APPENDIX C

Typical Properties of Materials

Typical Properties of Materials
The following sections introduce various materials used for pipeline systems
and identify some of their important performance parameters.

Metals
Metals are widely used for pipelines due to their strength, ductility, ease of
fabrication, corrosion resistance, and relatively low initial costs. The properties
of a metal are dictated by its elemental composition. Due to the number of
elemental combinations possible, metal alloys (mixture of two or more metals)
with a range of properties are available. To distinguish between alloys,
designation systems that categorize metals by their overall composition have
been developed. One of the most widely used designation systems is the
Unified Numbering System (UNS).
The Unified Numbering System, shown in Table C.1, consists of a letter and a
five-digit number. The letter refers to a broad class of alloys and is suggestive
of the family of metals to which it refers. The five-digit number indicates the
specific alloys within the class. Whenever possible, the numbers used in the
UNS system incorporates numbers from other designation systems (e.g.
American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI), Copper Development Association
(CDA), etc.), and trade names (e.g., Hastelloy C-276 UNS designation is
N00276). For example, for carbon and alloy steels the pre-fix G is used
followed by the four-digit AISI designation (e.g. AISI 1020 is designated as
G10200 in the UNS system). The system’s main drawback is that it does not
consider metallurgical factors which can impact the properties of the metal.
As seen in Table C.1, metals are often divided into ferrous and non-ferrous
materials, referring to the iron content of the material. The general rule of
thumb is that “ferrous” materials refer to alloys that contain iron as the major
constituent, while the “non-ferrous” materials refer to alloys in which iron is
not the major constituent. Several nickel-based alloys contain more iron than
nickel and yet are still considered non-ferrous alloys (e.g. Alloy 800H and
Alloy 28). Ferrous materials used for pipelines include carbon and alloy steels,
stainless steels, and cast iron. Non-ferrous materials include nickel-based
alloys, aluminum based-alloys, and titanium-based alloys.

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 Table C.1 Unified Numbering System (UNS)
ASTM UNS Designation Major Alloying Elements
Non-ferrous Metals and Alloys
AXXXXX Aluminum and aluminum alloys
CXXXXX Copper and copper alloys
EXXXXX Rare earth and rare earth-like metals and
alloys
LXXXXX Low melting metals and alloys
MXXXXX Miscellaneous non-ferrous metals and
alloys
NXXXXX Nickel and nickel alloys containing more
than 30% nickel.

PXXXXX Precious metals and alloys

RXXXXX Reactive and refractory metals and alloys

ZXXXXX Zinc and zinc alloys

Ferrous Metals and Alloys
DXXXXX Specified mechanical properties steels
FXXXXX Cast irons and cast steels
GXXXXX AISI and SAE carbon and alloys steels
HXXXXX AISI and SAE H-steels
JXXXXX Cast steels (except tool steels)
KXXXXX Miscellaneous steels and ferrous alloys
SXXXXX Heat and corrosion resistant steels
(including stainless), valve steels, and
iron-base superalloys
TXXXXX Tool steels, wrought and cast
Specialized Metals and Alloys
WXXXXX Welding filler metals

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In addition to the UNS system, the American Petroleum Institute (API) has also
developed a series of designations based upon nominal chemistry for the oil
and gas industry. These designations are frequently referenced when
identifying the nominal chemistry of oil and gas components. Of particular
interest, with regard to this course, are the designations laid out in API
Specification 5L/ISO 3183:2007 (and previously API 5LX) for Line Pipe.
Grade designations for API line pipe steels are shown in Table C.2. Lower
grade designations include Grades A and B. These grades should not be
confused with ASTM Grades A and B, as the two are not necessarily identical.
Higher grade API line pipe designations are identified by an X followed by the
specified minimum yield strength (SMYS). Thus, Grade X52 pipe has a yield
strength of 52 kilo pounds per square inch (ksi). API grade designations do
not only specify nominal chemistries and SMYS values. Specified minimum
and maximum ultimate tensile strengths (UTS) and minimum elongation
values also correspond to grade designations.

Table C.2 API 5L Line Pipe Designations

Yield Strength Minimum
API 5L Grade
(ksi)
A 30
B 35
X42 42
X46 46
X52 52
X56 56
X60 60
X65 65
X70 70
X80 80

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Carbon and Alloy Steels
Carbon and alloy steels are the most widely used materials throughout the oil
and gas industry and are often used as a baseline when comparing the
performance of other alloys. Steel is a general term used for iron and carbon
alloys in which iron is the main constituent.
Two types of steels common to pipelines include plain carbon and low alloy
steels. The differences between the two types are with respect to their carbon
and other elemental contents. Table C.3 shows the chemical distinctions
between plain carbon and low alloys steels.

Table C.3 List of Carbon Steel Types

Plain Carbon Alloy Steel†

Steel* Low/Medium High
Carbon (C) 2% maximum1
Manganese (Mn) 1.65% maximum > 1.65%2 > 1.65%2
Silicon (Si) 0.60% maximum > 0.60%2 > 0.60%2
Copper (Cu) 0.40% - 0.60% > 0.60%2 > 0.60%2
Other alloying Minimum not Definite range or Definite range or
elements3 specified minimum quantity 4 minimum quantity 5
Maximum limits for Maximum limits for
Additional Cr, Cu, Mo, and Ni Cr, Cu, Mo, and Ni
elemental limits when otherwise not when otherwise not
specified6 specified6
1 Typically < 0.8% for oil and gas industry
2Aluminum (Al), boron (B), chromium (Cr), cobalt (Co), molybdenum (Mo), nickel (Ni), niobium
(Nb), titanium (Ti), tungsten (W), vanadium (V), zirconium (Zr), etc.
3One or more of the following elements must exceed the limits for plain carbon steel: Mn, Si,
and/or Cu.
4 Alloying elemental content < 5%, 3.99% max Cr
5 Alloying elemental content > 5%, 3.99% max Cr
6 0.20% Cr max, 0.35% Cu max, 0.06% Mo max, and 0.25% Ni max

In contrast to plain carbon steels, alloy steels contain higher contents of

elements such as manganese, silicon, and copper. Alloy steels may have a
mixture of other elements to obtain various desired properties. A list of
elements and their influence on steel is listed in Table C.4.

* From Steel Products Manual, Section 6, American Iron and Steel Institute, August 1952, pp.
5 and 6.
† From Steel Products Manual, Section 6, American Iron and Steel Institute, January 1952,

pp. 6 and 7.

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 Table C.4 List of Common Steel Alloying Elements and Their Impact on
Final Properties
Alloying Element Impact on Steel
Strengthens low-alloy steels
Silicon (Si) Moderately improves hardenability
Improves oxidation resistance
Improves:
 Corrosion and oxidation resistance
 Hardenability
Chromium (Cr)
 High temperature strength
For high carbon compositions:
 Improves abrasion resistance
Improves hardenability at low cost;
Manganese (Mn) Combines with sulfur to form manganese sulfide stringers
that improve machinability
Titanium (Ti) Strengthens through precipitation of carbides and nitrides

Improves:
 Hardenability
Molybdenum (Mo)
 High temperature strength
 Resistance to softening when tempered
Improves toughness
Combined with chromium, improves:
Nickel (Ni) Hardenability
Impact strength
Fatigue resistance
Improves:
 Strength by forming carbides
Tungsten (W)  Resistance to softening when tempered,
 Hardenability
 High-temperature strength
Improves:
 Strength by forming carbides
Niobium (Nb)
 Hardenability
 Resistance to softening when tempered
Improves:
 Strength by forming carbides
Vanadium (V)
 Hardenability
 Resistance to softening when tempered

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Changes in the carbon content of steel can alter the microstructure of the
material and, thus, the properties of the material. Microstructures common to
carbon steels include grain structures of austenite, ferrite, pearlite, and
martensite. In general, steels with a fine (small) grain size, exhibit improved
strength, ductility, and toughness.
The microstructure of steel is established during the manufacturing process
and is influenced by chemical composition, thermal treatment and
mechanical forming. Typically, heat treatments involve heating steel into the
austenite region, holding at temperature for a given amount of time, and
cooling at a prescribed rate. Common heat treatments include annealing,
normalizing, and quench and tempering.
Annealing refers to heating steel into the austenite region followed by slow
furnace cooling (approximately 8-10 hours). This treatment generally produces
a coarse pearlitic microstructure.
Normalizing refers to heating steel into the austenite region followed by
cooling in still, ambient air. Unlike annealing, the cooling process occurs
outside of the furnace and at a relatively faster rate (approximately 10-15
minutes). This treatment normally produces a fine pearlitic microstructure.
Quenching and tempering is a two-step process in which the steel is first
heated into the austenite region. The steel is then rapidly cooled commonly by
water, brine, or oil immersion. Alternatively, the steel can be cooled by forced
air. The rapid cooling is collectively referred to as “quenching.” The next step
called tempering refers to reheating the quenched steel to a temperature
below the critical austenite temperature and maintaining that temperature for
approximately 1 hour. Tempering reduces the hardness caused by quenching
and improves the ductility of the steel.
Plain carbon and low alloy steels are generally used for low to moderate
corrosive environments or low risk applications. Applications of plain and low
alloy steels often will include some method of inhibition. Inhibition methods
may involve use of inhibitors, biocides, or non-metallic liners. Typically, when
plain carbon and low alloy steels are used with inhibition, corrosion monitoring
will be essential to verify the efficacy of the inhibition method.

Cast Irons
Cast iron refers to the family of iron and carbon alloys containing silicon and
more than 2% carbon. Free carbon is found in the microstructure of cast irons
since their carbon contents exceed the solubility limit in iron. Cast irons are
characterized by their low cost, low ductility, and low tensile strength.
Four classes of cast iron exist and are identified as gray, white, malleable, and
ductile. The differences between the classes relate to the composition, heat
treatment, and microstructure of the alloys. These differences in turn alter the
properties of the cast iron. Table C.5 list some of the properties associated
with each class of cast iron.

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 Table C.5 List of Cast Iron Classes
Tensile Strength Hardness
Cast Iron Class Graphite Morphology
MPa (ksi) (Brinell)
No graphite, carbides 90 – 621
White Up to 600
present (13 – 90)
138 - 552
Gray Flakes 140 – 350
(20 – 80)
Irregularly shaped 345 - 690
Malleable 110 – 270
nodules (50 – 100)
380 - 1208
Ductile Nodules / spheroids 130 – 300
(55 – 175)

Gray cast iron consists of flakes of graphite in a ferrite matrix. While the flakes
enhance the machinability of the alloy, they also tend to decrease the ductility
of the alloy. Gray cast iron is not particularly corrosion resistant but is often
used successfully in corrosive service. This is because the gray cast iron is
typically thick enough that small amounts of corrosion damage have little
effect on the service performance. Applications of gray cast iron include water
and waste water lines that are often internally coated with a cement material
to improve corrosion resistance.
White cast iron is characterized by the absence of free carbon (i.e. graphite)
and the presence of significant amounts of iron carbides. These alloys tend to
be brittle, hard, and wear resistant, making them ideal for abrasive
environments. White cast irons have the same corrosion resistance as the
gray cast iron, but with improved ductility.
Malleable cast iron refers to the class of cast irons characterized by irregularly
shaped graphite nodules that form during heat treatment. Originally cast as
white iron, the material is heat treated to convert the iron carbide to graphite
nodules. These alloys are used in applications requiring both high strength
and wear resistance. This class of cast iron is further divided into three
separate types including ferritic, pearlitic (martensitic), and alloy. As implied
by its name, ferritic cast iron has a ferritic microstructure, as well as contains
nodular carbon. Pearlitic (martensitic) cast iron is characterized by the
presence of nodular carbon in martensite or cementite. Finally, alloy cast iron
is characterized by the presence of nodular carbon (graphite).
Ductile (often termed ‘Nodular’) cast iron consists of nodular or spherodized
graphite that forms during the solidification of the molten iron. This occurs
due to additions of magnesium and cerium to the molten metal. These alloys
are characterized by increased ductility and improved impact resistance.
Compared to gray and malleable cast irons, ductile cast irons have relatively
high strength and toughness. Similar to steel, these alloys can be
strengthened through heat treatment.

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The application of cast iron in the oil and gas industry is limited. Some
applications, however, include low pressure distribution pipes, pumps, valves,
packers, and other components. The advantage of using these alloys is the
ability to produce a variety of shapes at relatively low costs.

Stainless steels
Stainless steels are a group of steels that are alloyed with at least 12%
chromium (Cr). The chromium promotes the formation of passive
iron/chromium oxide films on steel, providing the steel with excellent
corrosion resistance. In general, stainless steels have significantly better
corrosion resistances than plain carbon steels.
The corrosion resistance of stainless steels is not only attributed to chromium
content. Corrosion resistance of these alloys is also related to the
molybdenum (Mo), tungsten (W), and nitrogen (N), content and is typically
expressed by the pitting resistance equivalent number (PREN). The PREN can
be determined as follows:
FPREN=wCr+3.3(wMo+0.5wW) +16wN
Where:
wCr = the mass fraction of chromium in the alloy
wMo= the mass fraction of molybdenum in the alloy
wW = the mass fraction of tungsten in the alloy
wN = the mass fraction of nitrogen in the alloy

For example, the PREN for 316 stainless steel containing 16% Cr and 3% Mo
can be calculated as follows:
316SSPREN = 16 + 3.3(3 = 0.5(0)) + 0 = 25.9 ≈ 26
Chromium, molybdenum, tungsten, and nitrogen assist in imparting localized
corrosion resistance. Higher PRENs, therefore, indicate increased resistance
to uniform corrosion and localized corrosion. In general, Nickel assists in
imparting resistance to chloride stress corrosion cracking, sulfuric acid
corrosion, elemental sulfur and sulfide stress cracking.
The corrosion properties of stainless-steel alloys are not only defined by their
compositions. Other factors that influence corrosion properties include grain
size, inclusion distribution, precipitation of phases, surface quality, presence
of crevices, and properties of welds. The higher initial cost of stainless steels
due to alloy content, however, tends to limit their extensive use. Stainless
steels are generally only used in situations where other corrosion mitigating
techniques are not viable/cost effective.
Stainless steels are not suitable for service in all environments. Stainless
steels are subject to localized corrosion damage in the form of pitting in
chloride environments, intergranular attack of sensitized welds, and hydrogen

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 embrittlement, particularly at high temperatures. Stainless steels can become
susceptible to corrosion of welds due to a microstructural condition termed
“sensitization”. Sensitization occurs when the material is heated to a
temperature high enough for chromium carbides to form at grain boundaries.
The loss of chromium in the metal adjacent to the grain boundaries results in
poor corrosion resistance and can result in intergranular attack of welded
areas.
Stainless steels are divided into five different classes based strictly upon their
metallurgical structures. The five classes include martensitic, ferritic,
austenitic, precipitation hardened, and duplex stainless steel. Each class is
described in more detail below along with their particular application in the oil
and gas industry. See Table C.6 for a list of the classes of stainless steel and
their properties.

Table C.6 List of Stainless-Steel Classes

Precipitati
Stainless
Austenitic Ferritic Martensitic on Duplex
Steel Class
Hardenable
Mixed
Microstructure Austenitic Ferritic Martensitic austenitic &
ferritic

18 – 25 % 12 – 18 %
13 - 27% Cr; Cr 17% Cr 20 – 29%
Composition Cr
< 0.08% C 0.08 – 1.10 4% Ni Cr; 3 – 7% Ni
8 – 20 % Ni
%C

Hardenable by
Heat No No Yes Yes No
Treatment

Hardenable by Yes No* Yes* Yes * Yes*

Cold Work

Tensile 520- 760 415 – 655 275 – 1900 896 – 1700 550 – 690
Strength (75 – 110) (60 – 95) (40 – 275) (125 – 250) (80 – 100)
MPa (ksi)

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Martensitic Stainless Steels
Martensitic stainless steels have the widest range of use of any corrosion
resistant alloys (CRAs) in the petroleum industry. Containing 12% - 18% Cr,
0.08 – 1.10% C, and small amounts of other elements such as nickel (Ni),
Niobium (Nb), Molybdenum (Mo), Selenium (Se), silicon (Si), and sulfur (S),
these steels are characterized by tempered martensitic microstructure. This
microstructure is achieved though a quenching and tempering heat
treatment, similar to that described earlier in this chapter for carbon steel.
Due to their high degree of hardenability, martensitic stainless steels are
typically used in applications where strength and corrosion resistance are
required.
Martensitic steels are included in the AISI 400 series of stainless steels in
which the primary types include 410 and 420 (UNS S41000 and S42000).
Applications of these steels include tubing for corrosive well service and deep
sweet gas wells.
Particular care must be taken with regard to these alloys in sour services, as
they may be susceptible to sulfide stress cracking (SSC). Higher strength
martensitic stainless steels may be used in sweet service. However, their
corrosion resistance and ductility may be adversely affected by increasing
strength.

Ferritic Stainless Steels

In contrast to martensitic stainless steel, ferritic stainless steel cannot be
hardened through heat treatment. These steels typically contain high Cr
contents (13 – 27%) and lower C contents than martensitic stainless steels.
High chromium containing alloys also tend to be susceptible to embrittlement
if not properly heat treated.
These steels are also included in the AISI 400 series of stainless steel in
which the primary types include 405, 430, and 436 (UNS S40500, S43000,
and S43600). Ferritic stainless steels are used for good corrosion resistance
and high temperature properties. Type 439 exhibits good resistance to
chloride SCC. As implied by their name, these steels have a ferritic
microstructure and are strongly magnetic. The resistance of these steels to
CO2 and H2S corrosion will vary and is dependent upon the chemical
composition of the steel. Applications of ferritic stainless steels include heat
exchangers and thin walled tubing products.

Austenitic Stainless Steels

Austenitic stainless steels are generally used in applications that do not
require high strengths. Alloyed with Cr (18 – 25%) and Ni (8 – 20%), austenitic
steels have a characteristic austenitic microstructure and are included in the
“300” series of stainless steel. Austenitic stainless steels cannot be hardened
through heat treatment, have high general corrosion resistance, and have
lower strengths. Commonly used alloys in the oil and gas industry include
304, 316, 303, and 347 stainless steel. Annealed austenitic stainless steels

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are susceptible to stress corrosion cracking (SCC) when chlorides are present,
and temperatures are greater than approximately (60oC). Higher alloyed
austenitic stainless steels such as 254 SMO (UNS S31254) and alloy AL6XN
(UNS N08367) have higher strengths and increased corrosion resistance in
comparison to the “300” series stainless steels. The higher strengths of these
alloys are achieved through cold working.

Precipitation Hardened (PH) Stainless Steels

Precipitations hardening (PH) stainless steels are commonly used in
corrosion/wear resistant equipment parts and have very limited applicability
in H2S environments. Alloyed with varying amounts of Cr and Ni, these steels
can be hardened using specific heat treatments at relatively low
temperatures. Hardening can result from additions of elements such as Cu,
Al, Ti, and Mo that promotes precipitation of separate phases which produce
strengthening. The result is steel that has the corrosion resistance of
austenitic steels with the strengths of martensitic steels. An example of a
common PH stainless steel is 17-4PH that contains 17% Cr and 4% Ni (UNS
S17400). PH stainless steels can be used for fasteners, springs, and valve
components.

Duplex Stainless Steels (DSS)

Alloyed with Cr and Ni in the ranges of 20 – 29% and 3 – 7%, respectively,
duplex stainless steels (DSS) are characterized by a mixed austenitic and
ferritic microstructure that provides high corrosion resistance and strength.
Some duplex stainless steels are strengthened through cold working,
achieving yield strengths as high as 1100 MPa (160,000 psi). Cold worked
DSS tends to be more corrosion resistant than martensitic stainless steel, but
its resistance to SSC is similar. Annealed duplex stainless steels (DSS) tend to
be more resistant to H2S and SSC in chloride environments than austenitic
stainless steels. Consequently, duplex stainless steels have been used in line
pipe and surface facility applications. It is important to note that duplex
stainless steels can precipitate out detrimental phases (e.g. sigma phase)
when improperly heat treated or otherwise thermally processed (e.g. welding).
Application of duplex stainless steel is finding favor for components exposed
to severely corrosive conditions (i.e. water wet CO2 environments) and/or high-
risk operations (i.e. pressure vessels, facility piping, down hole tubing). Duplex
stainless steels are virtually immune to chloride SCC. They are susceptible to
low pH corrosion in mineral acids.

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Nickel-based Alloys
Nickel-based alloys are characterized by Ni contents that are > 30% and may
contain significant amounts of chromium. These alloys exhibit excellent
corrosion resistance, ductility, formability, and malleability. Nickel-based alloys
are relatively expensive and are used when corrosive conditions are too
extreme to be handled by stainless steels. The corrosion resistance of nickel
alloys, similar to stainless steels, is related to the nickel (Ni), chromium (Cr),
molybdenum (Mo), tungsten (W), and nitrogen (N) contents and is typically
expressed by the pitting resistance equivalent number (PREN). Ni assists in
imparting resistance to chloride stress corrosion cracking and sulfide stress
cracking, while Cr, Mo, W, and N assist in imparting localized corrosion
resistance. Higher PREN values indicate increased resistance to uniform
corrosion and localized corrosion.
The metallurgy of nickel-based alloys is complex due to the numerous phases
that may form. Some phases that form, such as sigma phase, are detrimental
to the corrosion resistance of nickel-based alloys. Therefore, processing is
tailored specifically to produce optimum strength and toughness, while
maintaining corrosion resistance. Further, many nickel alloys are not heat
treatable and are strengthened by either cold working or aging.
A range of nickel-based alloys has been developed for severe corrosive
service, including both “sweet” and “sour” services for the oil and gas
industries. The most common nickel alloys used in oil and gas applications
include Alloy 625 (UNS N06625), Alloy 825 (UNS N08825), and Alloy C276
(UNS N10276). Both Alloys 625 and 825 have austenitic structures and
contain high contents of Ni, Cr, and Mo. Alloy 825 has a lower Mo content
than Alloy 625 and thus has lower protection from corrosion associated with
chlorides. Consequently, alloy 625 is preferred in corrosive services with high
chloride contents and high temperatures.

Copper Alloys
Copper alloys are used for various water handling applications, due to their
good corrosion and fouling resistance. Typical copper alloys used include
brasses (Cu-Zn alloys), aluminum bronze, and copper-nickel alloys.
While brass is more susceptible to stress corrosion cracking and the selective
removal of zinc from the alloy, copper-nickel alloys are more resistant to
stress corrosion cracking. Thus, while the brasses and bronzes (UNS C61300
and UNS C61400) are utilized for injection water services, copper-nickel alloys
(UNS C70600 and UNS C71500) are utilized for raw sea water piping for
water floods. Copper based alloys suffer high corrosion rates in H2S
environments.

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Aluminum Alloys
A variety of aluminum alloys exist, as shown in Table C.7. As seen in this table,
aluminum alloys are designated by their major alloying elements under the
Unified Numbering System.
Aluminum alloys are known for their light weight and high strength-to-weight
ratios. In addition, aluminum readily reacts with oxygen to form a thin oxide
layer that resists progressive oxidation. When alloyed with the appropriate
elements, aluminum alloys can resist corrosion associated with corrosive
water and the presence of salts. Aluminum alloys are typically used in
applications where the system pH is between 5 and 7, as they are susceptible
to corrosion in highly acidic and high alkaline environments. Consequently,
aluminum is used in aerated fresh water lines and heat transfer applications.

Table C.7 Unified Numbering System Aluminum Alloy Designations

Alloy Group Major Alloying Elements
A91XXX None – 99+% Aluminum
A92XXX Copper
A93XXX Manganese
A94XXX Silicon
A95XXX Magnesium
A96XXX Magnesium and Silicon
A97XXX Zinc

Nonmetallic Materials
Nonmetallic materials such as plastics and composites materials are also
used throughout the oil and gas industry. Plastics are finding increased use in
the oil and gas industry as their operating windows become better defined
and expanded.

Polymeric Materials
Polymers, commonly referred to as plastics, are high molecular weight organic
materials. Polymers are generally classified as either thermoplastic or
thermosetting materials. Thermoplastics refer to materials that can soften
and be reshaped when heated. This occurs with minimal or no change in their
properties. In contrast, thermosetting materials are rigid, highly cross-linked
polymers that cannot be heated and reshaped. Thus, thermosets can
generally endure higher service temperatures than thermoplastic materials.
Both thermoplastic and thermosetting materials are available in a wide variety
of compositions, with a wide range of both mechanical properties and
resistance to deterioration. Polymers are resistant to classical electrochemical
corrosion, but they are not totally inert. They can be adversely affected by
such agents as ultraviolet light, heat, acids, bases, and many organic

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solvents. As such, the use of polymers is often limited by temperature. High
temperatures can cause softening of thermoplastics or chemical degradation
of thermosets. Their resistance to attack by UV light, heat, acids, bases and
organic solvents depends on the specific polymeric material.
Polymers can either be used for low pressure line pipe or as liners in a
metallic pipe. The choice of how the polymer is used depends both on the cost
and the performance necessary. In general, polymers do not have the
strength to withstand high stresses. Typically, the higher the operating
temperature, the lower the allowable working pressure for nonmetallic
materials.
Examples of thermoplastics currently used in the oil and gas industry include
high and low density polyethylenes (PE), nylons, polyvinylchloride (PVC),
polyvinylidene chloride (PVDC), polyvinyldene fluoride (PVDF), and
polyphenylene sulfide (PPS). Table C.8 lists properties of some thermoplastic
materials.
Examples of thermosetting materials currently used in the oil and gas industry
include polyester, vinyl ester, or epoxy resins.

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 Table C.8 Properties of Some Thermoplastic Materials
Applications Limitations
 -17.8 to 60 ºC  Prolonged high
(0 – 140 ºF) temperatures
 Alkalis  Fatty acids
Polyvinyl chloride
 Oxidizing acids  Acetic acids
(PVC)
 Aliphatic  Solvents
hydrocarbons
 Aromatic
 Waters & brines hydrocarbons

 -17.8 to 60 ºC  Hydrocarbons
(0 – 140 ºF) > 38 ºC (100
ºF)
 Hydrocarbons <
38 ºC (100 ºF)  Solvents > 49
Thermoplastics Polyethylene (PE) ºC (120 ºF)
 Acids
 Oxidizing acids
 Alkalis
 Aromatic
 Waters & brines hydrocarbons
 -17.8 to 60 ºC
(0 – 140 ºF)
 Hydrocarbons <
38 ºC (100 ºF)
Polypropylene (PP) Same as PE
 Acids
 Alkalis
 Waters & brines

Composites
Composites are engineered materials that combine two or more materials
(e.g. metal, polymer, or ceramic) with distinctly different properties. Generally,
one of the materials acts as a reinforcing phase and is embedded in a matrix
of the second phase. The reinforcing phase material may be present as
sheets, fibers, or particles. Advantages of composites include increased
strength, increased wear resistance or weight savings. Limitations of
composites include that their corrosion resistances are generally poor, and
they tend to be of higher initial cost.
Composites used in pipelines include fiberglass-reinforced plastic (FRP),
graphite fiber reinforced plastic (GFRP), thermoplastic reinforced pipe, and
metal matrix composites (MMCs). Each of these composites is discussed in
more detail below.

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Fiberglass-Reinforced Plastic (FRP)
Fiberglass-reinforced plastic (FRP) is a composite composed of inert chopped
glass or high strength synthetic fibers embedded in a thermosetting resin
(e.g., polyester or epoxy resin). The arrangement of fibers within the resin
minimizes permeation of liquids and vapors through the coating, establishing
a barrier to protect the substrate. FRP can be used for corrosion protection
and is often a popular choice for repairing badly pitted and otherwise
corroded vessels.
FRP pipes can be installed very quickly, relative to steel, resulting in
significant cost savings.
One of the disadvantages of using FRPs for piping is that performance is
dependant on the temperatures and pressures of operation. High
temperatures (> 149 ºC [300 ºF]) can soften or degrade the polymer matrix.

Graphite fiber reinforced plastic (GFRP)

Graphite fiber reinforced plastic (GFRP) is a composite composed of
continuous graphite fibers in a polymer matrix. Studies on graphite reinforced
polymers have shown reduced corrosion resistance compared to other
composites. The graphite phase is conductive, and this can lead to increased
damage. For example, stray currents from the external environment may be
introduced to the electrolyte solution via the conductive graphite phase. This
can lead to oxygen evolution at the anode. The accumulation of adsorbed
oxygen is thought to lead to damage to the polymer matrix.

Reinforced Thermoplastic Pipe (RTP)

Reinforced thermoplastic pipe (RTP) is another family of composites available
for the oil and gas industry. RTP incorporates thermoplastic liners (i.e. HDPE
or PE), with continuous high-strength glass fiber reinforcements. This family of
composites has much higher strengths, allowing for substantial increases in
their pressure and temperature envelopes. Promoted as corrosion resistant,
RTP has found application in production gathering, injection, and disposal
applications where the transfer of corrosive gas or liquids is necessary. Other
advantages of RTP include their flexibility, ease of installation, and improved
flow characteristics.

Metal Matrix Composites (MMC)

Studies on MMCs composed of aluminum alloys with reinforcement of
alumina, silicon carbide or titanium carbide have shown reduced corrosion
resistance in salt solutions. In some cases, the reinforcement phase has been
shown to cause preferential dissolution of the alloy at the interface, though
this is not confirmed for all combinations of materials. The corrosion rate then
becomes a function of the volume fraction and/or the surface area of the
reinforcing phase. The mechanism in aerated solutions is galvanic corrosion,
with oxygen reduction being the primary cathodic reaction. Galvanic corrosion
does not appear to be prevalent in deaerated solutions.

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