PH 2202: Vibrations, Waves and

Optics

1
 OBJECTIVES

• Give students the basic concepts of oscillations, mechanical

waves, optics, sound, and acoustics and their applications.
•  Equip students with concepts of vibrations, waves and optics.
•  Enable students to derive a differential equation of vibrations
and waves.
•  Enable students to explain the nature of light.
•  Enable students to account for the phenomena of
interference and its application.
•  Enable students to Show that light is an electromagnetic
consisting of oscillating electric and magnetic fields
 COURSE OUTLINE
• Vibrations: Simple harmonic motion, free oscillations, damped
oscillations, forced oscillations and resonance, coupled oscillations.
• Waves: Wave motion–transverse and longitudinal waves, superposition,
the wave equation and its solutions, phase and group velocity,
characteristic of sound waves, ultrasonic sounds and applications,
energy, reflection and transmission of waves at boundaries, standing
waves, beats, Doppler effect, hearing and ear structure.
• Optics: Huygens’s principle, Interference and Young’s experiment,
diffraction and diffraction grating, polarization of light, optical activity,
laser optics, Energy transport and poynting vector.
• Acoustics: echoes, absorption of sound waves, reverberation, acoustical
demands of an auditorium, conditions for good acoustical design of
rooms.
Course Assessment: Take home assignments 10%
Two Tests 30 %
Final Exam 60 %
 References
•
1.R.N. Chaudhury, (2001) Waves and Oscillations, New Delhi,
New Age International Publishers
2. Jenkins F. A and H. E. White: (1976) “Fundamentals of
optics,”.
3. E. Heche; 1998“Optics” –
4. Pain H.J., (1999). The Physics of Vibration and Waves, 5th
Edition, and Wiley
5. Bajaj N.K., (1998). The physics of waves and oscillations,
Tata McGraw-Hill
6. French A.P., (1990). Vibrations and Waves, Chapman and
Hall
7. George H. (1992). , the Physics of Waves, Prentice Hall
 Introduction

• The presentation will be QUANTITATIVE and

ANALYTICAL.

• Pre-requisite:
1. Simple calculus e.g. Differential Equations,
Integration and Differentiation.

2. Complex exponential and trigonometry.

5
 Introduction
• Motion of a physical system can be grouped as: Translational
motion, Rotational motion, Periodic motion, Oscillatory or
Vibratory motion.

 Periodic motion: the motion which repeat itself after a regular

interval of time. e.g. motion of earth around the sun(T= 1 year)

 Oscillatory motion: If a body in periodic motion moves along

the same path to and fro about a definite point (equilibrium
position), then the motion of the body is vibratory or
oscillatory.
e.g. the motion of a pendulum swinging back and forth, the
motion of a vibrating guitar string etc. 6
 Introduction
• All objects that vibrate have one thing in
common: each object is subjected to restoring
force that increases with increasing distortion
 Restoring force is one that tries to pull or push a
displaced object back to its equilibrium position.
• Note: all oscillatory motions are periodic but all
periodic motions are not oscillatory. e.g motion
of earth around the sun

7
 Examples
• Vibrations or oscillations are used in all the
music instruments that are played by plucking
strings.
• Loudspeakers work due to the vibrating
diaphram and we hear sound due to vibration
of ear drums.
• Mosquito wings produce audible sound
(why?)

8
 Simple Harmonic Motion
• An important type of oscillatory motion is simple
harmonic motion (S.H.M.). This is the most
fundamental vibration of a single particle or one-
dimensional system.

 A particle is said to execute S.H.M if it moves to

and fro about the mean (equilibrium) position
and its graph between its displacement from
equilibrium position & time is a sine curve (or
cosine curve).
9
 Simple Harmonic Motion
• Examples of S.H.M. :
– motion of mass
vibrating up and down
a spring

– motion of prongs of
a vibrating tuning fork

– motion of swinging
pendulum bob
10
 Characteristics of S.H.M
1. The motion is periodic: -repeats itself after a
definite interval of time.
2. The motion is about an equilibrium position in
which no net force acts on the system.
3. There exists a restoring force (proportional to
the displacement from the equilibrium
position) that acts to restore the system to its
equilibrium position.
Thus, SHM is a periodic motion in which the
restoring force is proportional to the
displacement from the mean position 11and
 The Equation of S.H.M
According to Hooke’s law the restoring force
Consider a block free to
exerted by the spring is
move on a horizontal,
frictionless surface
F   kx............(i )
Applying Newton’s second law to the motion
of the block
d 2x
F  ma  m 2  mx
dt
Equating (i) and (ii) we get
 k x................(iii)
mx

mx
where is the inertial term (carrying the
K.E.) and
kx(ist )the restoring term

mx  k x 0................(iv)
(carrying P.E.) Thus,
12
10
 The Equation of S.H.M
k x  0................(v)
x m

• Equation (v) is known as equation of motion for
S.H.M generally written as

x  x  0
 2
0 ..........(vi )
where k ; ω is the angular frequency
o  o
m (natural frequency)
13
The Solution to the S.H.M. Equation

x  x  0
 2
0 ..........(vi )
• Here we shall look at two solutions namely;

1.Trigonometric (sine and cosine) or sinusoidal

2. Exponential

14
 1. Trigonometry Solution
Let the solution of S.H.M. be
x(t )  A sin 0 t
x (t )  0 A cos 0 t
x(t )  0 2 A sin 0 t

x  0 2 x  0 we get
Substitute to 
0 2 A sin 0t  0 2 A sin 0t  0
then x(t )  A sin 0t satisfies the equation of S.H.M
Try x(t )  B cos 0t ; this satisfies the equation too!!!
Then x(t )  A sin 0t and x(t )  B cos 0t are the solutions
of S.H.M.  x(t )  A sin 0t  B cos 0t is also a soln.
15
 1.Why is the solution, e.g. x=A sin ω0t,
useful?

• We can predict the location of the mass at

any time.
x  A sin(0t )
• We can calculate the velocity at any time.
dx
v  A0 cos(0t )
dt
• We can calculate the acceleration at any
time. 2
d x
a  2   A0 2 sin(0t )
dt
16
 1. One Other Item: PHASE
• The solution as written is not complete. The
simple sine solution implies that the oscillator
always is at x=0 at t=0. We could use the
solution x = A cos (w0 t) but that means that
the oscillator is always at x=A at t=0.
This is not always the case
• Therefore, the general solution has another
component –PHASE ANGLE φ0
x  A sin(0t  0 ) 17
 2. Exponential Solution
Let the solution of S.H.M. be
 t
x(t )  Ce ..........(i )
For simplicity lets
x (t )   Ce .......(ii )
 t
use ω instead of ωo

x(t )   Ce ....(iii )
 2  t

x   x  0 we get
Substitute (i) and (iii) into  2

α Ce  ω Ce  0
2 αt 2 αt
.................(iv)
α 2
 ω  Ce  0
2 αt
but Ce  x(t )
αt

18
 2. Exponential Solution

 α 2
 ω 2
 x(t )  0   α 2  ω2   0

 α   1ω2  α   j .....(v)
Substitute in (i); then x(t )  Ce  j tsatisfies
the equation of S.H.M
Then x(t )  C1e j t  C2e  j t is a solutions of S.H.M

19
3. Review of a complex-exponential
Let z = x + j y ;
where j2 = -1, x and y are real, z is a complex number.

Recall Euler’s relation, e  j

 cos   j sin  ,

e e j  j e j  e  j
cos   and sin  
2 2j

If x  A cos(t   ) and y  A sin(t   ) then

z  A cos(t   )  jA sin(t   )  Ae j ( t   )
Re(z) 20
3. Review of a complex-exponential
dz
z   j Ae j (t  )
 j z
dt
2
d z
z  2  j  Ae
2 2 j (t  )
  z
2

dt
z   z  0 S.H.M. eqn.
  2

j( t  )
 z  Ae is a complex exponential soln.
21
3. Review of a complex-exponential
dz
z   j Ae j (t  )
 j z
dt
2
d z
z  2  j  Ae
2 2 j (t  )
  z
2

dt
z   z  0 S.H.M. eqn.
  2

j( t  )
 z  Ae is a complex exponential soln.
22
 Physical Significance of S.H.M.
Parameters
• Consider a particle executing S.H.M. with its
displacement x  A sin(t   )
where A > 0, ω > 0, and φ are constants
• x is the displacement of the particle at any
instant from the equilibrium position (x=0)

23
 Physical Significance of S.H.M. Parameters
• A (amplitude) is the maximum displacement of the
particle on either side of the equilibrium position
– The limiting values of sin(ωt+φ) are ± 1 so the
system will oscillate between the values of
x = − A and x = +A

• ω (angular frequency) is the number of oscillations

completed per unit time interval
– For a system undergoing free oscillations it is

called natural or characteristic frequency, ωo.

– ω (rad s-1) 24
 Physical Significance of S.H.M. Parameters
• The period T of the motion is the time taken by a
particle to go through one full cycle of motion (or
to complete one vibration)
x = sin(ωt + φ) is
periodic and repeats
itself every time ωt
increases by 2 rad,
i.e. (ωt +2)=ω(t +T )
then T =2/ω

25
 Physical Significance of S.H.M.
Parameters
• The reciprocal of the Period is the frequency f
of the motion and it is the number of
oscillations (cycles) completed per second

 1 
1  rad s 1
f    s  Hertz 
T 2  rad 


26
 Physical Significance of S.H.M. Parameters
• φ is the phase angle (or phase constant) ; it is the
particle position (in a reference circle) at t=0. It tells
us what the displacement was at t=0

• (ωt+φ) is the phase of the motion i.e. displacement

(in a reference circle) of a particle in time t and
27
is
 Example of Phase
• The Phase of an oscillation is the amount the oscillation lags behind,
or leads in front of a reference oscillation.

• Take the sine wave to be our reference oscillation; the cosine wave
lags behind the sine wave by π/2 (1/4 of a wavelength) => the two
waves are out of phase by π/2 or that there is a phase difference of
π/2. Oscillations can have phase differences of any multiple of π.
However, if they have a phase difference of either 0 or 2π they are
said to be in phase. 28
Velocity and Acceleration in S.H.M.
(Amplitude, Phase)

V is π/2 rad “out of

phase” with x

a is π rad “out of
phase” with x

29
 Kinetic Energy in S.H.M.
From 2 x2
x (t )  A sin( t   )  sin ( t   )  2
A
2 x 2
x (t )  A cos( t   )  cos ( t   )  2 2
A
sin 2 ( t   )  cos2 ( t   )  1
x2 x 2
2
 2 2 1
A A

 x 2   2 A2  x 2 
1
2
1

Kinetic Energy (K.E.)  mx 2  m 2 A2  x 2
2

1
2
2
 2 2 1
2

m A  x  mω2 A2 cos2 ( t   )

K.E. varies periodically with a maximum at x  0

1
K.E.max  mω2 A2 30
2
 Potential Energy in S.H.M.
• We know that a stretched medium (e.g. Spring) by amount x
possess stored energy (P.E.) equal to the work done in stretching it.
This work done is against a restoring force F.
• P.E.= sum of all small elements of work done dW

dW  - Fdx (Work =force x distance),

= - (-kx) dx  kxdx
x 1
P.E.=  dW   kx dx  kx 2 ; but k  m 2
0 2
1
P.E.= m 2 x 2
2
P.E.max occurs at x   A
1
P.E.max = m 2 A2 31
2
 Total Energy in S.H.M.
• Etotal = K.E. + P.E.
1 1
Etotal  m ( A  x )  m x
2 2 2 2 2

2 2
1
= m A
2 2

2
• C.f. K.E.max and P.E.max

• Note: If no energy is dissipated in S.H.M. system,

Etotal = K.E. + P.E. = K.E.max = P.E.max= ½m2A2
32
 S.H. Oscillators In Different Systems
• The vibratory concepts we have been considering
make a basis for understanding other several
systems together with their applications. Some of
these systems include:
• Mechanical Oscillators, e.g. pendulum, mass-
spring system*,
• Electrical Oscillator, e.g. LC circuit,
• Sound Oscillators, e.g. Helmholtz resonator,
• Electron Oscillator, e.g. plasma oscillations.

* We have already analyzed this system horizontally

33
 The pendulum
• It consists of a particle-like bob of mass m
suspended by a light string of length L that is
fixed at the upper end O.
• Restoring torque about O is τ = - mg L sin θd 2
 

• The torque produces angular acceleration dt 2

x
 radians
L
The angle should
be in radians 34
• So the torque acting about point O given by
d 2  ; I is the moment
  I0  I 0 0
dt 2
of inertia about O  I 0   mgL sin 
From Taylor series
3 5
sin       ...   for small 
3! 5!
then I 0   mgL
 mgL
   0
I0
mgL
  0 2  0 where 0 
I0
  (t )   0 cos(0t   ) 35
• ∴ Provided the angle θ is small (less than about 10°), the
motion is that of a simple harmonic oscillator.
• For the case of simple pendulum
I 0  mL2
mgL g
0  2

mL L
L
 T  2
Note: g
• The period T of simple pendulum does not depend on mass
of the bob.
• The period doesn’t depend on amplitude θ
i.e T (and hence f) remains constant even when the
amplitude θ of vibration decreases due to air resistance
36
 The Pendulum
• When the amplitude of the oscillation (θ) is not
small the general equation for the period of simple
pendulum is
L 1 2 0 9 4 0 
Texact  2  1  sin ( )  sin ( )  ... 
g 4 2 16 2 
• θ0 = maximum angular displacement

• Thus, T increase with increasing amplitude when θ

is not small 37
 Application of Pendulum
• Until 1952, the pendulum was the sole
method for determining acceleration due to
gravity, g (1st by Galileo in 1657). Now it is
done by timing a falling body (free-fall
technique). With the pendulum it is difficult to
determine Io precisely, to eliminate air drag
and viscous resistance.
• Otherwise simple pendulum could be used as
Io=mL2
38
 LC circuit
Consider an LC circuit below

When a capacitor is initially charged and a switch is then

closed, it can be found that both the current in the circuit and
charge on the capacitor oscillate between maximum positive
and negative values. In the following analysis, we neglect
resistance in the circuit. 39
 LC circuit
• Suppose a capacitor is charged to some value
Q0 at t=0, then close the switch to complete
the circuit.
• At a later time, t, let the charge in the
capacitor be Q(t), current flowing I(t) and
voltage V(t) develop across the capacitor.
dQ
I (t )  and Q  CV
dt

40
Standard electrical circuit theory, the p.d.
Q
across the capacitor is V 
C
Q is the charge stored on the capacitor's
+ve plate
In absence of resistance, the p.d. across
2
dI d Q
the inductor is V  - L - L 2
dt dt
Q
This equals the voltage across the
C
capacitance 41
 2
d Q Q
So L 2
  0 (Kirchhoff 's law)
dt C
   Q  0 ;   1
 Q o
2
o
LC

Q  Q0 cos o t   

Note that the angular frequency of the oscillations

depends solely on the inductance and capacitance of the
circuit. This is the natural frequency of oscillation of the LC
circuit. 42
 In this figure C discharges
into L, which builds up a
magnetic field (B) as I
through it increases. Once
the C is out of charge, the B
keeps I flowing, causing the
C to charge in reverse. This
reverse voltage reduces the
inductor current until it
stops. At this point the cycle
begins again with C charged
in the opposite sense.

Therefore, the charge

oscillate back and forth
and so does the energy,
which oscillate between
being stored in the
electric field of the
capacitor and in the
magnetic field of the
43
inductor
 Application of LC circuit
• LC circuits are used either for generating
signals at a particular frequency, or picking out
a signal at a particular frequency from a more
complex signal. They are key components in
many electronic devices, particularly radio
equipment, used in circuits such as oscillators,
filters, tuners and frequency mixers.

44
 Sound Oscillations:
The Helmholtz Resonator
• A Helmholtz resonator or Helmholtz oscillator
is a container of gas (usually air) with an open
hole (or neck or port).

• A volume of air in and near the open hole

vibrates because of the 'springiness' of the air
inside. 45
 The Helmholtz resonator
• A common example is an empty bottle: the air
inside vibrates when you blow across the top.

• Some small whistles are Helmholtz oscillators.

Loudspeaker enclosures often use the
Helmholtz resonance of the enclosure to
boost the low frequency response.

• Here we analyse this oscillation.

46
 The Helmholtz resonator
• Consider a resonator with a volume V coupled
to the atmosphere though an open neck (port)
of cross-section area A and length L.
• Let the mass of the air in the neck, m=ALo,
where o is the density of un-disturbed air.
• Exciting the opening of the vessel by blowing
across the neck,

47
 The Helmholtz resonator

• Now the mass m is moved by the difference in

pressure between the top and bottom of the
neck, i.e. Restoring force (net force) is due to
pressure difference dp=p-po and is given by
Adp. Here po is pressure at equilibrium.
dV  Ax
 dV  2 dp 
 Fr  Adp  Adp   A   x
 dV   dV 0 48
 The Helmholtz resonator
dP
• The subscript (o) signifies that should be
dV
evaluated at equilibrium.
• Let’s assume that:
-The air behaves like an ideal gas.
-The compressions and rarefactions are so
rapid that there is no sufficient time for the
heat to flow, i.e. adiabatic behavior,

 cp
pV  constant;   (**)
cV
49
 The Helmholtz resonator
• Differentiating (**) w.r.t. V, we get,
d d
dV
 pV  

dV
(constant)

dp p
 pV  1 
dV  V dp  0  
dV V
A  p0 2
 Fr   x
V0
d 2x
•This equals the inertial force F  ma  AL  0 2
dt
d 2x A2 p0
Eqn. of motion : AL  0 2   x
dt V 50
 The Helmholtz resonator
• The equation of motion is,
d 2x
2
  0 x  0
2

dt
  p0   A 
where 0    

 0  LV0 

2  0   LV0 
 T0   2   
0   p0  A 
 p0 1.40 x1.013 x105
but  νs = Speed of sound in gas 332ms 1
0 1.29
A
 0  332
νs LV0 51
 The Helmholtz Resonator

A
0   s
LV0

• Thus, the frequency depends on the volume of

the vessel, length and area of the neck.

52
 The Helmholtz Resonator

At STP (T=00 C & 1atm) the speed of sound in air is

 p0 1.40 x1.013 x105

vs ( STP )    332m / s
0 1.29
A
 0  332
lV0
At any temperature T, measured in oC

T (0 C )
vs (T 0C )  vs ( STP ) 1
273
 The Helmholtz Resonator

• Exercise:
Determine the lowest frequency of a 1-litre
bottle that has 5 cm long neck and radius of 1cm.
Ans: 133 Hz

54
 Conclusion
• Clearly, the oscillatory behavior of all the
systems results from the interplay of two
opposing tendencies, a restoring force (PE)
that attempts to restore the system to its
initial equilibrium and the inertial (KE) that
tends to preserve the existing motion and
causes the system to overshoot.

55
 Conclusion
• In summary
System Restoring ‘agent’ Inertial ‘agent’

Pendulum Torque, mg L sin Moment of inertia, I

Mass on spring Spring constant, k Mass, m

Electrical Capacitance, 1 Inductance, L

oscillations
C
Helmholtz
Resonator A2 p0 AL 0
V
56