Physics 326 Spring 03
3 d -Rotations
• Rotating dumbbells in lab frame
• Moment of Inertial Tensor
– Review of BCS and FCS systems
– Component notation for I
• Moments and Products of Inertia
– Ix , Iy , Iz
– Pxy , Pxz , Pyz
• Moment of Inertia for a cube
– Cube centered on diagonal
– L not parallel to 
– Required torque for rotation
• Principal axes
– Axes where  is parallel to L
– Eigenvector equation for PA
• Rotating dumbbells
– Moment of intertia tensor
– L in BCS coordinates
– L viewed in FCS
Lecture IX Page-1
Torque of the dumbbells
Torque computed in BCS
Precession of L in a space cone
Cone precession of L requires torque
Simple way view of dumbbell torque
Centrifugal force description
Axle forces
I for a rectangular plate
Reducing 3 1 Product of inertia
Iz=Ix+Iz
Principal axes for a rectangular plate
Secular equation method
PA for square plate
Properties of square plate PA solution
Orthogonality of eigenvectors.
Symmetric eigenvectors
A nastier rectangular plate example
 Physics 326 Spring 03

What will we do in this chapter? Lecture IX Page-2

This is our first chapter on 3-d rotations. We used in normal mode problems. We guess
first encounter what happens when the angular from symmetry one of the PA for the corner
momentum is angled with respect to the centered cube.
angular velocity. As a result, L processes in a
We next illustrate many of the formal points
(space) cone about , and a torque is required
with a simple system consisting of a dumbbell
to keep an object uniformly rotating with a
rotating at an angle with respect to its central
constant . Two frames are used to describe
axis. We first compute the angular momentum
the motion: a BCS frame which is fixed in the
and torque in the BCS. We next discuss the
rotating body and a FCS frame which is fixed
motion of the angular momentum in the FCS.
in space. In the BCS , L = I  where I is
Finally we give a simple intuitive picture of
tensor (a 3 by 3 matrix). The diagonal
why a rotating dumbbell requires a torque.
components of this matrix are “moments” of
inertia, and the off diagonal elements are 3 We next compute the moment of inertia tensor
“products” of inertia. We show how to for a rectangular plate and illustrate the formal
compute the I tensor for a uniform cube with an way of finding the PA from the eigenvector
origin on one corner. We show that there are equations solved using the secular equation.
special rotation axes -- known as Principal We prove that two non-degenerate PA (i.e. PA
Axes or PA. When the object is rotated about a with unequal eigenvalues ) are perpendicular.
PA, L is parallel to  and no torque is required
for a uniform rotation. One finds the PA by
solving an eigenvector equation similar to that
 Physics 326 Spring 03

Lab frame motion of a rotating Lecture IX Page-3

 dumbbell
 k̂
At t=0 both angular momenta are given by
iˆ ˆj kˆ
ĵ
 m
  
L  r  mv  b cos  0 b sin 
b iˆ 0 mb cos  0
b  
L1  L2  mb 2   sin  cos  , 0, cos 2   or
m   
L  L1  L2  2mb 2   sin  cos  , 0, cos 2  
We view motion in the lab. At this instant 
 The L vector is in the plane of the dumbbell
first mass at r  b cos  iˆ  b sin  kˆ
1
and rotates along with it. In the lab its
At later times the first mass appears at
components are given at later times by:
 x1 (t )   cos  t  sin  t 0  b cos  
      L x   cos  t  sin  t 0    mb 2 sin 2 
y (t
 1   )  sin  t cos  t 0  0      
 z (t )   0 0 1  b sin  
  L y    sin  t cos  0   0 
 1   L   0 0 1   2mb 2 cos 2  
 z 
x1  b cos  cos  t  x1   b cos  sin  t
L x   mb 2 sin 2 cos  t
y1  b cos  sin  t  y 1   b cos  cos  t
z1  b sin   z1  0 Hence initially: L y   mb 2 sin 2 sin  t
 
 v1 (0)  b cos  ˆj and v2 (0)  b cos  ˆj L z  2mb 2 cos 2 
 Physics 326 Spring 03

Torques in both frames Lecture IX Page-4



k̂ Multiplying this out shows a constant torque
 ĵ 
of   mb 2 2 sin 2 ˆj 'in the dumbbell frame.

iˆ 
  kˆ '
We can take the derivatives of L to find the
 ˆj '
torques in the lab frame

 x  mb 2 sin 2
d cos  t
 mb2 2 sin 2 sin  t L iˆ '
dt
d sin  t
 y   mb 2 sin 2  mb2 2 sin 2 cos  t
dt
The above figure shows that dumbbell, the
d 2mb 2 cos2  angular momenta, and the torque rotate
z  0
dt together with the angular momentum vector

We can write  components in the dumbbell forming a cone. We will call this the body
frame using the inverse rotation matrix cone The torque lies tangent to the base of
  'x   cos  t sin  t 0   sin  t  the cone. But there must be an easier way of
     getting these results! It is much easier using

  '  mb 
2 2
sin 2   sin  t cos  0   cos  t 
 ' 
y
 0 a concept of the moment of inertia tensor.
 z  0 1   0 
 

Moment of Inertial Tensor
We return to problem of rotations of a rigid
body which we first discussed in our System
Chapter. Recall that two coordinate systems
are used: FCS coordinates which are with
respect to a fixed point in an inertial coordinate
system and BCS or body centered coordinate
system which rotates with the rigid body with
an angular velocity . The traditional thing is
to write the angular momentum L with respect
to the fixed system, but write all vector
components in the BCS.
We make extensive use of the relation
d d 
      BCS
 dt   dt 
FCS BCS
which we first used in acceleration
reference frames in Physics 225.
The angular momentum for a system is
  
L   i mi ri  vi(FCS) where
 BCS  BCS
vi(FCS)  ri    ri for a rigid body
   BCS
ri BCS  0 and vi(FCS)    ri
Physics 326 Spring 03
Lecture IX Page-5
   
Thus L   i mi ri     ri  where unless
specified otherwise, all components are in
BCS coordinates.Using the BAC - CAB
     
L   i mi  ri ri   mi ri  ri  

We wish to factor out  and use component
notation with implied summation:

L   i mi  r(i ) r( i )   mi r( i ) r(i ) 

=  i mi     r(i ) r( i )   mi r(i ) r(i ) 
 
   i mi    r(i ) r(i )  r( i ) r( i )      I  
 
where I   i mi    r( i ) r( i )  r(i ) r(i ) 
I becomes a 33 matrix (or 2nd rank tensor)
that multiplies the  vector to give the L vector
rather than a simple scalar such as mass. Hence
L will not lie parallel to which creates
interesting new complications as we will see.
 Physics 326 Spring 03
Lecture IX Page-6
Moments and Products of Inertia
I   i mi    r(i ) r(i )  r(i ) r( i )   Ix  Pxy  Pxz 
 
First consider the diagonal elements I    Pxy Iy  Pyz 
or I11 , I 22 , I 33   Pxz  Pyz I z 

I11  I x   i mi  11r(i ) r(i )  r1(i ) r1(i ) 
 yi2  zi2  xi yi  xi zi 
 mx
i i
2
i  y  z  xi xi    i mi  y  z
2
i
2
i i
2 2
i  
I   i mi   xi yi xi2  zi2  yi z i 

and I 22  I y   i mi  xi2  zi2    xi zi
  yi zi xi2  yi2 
I 33  I z   i mi  xi2  yi2  z
These are just the ordinary I about the x,y,z axes
On to the off-diagonal elements where    0 y
b b
Thus I   i mi  r r (i ) (i )
   There are x
three "products of inertia. b
Lets compute the moment of inertia tensor
I12   Pxy   i mi xi yi ; I13   Pxz   i mi xi zi
of a uniform density cube of dimension b
I 23   Pyz   i mi yi zi about a corner. We need to compute 3
moments of inertia and 3 products of
inertia.
 Physics 326 Spring 03

Moment of Inertia for a cube Lecture IX Page-7

z  Ix

 Pxy  Pxz 

I    Pxy Iy  Pyz 
 P  Pyz I z 
y  xz
b b  2 / 3 1/ 4 1/ 4  2
 8 3 3 
x   mb 
I  mb 2  1/ 4 2 / 3 1/ 4   

3 8 3 
 1/ 4 1/ 4 2 / 3  12  3 3 8 
b    
I x    dx  dy  dz  y 2  z 2  
b b b 
0 0 0
Around most axes through the corner L is not 
 
b b b b b b to  . For example     0 0 
  dx  dy  dz z 2    dx  dz  dy y 2 
0 0 0 0 0 0
b b  8 3 3   1  8
z 
3
y  3  mb   2
   mb   
2

 bb     bb   L   3 8  3   0   12  3 
12     3 
 3 0  3 0  3 3 8   0   
3 2
b 2mb d d  
 2   b  b  Since m   b , I x 
3
Applying           BCS to L
3 3  dt  FCS  dt  BCS
    
2mb 2    L   I     L , we see that a torque is
By symmetry I x  I y  I z    FCS
3 required to rotate the cube about (1,0,0) axis
2 b 2 b
b b b x  y  
even for uniform rotation (  0). In BCS coords:
 
0 0 0 
Pxy   dz dx x dy y   b     
 2 0  2 0 iˆ ' ˆj ' kˆ '
 mb  2 2
m 2b 2
b 5
mb 2
  1 0 0   0 3 3
  Pxy  by symmetry Pxy  Pyz  Pxz 12 12
4 4 8 3 3
 Physics 326 Spring 03

Principal axes Lecture IX Page-8

z y
However there are some axes , called principal As a second example, we
 
axes,where L   . For the cube, one principal will work out I for the case x

axis is the diagonal or  =  1 1 1 where the cube is centered b b
 8 3 3  1 1 on the origin of the BCS b
dz  y 2  z 2  
b/2 b/2 b/2
 mb 2    mb 2
   Ix    dx  dy 
L   3 8  3   1    1 b / 2 b / 2 b / 2
12    1 6   b/2 b/ 2 b/2
  3  3 8    1  dx  dy  dz z 2 

We see that  =  1 1 1 acts as an eigenvector
b / 2 b / 2 b / 2
b/2 b/ 2 b/2
   dx  dz  dy y 2 
of I in the sense I i  i i . The eigenvalue b / 2 b / 2 b / 2
b/2 b/2
i is the moment of intertia about the principal  z3   y3 
  bb     bb  
axis (or I i ). A uniform rotatio n ( ) about a  3  b / 2  3  b / 2
principal axis requires no external torque since 4 b3 mb 2
         bb   I y  Iz
    L  0 if   L and   0. Because 3 8 6
such rotations require no torque these are often b/2 b/2 b/2
Pxy    dz  dx x  dy y  0 Pyz Pxz
preferred axes for rotation to minimize bearing b / 2 b / 2 b / 2

wear. We can recycle our eigenvector t echniques  1 0 0

2
mb    mb 2 
learned for normal modes to find the principal I   0 1 0  Since I    , all
axes. For example, the 3 principal axes are  . 6   6
 0 0 1
axes are principal axes for the centered cube!
 Physics 326 Spring 03
Lecture IX Page-9
Rotating dumbbells in PA system
z' 0 0 0 

y'   x'
I  2mb 2  0 1 0  z' ˆj '
  v   b cos 
2b 0 0 1
x'  
b
b  r  b iˆ '
L  2mr  v
These are two point masses a distance 2b apart. 
Since there is only separation of the masses  2mb iˆ ' b cos  ˆj '
along the x’ axis there are no products of
  2mb 2 cos  kˆ '

inertia. The two moments of inertia are 2mb2
We also easily view this system in the FCS but
z'  x ' We now rotate the with BCS unit vectors The upper mass moves
dumbbell at an angle  into the plane of the paper and the lower mass
with with respect to x’. moves out of the plane of the paper with
Lets compute L in the indicated velocities. The r vector points along
BCS frame. the dumbbell, and the cross product of r and v
lies along the z’ axis which is transverse to the
dumbbell axis. I’ve doubled the L of one of the
 0 0 0   sin   point masses. Since L points along z’ it rotates
    
L  I   2mb 2  0 1 0  0  with the body in a cone with a 1/2 angle of 
 0 0 1   cos   about the vertical when viewed in the FCS. L
  
 is stationary in the BCS system and has the
L  2mb 2 cos  kˆ ' value that we computed from the I tensor.
 Physics 326 Spring 03

 Torque of the dumbbells Lecture IX Page-10

 

z'  x'

L  2mb 2 cos  kˆ ' L

L    t

We begin by computing  using BCS. 2mb 2 cos  L 2mb 2 cos  sin 
   
For uniform motion   0 and     L The change L is again out of the
iˆ ' ˆj ' kˆ ' plane of the paper when viewed from side.
   
    L  2mb 2 2 sin  0 cos  For small t, L  L t and thus
0 0 cos  
L

  2mb 2 2 sin  cos  ˆj '   L  2mb 2 2 cos  sin 
t
Hence at the instant depicted,  points along the which is same answer as before.  rotates
-y’ axis or out of the plane of the paper.
with the dumbbells as well and is always
We can also view the L vector in the FCS.
Since L points along the z’ axis, it rotates
tangent to the rim of the cone.
around  in a cone of 1/2 angle  about the
vertical axis. The component of L along 
remains constant while the component in the
horizontal plane rotates in a circle.
 A final way of viewing Physics 326
Lecture IX
Spring 03
Page-11

 dumbbell torque
 mr 2 
The torque about the center point is
 
 =2r  F=2  b cos  m  b sin   2 
b sin  m  b sin    2 2mb 2 2 sin  cos  It is easy to see from
the right hand rule that the torque is
b cos   directed out of the paper.
b How the required torque is conveyed to the
dumbbell system? Imagine welding the
b cos  angled axis to a vertical axle which is held in
place by a ring of ball bearings. We can
crudely think of the bearings countering the
m(b sin  ) 2 torque created by the centrifugal force as the
dumbbell tries to align itself in the horizontal
This is perhaps the simplest way of
plane via centrifugal force. The purple 
visualizing the torque required to uniformly
rotate the dumbbell. Because the two masses
bearings supply this torque. 
are travelling in a circle of radius b sin , Note that the direction of
they undergo centripetal acceleration and a the rotation is irrelevant to
centripetal force of F = m b  sin acts on the bearing force.
each mass. Each force is a transverse distance
of b cos  from the pivot point. There is a
torque directed out of the plane of the paper.
 Physics 326 Spring 03

I for a rectangular plate Lecture IX Page-12

We show how to find the moment of inertia

and principal axis for a rectangular plate. A
plate is a nice way of illustrating the techniques
y
For the plate in the z=0
since it essentially only involves 22 matrices b plane, we need to compute 3
and the secular equation is just a (solvable) integrals rather than 6 for
quadratic. We place the plate in the z=0 plane.
Since the plate has no extent in the z axis, all of
a x the general extended object.
b
a b y  3
the products of inertia involving z vanish. Ix       
2
dx y dy a 3
 yi  zi
2 2
 xi yi  xi zi  0 0
 
  0
I   i mi   xi yi xi2  zi2  yi zi   ab3 mb 2 ma 2
  xi zi  yi zi xi2  yi2    . Similarly I y 
 3 3 3
 Ix  Pxy 0  a b
  a b x  y  2 2

I    Pxy Iy 0  Pxy    x dx  y dy   a    
 0
0 0
 2 0  2 0
 0 I x  I y 
 a 2b 2 mab
We also note that I z  I x  I y for a  
plate in the x-y plane. Lets see why 4 4
 4b 2 3ab 
I x   i mi  yi2  zi2    i mi yi2 0
m 
I y   i mi  xi2  zi2    i mi xi2 I   3ab 4a 2
0 
12  2 
I z   i mi  xi2  yi2   I x  I y  0
 0 4  a  b  
2
 Physics 326 Spring 03
Lecture IX Page-13
Principal axes for a rectangular plate
 4b 2 3ab 0 
The technique for finding the other PA or
m 
I   3ab 4a 2
0  eigenvectors begins by solving the secular
12  2 
 0
 0 4  a 2
 b   equation for the eigenvalues . Lets review
 
Since there is no mixing between the z axes this procedure I  = can be written as

and another axis, one principal axis (PA)  I- 1   =0. The only way to get a solution
is the z-axis. Lets make sure. The criteria 
other than  =0 is to make  I- 1  singular
 
is I  = where  is the moment of inertia
about the PA. or I- 1 =0. We only need consider the x-y
 4b 2 3ab 0 components since only these mix. The secular
0
m   equation reads:
 3ab 4a 2
0  0 
12  2 
m4b 2 -m3ab
 0 0 4  a 2
 b    1  
  12 12
 0 We could solve this
0
m4  a 2  b 2   
2
-m3ab m4a

 0 12 12
12 1 for  in general since it is a quadratic equation.
 
The other PA are transverse to the  0,0,1 Rather than this lets work some specific cases.
PA and therefore lie in ths x-y plane. Lets begin with the case of a  b.
 Physics 326 Spring 03

PA for square plate Lecture IX Page-14

For a  b we have
 m4a 2 -m3a 2 
  ma 2  4 3  Having found  values we can solve for
12 12
I    

 . I typiclly do this by inserting   (1, x)
 -m3a 2
m 4a  12  3 4 
2

   
into I   and solving for x. We
 12 12 
ma 2 begin with  =1:
I find it easier to not carry along the
12  4 3   1   4  3 x   1 
part by factoring it out. Here is how.        1 
ma 2
  3 4   x   3  4 x   x 
Let I  I '. We write  I -  1    0 or 4  3 x  1  x  1. We get
12
2
ma same solution for the second equation
  
as I -  1   0 where   
12 3  4 x  x  x  1.    1,1 has  =1
1
We have a simple secular equation I '-  ' 1
On to the eigenvector with  =1:
4   3
 
2
 0  4    32  0

 4 3   1   4  3 x   1
3 4          7 
3 4 x 3  4 x  x
  
 4    3 4    3  0    1 , 7 or    
 4  3 x  7  x  1


ma 2 7 ma 2 8ma 2
 , Note that    Tr I  . Thus    1, 1 has  =7
12 12 12 2

This is true in general. We prove it later.

 Properties of square plate PA Physics 326
Lecture IX
Spring 03
Page-15

solution
y I1 
ma 2 Here is a graphic    
Let I  i  i i and I  j   j j and I T  I .
12 summary of the 3     
PA and their Ii Mult 1st eqn by  Tj :  Tj I  i  i  Tj  i
a values. Its apparent Mult 2nd eqn by  iT :


 x
why I1 is small and    
 iT I  j   j iT  j Transpose both sides:
8ma 2 a 2
I3 is large given
7ma how far the mass is
I3 
12 I 2   i j  j  i j 

T  T
I    
T  T
12 from each PA.      
This choice of PA will work for any symmetric  Tj I T  i   Tj I  i   j  Tj  i
 
plate where Ix=Iy =I0 as shown below: Equating both expressions for  Tj I  i
 I0  Pxy  1  1      
      I 0  Pxy     Tj I  i  i  Tj  i   j  Tj  .
  Pxy I 0   1  1 Thus  i   j   Tj  i  0.
 

 I0  Pxy   1  1    
 
I 0   1
  0 xy   1
I  P If i   j we conclude  Tj  i   j  i  0
  Pxy  
If the two eigenvectors are degenerate (i.e.
Note 1  2  I 0  Pxy  I0  Pxy  Tr I equal) they are not necessarily transverse.
We also see that the 3 PA are orthogonal as For example for the centered cube all
was the case with normal mode eigenvectors. eigenvalues are I= mb2/6 any three axes
The proof is very similar. It relies on symmetry (perpendicular or not) will be PA.
of I tensor.
 Physics 326 Spring 03

Diagonalization Lecture IX Page-16

Consider building R t out of 3 column vectors

R t   e (1) e (2) e (3)   Rt  e or Rt  e
The PA system can be thought of as an     ( )  ( )
alternative coordinate system that is rotated  ( )  ( )
 
t
with respect to the original BCS system. Under and I R
    R t
  I e
   e
 

this rotation, all of the products of inertia 

 e1t   1 0 0 
  
vanish. How does I transform under rotations?  R= e t I e ( )   e ( ) and I'=  0  0 
 
 2   2 
Under a rotation the diplacements of each     
 0 0 3 
t

   e3 
mass transform as ri '  Rri where R is a rotation The matrix required to rotate to the principle
matrix. It is easy to show that I '  RIR t . For axis system is constructed from (normalized)
eigenvectors. The eigenvalues are the moments
example consider the piece I (2) 
 ...   i   of inertia about the PA. Lets illustrate this for
m r (i ) (i )
r
Under rotations I (2) 
'  ...   m i R  r
(i)
R r
(i)
 the square plate.
 1  1
I  '  ..  R   mi r r  R  I '  RI R .
(2) (i) (i) t (2) (2) t e1   1 1   1 1 ; e2   1 1
2 2
The first piece transforms the same way. Search 1 1 1  ma 2  4 3 
Thus R=   ; I=  
for R that diagonalizes I' such that I'     . 2  1  1  12   3 4 
Want RIR  I '.Multiply by R and use R R  1
t t t 1 ma 2  1 1   4 3   1 1 
I'=RIR  t
   
t 2 12  1 1  3 4   1 1
to get IR t  R t I ' or I R  Rt       Rt 
1 ma 2  1 1   1 7  ma 2  1 0 
     
2 12  1 1  1 7  12  0 7 
 Physics 326 Spring 03
Lecture IX Page-17

Diagonalization and Trace Theorem

8ma 2
Note this R cannot be written as a actual We noted TrI   I  TrI '   i  .
12
1 1 1   cos  sin  
rotation: R=    Easy to prove from trace theorem Tr AB  Tr BA.
2 1 1    sin  cos   Tr I '  Tr RIR t  Tr R  IR t   Tr IR t R  Tr I
This R is an "improper" rotation. Had we
The trace theorem almost follows from inspection:
 1 1  1 1
written e=  1 1 then R=   Tr ( AB )   AB    A B a  B a A   BA  
2 2  1 1
 Tr BA
corresponding to   . Problem was initial
Checking the trace is a great way to check a PA
PA choice formed a left handed coord sys. calculation!
y
x' Our eigenvector
a prescription
technically gives an
 x othogonal matrix but
a not necessarily a
proper rotation
y' matrix!
 Physics 326 Spring 03
Lecture IX Page-18

A nastier rectangular plate example

Here is a typical ugly problem. Let a  2b 
On to  2 with 2  5  3 2
 m 4b 2 -m3ab 
   2 3  1  1
12  mb  2 3 
2
I 
12
     5  3 2    2  3x  5  3 2
   3 8  x   x
 -m3ab m4a 
2
6  3 8 
 
 12 12   x  2 1
mb 2    2 3  2   3   1 
I I ; I   0 Thus  2 =   has 2  5  3 2
6  3 8  3 8   
 2  1
  
2   8    9  0   2  10  7  0  

Quick checks: 1  2  1  2  1 1  2  0  
10  100  4  7 
10  72 
    5  3 2  5  3 2  10  TrI
    53 2 1 2
2 2
 2 3   1 

1
    5  3 2    2  3x  5  3 2
y
I1 
mb 2 5  3 2  
  3 8  x  x 6
 x  1  2 b
x
  1  
Thus 1 =   has   5  3 2 2b
 1  2 
I3 
5mb 2
I2 

mb 2 5  3 2 
or   5  3 2 mb 2
6
 3 6