mono crystalline quartz - the piezoelectric effect
Quartz used in the manufacture of frequency
control products is mono crystalline of an
asymmetric hexagonal form. Chemically,
Quartz is Silicon Dioxide, SiO2 occurring
naturally as the most abundant mineral on
earth, constituting approximately 14% of the
earth’s surface.
The significance of mono crystalline quartz in
the modern electronics industry is the result of
its combined properties of piezoelectricity, high
mechanical and chemical stability, very high Q at
resonance and modern low cost methods of producing
extremely high levels of purity in synthetic material.
Quartz is now indispensable as the principal material
for controlling frequency in electronic equipment and
is only surpassed for long term accuracy by primary
atomic standards such as Caesium and Rubidium.
Nevertheless the recent development of mems,
micro electro mechanical systems, and nems, nano
electro mechanical systems, is set to revolutionize
the frequency control market with the integration of
simple clocks into the silicon substrates used for IC
fabrication.
These miniature devices may inevitably replace all
simple clocks providing added reliability at lower
cost and where minimum timing accuracy is a
requirement.
In its basic chemical form silicon dioxide cannot
be used for frequency control and must be of the
mono crystalline structure in which it exhibits usable
piezoelectric qualities due to its asymmetric form.
Piezoelectricity (Greek Piezein ‘to press’) in mono
crystalline quartz was discovered by the Curie
brothers at the Sorbonne, Paris 1880.
However it was not until 1917 that this property
was utilized in a practical application when
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professor Langevin in France and A.M. Nicolson
at Western Electric independently designed sonar
transceivers for the detection of submarines at
sea.
Nicolson later went on to file a number of patents
for applications using both quartz and Rochelle
Salt. This latter material responded strongly
to sound waves and electrical stimulus and
was incorporated by Nicolson into designs for
Microphones, Loudspeakers and Phonograph
pick-ups. While Nicolson had proposed the use
of Piezo electric materials for controlling the
frequency of a vacuum tube oscillator it was Dr.
Walter Cady of the Wesleyan University who filed
the first patents for crystal controlled oscillators
in 1923.
Prof. G. W. Pierce of Harvard University
carried out further work on crystal oscillator
development at about this time. Pierce’s
main achievement was the design of a crystal
controlled oscillator using only one vacuum tube
and no tuned circuits other than the crystal itself.
During the early 1920’s crystal oscillator
development and radio technology progressed
steadily side by side. The major applications for
crystal oscillators during these early days was
for use as time standards and it was not until
around 1926 that crystal oscillators were used to
control the frequency of a radio transmitter. This
was done at radio station WEAF in New York
which was owned by AT and T.
Bell Telephone Labs who were part of AT&T and
along with The Marconi Company in the U.K.
and S.E.L. Germany achieved many significant
developments in crystal technology during the
1930’s. In 1934 Messrs. Lack and Willard at Bell
Labs discovered the AT Cut and BT Cut crystals
which gave the communications industry vastly
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 mono crystalline quartz - the piezoelectric effect
improved frequency vs temperature performance
crystals.
Improved sealing and production techniques
along with the discovery of a new family of
Stress Compensated cuts are among some of the
advances that have been made during the last
decade together with the more recent inverted
mesa process and miniaturisation of crystals and
oscillators.
Piezoelectric materials exhibit a directionally
related electric charge when subjected to pressure
and conversely the application of an electric charge
causes a directionally related force to be generated
within the material. The application of an alternating
electric field will cause the material to vibrate and
subsequently mechanically resonate. The frequency
of any mechanical resonance is determined by the
physical dimensions of the material, the ‘cut angle’
with respect to the crystalline axis of the original
mono crystalline crystal, the ambient temperature and
any modifying effects of associated mechanical or
electrical components.
The properties of crystallised quartz include its
high chemical and mechanical stability and a
low temperature coefficient, resulting in a small
change in resonant frequency for any change in
ambient temperature, together with a very high
Q at resonance. It occurs naturally and all early
experimental work was carried out using natural
crystallised quartz.
However, naturally occurring crystallised quartz
suffers from inclusions of impurities, bubbles,
cracks and twinning, which reduce its value for use
in frequency control as these reduce the Q factor.
Therefore the production of synthetic quartz was
established in order to produce a pure form of
crystalline quartz free from twinning and impurities.
Synthetic quartz is produced in an autoclave from a
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saturated solution of SiO2 at approximately 400°C
and at a pressure of 1000Kg/cm2 to produce a super
saturated solution.
The process of manufacturing synthetic quartz is
known as the hydrothermal method in which prepared
seed plates of pre-orientated mono crystalline quartz
are suspended in the saturated solution and by
reducing the temperature of the solution the growth of
large crystals is obtained under laboratory controlled
conditions thus minimising impurities and maximising
the useful volume of material.
Growth rates of the synthetic material are in the order
of 1mm per day or less to achieve a maximum purity.
Quartz resonators for use in electronic circuits are
produced by cutting crystalline quartz into wafers(or
blanks), plating electrodes onto each side of the wafer
and enclosing the resonator into a suitable holder.
The dimensions of the quartz wafer essentially
determine the resonator frequency although this
is also affected by the size and thickness of the
electrodes and the associated electrical circuitry.
The orientation of the wafer ‘cut’ to the crystalline
optical axis is critical in order to achieve accuracy
of the resonant frequency and a necessary low
temperature coefficient of frequency for the final
resonator unit. The ‘cut’ will produce frequency/
temperature characteristics which are either second
order (quadratic) or third order (ternary) and
therefore the characteristics will exhibit single or
double turn over points.
The active component
A quartz crystal element is a mechanically vibrating
resonant plate cut from mono crystalline quartz with
a precise orientation to the crystallographic axis. The
physical dimensions of the element and its orientation
to the axis will determine in particular the resonant
frequency, its initial accuracy and temperature
coefficient. The orientation of the cut angle to the
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 mono crystalline quartz - the piezoelectric effect

crystallographic axis may be a single orientation as Crystal ‘cut’

in the AT Cut or a doubly rotated orientation as in the
Figure 1 shows many of the ‘cut’ orientations, which
SC Cut.
may be made from a single Z plate quartz crystal,
related to the X, Y and Z axis.
Manufacturers use a number of techniques to measure
the resonant oscillation frequency of a quartz element
and different techniques are used for high and low Fig.3 Cut orientations from a single Z plate crystal

frequency elements, it is therefore essential for critical Z

applications that the end user and manufacturer work X

closely to correlate their measurement methods.

In order to analyse the characteristics of a

CT cut BT cut DT cut
resonating quartz element, its mechanical resonance 38° -49° -52°
AT cut 60° NT cut
is represented, near resonance, by an equivalent 35° 15'
SL cut
electrical circuit with the components L1, C1, R1 Y -57°
NT cut
and C0. +5°X cut 8.5°
+2°X cut

Quartz resonators provide a reference frequency -18.5°X cut -18.5°

5°

with an accuracy far in excess of most industrial 51°

45°
and commercial requirements, however, the ultimate GT cut
Y

stability of any circuit using a quartz resonator

as a reference is determined by the environmental
conditions and the associated electrical components
employed by the end user. X Z

Fig. 1 Cut orientations from a Z plate quartz crystal

The specific accuracy of a quartz crystal resonator is

achieved by precise cutting of angles orientated to the
crystallographic axis. These axis are referred to the Z
axis which is the optical axis of the crystal. many cuts
have been developed including AT, IT, BT, FC and
SC and each has particular advantages in resonator
applications.

The most widely used ‘cut’ is the ‘AT cut’, with an

orientation of approximately 35°15’ to the Z axis, to
which elements are generally cut providing resonators
with frequencies between 800kHz and 300MHz and
the excellent frequency/temperature characteristics
shown in figure 2.

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 mono crystalline quartz - the piezoelectric effect

including frequency, temperature coefficient and size,

+9'
in particular the ‘BT cut’ is increasingly used for
+20 high frequency fundamental designs and is suitable
+8' where temperature stability is not demanding. The
characteristics of these other cuts generally produce
+7'
the frequency/temperature curves shown in figure 3.
+6'
-5'
+10 -4'
+5'
-3'
-2'
SC cut crystals are used almost exclusively in
-1' precision OCXO designs. They are from a family of
+25 °C

0'
+4'
double rotated cuts, related to the crystallographic
+3'
axis, and are relatively expensive to produce.
+2'
∆ f/f (ppm)

0 +1' +1'

+2' Compared with the AT cut they exhibit lower ageing,

lower sensitivity to shock and vibration and G
+25 °C

+3'

0' sensitivity and much better phase noise performance.

-1'
-2'
-3'
+4'
They can also be heated to the working oven
-4'
-10 -5' +5' temperature much faster, with no degradation in
performance, due to their stress compensated doubly
+6'
rotated design.
+7'

-20
-40 -20 0 +20
Temperature °C
Fig. 2 ‘AT cut’ freq/temperature characteristics
The ‘AT cut’ produces a resonator which exhibits
very small changes in a crystal resonant frequency
for changes in the crystal temperature over a wide
temperature range. With two turnover points in the
frequency/temperature characteristic the ‘AT cut’
may be utilised for specialist applications requiring
very linear frequency/temperature characteristics
over a limited temperature range particularly in
the manufacture of TCXO oscillators or for tightly
controlled accuracy at the upper turnover point
at which the temperature of the crystal would be
maintained by means of an ovened environment above
normal ambient temperature. For lower frequencies
and special requirements a number of ‘cuts’ may be
used depending upon the required characteristics
The SC cut also produces a higher natural turnover
+8'
temperature coefficient compared with the AT cut and
modified SC cuts have increased this to above 100°C
making the SC cut ideal for high temperature OCXO
+9'
applications.
+40 +60 +80 +100
Disadvantages of the SC cut include relatively higher
cost, and lower pullability, the latter precluding their
use in VCXO oscillator designs.
Crystal applications for VCXO have been extended
with the inverted mesa process that utilises chemical
etching to produce an extremely thin resonating
centre section of an AT cut crystal blank supported
by a thicker peripheral edge, the thin centre section,
necessary for high frequency fundamental resonance,
being too fragile to survive unsupported. Inverted
mesa crystals increase fundamental resonance beyond
250MHz and thus provide a very wide pulling range
for VCXO designs.

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 mono crystalline quartz - the piezoelectric effect

Frequency/Temperature characteristics cut’ is significant in that it produces frequency

vs temperature characteristics at least an order
For a quartz resonator the stability of the frequency
better than other ‘cuts’ above temperatures of
with respect to temperature is determined principally
+30°C resulting in its historically universal use
by the temperature coefficient of density, the
for producing the majority of quartz resonators
dimensions and elastic modulus of the quartz
used in many standard applications. However the
plate. When the resultant of these three mechanical
development of the SC cut now provides crystal
properties is zero then the frequency/temperature
characteristics which dominate the production of
characteristics become optimum and the major design
high quality precision OCXO oscillators exhibiting
criteria for the manufacturer of quartz resonators
low ageing, high accuracy and excellent phase noise
is to achieve this optimum over the necessary
particularly for the for the telecomms, datacomms
temperature range.
and instrument industries.

Figure 4 and figure 5 show the frequency vs

+20 °C

+50 °C

temperature curves for the SC cut.

0

+10
DT - SL
+8

+5°X +6
DT - SL
+4
-50 +2
∆ f/f (ppm)

+5°X
0

-2

-4

-6
∆ f/f (ppm)

NT - XY
-100 -8

-10
50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140

Temperature (+°C)

-150
Fig. 4 Low temp. SC cut characteristics
SC cut/freq low temp

NT - XY

BT BT +10

+8
CT CT
+6
-200
+4

+2
∆ f/f (ppm)

-2

-4
-40 -20 0 +20 +40 +60 +80 +100
Temperature °C -6

-8

Fig. 3 Second order freq/temp characteristics -10

60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150

Temperature (+°C)

The properties vary considerably with the mode of

vibration, type of ‘cut’ and resonant frequency and
Fig. 5 High temp. modified SC cut characteristics
SC cut/freq low temp

figure 2 and figure 3 show comparative frequency/

temperature curves for various ‘cuts’. The ‘AT

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 mono crystalline quartz - the piezoelectric effect
Mode of vibration
The available frequency range of quartz resonators
is achieved from different ‘cuts’ and by utilising
various modes of vibration. The approximate C0/C1
ratio is of importance where crystal frequencies are
to be modulated or pulled in a VCXO circuit, lower
ratios of C0/C1 allowing greater pulling. The ‘AT cut’
crystal allows for wide pulling ranges to be achieved
with high frequency fundamental crystals providing
the highest ranges, the ‘BT cut’ allows a pulling range
approximately half that of the ‘AT cut’.
Equivalent electrical circuit
Figure 6 shows a simplified equivalent electrical
circuit which represents the properties of a lightly
damped mechanical vibrator, such as a quartz
resonator, at or near resonance. This circuit is merely
a model for the purposes of analysis and the circuit
values assume that no other modes of motion are near
the particular resonant frequency of the model.
In the special case of the SC cut however there are
close in modes which do need special consideration
and which must to be suppressed when designing the
supporting electronic circuit. These do not however
affect the basic simplified circuit equations.
The electrical components of the simplified equivalent
circuit represent the following properties:
L1 C1 R1 C0
L1 Motional inductance
C1 Motional capacitance
R1 Motional resistance
C0 Effective shunt capacitance
combining electrode and enclosure
capacitance
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L1 C1 R1
C0
Fig. 6 Simplified equivalent circuit for a quartz
crystal resonator
The inductance L1 represents the vibrating mass
of the resonator, the capacitor C1 its compliance,
or elasticity, and the resistor R1 a combination of
internal friction within the element, mechanical
losses in the mounting and acoustic losses within
the resonating enclosure. The capacitance C0 is
a combined value made up of genuine electrical
capacitance between the electrodes and the
separate capacitance of the mounting system
including capacitance between the crystal holder,
wires and case. C0 can therefore be reduced by
earthing the crystal case within its operating circuit.
Two zero phase frequencies evolve from the analysis
of the resonator near the point of natural resonance
using parameters from the simplified equivalent
circuit. These frequencies are designated fr (frequency
at resonance) at which the crystal impedance is very
low and fa(frequency at anti-resonance) at which the
crystal impedance is very high.
At fr the crystal is purely resistive and the series
resonant condition occurs where the impedance is a
minimum and the crystal will pass maximum current.
As the frequency is increased, the crystal behaves
as an inductive reactance in series with a resistance
and finally the parallel resonant condition is reached
where the crystal impedance is a maximum and
therefore a maximum voltage is developed across the
crystal.
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 mono crystalline quartz - the piezoelectric effect

+ve
fr = 1
( 2π L C )
1 1 Ze

fa = 1 where C1 C 0
C=
( 2π L C ) C1 + C 0
1

Q = 2π fr L1
R1

Reactance
Frequency

R1 fr fa

fo

The range from fr to fa is referred to as the bandwidth

Xe
of the crystal. Crystals may be operated either side of
fr by varying the phase condition of the maintaining
-ve
circuit and the maximum possible ‘pulling’ either side
of fr will be inversely proportional to the ratio C0/C1.

The impedance of the resonator is minimum for the
series resonant condition fr and maximum for the
parallel antiresonant condition fa. The ESR (effective
series resistance) is measured at fr where the crystal
reactances cancel and the element appears purely
resistive.
Figure 7 shows the impedance characteristics of
a quartz crystal resonator for conditions close to
resonance. In practice the operating frequency of
a parallel resonant crystal is an intermediate point
between fr and fa which is generally given the symbol
f0.
The extent to which the resonant frequency may be
varied between fr and f0 is known as the pulling range
of the crystal and this is inversely proportional to the
ratio C0/C1 which may to some extent be controlled
by the crystal manufacturer. The ratio of C0/C1 is
much greater for crystals operating in their overtone
mode and the pulling range is reduced by a factor
of approximately n3 where ‘n’ is the order of the
overtone. The pulling range of a crystal is mostly
dependent upon the circuit conditions.
Fig. 7 Frequency/impedance characteristics of a
quartz crystal resonator close to resonance
Crystal frequency/Load characteristics
Figure 8 shows the change in operating resonant
frequency from loading a crystal with either a series
or parallel capacitive load reactance. The crystal
frequency may be “pulled” by using a reactive
element in the load circuit. This element may be
inductive or capacitive and may be incorporated to
remove the crystal adjustment tolerance or in phase
locked loop or frequency modulation applications.
A capacitive element is the most widely used to pull
the crystal frequency and the following equations
illustrate the theoretical pulling range of the crystal
but circuit conditions and in particular series
inductance and stray capacitance have a considerable
effect upon the pulling range and must be carefully
considered.

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 mono crystalline quartz - the piezoelectric effect

The capacitive load may be connected in series 500

with the crystal for operation in the low impedance

400
condition or in parallel with the crystal for operation C1 = 11fF
Co = 3.0pf
in the high impedance condition. 300
CL = 30pf

∆ f/f (ppm)
The resulting approximate frequencies are then: Load change sensitivity = 6.68 ppm/pf

Pulling range
200

f0 1 + C1
≅ fr
100

2 (C 0 + C L )
Load change

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
OR Load capacitance (pf)

C1 Fig. 9 Characteristics of crystal frequency against

∆ f / fr = where ∆ f = f0 - f r
load capacitance.
2 (C 0 + C L )

Drive level
It is essential to operate crystals with the drive
level for which they were designed. The frequency
Reactance

Frequency

fr fa of all crystal units is dependent upon drive

level and excessive drive levels can cause an
irreversible frequency change. A drive level above
Xe No load condition
the manufacturers specification will increase the
frequency and a low drive level will decrease the
Series capacitor
frequency.
shifts the operating
frequency upwards
from fr
High drive levels excite unwanted modes of
Reactance

Frequency
fr fls fa vibration, cause serious degradation of the frequency
temperature characteristics and shift the frequency
due to overheating of the resonator.
Xe Series load capacitance

Low drive levels cause an increase in the ESR and

may result in oscillator start up problems.
Parallel capacitor
shifts the operating
frequency downwards
from fa
Reactance

Frequency
fr flp fa

Xe Parallel load capacitance

Fig. 8 Change in operating resonant frequency for

series or parallel capacitive load reactance.

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 mono crystalline quartz - the piezoelectric effect

Effects of crystal aging Unwanted spurious response

Aging is defined as the change in crystal frequency
over time. The most important result of aging is the
change of resonant frequency due to many complex
physical changes including the change in vacuum
conditions within the enclosure, a gradual strain
relief within the crystal blank, matter transfer from
particles of the crystal blank and changes in material
interfaces.
Contamination within the crystal enclosure also has
an effect on the aging rate and the following summary
shows comparative rates of annual aging which may
be expected from using different case materials and
methods of encapsulation.
sealing method annual ageing
solder seal ±10ppm
resistance weld ±3ppm
cold weld ±1ppm
glass seal ±0.5ppm
The very poor aging rates associated with the dated
solder seal method precludes the use of this type
of sealing in all but the most basic of applications,
although it persists in the manufacture of crystal
filters. Modern methods of resistance weld sealing
have all but replaced the solder seal with a far
superior aging rate and almost no cost penalty.
All resonating quartz plates produce a fundamental
response and also natural responses at the overtones
of the fundamental frequency. With correct circuit
design the loop gain at the desired frequency is
maximised and the unwanted natural resonant modes
rarely cause problems.
However a spurious response close to the desired
response can cause serious problems with an
oscillator starting up at the wrong frequency or
shifting to the wrong frequency during operation at
temperature extremes or perhaps where the resonator
is being pulled in a VCXO application.
High drive levels and the imposition on the crystal
package manufacturer of unnatural C1 values are the major
HC-18 causes of unwanted crystal responses. Where the
HC-49 spurious response must be minimised in critical
HC-43 applications it should be specified as a minimum
HC-26 resistance within the frequency range over which it
applies.

Cold weld and glass weld enclosures are used in

applications where high long term accuracy is
mandatory and modern high temperature vacuum
brazed sealing produces excellent long term aging in
otherwise correctly prepared units.

Aging for ‘AT cut’ crystals may increase or decrease

the crystal frequency and this direction of change is
not accurately predictable, ageing for low frequency
cuts, producing second order quadratic functions of
temperature coefficient, will generally increase the
frequency.

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 mono crystalline quartz - the piezoelectric effect

Mechanical reliability
Rugged crystal units are manufactured from the
medium to high frequency ‘AT cut’ units where the
mass of the crystal blank is a minimum and they may
be mounted quite rigidly without severely affecting the
necessary mechanical vibration.

Cuts such as ‘CT’, ‘DT’, and ‘X’ used for producing

lower frequency units are less robust due to their
necessarily weaker mounting systems.

However the SC cuts are less sensitive to G forces

and produce less spurious response from shock and
vibration and when mounted in three or four point
systems realise the highest mechanical reliability.

Miniature smd designs have low mass and therefore

good shock and vibration performance although
the very best high shock survival is exhibited by
the macro miniature mems and nems designs with
survival rates up to 30,000G.

All crystal units will exhibit changes in frequency

and resistance when subjected to mechanical stress
and under severe conditions the specified electrical
performance may have to be relaxed and the unit may
require protection by careful design of mounting and
orientation within the overall equipment to prevent
permanent damage.

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