CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

A. Background
Humans can't live without blood. Without blood, the body's organs couldn't
get the oxygen and nutrients they need to survive, we couldn't keep warm or cool
off, fight infections, or get rid of our own waste products. Without enough blood,
we did weaken and die. In this life of blood has a very important role in the body.
Someone who lacks the blood can cause loss of life.
Blood is liquid that are in heart and blood vessels. Blood is component
inside of body that has role important, among others as transportation various
substance, arrange liquid balance between blood and tissue liquid, arrange acid-
base (pH) blood balance, prevent bleeding, and as body protection and arrange
body temperature.
Blood is circulated around the body through blood vessels by the pumping
action of the heart. The main function of blood is needed to carry oxygen
throughout the body alive. Blood was also immunize a tissue with a substance,
material, and contains a variety of materials immunization system aims to
maintain the body from bacteria outbreaks. Human blood is red, the red light
when the old oxygen to red when there is no oxygen. Colour caused by
haemoglobin, the protein breathing (respiratory protein) which has in the form of
heme iron, where oxygen is joined. In animals with lungs, arterial blood carries
oxygen from inhaled air to the tissues of the body, and venous blood carries
carbon dioxide, a waste product of metabolism produced by cells, from the tissues
to the lungs to be exhaled. Blood consist of two part, they are blood cell and
blood liquid. Blood has variety size and shape depends on species. Between
human blood and animal blood, there are difference red blood cell that compose
 it. It depends on kinds of animal. Blood that has been dropped by Glacial Acetate
Acid and NaCl after it make warm will become yellow color, this is called hemin.
Therefore, at this observation, we observe about structure of red blood cell
at human and frog, and hemin crystal directly. Beside that, we can compare the
theory that we got in learning process from the lecture and our observation
directly.
B. Purpose
At the Blood II experiment, there are some purposes:
a. To observe structure of red blood cell at human and frog
b. To observe hemin crystal forming
c. To observe blood stream at behind swimfoot membrane of frog.
C. Benefit
The benefits of Blood II experiment are:
a. The students know about difference structure of red blood cell at
human and frog.
b. The student know how the hemin crystal forming.
c. The students know how the blood stream at behind swimfoot
membrane at frog.
 CHAPTER II
PREVIEW OF LITERATURE

Blood is a specialized bodily fluid that delivers necessary substances to the

body's cells – such as nutrients and oxygen – and transports waste products away
from those same cells. Blood accounts for 8% of the human body weight, with an
average density of approximately 1060 kg/m3, very close to pure water's density of
1000 kg/m3. The average adult has a blood volume of roughly 5 liters (1.3 gal),
composed of plasma and several kinds of cells (occasionally called corpuscles); these
formed elements of the blood are erythrocytes (red blood cells), leukocytes (white
blood cells), and thrombocytes (platelets). By volume, the red blood cells constitute
about 45% of whole blood, the plasma about 54.3%, and white cells about 0.7%
(Anonymb, 2010).
Blood flows in the blood vessels to the heart through veins and left heart
through the arteries. In arterial, blood flow quickly. Blood has different shape and
size depend on kinds of animal. At mammalian, red blood cell doesn’t has nucleus,
round-shape and biconcave. Generally, red blood cell that doesn’t has nucleus is
small size than red blood cell that has nucleus. Red blood cell that has the biggest size
is in the frog. If one drop blood is put into object glass then it is made dry, then it is
got warm and dropped some of glacial acetate acid and little NaCl solution, so it is
formed crystal that has yellow color that is called hemin (Adnan, 2010: 7-8).
When blood is adding glacial acetate acid and NaCl. there are happened
crystal that has yellow color that is known as hemic crystal or it is also called
Teichmann. Hemic crystal is hydrochloride from heme and it is characteristic of
blood. This test can not used to different human blood with animal. If acid or base is
added at hemoglobin, globin will be separated from heme. If this adding with there
are O2, feroheme will change become ferilheme (Wulangi, 1993: 42).
 Red blood cells (also referred to as erythrocytes) are the most common type of
blood cell and the vertebrate organism's principal means of delivering oxygen (O2) to
the body tissues via the blood flow through the circulatory system. They take up
oxygen in the lungs or gills and release it while squeezing through the body's
capillaries. These cells' cytoplasm is rich in hemoglobin, an iron-containing
bimolecular that can bind oxygen and is responsible for the blood's red color. In
humans, mature red blood cells are flexible biconcave disks that lack a cell nucleus
and most organelles (Anonymc, 2010).
Generally, red blood cell that doesn’t has nucleus has small size than red
blood cell that has nucleus. Red blood cell that has biggest size is in the amphibian.
At human, red blood cell has size diameter about 5,7 µm, wide with 1 µm in the
middle, 2 µm in the border and has expansive 120 µm. According their structure,
erythrocyte consist of cell membrane that is cell wall, substance like spons that is
called stroma (Wulangi, 1993: 21).
According to Sloane (2004: 220), characteristic of red blood cell of human
are:
a. Erythrocyte is biconcave discus, round-shape with dint at central and has diameter
7,65 µm.
b. Erythrocyte is wrapped in cell membrane with high permeability. This membrane
is elastic and flexible in order erythrocyte can pass the capillary.
c. Each erythrocyte contain about 300 million of hemoglobin molecule
Erythrocyte product is arranged by erythropoietin. It is a hormone of
glycoprotein that is produced especially in kidney. Production speed of erythropoietin
has opposed with oxygen storage in tissue. Anything factors that cause tissue receive
less volume of oxygen. It will cause increase of erythropoietin product, so it more
stimulated red blood cell product. For example, if we stay in plateau with less oxygen
containing in long time, it will cause increasing of red blood cell product. Beside that,
the others hormone like cortisone, thyroid, growth hormone, it will influence red
blood cell product (Sloane, 2004:221).
 Blood vessels are specific channel that make flow blood. Blood is liquid in
blood vessels that circulate to all of body begin heart and come back to heart
immediately. Vertebrate blood flow in elastic vessels (artery, vena, and capillary) and
will come back again to heart without leave vessels system. So, blood exist in closed
circulatory system. At vertebrate, blood vessels system consist of three kinds, they are
artery, vena, and capillary (Isnaeni, 2009: 182).
The red blood cells of mammals are round, slightly biconcave disc. There is
one exception: All members of the camel family have oval red blood cell. The
diameter of the red cell is characteristic for each species. There no particular
relationship between the size of the animal: The smallest mammalian red cell is found
in a small Asiatic deer, but a mouse and an elephant have red cells of approximately
the same size (Nielsen, 1997: 69).
Frogs have a three-chambered heart, consisting of two atria and a single
ventricle. Blood leaving the ventricle passes into a forked aorta, where the blood has
an equal opportunity to travel through a circuit of vessels leading to the lungs or a
circuit leading to the other organs. Blood returning to the heart from the lungs passes
into one atrium, while blood returning from the rest of the body passes into the other.
Both atria empty into the single ventricle. While this makes sure that some blood
always passes to the lungs and then back to the heart, the mixing of oxygenated and
deoxygenated blood in the single ventricle means the organs are not getting blood
saturated with oxygen. Still, for a cold-blooded creature like the frog, the system
works well (Anonyma, 2010).
Circulatory system consist of heart, artery, capillary, vena, lymphaticus
ductus, blood, and lymph liquid. Heart is wrapped by pericardium membrane, it has
oval shaped that consist of ventriculum that is located in posterior, thick cell wall, has
young color. Two atriums are sinistrium atrium and dextrum atrium, it is located in
anterior from ventriculum, thin cell wall and has old color. Between atrium and
ventriculum, there is valve (Jasin, 1992:86).
 CHAPTER III
EXPERIMENT METHOD

A. Time and Place

Day / date : Wednesday, March 24th 2010
Time : At 08.30 am until 10.00 am
Place of experiment : At the 2nd floor of Biology laboratory, the west part
Mathematic and Science Faculty, Makassar State
University
A. Tools and Materials
1. The First Activity (Red Blood Cell of Human and Frog Structure)
a. Tools:
1) Blood lancet
2) Surgery tools
3) Object glass and deck glass
4) Cotton
5) Microscope
b. Materials:
1) Participants (His/ Her blood)
2) Alcohol 70%
3) Frog’s blood
4) Iodium solution
1. The Second Activity (Hemin Crystal Forming)
a. Tools:
1) Blood lancet
2) Cotton
3) Microscope
4) Bunsen burner
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6) Pasteur pipette
b. Materials:
1) Participants (His/ Her blood)
2) Alcohol 70%
3) KI solution 0,1 g
4) Glacial Acetate Acid 100 ml
2. The third activity (Blood stream)
a.

b.
Tools:
1) Microscope
2) Surgery tools
3) Petri dish
Materials:
1) Chloroform
2) Frog
B. Work Procedure
1. The first activity (Red Blood Cell of Human and Frog Structure)
a) Prepared all of tools and materials.
b) Cleaned your finger with alcohol 70%.
c) Stabbed your finger with blood lancet.
d) Washed the first blood with used cotton.
e) Dropped your blood into object glass.
f) Closed it with deck glass.
g) Observed object glass under microscope with lower zoom.
h) Result of observation is put into table observation.
2. The second activity (Hemin Crystal Forming)
a) Prepared all of tools and materials
b) Cleaned your finger with alcohol 70%
c) Stabbed your finger with blood lancet
d) Washed the first blood with used cotton.
e) Dropped your blood into object glass.
f) Got warm object glass by used bunsen burner.
g) Dropped some solution like KI 0,1g, Glacial Acetate Acid 100 ml.
h) Got warm object glass again by used bunsen burner.
i) Observed object glass under microscope.
j) Result observation is put into table observation.
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3. The third activity (Blood stream)
a) Anesthetized the frog by used chloroform in bottle.
b) After frog unconscious, put it in the surgery board.
c) Made elongated the behind swimfoot of frog.
d) Observed the blood stream under microscope with lower zoom.
e) Result of observation is put in the table observation.
 CHAPTER IV
RESULT AND DISCUSSION

A. Result of Observation
1. The first activity
Human Red Blood Cell

Note:
1. Membrane cell
2. Plasma
3. Red Blood cell

Frog Red Blood Cell

 Note:
1. Nucleus
2. Membrane
3. Red Blood Cell

2. The second activity

Hemin Crystal

Note:
1. Hemin crystal

2. The third activity

 Note:
1. Blood stream canal
2. Artery
3. Vena
4. Capillary

APPROVAL SHEET

Complete report of Vertebrate Zoology Experiment with title “Chondrichthyes”

who is made by:
Name : Nur Rezki Octavia
Reg. No : 081404174
Group : II (second)
Class : Biology ICP
Department : Biology
After checked by assistant and assistant coordinator, so this report is accepted.

Makassar, April 2010

Assistant Coordinator Assistant
DJUMARIRMANTO, S.pd NUNUNG RAHAYU ANAS
Reg. No : 071404151

Lecture Responsibility

HARTATI, S.Si, MSi

NIP : 132 257 781

Therefore, to found more about their characteristic, anatomy, and

morphology, at this observation, we observe about Chondrichthyes. Beside that,
we can compare the theory that we got in learning process from the lecture and
our observation directly.
B. Purpose
At the chondrichthyes experiment, there are some purposes:
a. To observe morphology and anatomy structure of species that is included
chondrichthyes group.
b. To classified that species of chondrichthyes.
C. Benefit
The benefits of chondrichthyes experiment are:
a. The students know about morphology and anatomy structure of species that is
included chondrichthyes group.
 b. The student can classified that species of chondrichthyes.

APPROVAL SHEET

Complete report of Animal’s Physiology Experiment with title “Blood II” who
is made by:
Name : Muthmainnah
Reg. No : 081404154
Group :I
Class : Biology ICP
Department : Biology
After checked by assistant and assistant coordinator, so this report is accepted.

Makassar, April 2010

Assistant Coordinator Assistant
Djumarirmanto, S.pd Mutmainna Ekawati
Reg. No : 071404189

Lecturer Responsibility

Ir. Halifah Pagarra, Msi

NIP : 1955 0915 1983 032 001

B. Discussion
1. The First Activity (Red Blood Cell of Human and Frog Structure)
At the first activity, we observed about red blood cell of human and frog
structure. Based on our observation we can see that red blood cell of human and
frog structure is different. At red blood cell of human, there isn’t nucleus and
biconcave shaped while in the red blood cell of frog has nucleus and round
shaped.
According to Wikipedia, human erythrocytes are unique among the
vertebrates as they are non-nucleated cells in their mature form. These cells
have nuclei during early phases of erythropoiesis, but extrude them during
development as they mature in order to provide more space for hemoglobin. In
mammals (human), erythrocytes also lose all other cellular organelles such as
their mitochondria, Golgi apparatus and endoplasmic reticulum. Because of the
 lack of nuclei and organelles, mature red blood cells do not contain DNA and
cannot synthesize any RNA, and consequently cannot divide and have limited
repair capabilities. Mammalian erythrocytes are typically shaped as biconcave
disks: flattened and depressed in the center, with a dumbbell-shaped cross
section, and a torus-shaped rim on the edge of the disk. This distinctive
biconcave shape optimizes the flow properties of blood in the large vessels,
such as maximization of laminar flow and minimization of platelet scatter,
which suppresses their atherogenic activity in those large vessels.
Based on that statement there are not opposite between theory and our
observation, in other word we could say that our observation that we have been
got suitable with theory.
2. The Second Activity (Hemin Crystal Forming)
At the second observation, we observed crystal hemic forming. At this
observation, we added some solution like KI 0,1 gram and KCl 0,1 gram plus
glacial acetate acid at blood dropping. After that, blood is made got warm and
it is observed under microscope. Crystal hemin that we will be got is glass
piece and irregular shape. This is suitable with theory that said if a drop od
blood is put on object glass and made it dry, then it is made warm and it is
given little dropping by glacial acetate acid and KCl, so it is forming of crystal
that has yellow color that is called hemic (Adnan, 2008).
3. The third activity (Blood stream)
At the third observation, we observed blood stream of frog. at this
observation, blood flow go into through the arteriole that is smooth blood
vessel and can be passed by red blood cell lined two. Blood from arteriole
come from heart and contain many oxygen that later it will be go into blood
capillary as place of occur microcirculation that is as place happened contact
and substance change between blood and body tissue. This capillary only can
be observed at thin and transparent body tissue layer. Then, blood flow go out
through vena vessels that is small blood vessel red blood cell lined two.
 According to Wikipedia, frogs are known for their three-chambered
heart, which they share with all tetrapods except birds, crocodilians and
mammals. In the three-chambered heart, oxygenated blood from the lungs and
de-oxygenated blood from the respiring tissues enter by separate atria, and are
directed via a spiral valve to the appropriate vessel—aorta for oxygenated
blood and pulmonary artery for deoxygenated blood. This special structure is
essential to keeping the mixing of the two types of blood to a minimum,
which enables frogs to have higher metabolic rates, and to be more active than
otherwise.
Component of circulatory system of frog consist of heart and blood vessels
channel. Blood vessels channel consist of arteriole, vena, and capillary. Based
on our observation, we can see that blood from heart go into arteriole blood
vessels. Arteriole blood vessels is smooth blood vessel that is passed by red
blood cell lined two that has function to bring blood leaves heart then go into
capillary vessels and go into all part of body. Blood that rich oxygen is
brought by arteriole vessel.
CHAPTER V
CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION

A. Conclusion
Based on observation that we is done, we can conclude that:
1. Red blood cell of human is different with red blood cell of frog. In human has
biconcave shape and doesn’t has nucleus than red blood cell structure in frog
is oval and has nucleus.
2. If one drop blood is put into object glass then it is made dry, then it is got
warm and dropped some of glacial acetate acid and little NaCl solution, so it
is formed crystal that has yellow color that is called hemin.
3. Blood vessels at frog consist of arteriole, vena, and capillary vessels.
B. Suggestion
1. I hope laboratory equipment can be completed, thus practicant can do
observation well.
2. Assistant can give more again information about observation.
3. Practicants can do observation well, especially in our corporate.

BIBLIOGRAPH

Adnan, Arsyad, and Halifah. 2010. Penuntun Praktikum Perkembangan Hewan.

Makassar: Jurusan Biologi FMIPA Universitas Negeri Makassar.

Anonyma. 2010. Circulatory system. http://www.biologi-about.com.com. Access on

March 25th 2010 in Makassar.

Anonymb. 2010. Blood. http://www.wikipedia.com. Access on March 25th 2010 in

Makassar.

Anonymc. 2010. Red Blood Cell. http://www.wikipedia.com. Access on March 25th

2010 in Makassar.

Isnaeni, Wiwi. 2009. Fisiologi Hewan. Yogyakarta: Kanisius.

Nielsen, Knut Schmidt. 1997. Animal Physiology Adaptation and Environment Fifth
Edition. America: Cambridge University Press.

Sloane, Ethel. 2004. Anatomi dan Fisiologi. Jakarta: Buku Kedokteran EGC

S.Wulangi, Kartolo. 1993. Prinsip-Prinsip Fisiologi Hewan. Jakarta: Departemen

Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan Indonesia.

Anonyma

Circulatory system

The circulatory system serves to move blood to a site or sites where it can be
oxygenated, and where wastes can be disposed. Circulation then serves to bring
newly oxygenated blood to the tissues of the body. As oxygen and other chemicals
diffuse out of the blood cells and into the fluid surrounding the cells of the body's
tissues, waste produces diffuse into the blood cells to be carried away. Blood
circulates through organs such as the liver and kidneys where wastes are removed,
and back to the lungs for a fresh dose of oxygen.
Many invertebrates do not have a circulatory system at all. Their cells are close
enough to their environment for oxygen, other gases, nutrients, and waste products to
simply diffuse out of and into their cells. In animals with multiple layers of cells,
especially land animals, this will not work, as their cells are too far from the external
environment for simple osmosis and diffusion to function quickly enough in
exchanging cellular wastes and needed material with the environment.

Frogs have a three-chambered heart, consisting of two atria and a single ventricle.
Blood leaving the ventricle passes into a forked aorta, where the blood has an equal
opportunity to travel through a circuit of vessels leading to the lungs or a circuit
leading to the other organs. Blood returning to the heart from the lungs passes into
one atrium, while blood returning from the rest of the body passes into the other. Both
atria empty into the single ventricle. While this makes sure that some blood always
passes to the lungs and then back to the heart, the mixing of oxygenated and
deoxygenated blood in the single ventricle means the organs are not getting blood
saturated with oxygen. Still, for a cold-blooded creature like the frog, the system
works well.

Anonymb

Blood
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Blood is a specialized bodily fluid that delivers necessary substances to the body's
cells – such as nutrients and oxygen – and transports waste products away from those
same cells. Blood accounts for 8% of the human body weight,[4] with an average
density of approximately 1060 kg/m3, very close to pure water's density of
1000 kg/m3.[5] The average adult has a blood volume of roughly 5 liters (1.3 gal),
composed of plasma and several kinds of cells (occasionally called corpuscles); these
formed elements of the blood are erythrocytes (red blood cells), leukocytes (white
blood cells), and thrombocytes (platelets). By volume, the red blood cells constitute
about 45% of whole blood, the plasma about 54.3%, and white cells about 0.7%.

In vertebrates, it is composed of blood cells suspended in a liquid called blood

plasma. Plasma, which comprises 55% of blood fluid, is mostly water (90% by
volume),[1] and contains dissolved proteins, glucose, mineral ions, hormones, carbon
dioxide (plasma being the main medium for excretory product transportation),
platelets and blood cells themselves. The blood cells present in blood are mainly red
blood cells (also called RBCs or erythrocytes) and white blood cells, including
leukocytes and platelets. The most abundant cells in vertebrate blood are red blood
cells. These contain hemoglobin, an iron-containing protein, which facilitates
transportation of oxygen by reversibly binding to this respiratory gas and greatly
increasing its solubility in blood. In contrast, carbon dioxide is almost entirely
transported extracellularly dissolved in plasma as bicarbonate ion.
Anonymc

RED BLOOD CELL

Red blood cells (also referred to as erythrocytes) are the most common type of
blood cell and the vertebrate organism's principal means of delivering oxygen (O2) to
the body tissues via the blood flow through the circulatory system. They take up
oxygen in the lungs or gills and release it while squeezing through the body's
capillaries.

These cells' cytoplasm is rich in hemoglobin, an iron-containing biomolecule that can

bind oxygen and is responsible for the blood's red color.

These cells' cytoplasm is rich in hemoglobin, an iron-containing biomolecule that can

bind oxygen and is responsible for the blood's red color.

In humans, mature red blood cells are flexible biconcave disks that lack a cell nucleus
and most organelles. The cells develop in the bone marrow and circulate for about
100–120 days in the body before their components are recycled by macrophages.
Each circulation takes about 20 seconds. Approximately a quarter of the cells in the
human body are red blood cells.[1][2]

Red blood cells are also known as RBCs, red blood corpuscles (an archaic term),
haematids, erythroid cells or erythrocytes (from Greek erythros for "red" and kytos
for "hollow", with cyte translated as "cell" in modern usage).