Data-Guide's

PERMANENT ALL PLASTIC

N o t e : F o r (T) read " T h e doctrine o r t h e o r y whi ch m a i n t a i n s t h a t " . ANALYTIC PROPOSITION. Proposition which is necessarily t r u e because i t s denial, is selfc o n t r a d i c t o r y . E . g . All b a r k i n g dogs b a r k . A POSTERIORI. (1) A r g u m e n t from effect t o c a u s e . (2) Knowledge b a s e d o n experience. A PRIORI. (1) A r g u m e n t f r o m cause t o effect. (2) Knowledge i n d e p e n d e n t o f experience. AXIOM. (1) I n d e m o n s t r a b l e t r u t h , from w h i c h o t h e r t r u t h s are deducible. (2) Proposition ass u m e d w i t h o u t proof, f r o m which o t h e r p r o p o sitions a r e deduced; p o s t u l a t e . CATEGORY. (1) Basic c o n c e p t for i n t e r p r e t i n g experience, e.g. " s u b s t a n c e , " " e v e n t . " (2) basic asp e c t o f r e a l i t y , e . g . m a t t e r , s p i r i t . CONCEPTUALISM. (T) Universals exist o n l y a s concepts i n t h e m i n d . COSMOLOGICAL ARGUMENT. A r g u m e n t for existence o f G o d from necessity o f assigning cause o r r e a s o n for t h e world o r some p a r t o f i t . DEDUCTION. (1) Inference from generals t o p a r t i c u l a r s . (2) Necessary inference: conclusion follows necessarily from p r e m i s e s . DIALECTIC. (1) M e t h o d o f inquiry b y q u e s t i o n a n d answer ( S o c r a t e s ) . (2) H i g h e s t knowledge, u n - h y p o t h etical knowledge o f I d e a s ( P l a t o ) . (3) Process b y w hich somethin g n o t a b s o l u t e , t h e t h e s i s passes i n t o i t s opposite, t h e a n t i t h e s i s , w h e r e u p o n b o t h a r e comprehended a n d transcended in a wider unity, t h e s y n t h e s i s (Hegel). DUALISM. (T) T h e f a c t s i n a given field require t w o irreducible principles for t h e i r e x p l a n a t i o n . EFFICIENT CAUSE. " T h a t f r o m which t h e c h a n g e o r t h e resting f r o m change first begins;
Published a n d Mfd. b y D o f a - G u i d , Inc. 40 0 7 149lh Place, Flushing, N . Y.

Albert Hofstadter, Columbia University

Editor: Joseph L Leon

'Ptulteafdut
C o p y r i g h t 1955 Hy O o l a - G u i d e , Inc. W o r l d Copyright Reserved 1955

I.

GLOSSARY

e.g. t h e a dvise r is a cause o f t h e a c t i o n , a n d t h e f a t h e r a cause of t h e child, a n d i n general t h e m a k e r a cause o f t h e t h i n g m a d e a n d t h e change-producing o f t h e c h a n g i n g " ( A r i s totle). ESSENCE. T h a t i n v i r t u e o f which a t h i n g i s w h a t i t is; intrinsic n a t u r e . EXISTENTIALISM. Philosophy emphasizing c r e a tive choice, decision, s u b j e c t i v i t y , a n d t h e p r i o r i t y o f t h e concrete a c t o f h u m a n existence o v e r a n y supposed h u m a n n a t u r e o r r a t i o n a l scheme o f r e a l i t y . FINAL CAUSE. E n d o r p u r p o s e for t h e s a k e of which a t h i n g is o r e v e n t h a p p e n s ( A r i s t o t l e ) . FORM. (1) P l a t o : t h e u n i v e r s a l b y participat i o n i n which a t h i n g is w h a t i t is. E . g . J u s t i c e is t h e f o r m o f j u s t acts. Also called I d e a . (2) Aristotle's f o r m a l c a u s e , q . v . (3) S t r u c t u r e o r p a t t e r n , distinguished from t h e m a t t e r o r material o r g a n i z e d according t o t h e form, a n d from c o n t e n t expressed b y m e a n s o f t h e formed m a t t e r . FORMAL CAUSE. A r i s t o t l e : essence, f o r m , p a t t e r n c o n s t i t u t i n g w h a t s o m e t h i n g is. E . g . t h e soul is t h e f o r m o f t h e living b e i n g . FREEDOM. (1) O f i n d i f f e r e n c e . (T) T h e will a c t s w i t h o u t being d e t e r m i n e d b y a n y t h i n g , w i t h p u r e sponta ne ity. (2) O f s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n . (T) F r e e d o m consists j n being d e t e r m i n e d b y one's self a n d n o t b e i n g coerced b y a n y t h i n g outside one's self. HYPOSTATIZE. T o c o m m i t fallacy o f supposing something unsubstantial t o b e substantial. IDEALISM. (T) R e a l i t y is essentially m e n t a l o r spiritual. INDUCTION. (1) Inference f r o m particulars t o generals. (2) Inference i n which conclusion

follows o n ly p r o b a b l y from premises. (3) T e s t ing a h y p o t h e s i s b y empirical evidence. INTRINSIC VALUE. ( F i n a l , u l t i m a t e v a l u e ) . A value desirable for i t s own sake. C o n t r a s t e d with e x t r i n s i c ( i n s t r u m e n t a l , relative) v a l u e : a v a l u e o f being c o n t r i b u t o r y t o w a r d s o t h e r v a lu e s . E . g . i t is s o me tim e s held t h a t h a p p i n e s s is intrinsically v a lu a b le , w e a lth extrinsically valuable. A t h i n g m a y be b o t h . MATERIAL CAUSE. A r i s t o t l e : W h a t persists u n c h a n g e d t h r o u g h a process o f change; stuff o f which a t h i n g consists. MECHANISTIC. A t h e o r y is mechanistic if (1) i t i n t e r p r e t s p h e n o m e n a b y science o f mechanics (forces o n bodies), o r (2) i t i n t e r p r e t s e v e n t s a s caused b y a n t e c e d e n t e v e n t s accordi n g t o laws o f invariable association. NOMINALISM. (T) O n l y p a r t i c u l a r s a r e r e a l. Universals a r e n a m e s , h a v e n o objective existe n c e i n o r outside m i n d . ONTOLOGICAL ARGUMENT. A r g u m e n t t h a t G o d ' s existence follows from H i s essence. PARTICULAR. (1) Single individual a s d i s t i n c t f r o m class o r universal. (2) Proposition a b o u t p a r t o f subject-class, e.g. S o m e S is P . POSITIVISM. (1) (T) Ph ilo s o p h y concerned o n l y w i t h positive f a c t s o r p h e n o m e n a , excluding speculation o n u l t i m a t e principles ( C o m t e ) . (2) L o g i c a l p o s i t i v i s m . (T) T a s k o f philosop h y is logical analysis o f science a n d language, rejecting m e t a p h y s i c s . PRIMARY QUALITIES. Basic m a t h e m a t i c a l p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s o f bodies (e.g. extension, motion). Contrast: s e c o n d a r y q u a l i t i e s . REALISM. (1) (T) Universals h a v e objective existence. C p . N o m i n a l i s m , C o n c e p t u a l i s m .

(2) (T) Object o f knowledge exists i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f being k n o w n . (3) A p p r o a c h t o e t h i c s , politics in t e r m s o f w h a t t h e facts a r e r a t h e r t h a n w h a t t h e y o u g h t t o b e , as in M a c h i a v e l l i . SECONDARY QUALITIES. (1) L o c k e : p o w e r s a b o d y h a s t o excite sensations of color, s m e l l , t a s t e , e t c . i n o u r m i n d . (2) Sensations s o excited in o u r m i n d . SUBJECT. (1) I n proposition " S is P " , S i s s u b j e c t ( t h a t o f which s o me t h i n g is a s s e r t e d ) , P is p r e d i c a t e ( w h a t is asserted o f t h e s u b j e c t ) . (2) T h a t in which a t t r i b u t e s inhere. (3) T h a t which experiences. C o n t r a s t e d w i t h o b j e c t ( t h a t which is experienced). H e n c e distinction b e t w e e n s u b j e c t i v e (in o r belongi n g t o subject) a n d o b j e c t i v e (in o r belonging t o object, independent of subject). SYLLOGISM. A r g u m e n t w i t h t w o premises a n d a conclusion. E . g . : All m a m m a l s a r e w a r m blooded ( m a j o r premise), All whales a r e m a m m a l s ( m i n o r premise), therefore, All whales a r e w a r m b l o o d e d (conclusion). S y l l o gism c o n t a i n s t h r e e a n d o n l y t h r e e t e r m s : m i d d l e t e r m ( c o m m o n t o b o t h p re m i s e s , e . g " m a m m a l s " ) , m i n o r t e r m (subject o f conclusion, e.g. " w h a l e s " ) , m a j o r t e r m (predic a t e o f conclusion, e . g . " w a r m b l o o d e d " ) . SYNTHETIC PROPOSITION. Proposition w h i c h is n o t self-contradictory a n d whose d e n i a l is n o t self-conradictory. E . g . All dogs b a r k . TELEOLOGICAL ARGUMENT. A r g u m e n t for G o d ' s existence f r o m evidence o f o r d e r , design UNIVERSAL. (1) W h a t is c o m m o n t o m a n y different ite ms , e.g. redness c o m m o n t o all r e d things. One-in-many. (2) P r o p o s i t i o n a b o u t whole o f subject-class, e.g. A l l S is P .

a n d everythingincluding v a l u e s c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d i n o f all interests involved) ( R . B . P e r r y ) . II. METAPHYSICS A . D E F I N I T I O N : (1) T h e o r y o f r e a l i t y , u l t i m a t e n a t u r e o f all t e r m s o f n a t u r a l knowledge. U s u a l l y associated w i t h n a t u r a l - c. Low " G o o d , " " r i g h t " definable i n t e r m s o f obedience t o l a w . ism are: (1) t h e rejection o f all forms o f d u a lis m, (2) t h e rejection (1) C u s t o m T h e o r y . R i g h t = c u s t o m a r y . t h i n g s , (2) comprehensive view o f universeworld-view. o f all f o r m s o f idealism, (3) reliance o n t h e m e t h o d o f science (2) P o s i t i v e L a w T h e o r y (Legalistic E t h i c s ) . R i g h t = L a w of M O S T INFLUENTIAL W O R L D - V I E W S : the land. B. M E T A P H Y S I C A L D U A L I S M . T w o basic k i n d s o f reality a s t h e a u t h o r i t a t i v e m e t h o d o f knowledge. 1. MATERIALISM. N a t u r e essentially physical. All t h i n g s a r e (3) N a t u r a l L a w T h e o r y . Goodness o r Tightness = h a r m o n y (differing f r o m m o n i s m , one basic k i n d , a n d p l u r a l i s m , forms o r functions o f physical m a t t e r ; all science u l t i m a t e l y w i t h t h e L a w o f N a t u r e ( S t o i c s ) o r h a r m o n y w i t h t h e L a w of m a n y basic k i n d s ) . reducible t o physics ( D e m o c r i t u s , L u c r e t i u s , H o b b e s ) . G o d a s G o v e r n o r o f N a t u r e ( A q u i n a s ) . 1. THEOLOGICAL DUALISM ( S u p e r n a t u r a l i s m ) . T h e t w o reals a r e M a t e r i a l i s t s are sometimes atheists. F r e q u e n t l y associated (4) M o r a l L a w T h e o r y . Rightness = m o r a l lawfulness; TightG o d a n d N a t u r e G o d transcending N a t u r e ( S t . T h o m a s w i t h materialism are: (a) a t o m i s m , (b) reductionism (explanation n e s s o f moral law i n i t s being law (universal, necessary) ( K a n t ) . A q u i n a s ) . A m o n g a r g u m e n t s for existence o f God: c o s m o , l o g i c a l , o n t o l o g i c a l , t e l e o l o g i c a l a r g u m e n t s (see Glossary). b y r e d u c t i o n t o m a t e r i a l elements a n d relations), (c) d e t e r m i n - d . Self as Metaphysical Principle. Usually a c c o m p a n y i n g theological d u a l i s m a r e doctrines of ism (all eventsfully c a u s e d ) , ( d ) m e c h a n i s m ( t h e cause o f a n effect (1) E u d a e m o n i s m . G o o d = w h a t w e u lti m a t e l y a i m a t = | is a complex o f preceding physical e v e n t s ) , () rejection o f h a p p i n e s s (a life i n accordance w i t h h u m a n function [Ar/s(a) h u m a n free will, (b) h u m a n i m m o r t a l i t y , (c) objectivity of t o t l e ] ) o r blessedness (life i n t h e vision o f G o d [ A g u i n a s ] ) . values, (d) spiritual meaningfulness o f h i s t o r y , (e) revelation j teleology. 2. DIALECTICAL MATERIALISM. Basic reality is m a t t e r ; o u t o f m a t (2) S e l f - R e a l i z a t i o n T h e o r y . G o o d = w h a t we u l t i m a t e l y a n d necessity o f f a i t h . t e r evolve all f u r t h e r things according t o dialectical laws (de- a i m a t = realizing, b e i n g o u r real, t r u e Self ( H e g e l , B r a d l e y ) . 2. MIND-MATTER DUALISM. T h e t w o reals a r e m i n d a n d m a t t e r | rived from H e g e l ) . T h r e e basic laws o f dialectic are: (o) i n t e r - e. Process. Good, r i g h t , viewed a s deriving from d y n a m i c s o f ( D e s c a r t e s : t h o u g h n o t a p u r e case, since h e a d m i t s G o d as a p e n e t r a t i o n o f opposites, (b) t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f q u a n t i t y i n t o some significant p r o c e s s . t h i r d real). A r g u m e n t s f o r m i n d - m a t t e r dualism e m p h a s i z e q u a l i t y , (c) n e g a t i o n o f t h e negation. E m p h a s i s o n (a) inter- (1) E v o l u t i o n a r y T h e o r y . G o o d = fit for survival, conducive impossibility o f r educing m e n t a l t o physical p h e n o m e n a . | connection o f all t h i n g s a s opposed t o t h e i r isolation, (b) g r o w t h t o cosmic process, i n h a r m o n y w i t h life-force, e t c . R i g h t 3 . FORM-MATTER DUALISM. T h e t w o reals a r e F o r m ( I d e a , U n i - a n d change a s opposed t o s t a t i c i d e n t i t y . I n h i s t o r y , t h e v ers al , Structure) a n d M a t t e r (Stuff). ( P l a t o : opposes W o r l d m a t e r i a l i s m is manifested i n e c o n o m i c d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f conducive t o e v o l u t i o n o f n e w values ( J u l i a n H u x l e y ) . o f I d e a s t o W o r l d o f S e n s e a n d C h a n g e [material world]. s o c i a l c h a n g e , a n d t h e d i a l e c t i c i n n e b e s s a r y r e v o l u t i o n - (2) M a r x i s m . M o r a l ideas a r e ideological, reflect economic c o n d itio n a n d s t a t u s . G o o d , r i g h t , a lw a y s a n idealization o f i n t e r Sensible t h i n g s p a r t i c i p a t e i n I d e a s . ) U s u a l a r g u m e n t s for a r y t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f s o c i e t y ( M a r x , E n g e l s , L e n i n ) . ests o f given class, represented as c o m m o n i n t e re s t o f whole F o r m s d e p e n d o n o b j e c t i v i t y o f knowledge a n d v a l u e . 3. CRITICAL NATURALISM. N a t u r e n o t m e r e l y physical o r m a t e - society. T h a t m o r a l ideal is a d e q u a t e w h i c h is a d a p t e d t o C . I D E A L I S M . E m p h a s i s o n m i n d a s k e y t o reality. R e a l i t y rial. N a t u r e includes w h a t e v e r exists; w h a t e v e r one claims t o i needs o f t h e s t a g e o f economic d e v e l o p m e n t ( M a r x , E n g e l s ) . essentially m e n t a l o r spiritual: m a t t e r n o t u l t i m a t e l y r e a l . exist m u s t b e t e s t a b l e b y scientific i n q u i r y ( D e w e y ) . F r e - (3) P r a g m a t i c N a t u r a l i s m . M o r a l j u d g m e n t s (valuations) 1. SOLIPSISM. M y m i n d is reality; all else exists i n m y m i n d a s q u e n t l y a c c o m p a n y i n g critical n a t u r a l i s m are: (a) rejection of a r e i n s t r u m e n t s for resolving p r o b l e m a t i c s i t u a t i o n s involving a n idea. N o philosopher a d o p t s t h i s positioji. reductionism a n d some emphasis o n emergence o r n o v e l t y ; means-ends. G o o d = w h a t p r o m o t e s o u r course o f a c t i v i t y , 2. BERKELEYAN IDEALISM. M a t t e r c a n n o t exist. P h y s i c a l t h i n g s (b) acceptance o f all forms o f existence as equally r e a l a n d seen i n light o f effect o n f u r t h e r activities. R i g h t = w h a t a r e ideas i n t h e m i n d s o f perceivers. O n l y minds o r s p i r i t s a r e | n a t u r a l , including values; (c) t e n d e n c y t o a d o p t realism o r promotes m u t u a l goods of members of community ( D e w e y ) . real, including G o d a s s u p r e m e spirit. E s s e e s t p e r d p i ( t o b e p r a g m a t i s m i n t h e o r y o f knowledge; (d) t r e a t m e n t o f m i n d a s is t o be perceived). Sometimes called S u b j e c t i v e I d e a l i s m function, b e h a v i o r , o r relation, r a t h e r t h a n substance; (e) t r e a t - D . I N F L U E N T I A L E T H I C A L S Y S T E M S . ( n a t u r e exists subjectively, i n t h e m i n d ) . F a c e s p r o b l e m s of m e n t o f freedom a s intelligent self-determination a n d e m p h a s i s L TELEOLOGICAL SYSTEMS. P r i m a r y emphasis: v a l u e , good, e n d s , s o l i p s i s m a n d sceptical elimination o f t h e self (as i n H u m e ) . o n intelligence a s m e t h o d o f ethics; (f) t e n d e n c y t o w a r d s a t h e consequences. A c t ' s rightness n o t i n m o t i v e from which d o n e 3. KANTIAN IDEALISM. T h e Real: n o u m e n a l world o f things-in- ism, h u m a n i s m i n religious t h e o r y , o r r e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f j b u t i n a c t u a l o r i n t e n d e d effects. themselves is unknowable. N a t u r e : a world o f a p p e a r a n c e , a divine a s c o n s t i t u e n t f a c t o r i n n a t u r e . Hedonism. Pleasure sole intrinsic good. P a i n sole intrinsic p h e n o m e n a l world. B u t since m o r a l i t y presupposes G o d , freeevil. G o o d life, h a p p i n e s s , is life o f m a x i m u m pleasure, minid o m , a n d i m m o r t a l i t y , w e m u s t p o s t u l a t e t h a t t h e r e a l world III. ETHICS m u m pain. is essentially spiritual. A . S U B J E C T M A T T E R . 1. S t u d y o f good-bad ( a x i o l o g i c a l (1) E g o i s t i c H e d o n i s m . G o o d life is life o f m a x i m u m pleasure, 4 . OBJECTIVE IDEALISM. N a t u r e is n o t merely subjective o r a p - e t h i c s , t h e o r y o f e t h i c a l v a l u e s ) . 2. S t u d y o f r ig h t- w r o n g m i n i m u m p a i n , for self ( A r i s t i p p u s , E p i c u r u s ) . P r u d e n c e p e a r a n c e , b u t t h e real n a t u r e o f all t h i n g s is m e n t a l o r spir itua l. ( d e o n t o l o g y , t h e o r y o f e t h i c a l o b l i g a t i o n , d u t y ) . (ability t o forecast pleasure-pain effects) chief v i r t u e . a . Monaditm ( L e i b n i t z ) a n d P a n p s y c h i s m (C. A . S t r o n g ) . B . P R O B L E M S . 1. Analysis o f m o r a l concepts a n d j u d g m e n t s . (2) U n i v e r s a l i s t i c H e d o n i s m (Utilitarianism). E t h i c a l objecT h i n g s i n n a t u r e a r e intrinsically spiritual centers o f force W h a t d o " g o o d " a n d " r i g h t " m e a n ? (see C.). 2. E s t a b l i s h - tiv e is m a x i m u m h a p p i n e s s (preponderance o f pleasure o v e r ( L e i b n i t z ) o r a r e really m e n t a l i n n a t u r e ( p a n p s y c h i s m ) . m e n t o f scheme o f values a n d duties; p a t h o f life. W h a t is g o o d , pain) for largest n u m b e r o f s e n t i e n t beings. T h e i r m a t e r i a l qualities a r e only h o w t h e y a p p e a r o u t w a r d l y . r i g h t , v a l u e , d u t y ? (See D.) (a) Q u a n t i t a t i v e T h e o r y ( B e n t h a m ) . H a p p i n e s s calculable b . Voluntaristic Idealism. Essentially n a t u r e o f r e a l i t y is " w i l l " . C . A N A L Y S E S O F ETHICAL C O N C E P T S , J U D G M E N T S . i n t e r m s o f q u a n t i t a t i v e aspects o f pleasure-pain ( i n t e n s i t y , E v e r y t h i n g , m e n t a l o r physical, is a ma nif e sta tion o f will 1. EMOTIVE MEANING THEORY. E t h i c a l concepts, j u d g m e n t s n o t d u r a t i o n , p r o b a b i l i t y , p r o m p t i t u d e , f e c u n d i t y , p u r i t y , social (Schopenhauer). entirely factual; essentially express emotions, a t t i t u d e s ; h e n c e , e x t e n t ) . Social m o r a l i t y achieved b y sanctions (physical, e. Absolute Idealism. R e a l i t y is a single, absolute, all-inclusive incapable o f being t r u e o r false ( A . J . A y e r , C. L . S t e v e n s o n ) . political, moral, religious). Sp i ri t ( H e g e l ) . Usually associated w i t h a bsolute idealism a r e : 2. INDEFINABILITY OR INTUITIONAL THEORY. E t h i c a l c o n c e p t s in(b) Q u a l i t a t i v e T h e o r y (J. S . M i l l ) . P l e a s u r e s differ q u a l i (1) a " d i a l e c t i c a l " v iew a n d method; a n y finite o r p a r t i a l t r u t h definable, b u t d e n o t e intrinsic, objective properties o r relations t a t i v e l y a s well a s q u a n t i t a t i v e l y . H u m a n s capable o f h i g h e r o r e n t i t y is a t h e s i s which gives rise t o i t s o p p o s i t e a n t i t h e - a p p r e h e n d e d intuitively. H e n c e ethical j u d g m e n t s objectively pleasures t h a n lower animals. Q u a l i t a t i v e differences t e s t e d b y sis, b o t h t h e n being c o m p r e h e n d e d i n a n inclusive whole t r u e o r false ( G . E. M o o r e , W . D . R o s s ) . preferences o f t h o s e capable o f experiencing b o t h . s y n t h e s i s , which t r a n s c e n d s t h e i r partiality; (2) a coherence 3. DEFINABILITY THEORIES. E t h i c a l concepts definable i n t e r m s of. t h e o r y o f t r u t h ; (3) some version o f t h e ontological a r g u m e n t , a . Attitudes. " G o o d , " " r i g h t " refer t o a p p r o b a t i o n o f someone. 2. DE0NT0L0GICAL SYSTEMS. P r i m a r y emphasis: r i g h t , law, d u t y , obligation, v i r t u e . A c t ' s rightness lies i n m o t i v e , virtudusness, (4) a t h e o r y o f levels o r degrees o f t r u t h a n d reality, (5) a t h e o r y (1) S u b j e c t i v e A p p r o b a t i v e T h e o r y , x is good, r i g h t = I o r fulfillment o f l a w , obligation, regardless o f consequences. o f h i s t o r y a s spiritual evolution; (6) explanation o f t h e earlier b y a p p r o v e x ( H u m e ) . t h e later, n o t vice v e r s a . (2) S o c i a l A p p r o b a t i v e T h e o r y , x i s good, r i g h t = Society Kant's Formalism. d. Personalism (Pluralistic Idealism). R e a l i t y is n o t a single a p p r o v e s x ( D u r k h e i m , some S o p h i s t s ) . (1) O n l y t h i n g intrinsically good, as m o r a l good, is good will. absolute Spirit, b u t a p l u r a l i t y o f spiritual persons, i n t h e f or m (3) T h e o l o g i c a l A p p r o b a t i v e T h e o r y , x is good, right = Consequences, effects, d o n o t d e t e r m i n e rightness o f a c t . A c t o f a society o r c o m m u n i t y ( M c T a g g a r t , H o w i s o n , B r i g h t - G o d a p p r o v e s x ( K a r l B a r t h ) . r i g h t i f d o n e in accordance w i t h m o r a l law because i t is l a w , m a n ) . Sometimes a c c o m p a n y i n g Personalism a r e : (1) a t h e i s m b . Psychological Factors (other t h a n a t t i t u d e s ) . riot because o f fruits t o b e o b ta in e d ; a c t o u t o f sense o f obligao r some finitistic version o f G o d , (2) emphasis o n t h e f r e e d o m , (1) H e d o n i s m . " G o o d " pleasure; " b a d , " p a i n ( B e n t h a m ) . t i o n , n o t inclination o r desire. v a l u e a n d m o r a l responsibility o f t h e h u m a n person, (3) e m - (2) A f f e c t i v e T h e o r y , x is good = x satisfies. R i g h t = w h a t (2) M o r a l i m p e r a t i v e (expression o f law) m u s t b e categorical, phasis o n t h e real existence o f evil. c o n t r i b u t e s b e s t t o w a r d fullest satisfaction ( S a n t a y a n a ) . n o t h y p o t h e t i c a l . H y p o t h e t i c a l : I f y o u wish t o profit, t h e n D. NATURALISM. R e a l world is world o f n a t u r e . N a t u r e in- (3) I n t e r e s t T h e o r y , x is valuable = interest is t a k e n i n x . b e h o n e s t ( h o n e s t y t e s t p o l i c y ) . C a t e g o r i c a l : B o Honest (becludes all t h i n g s . n o t l - l i v i n g o r l i v i n g , n o n - h u m a n o r h u m a n , A c t is r i g h t if i t conduces t o m a x i m u m moral good ( h a r m o n y cause it is right, regardless of profit, loss).

(3) T e s t o f lawfulness: L a w is universal, necessary. H e n c e , (1) B i o l o g i c a l e m p h a s i s . M a n a n evolved a n i m a l , shares genS u p r e m e C a t e g o r i c a l I m p e r a t i v e is: O b e y moral law be- eral p a t t e r n o f animal a c tiv ity : a d a p t i v e , adjustive response t o cause i t is law, i.e., a c t always in such a w a y t h a t y o u c a n will c ha nging situations so as t o m a i n t a i n a c t i v i t y , life. (2) Social e m p h a s i s . M a n a n e v o l v e d animal; social life a y o u r m a x i m (principle of your action) to be universal law, , e m e r g e n t level o f r e a l i t y , w i t h n e w qualities, relations, (4) O t h e r formulations o f C a t e g o r i c a l I m p e r a t i v e . S o a c t a s t o t r e a t o t h e r r a t i o n a l beings a s ends, never a s m e r e means; etc. Intelligence (critical, reflective, experimental t h o u g h t a n d a c t i v ity) the supreme method a n d means o f h u m a n adaptaa c t a s if y o u were a m e m b e r o f a k i n g d o m o f e n d s . (5) S i n c e n a t u r e i s a r e a l m o f c a u s e - e f f e c t a n d m o r a l i t y p r e - t i o n , a d j u s t m e n t .
s u p p o s e s f r e e d o m o f will,

problems, tr a nsf or ma tio n o f i n d e t e r m i n a t e , problematic situahuman freedom, immortality, God. 3. M I X E D SYSTEMS. Most systems include both value and obliga- tion into determinate, resolved situation; analysis and removal o f obstructions t o h u m a n life-activity. (4) M o r a l v a l u a t i o n s . J u d g m e n t s c o n c e r n i n g e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f
proposed conduct t o resolve situation (without introducing f u r t h e r difficulties: m e a n s - e n d c o n t i n u u m ) . H e n c e , v a l i d i t y o f m o r a l ideas, s t a n d a r d s , principles, j u d g e d b y effectiveness a s i n s t r u m e n t s f o r resolving h u m a n difficulties.

we postulat e ( t h o u g h

n o t knowing)

(3) F u n c t i o n o f i n t e l l i g e n c e . science, i n q u i r y S o l u t i o n o f

t i o n , v a r y i n g stressmore or less t e l e o l o g i c a l , d e o n t o l o g i c a l . T e n d e n c y t o m a k e v i r t u e its own r e w a r d ; identify v i r t u o u s a n d h a p p y life. Seek t o resolve differences between teleological, d e o n t o l o g i c a l views. Examples: a . Naturalistic Theories. Seek principles o f v a l u e , r i g h t i n n a t u r e a n d h u m a n nature. _.

d o w n t h e law, t h u s d e t e r m i n i n g t h e right. M i g h t m a k e s right ( T h r a s y m a c h u s , in P l a t o ' s R e p u b l i c ; one a spe c t o f N i e t z s c h e ) . V i r t u e is either la) s t r e n g t h , m i g h t , o r (b) obedience t o commanding will and law; hence, twofold m o r a l i t y , o f strong a n d w e a k . Variation o f t h e o r y i n H o b b e s : R e a s o n , following l a w s o f n a t u r e , leads m e n t o social c o n t r a c t , assigning all power t o sovereign w h c m a k e s l a w , t h u s d e t e r m i n i n g right. (2) S t o i c i s m . N a t u r e rational whole; m a n a rational fragm e n t . M a n ' s happiness lies i n following N a t u r e ' s law. M a n ' s essential freedom: rational c a p a c i t y t o affirm or d e n y w h a t N a t u r e (Divine R e a s c n ) rules t o b e . M a n ' s virtue: affirm Nature, conform t o N a t u r e . M a n ' s happiness: rational self-

man's d e s t i n y a struggle for p o w e r . H e who c o m m a n d s l a y s persons, places, timeshence, need for elastic, experimental
temper of mind, neither authoritarian or

( 1 )

Power Theory. Nature a scene of conflict, competition; (5) Moral problematic situations always individual: specific

d o m s , scientific s t u d y o f m a n , inventiveness-creativen e s s , p r o g r e s s i v e e d u c a t i o n , etc. Growth of meanings,

v a l u e s i n experience, including e m p h a s i s o n s h a r e d values; r a i s i n g o f life t o a n a r t o f h u m a n e x p e r i e n c e . I n t e g r i t y , p e r sistence, impartiality a s characteristics o f v i r t u o u s disposition.

Tradition a heritage t o be used, n o t worshipped nor neglected (6) E m p h a s i s on.- D e m o c r a c y , s o c i a l - i n t e l l e c t u a l free-

unprincipled.

(3) G r e e k E u d a e m o n i s m ( F u n c t i o n a l i s m , P e r f e c t i o n i s m ) scene o f never-ending suffering a n d evil. Salvation: (a) t e m p o N a t u r a l entities h a v e f u n c t i o n , e n d , purpose, a s intrinsic r a r y , t h r o u g h aesthetic contemplation o f Ideas; (b) u l t i m a t e , t h r o u g h B u d d h i s t i c denial o f t h e will t o live, a c h ie v e m e n t of principle of t h e i r constitution. T h e i r good lies i n fulfillment s t a t e o f N i r v a n a i n which manifested world is as n o t h i n g . t h a t function: h a p p y life is life i n accordance w i t h function (2) I d e a l i s t i c S e l f - R e a l i z a t i o n T h e o r y ( F i c h t e , H e g e l , (a) P l a t o n i c E u d a e m o n i s m (P lato, R e p u b l i c ) . M a n ' s soul t r i p a r t i t e : reason, spirit, a p p e t i t e . F u n c t i o n B r a d l e y , B o s a n q u e t , R o y c e ) . T r u e self is n o t t h e finite o f s o u l : guidance o f h u m a n life. S u b o r d i n a t e f u n c t i o n s : empirical self o f t h e individual, b u t t h e e te r n a l Spirit o f which reason rules, spirit is source o f pride a n d a m b i t i o n , d y n a m i c finite selves a r e manifestations. M o r a l i t y arises w i t h conflict f a c t o r (appetite) desires a n d is t o b e controlled, organized between desire a n d obligation, wish a n d law. M o r a l progress ' Similarly, t h e political s t a t e is tripar tite : Gua r dia ns (rulers) resolution o f t h i s conflict, i n which t h e willing desiring self Auxiliaries (military), Artisans (workers). F u n c t i o n o f s t a t e becomes more r a t i o n a l a n d t h e law o f obligation becomes t h e t o m a k e possible realized h u m a n lives. S u b o r d i n a t e f u n c - indwelling principle o f t h e self. I t is a synthesis i n which t h e t i o n s : G u a r d i a n s t o rule, legislate, organize; Auxiliaries t o finite individual life a n d will m a t u r e into identification w i t h a t t a c k a n d defend; Artisans t o w o r k , reproduce, e t c . t h e larger life a n d will o f a c o m m u n i t y o f selves, a whole such V i r t u e is excellence, c a p a c i t y t o fulfill function. (Good a s t h e S t a t e . eye is o n e w h i c h c a n see well; good m a n is one w h o c a n live c . Religious Perfectionism ( S e l f - R e a l i z a t i o n ) . E x a m p l e : C h r i s well; good s t a t e is one which organizes h u m a n life well. t i a n Perfectionism o f T h o m a s A q u i n a s : Synthesis o f P l a tonic, Aristotelian, Hebrew-Christian tradition. P u r p o s e of Cardinal virtues: wisdom, courage, t e m p e r a n c e , j u s t i c e . Sequence o f s t a t e s a n d m e n i n o r d e r o f decreasing life achieved i n fulfilling m a n ' s function. M a n ' s function n o t degree o f v i r t u e : A r i s t o c r a t i c , T i m o c r a t i c , O l i g a r c h i c only t h e n a t u r a l one emphasized b y t h e Greeks, b u t also a n d D e m o c r a t i c , T y r a n n i c a l . I n Aristocratic m a n : reason gov u l t i m a t e l y supe r na tu r a l. M a n ' s last e n d is blessedness i n erns, spirit a n d a p p e t i t e o b e y , each p e r f or ming its a p p o i n t e d knowledge o f G o d . F o u r cardinal v ir tu e s o f t h e G r e e k s ( p r u d e n c e , j u s t i c e , t e m p e r a n c e , f o r t i t u d e ) capped b y t h e task; similarly i n Aristocratic o r b e s t s t a t e . (b) A r i s t o t e l i a n E u d a e m o n i s m (Aristotle, N i c h o m a c h e a n t h r e e theological v i r t u e s ( f a i t h , h o p e , c h a r i t y ) t o c o m p l e t e s t r u c t u r e o f m o r a l life. Ethics). M a n ' s function d e t e r m i n e d b y his d i f f e r e n t i a ; differen t i a is reason, H e n c e m a n ' s f u n c t i o n is a c t i v i t y o f soul i n I V . T H E O R Y O F K N O W L E D G E ( E P I S T E M O L O G Y ) accordance w i t h reason, o r i n accordance w i t h h u m a n v i r t u e A . D E F I N I T I O N : S t u d y o f (1) n a t u r e , reality a n d e x t e n t of V . AESTHETICS knowledge, (2) origin, sources, m e t h o d o f knowledge, (3) v a lid A . D E F I N I T I O N : T h e o r y o f a r t a n d t h e experience o f b e a u t y . ( n o t i n a chance period o f t i m e , b u t i n a complete life). Virtue twofold: intellectual (learned), moral ( p r a c i t y o f knowledge. B. REPRESENTATIVE THEORIES O F THE NATURE O F A R T . ticed). M o r a l v i r t u e a s t a t e o f deliberate m o r a l purpose, a i m B . N A T U R E , R E A L I T Y , E X T E N T O F K N O W L E D G E . W h a t is L ART AS IMITATION (Mimesis). ( A r i s t o t l e , P l a t o ) A r t imiing a t m e a n relative t o us, m e a n being d e t e r m i n e d b y reason o r relation o f knower-known, subject-object? I s th e r e a reality t a t e s o r depicts a n o b j e c t , w h e t h e r individual, ideal ( P l a t o ) , a s p r u d e n t m a n would d e t e r m i n e it; lies between excess a n d inde pe nde nt o f m i n d ? I s knowledge a m e n t a l construction? o r universal ( A r i s t o t l e ) T h u s for Aristotle, t r a g e d y is a n imideficiency. Examples: Courage a m e a n b e t w e e n foolhardiness W h a t c a n be k n o w n ? t a t i o n (representation) o f h u m a n a c t i o n i n which a good m a n NAIVE REALISM. Commonsense view. W o r l d o f ordinary ex- comes t o disaster because o f some failing o r defect; i t s p u r p o s e a n d cowardice. Magnificence a m e a n b e t w e e n v u l g a r i t y a n d meanness. perience exists i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f perceiver a n d is j u s t a s i t is is t o effect a pleasurable catharsis (purging) o f t h e emotions o f R i g h t a c t i o n is (a) v o l u n t a r y , (b) ba se d o n deliberation, experienced. M u s t face problems o f r e l a t i v i t y o f perception p i t y a n d fear i n t h e spectator. P l a t o used t h e imitation t h e o r y (c) aim e d a t t h e good. G o o d life is a n a c t i v i t y , n o t a s t a t e of de pe nding o n s t a t e o f perceiver, existence o f d r e a m s , halluci t o argue t h a t a r t is inferior t o philosophy a n d should be rigidly mind. na tions, illusions. controlled b y t h e S t a t e . Pleasure perfects a c t i v i t y , a s s u p e r a d d e d t o it; hence, 2 . SUBJECTIVISM (Subjective Epistemological Idealism) ( B e r k e 2 . HEDONISM ( S a n t a y a n a ) . B e a u t y is pleasure objectified, i . e . v i r t u o u s life is h a p p y life. l e y ) . Objects o f knowledge d o n o t exist independently o f o u r our pleasure viewed a s a q u a l i t y o f t h e object, which t h e n H i g h e s t happiness is life i n accordance w i t h highest consciousness o f t h e m . W o r ld is a complex o f ideas, sensations, a p p e a r s t o u s a s beautiful. virtue. H i g h e s t v i r t u e is t h a t o f reason ( n o u s , intuitive i n e t c . , occurring w i t h i n individual s u b j e c t i v e minds. R e a l i t y ART AS REVELATION ( H e g e l , S c h o p e n h a u e r ) . A r t embodies tellect). H i g h e s t life is life o f speculation, a k i n t o G o d ' s . consists o f m i n d s a n d t h e i r contents. M a t t e r does n o t exist. i n c o n c r e te , sensuous form a higher r e a l i t y such a s a P l a t o n i c (4) M a r x i s t C o m m u n i s m (Engels, A n t i - D i i h r i n g ) . M o r a l M u s t face problem o f e g o - c e n t r i c p r e d i c a m e n t : i f s u b I d e a , t h e Absolute I d e a , o r t h e Will. T h i s revelation enables u s w a y s o f life v a r y historically w i t h economic organization of j e c t i v i s m is t r u e , w e c a n n o t k n o w a n y t h i n g beyond o u r o w n t o free ourselves from immersion i n b r u t e f a c t , e m o t i o n , strivsociety, e.g., feudal ethics, capitalistic ethics. Ruling class self. L e a d s t o s o l i p s i s m . ing, a n d t o achieve a liberation in esthetic experience. historically necessitated t o disguise i t s self-interest i n form c f EPISTEMOLOGICAL DUALISM ( D e s c a r t e s , L o c k e , C r i t i c a l R e a l 4. ART AS PLAY. A r t enables t h e h u m a n imagination t o o p e r a t e universal m o r a l codeideological c h a r a c t e r o f moral s y s t e m i s t s like L o v e j o y , S a n t a y a n a ) . T h e r e is a n objective physical freely, t h r o u g h t h e order i t imposes o n t h e playful a c t i v i t y of I n c o m m u n i s t society, n o class difference; hence, moral code world outside t h e m i n d . W e k n o w t h i s world t h r o u g h repre- t h e i m a g i n a t i o n ( S c h i l l e r , K o n r a d L a n g e ) . Allied theories reflects i n t e r e s t o f entire societyno disguising, exploitation: s e n t a t i o n s o f i t i n o u r m i n d s (ideas, sensations, sense-data, m a k e a r t a n E s c a p e o r I l l u s i o n , as i n F r e u d ( a r t a s t h e exideological c h a r a c t e r disappears. M o r a l code t h e n harmonizes essences). Problem: how t o tell w h e t h e r o u r representations pression o f repressed wishes a n d desires) o r L a n g e ( a r t a s a interests o f all m e m b e r s o f c o m m u n i t y . Before c o m m u n i s m , agree w i t h t h e reality: problem o f " r e a l i t y " o f knowledge self-deception b y which w e escape into a n ideal w o r l d ) . v i r t u e a n d d u t y lie i n action i n accordanc e w i t h t r e n d o f h i s t o r y ' PHENOMENALISM. 5 . ART AS COMMUNICATION. T o l s t o y views a r t as a n a c t i v i t y i n t o w a r d s communism; hence, severe requirements o n p a r t y Pure Phenomenalism (Hume). Radically e x t e n d s S u b j e c t i v i s m which t h e a r t i s t t r a n s m i t s his emotions b y m e a n s o f consciously members, subjection c f individual desires a n d ideas t o will of so a s t o dissolve m i n d itself into ideas, sensations (phenomena, constructed external signs t o o t h e r persons, w h o m a y t h e n p a r t y , supposedly representing t r e n d o f h i s t o r y . appearances). All w e h a v e a r i g h t t o a s s u me is ideas a n d i m - experience t h e s a m e feelings. C o n t r a s t C l i v e B e l l ' s t h e o r y of (5) N a t u r a l i s t i c H u m a n i s m . M a n t o be u n d e r s t o o d i n t e r m s pressions, o r appearances. B o t h m i n d a n d m a t t e r a r e b u n d l e s a r t : language o f emotion, where emotion is a special, a e s t h e t i c o f m o d e r n science, as n a t u r a l e n t i t y i n n a t u r a l c o n t e x t . o f appearances. Similar a p p r o a c h i n t h e r a d i c a l e m p i r i c i s m emotion experienced i n a p p r e h e n d i n g "significant f o r m . " Scientific s t u d y elucidates moral behavior b y showing how i t o f J a m e s , n e u t r a l m o n i s m o f R u s s e l l . Allied w i t h J . S . ART AS EXPRESSION. B . C r o c e views a r t a s t h e expression of arises a n d functions i n c o n t e x t o f life; aids m o r a l achievement M i l l ' s t h e o r y o f objects a s p e r m a n e n t possibilities o f sensation, impressions, i . e . , t h e spiritual tr a n s f o r ma tio n o f t h e r a w m a b y showing h o w its function c a n b e fulfilled. E x a m p l e s : b . Agnostic Phenomenalism ( K a n t , S p e n c e r ) . T h e r e is a r e a l i t y terials o f experience (emotions, feelings, actions, knowings, ' S p i n o z a ' s N a t u r a l i s m (Spinoza, E t h i c s ) . N a t u r e physi t r a n s c e n d i n g consciousness, b u t we c a n k n o w i t o n ly i n i t s etc.) i n t o intuitions, lyric visions, o f t h e concrete a n d individcally a r e a l m o f mechanical causal necessity; r e a l m o f m i n d , a p p e a r a n c e s ( p h e n o m e n a ) , n o t i n itself ( n o u m e n o n ) . ual. W e achieve t h u s a knowledge differing from t h e universalideas, a r e a l m o f logical rational necessity. B o t h a r e aspects 5 . OBJECTIVE EPISTEMOLOGICAL IDEALISM ( A b s o l u t e I d e a l i s m ) ized, conceptualized knowledge o f science. (attributes) o f single, substantial princ iple Na tur e o r G o d . ( T . H . G r e e n , H e g e l , B r a d l e y , B o s a n q u e t , R o y c e ) . T h e 7. ART AS CONTEMPLATION AT A DISTANCE. E. B u l l o u g h views M a n p a r t i c i p a t e s i n each a s b o d y - m i n d . M a n n a t u r a l l y active, r e a l is manifested in, b u t transcends, o u r finite m i n d s . W h a t t h e aesthetic a t t i t u d e a s one o f c o n te m p lat i o n o f a n o b j e c t striving t o m a i n t a i n , preserve, being. W h a t a i d s is good, w h a t exists is ideal, m e n t a l , spiritual, b u t m o r e comprehensive t h a n achieved a s a result o f interposing "psychical d i s t a n c e " b e hinders is b a d . Passions, leading t o dependence o n o t h e r things, a n y finite m i n d a n d i t s contents. K n o w i n g is t h e progress of tween i t a n d o u r self. W e distance a n o b j e c t b y p u t t i n g it o u t of hinder freedom, self-determination. Overcome b y knowledge, t h e finite m i n d t o w a r d fuller conformity a n d identification w i t h gear w i t h o u r practical needs a n d ends, a n d t h e r e b y allow ouru l t i m a t e l y b y knowledge o f divine, inwa r d necessity o f n a t u r e . t h e Absolute M i n d . T r u t h is a t once m e n t a l a n d objective. selves t o e n j o y t h e contemplation o f i t . Since knowledge gives freedom, i t s object is loved; knowledge 6 . PRAGMATISM ( D e w e y ) . R e a l i t y is experiential. Knowledge is 8 . ART AS EMPATHY ( L i p p s a n d V e r n o n L e e ) . E m p a t h y is o f G o d a s eternal substance is highest knowledge; intellectual n o t t h e confrontation o f s u b j e c t w i t h o b j e c t , b u t t h e resolution " E i n f u h l u n g , " literally, "feeling o n e ' s self i n t o " t h e object. I n love o f G o d is m a n ' s salvation a n d happiness. V i r t u e s a r e o f experiential problems, t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f a n indetermi- t h e aesthetic a p p r o a c h we p r o j e c t o u r own life-feelings, emoemotions correlated w i t h rational a c t i v i t y (courage, self- n a t e , problematic s itu a tio n . i n t o one which is coherent a n d tions, a t t i t u d e s , ideas into object; experience i t ' a s beautiful assertion, generosity); emotions correlated w i t h irrational ac- d e t e r m i n a t e . Knowledge is inquiry (transformation o f t h i n g s 9 . ART AS INTENSIFIED EXPERIENCE. D e w e y t r e a t s a r t a s concent i v i t y a r e vices ( h a t r e d , e n v y , p i t y , h u m i l i t y , e t c . ) . A l t r u i s m , ~ f experience), n o t vision (subject grasping o b j e c t ) . t r a t i n g o n w h a t m a k e s experience vital a n d significant t o u s . social cooperation, good because useful t o w a r d r a tiona l life a s O R I G I N , S O U R C E S , M E T H O D O F K N O W L E D G E . W h e r e A r t intensifies t h e features t h a t m a k e experience satisfying &r well a s p a r t o f i t . does knowledge come from? W h i c h faculties o f m i n d give u s c o n s u m m a t o r y , raising t h e m a b o v e t h e thre s h o l d o f p e r (b) P r a g m a t i c N a t u r a l i s t i c H u m a n i s m (Dewey, E x p e r i - k n o w l e d g e ? H o w i s k n o w l e d g e a c h i e v e d ? ception so t h a t we m a y e n j o y t h e m for t h e i r o w n sake. I t e n c e & N a t u r e , H u m a n N a t u r e & C o n d u c t , E t h i c s [with AUTHORITARIANISM. I n c e r t a i n d o m a i n s ( e . g . m o r a l s , p o l i t i c s , Tufts], R e c o n s t r u c t i o n i n P h i l o s o p h y , T h e o r y o f V a l u a - :ligion) t h e r e ai-e p r i v i l e g e d i n d i v i d u a l s o r i n s t i t u t i o n s w h i c h develops satisfying emotional q u a l i t y in experience, which arises w h e n experience is internally i n t e e r a t e d a n d fulfilled tion, Q u e s t f o r Certainty). f u n c t i o n a s sources o f knowledge. A s t h e witness c a n testify t o t h r o u g h ordered, organized m o v e m e n t .

discipline, apathy (absolute control of desires, emotions) Idea). World and man a manifestation of Will as ultimate reality. T h a t m a n i f e s t a t i o n irrational, meaningless in itself; (Epictetus, Seneca, Marcus Aurelius).

b . Idealistic Theories. R e a l i t y essentially spiritual; hence laws of r e a l i t y are spiritual laws, including m o r a l p h a s e . M o r a l life is life i n accordance w i t h t h o s e laws. E x a m p l e s : (1) I d e a l i s t i c P e s s i m i s m (Schopenhauer, W o r l d a s W i l l a n d