Function of Welding Speed, Solid Wire, 1.2mm

Figure 4.35

Figure 4.36

shows
60 kJ/cm 50
SA - welding
toughness affection butt welds T0= 150 C

a reading example for such diagrams (according to DVSReference Nr. 0916). In this example, a plate thickness of 15 mm and a cooling time t8/5 between 10 and 20 s are given. In this case, the maximum and 300A is used. Sheet

70 kJ/cm 59
MAG - welding
30s

curve V A

29

27

24

22

20

19

18

17

300 275 250 225 200 175 150 125 5.5 4.5 3.5 3.0

45 40 35

53 47

vZ(m/min) 10.5 9.0 8.0 7.0

25s

41 35 29

Heat input E

Heat input E

30 25 20 15 10 5 0 0 5 10 15
cracking tendency

20s

25 kJ/cm 20
heat input E
1 2 4 3

15s

23 18

10s

16 15 13
10 5 0
7 8

work

ing

rang

6s

16 12 13
6

20 25 30 Plate thickness

mm

0 40

33
10 15 20 25

41
50 cm/min 60

30 35 40 45 Welding speed vS

br-er-05-36.cdr

ISF 2004

Determination of Welding Speed for MAG - Welding

Figure 4.36

cooling time for MAG welding is 15 s. A solid wire with a diameter of 1.2 mm at 29V The left diagram provides heat input values between 13 and 16 kJ/cm, based on the given data. Using these values, the acceptable range of welding speeds can be taken from the diagram on the right.

4. Classification of Steels, Welding of Mild Steels

56

Fig. 4.37 presents a simplification of the determination of the microstructural composition and cooling time subject to peak temperatures which occur in the welding cycle. In the lower diagram, the point of the plate
Peak temperature Temperature

800 C 700 F 600 500 400 300 200 HV30=400 1400 C 1200 M B+M F+B F+P 300 200 M Peak temperature 1000C 1400C B P

thickness at the top line is linked with the point of heat input at the lower line. The point of intersection of the linking line with the middle scale represents the cooling time t8/5 . If the peak temperature of the welding cycle is known, one can read from the middle diagram in which transition field the final microstructures are formed. The advantage of the determination of microstructures compared

1000 Arc3 800 Arc1

600 plate thickness 40

1 30 25 20

10 15

100 10 9 8 7

s
6

1000 5 mm 4

t8/5

three-dimensional two-dimensional

300 200 100

2 3

10

20

50 100 200 400 s 1000

0 100 C 200

t8/5

preheating temperature

energy-per-unit length
bie5-37.cdr

10

20

30

40

50 kJ/cm 70
ISF 2004

Peak temperature/cooling time diagram for the determination of t8/5 and the structure

with the upper TTT diagram is that Figure 4.37 a TTT diagram applies only for exactly one peak temperature, other peak temperatures are disregarded. The disadvantage of the PTCT diagram (peak temperature cooling time diagram) is the very expensive determination, therefore, due to the measurement efforts a systematic application of this concept to all common steel types is subject to failure.