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공 학 박 사 학 위 논 문
2009년 8월
부 산 대 학 교 대 학 원
기 계 설 계 공 학 과
박 문 우
공 학 박 사 학 위 논 문
지 도 교 수 박 노 길
2009년 8월
부 산 대 학 교 대 학 원
기 계 설 계 공 학 과
박 문 우
박문우의 공학 박사 학위 논문을 인준함
2009 년 7 월 3일
위원장 이 시 복 (인)
위 원 정 의 봉 (인)
위 원 배 원 병 (인)
위 원 조 용 주 (인)
위 원 박 노 길 (인)
Contents
References .......................................................................................... - 88 -
Appendix A ......................................................................................... - 93 -
Nomenclature
B ; backlash
C*0 (x*0, y*0, z*0) ; space fixed coordinate system
C* (x*, y*, z*) ; body fixed coordinate system
Dp ; diameter of pitch circle
ı∗⃗, ∗⃗, k ∗⃗ ; directional vectors of each coordinate system C*
m ; gear module
n ⃗ ; direction vector at point A
p ; pitch
t ; tooth thickness at an arbitrary point
tb ; tooth thickness of base circle
tp ; tooth thickness of pitch circle
RP ; radius of pitch circle
Z ; number of teeth
α ; tool pressure angle
αg ; gear pressure angle
β ; azimuthal angle
γ ; cone angle at an arbitrary point
γa ; addendum-cone angle
γb ; base-cone angle
γp ; pitch-cone angle
θg ; rotating angle of gear
ξ ; cone distance
φ ; azimuthal angle
ψ ; spherical-involute function
ψp ; spherical-involute function of pitch point
List of Figures
Figure 2.1 A kinematic diagram of a bevel gear differential. ......................... - 12 -
Figure 2.2 The architectures of automotive differentials. ............................... - 13 -
Figure 2.3 Coniflex tool of Gleason. ............................................................. - 15 -
Figure 2.4 Revacycle tool of Gleason............................................................ - 15 -
Figure 2.5 Flowchart for design and manufacturing of the differential bevel gear
forging die. ............................................................................................ - 18 -
Figure 2.6 Electrodes for differential bevel gears. ......................................... - 19 -
Figure 2.7 Machining the forging die through EDM. ..................................... - 20 -
Figure 3.1 A spherical involute curve. ........................................................... - 24 -
Figure 3.2 Basic parameters of a spherical involute bevel gear. ..................... - 29 -
Figure 3.3 Teeth profiles of a spherical involute bevel gear. .......................... - 30 -
Figure 3.4 A spherical involute tooth profile and its coordinate system. ......... - 32 -
Figure 4.1 Flowchart for the manufacture of forging dies with integrated CAD
…………………………………………………………………………..- 35 -
Figure 4.2 Flowchart of the modeling process for differential bevel gears through
the integrated CAD program. ................................................................. - 36 -
Figure 4.3 Coordinate System of a pair of spherical involute bevel gears. ..... - 39 -
Figure 4.4 Basic parameters of a pair of spherical involute bevel gears.......... - 40 -
Figure 4.5 Flowchart for modeling a spherical involute tooth-form. .............. - 42 -
Figure 4.6 Schematics of the addendum and dedendum for a spherical involute
curve. .................................................................................................... - 44 -
Figure 4.7 A spherical involute curve for differential bevel gears. ................. - 46 -
Figure 4.8 Tooth-thickness definitions. ......................................................... - 48 -
Figure 4.9 Tooth profile for the whole gear. .................................................. - 50 -
Figure 4.10 Flowchart of tooth-form modification. ....................................... - 54 -
Figure 4.11 Range of tooth-form modification. ............................................. - 57 -
Figure 4.12 The concept of tooth-profile modification. ................................. - 61 -
Figure 4.13 The crowning concept. ............................................................... - 63 -
Figure 4.14 A rolling action (envelope) of tooth flanks. ................................. - 65 -
Figure 4.15 Contact pattern between the pinion and the side gear. ................. - 66 -
Figure 4.16 Contact pattern for a bevel gear set (side gear). .......................... - 69 -
Figure 4.17 Contact pattern for a bevel gear set (pinion). .............................. - 70 -
Figure 4.18 Contact pattern simulations of the tooth flanks ........................... - 71 -
Figure 4.19 Contact pattern simulation of spiral bevel gear ........................... - 72 -
Figure 4.20 Contact pattern simulations for shaft angle deviations ................ - 73 -
Figure 4.21 Integrated design process by CATIA with VBA .......................... - 75 -
Figure 4.22 Input window of the CATIA-VBA ............................................. - 76 -
Figure 5.1 3D-CAD model of the differential bevel gears.............................. - 79 -
Figure 5.2 Simulation for CNC data transform .............................................. - 80 -
Figure 5.3 Simulation of the tooth contact pattern ......................................... - 81 -
Figure 5.4 Bevel gear contact test machine (Gleason Works)......................... - 83 -
Figure 5.5 Prototype contact test ................................................................... - 84 -
Figure 5.6 Machined bevel gears for forging ................................................. - 85 -
Figure 5.7 Contact Patterns ........................................................................... - 85 -
List of Tables
Table 4.1 Parameter definitions of the tooth modifications
Table 4.2 Parameters to simulate contact pattern
Table 4.3 Parameters of the differential bevel gears for forging
Table 4.4 Parameters of the tooth modifications
Table 5.1 Parameters of the differential bevel gears for forging
Table 5.2 Parameters of the tooth modifications
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 Motivation
Bevel gears are machine elements that are commonly used for transmitting
power and motion between intersecting shafts. These are conical with tapered teeth
that are larger at the periphery and smaller at the center. They are useful when the
direction of a shaft's rotation needs to be changed. The use of bevel gears with
various numbers of teeth can change the speed of rotation. Bevel gears are usually
mounted on a shaft and are offset from each other by 90°; however, they can be
designed to work at other angles as well [1]-[3].
There are several different types of bevel gear, including straight, spiral, and
hypoid bevel gears. Straight bevel gears are the simplest ones that have a straight-
tooth geometry. Depending on the machining equipment, straight bevel gears are of
two types: Gleason and standard. The majority of such gears are of the Gleason
type with Coniflex and Revacycle tooth-forms that are manufactured on the
precision machine tools of Gleason Works [4]. Spiral and hypoid bevel gears have
teeth that are curved and oblique. They are also different tooth-forms in light of the
methods for generating the corresponding gear-tooth surfaces. Among these
methods are the Gleason method, the Klingelnberg system, and the Oerlikon
system [5]-[6].
-1-
gear differentials. These bevel gears have generated or milled tooth-forms that are
machined by either the Coniflex or the Revacycle tools of Gleason Works [14].
Cutting methods that employ Gleason tools are mainly used to manufacture the
bevel gears.
Although these cutting methods can guarantee the stability of production, their
associated technologies entail low productivity, low utilization of materials, and
high capital expenditure on equipment. Therefore, in the case of automotive
applications, a recent approach for manufacturing differential bevel gears for mass
production is a precision cold forging method [8]. The forging method for
manufacturing differential bevel gears for automobiles comprises the following
processes.
(1) Cutting a master gear to make an electrode. The straight bevel gear that has
the same tooth-form geometry as the one that will be forged is manufactured
on a Gleason machine with Revacycle methods [9]. The manufactured master
gear has to undergo a contact test for ensuring the meshing of gears.
(4) Machining a precision forging die. The forging die is manufactured using
electric discharge machining (EDM) with the machined electrode [10].
(5) Forming.
The above processes, viz., (1) through to (5), make it difficult and complicated to
-2-
achieve high productivity and low cost of production for the forged bevel gears.
The difficulty and complexity of bevel-gear forging are mainly caused by processes
(1) through to (3) for making the bevel-gear electrode [9]. In addition, a trial-and-
error method is needed to ensure a suitable area of contact because it is difficult to
predict the area (or pattern) of contact between the straight bevel gears for which
the teeth are milled by the Revacycle tools of Gleason Works [11]. Furthermore,
there are major disadvantages of master gears; these are listed below.
- The bevel gear pairs with the Octoid tooth form (the contact path is similar to
the figure of ‘8’ [13]) that are machined on Gleason machines cannot be
perfectly conjugated, as a result of which kinematical errors occur and cause
variations in the angular velocities. This has been identified as the primary
cause of problems that are related to vibration and noise [32]-[37].
- The bevel gear tooth-form does not enable interchange. Therefore, one bevel
wheel works only with its complementary wheel and no other [34]-[37].
-3-
1.2 Literature Survey
In practice, almost all straight bevel gears are cut with the standard, Coniflex and
Revacycle tools of Gleason. The standard and Coniflex tooth-forms are generated
with straight-edged tools that simulate an imaginary crown gear [1]-[4]. The
Revacycle tooth-form is milled with a circular broach-style form cutter for the
high-volume manufacture of straight bevel differential gearing [14]. Face hobbing
and milling are employed for cutting spiral and hypoid gears. The face-hobbing
process is of two types, non-generated (Formate) and generated methods, which are
applied for the generation of the tooth surfaces of gears [4]. With regard to other
means of manufacturing straight bevel gears, Ozel et al. [15] proposed a method of
using end mills in CNC milling through the CNC data that are generated from a
solid model that is based on Tredgold’s method of approximation [16].
-4-
straight and spherical bevel gears were obtained by the means of simple sweeping
techniques. Shunmugam et al. [20] also discussed the normal deviation between the
idealized surface (exact spherical involute surface) and the model of Tsai and Chin
for straight bevel gears. Park and Chung [32]-[37] studied the kinematical
relationship of a spherical involute bevel gear set; the experimental verification
was carried out through CAD/CAM.
There is a method for modeling the bevel-gear tooth surface through the
simulation of the envelope of the locus of the tool surface. It is applicable to
existing manufacturing machines, such as those of Gleason Works and
Klingelnberg GmbH. Litvin et al. [21] proposed a computer-aided generation of
spiral bevel gears with an improved geometry in order to investigate the influence
of misalignments on both transmission errors and the shift of the bearing contact.
Ichino et al. [22] proposed a method for cutting straight bevel gears using a quasi-
complementary crown rack with a planar tool surface, instead of the usual crown
rack.
Studies of bevel-gear forging are also summarized. Benedict [30] proposed the
technique of the computer integrated manufacturing that enables the design and
manufacture of forge tooling for net-shaped bevel gears. Lee and Park [8] proposed
an application of CAD/CAM to straight bevel gears with crowning for modeling
and machining; it was verified through the contact pattern test. This research was
carried out to achieve the minimization of trial-and-error and the reproducibility of
differential gear forging. However, the tooth-form that is modeled is based on
Tredgold’s method for approximating a spherical tooth profile to a plane involute
profile; therefore, the gear cannot be correctly meshed and serious kinematical
errors arise. Kawasaki and Shinma [9] developed a system for designing and
manufacturing straight bevel gears for which the tooth-form is generated through a
quasi-complementary crown gear. In this study, a CAD/CAM method for the direct
-5-
milling forging die was also proposed to improve the productivity and lower the
cost of manufacture. Shih et al. [17] developed a program for generating both
standard and modified tooth-forms with spherical involutes of straight bevel gears.
Furthermore, it is advantageous to directly manufacture the forging die through a
CNC machine. Lelkes et al. [23] reported the contact analysis of uniformly-high
teeth of epicyclic spiral bevel gears that stemmed from Klingelnberg’s Cyclo-
Palloid System. The analysis was based on the simultaneous generation of gear
surfaces and contact simulation.
-6-
1.3 Objective and Scopes
(2) The CAD program is developed for integrating the forging process.
(3) Through the CAD program, bevel gear sets with a spherical involute tooth-
form are modeled for automotive differentials.
-7-
gears. It is also incorporated in the CAD program.
(6) Prototypes of electrodes of two bevel gear sets are modeled and manufactured.
(7) The actual contact patterns of the prototype are compared with the simulated
patterns.
-8-
1.4 Thesis Outline
The rest of this thesis is presented in five chapters. Chapter 2 introduces the
theoretical background of an automotive differential and its technology. In addition
the manufacturing technology of the differential gears is presented. Chapter 3
introduces the spherical involute surface and its function as defined in a
mathematical procedure. The geometry of the spherical involute curve is described
in this chapter as well as its basic parameters used to define the spherical involute
tooth profile in the fixed coordinate system. Also included in Chapter 3 is the
kinematical relationship of the spherical involute bevel gears. Chapter 4 focuses on
the design considerations in the manufacture of bevel gears for automotive
differentials by forging. First, the definitions of the tooth addendum and dedendum
values and tooth thickness to avoid tooth interference between the tip and root are
presented. Later, details of the geometrical considerations are described. Also
included in Chapter 4 is the tooth modification to be properly applied to bevel
gears for automotive differentials. Chapter 4 also focuses on the modeling of the
spherical involute bevel gears by using CAD S/W and its significant modeling
parameters, which are summarized in this chapter. Chapter 5 applies actual bevel
gear models (side gear and pinion) for automotive differentials to the CAD
modeling. Chapter 6 summarizes the conclusion from this study and states the
contributions of this study. Recommendations for future work are also listed in
Chapter 6.
-9-
Chapter 2
=ω (2-1)
This relationship shows that the numbers of teeth of the differential pinions and
side gears do not affect the differential. The numbers of teeth could be determined
by the criteria of mechanical design and manufacturing.
- 10 -
least) are mounted on the shafts (or studs) that are attached to the differential cage.
The two side-gears, which are meshed with the differential pinions, drive the left
and right axles, respectively. The differential cage is attached to the final drive ring
gear (commonly, a hypoid gear). The power flow through the differential is
summarized as follows.
- 11 -
Differential Pinion
Differential
Cage
Final Drive
Ring Gear (ωR)
Differential Side
Gear
Final Drive
Pinion
- 12 -
Differential Final Drive Ring Gear
Side Gear
Differential Cage
Right Axle
Left Axle
Final Drive Shaft
Differential Pinion
- 13 -
2.2 Manufacturing Differential Gears
The differential pinion and side gears, which are core components of
differentials, are generally straight bevel gear pairs with a shaft angle of 90°. These
bevel gears can be manufactured by cutting or forging.
The cutting process for a straight bevel gear is of two types, generated and
milled methods; these are applied to the cutting of the tooth-form of the gear. The
generated and milled teeth are commonly cut on Gleason machines through
Coniflex and Revacycle tools [28]. The Coniflex tool (Figure 2.3) allows a simple
plunge-and-roll for completing the cycle and eliminates the typical need for
additional motions, such as grinding and finishing. The Coniflex tool is used to cut
teeth-forms that have a crowning (sometimes, it is called a localized lengthwise
tooth bearing). These Coniflex-type straight bevel gears provide good control of
tooth contact through the crowning. The crowned tooth permits the minor
adjustment of gears in assembly and allows for some displacement due to
deflection under operating loads without the concentration of the load on the end of
the tooth.
In other cases, the Revacycle tool (Figure 2.4) is used for the high-volume
manufacture of straight bevel differential gearing. Through the Revacycle tool, the
teeth are completed in one revolution of the circular broach-type cutter, which has
three types of blade (roughening, semi-finishing, and finishing).
- 14 -
Figure 2.3 Coniflex tool of Gleason.
- 15 -
2.2.2 Forging for Straight Bevel Gears
Although the cutting methods through the use of Gleason tools can guarantee the
stability of production, the associated technology entails low productivity, low
utilization of materials, and high capital expenditure on equipment.
(1) Master gear machining: A pair of straight bevel gears that have the same
tooth-forms as the forged gears are machined on a Gleason machine with
Coiflex or Revacycle tools.
(2) Contact pattern test of the master gear set: The contact patterns of a
machined pair of bevel gears are verified to ensure the meshing of gears. The
contact patterns are obtained when the gear set is run under a light load in a
rolling test machine. If the contact patterns are not around the middle portion
of the tooth flank, the master gear set should be machined again.
(3) Measuring the tooth flanks of the master gear set: The tooth flank surface
data are obtained by measuring the gear set through a 3D coordinate
measuring machine (CMM).
- 16 -
bevel-gear geometry can be properly and easily forged [9], [26].
(6) Contact pattern test of electrodes of the gear set: The contact patterns of
electrodes of the gear set are verified for ensuring the meshing of gears.
These contact patterns are also obtained on a rolling test machine.
(7) Machining a precision forging die: The forging die is manufactured using
electric discharge machining (EDM) with the machined electrode [10].
Figure 2.7 shows the machining of the forging die through EDM.
- 17 -
Start
OK
Contact Pattern
Test of the Failure
Electrode
OK
Completed Die
Figure 2.5 Flowchart for design and manufacturing of the differential bevel gear
forging die.
- 18 -
(a) Process for cutting electrodes through a CNC machine
- 19 -
Figure 2.7 Machining the forging die through EDM.
- 20 -
2.3 Problems: Differential Bevel Gear Tooth-Form and
Forging Processes
Almost all differential bevel gears, including those that are machined and forged,
have the Octoid tooth-form; they have several disadvantages, which are listed
below.
(1) They are not interchangeable, i.e., the bevel gears operate as inseparable pairs.
One bevel wheel is designed to work with its complementary wheel and no
other.
(1) The difficulty and complexity of bevel-gear forging are mainly caused by
processes for making the bevel-gear electrode. (Refer Subsection 2.2.)
- 21 -
it is difficult to predict the area (or pattern) of contact between the straight
bevel gears for which the teeth are milled by the Revacycle tools of Gleason
Works.
To improve both the kinematical performance of the Octoid tooth-form and the
productivity of the forging processes, a spherical involute tooth-form can be a
particularly good solution. The main advantages are as follows.
- 22 -
Chapter 3
- 23 -
Figure 3.1 A spherical involute curve.
- 24 -
The edge of the base cone is referred to as the base circle, the center of which is
represented by point C on the transverse sphere. The trajectory of point A at the tip
of arc AB is the spherical involute curve, DA. The tooth-profile angle, φ, at an
arbitrary point, A, on the curve is defined by the angle between the tangent to the
curve and the arc, AC. The curve, DA, and the arc, AB, are always perpendicular.
Therefore, BC and AB are perpendicular and the spherical triangle, ABC, is a right
triangle. The relationships between the angles and the sides of a spherical triangle
are different from those of a plane triangle (refer Appendix 1). In Figure 3.1, the
relationships between γ, γb, χ, φ, and β are as follows.
sin φ = (3-2)
cos β = (3-3)
In the above, γ, γb, and χ are angular parameters that represent COA, COB, and
BOA, respectively. The azimuthal angle, β, is the angle between the arcs, BC and
AC. Eliminating the angle, χ, from Eqs. (3-1) and (3-2), we obtain:
The spherical involute function refers to the angle, ψ, between the arcs, AC and
CD, in Figure 3.1. Since the lengths of BD and AB are identical,
- 25 -
χ = (β + ψ) sin γ . (3-5)
ψ= − β. (3-6)
In Eq. (3-6), the spherical involute function can be written as a function of φ and
the base-cone angle, γb.
- 26 -
3.2 Spherical Involute Tooth Profile
Figure 3.2 depicts the basic parameters of a spherical involute gear. The gear's
pitch circle is used as a reference for defining the tooth profile. A pitch point, P, is
the intersection of a pitch circle and the center line of the axis. The common
normal of the tooth-contact point passes through the pitch point. When the tooth-
profile curve passes through a pitch point, the angle of the tooth-profile curve at
that point is referred to as the gear pressure angle, αg.
In a standard gear, the gear pressure angle and the rack (or tool) pressure angle α
are identical. The relationship between α, γb, and the pitch cone angle, γp (angle
COP), in Figure 3.2 is obtained from Eq. (3-4).
The relationship between the tooth thickness on the pitch circle, the space width,
and the backlash, B, is:
t = . (3-10)
t=R + 2ψ − 2ψ . (3-11)
- 27 -
In Eq. (3-11), R = A sin γ and R = A sin γ .
The tooth thickness, tb, of the base circle is t when γ = γ in Eq. (3-11), at
which point ψ = 0; then, tb becomes:
t =R + 2ψ . (3-13)
Where R = A sin γ .
The module, m, determines the tooth size. The bevel gear's module is defined in
the same way as that of a spur gear. If the diameter of the pitch circle is Dp and the
number of teeth is Z,
m= . (3-14)
- 28 -
Figure 3.2 Basic parameters of a spherical involute bevel gear.
- 29 -
Spherical involute tooth profiles for different base-cone angles in a single
module are depicted in Figure 3.3, which displays tooth-profile curves with
addendum angle γa at m⁄ξ = 0.1, m = 3.0, α = 20°, Z = 20 and γ = 10~70°.
- 30 -
3.3 Coordinate System of a Spherical Involute Tooth-
Profile Curve
Therefore,
OA⃗ = ξn ⃗ (3-15)
and
η = ψ−ψ (3-17)
In the above, η and γ are the angles of CgA and CgPr, respectively. The rigid body
motion of the gear can be defined by the relationship between the spatially-fixed
reference coordinate system of the gear, Cg0, and Cg. Cg is constructed by
rotationally displacing Cg0 in the positive direction by the gear’s angular motion, θg,
with zg0 as the reference axis.
- 31 -
Figure 3.4 A spherical involute tooth profile and its coordinate system.
- 32 -
Chapter 4
The existing processes for designing and manufacturing a forging die for
differential bevel gears are shown in Figure 2.5. The existing processes mainly
consist of master gear machining, a contact pattern test, CMM, construction of the
CAD model of the electrode from CMM data, electrode machining, and EDM die
machining. These processes are based on trial-and-error; hence, the design and
characteristics of contact are difficult to modify and improve upon. In addition, the
processes for designing and obtaining the electrode are varied and complicated.
Moreover, forged differential bevel gears have the Octoid tooth form, which has
several disadvantages as follows.
(1) They are not interchangeable, i.e., the bevel gears operate as inseparable pairs.
One bevel wheel is designed to work with its complementary wheel and no
other.
Therefore, an integrated CAD process that uses a spherical involute tooth profile
- 33 -
is required and it overcomes these disadvantages. The main advantages of a
spherical involute tooth profile are as follows.
Figure 4.1 shows the flowchart for the integrated process of bevel gear design
through forging. Several existing processes (in Figure 2.5) are eliminated; the
entire process is integrated into one process of “3D-CAD by using a spherical
involute tooth profile.” This one process has several steps that are shown in Figure
4.2. The 3D-CAD modeling is carried out according to the flowchart in Figure 4.2.
The modeling processes for differential bevel gears with a spherical involute tooth
form are developed for ensuring these specific conditions. The modeling processes
are summarized in Figure 4.2.
In this thesis, all the results, such as the solid models, are directly used for
machining the electrode or forging die because all the CAD activities are carried
out on CATIA V5 and its VBA programming interface.
- 34 -
Start
3D-CAD modeling of
Differential Bevel Gears by
the Use of aSpherical
Involute Tooth Profile
Contact Pattern
Test of the Failure
Electrode
OK
Completed Die
Figure 4.1 Flowchart for the manufacture of forging dies with integrated CAD.
- 35 -
Start
Tooth-Form Modification
Contact
Pattern
Simulation Need Modification
OK
End
Figure 4.2 Flowchart of the modeling process for differential bevel gears through
the integrated CAD program.
- 36 -
4.2 Preliminary Step: Specifying Parameters and
Coordinate Systems
The first step in the flowchart is concerned with gear parameters for defining the
spherical involute bevel-gear geometry. These parameters are referred as the
module, pressure angle, shaft angle, number of teeth, addendum, dedendum,
backlash, etc. Furthermore, these parameters are customized for Gleason machines
that are used for making various differential gears.
However, in order to model the differential bevel gears through the spherical
involute tooth profile, these parameters are converted into the basic parameters of α,
γp, and ξ, which are used to define the coordinate system. This procedure is
described in the flowchart and the coordinate system is shown in Figure 4.3. The
procedure for defining the coordinate system is described below.
(2) Define the vector OP (a line from the origin to the pitch point) by using the
cone-distance parameter (ξ).
(3) Define the spatially-fixed reference coordinate systems (C10 and C20).
- Place the coordinate axes of z10 and z20, which are rotated by γp1 and γp2,
respectively, from the vector, OP. The rotating angles, γp1 and γp2, are the
pitch-cone angles of the pinion and side gear. Both the vector, OP, and the
coordinate axes of z10 and z20 are on the same plane.
- Define the coordinate axes of x10 and y20 as being normal to the plane
between z10 and z20.
- Lastly, define the coordinate axes of y10 and x20.
- 37 -
- Rotate the spatially-fixed coordinate systems of the pinion and side gear
around z10 and z20 by the angles, θ1 and θ2, respectively.
In the gear-fixed coordinate systems, the point, O, is the apex of the pitch and
base cones. The pitch and base circles are also determined by the pitch and base
cone angles of γp and γb. The base cone angle, γb, is calculated via Eq. (3-18) and
the basic parameters of α, γp, and ξ for defining the coordinate system are obtained
from the gear parameters, m, α, Σ(shaft angle), Z1, and Z2. The relational
equations are as follows.
γ = tan (4-1)
γ =Σ−γ (4-2)
ξ= = (4-3)
In addition, the necessary geometries for the bases of the spherical involute
bevel gears are defined in terms of the basic parameters. Figure 4.4 shows these
basic geometries, such as the pitch point, pitch circles, base circles, and contact
normal (disc of action).
- 38 -
z10, z1, x20 x2
[Pinion]
C
θ2
Base circle
Pitch circle
P
A Contact
y2 normal
x10, y20
x1 O
θ1
y10, z20, z2 y1
[Side Gear]
- 39 -
z10, z1, x20 x2
γb1 γp1
α Contact
normal
P A
Pitch circle
ξ
- 40 -
4.3 Modeling the Spherical Involute Tooth-Form
Figure 4.5 shows the procedures for modeling the spherical involute tooth-form
for a differential bevel gear set. For modeling the spherical involute tooth-form,
these procedures are performed on the basis of the gear-fixed coordinate systems
(C1 and C2) that were defined in Subsection 4.2. The main parameters in this
procedure are the addendum, dedendum, tooth thickness, face-width, and the face
and root angles. These parameters are defined as angles or ratios.
For automotive differential bevel gears, the tooth addendum and dedendum are
specially modified to avoid tooth-tip interference. In other words, the addendum of
a pinion is longer but the addendum of a side gear is shorter by the addendum
modification. The long-and-short addendum system for side gears and pinions is
used to reduce the undercut of the pinion and to more nearly equalize the strength
and durability of the side gear and pinion. For the application of the addendum and
dedendum to the spherical involute tooth form, these two parameters are defined in
terms of angles. In addition, the tooth thickness has to be properly resized because
this also improves the strength and durability characteristics of the teeth. For
various reasons, the tooth shapes of the bevel gear have to be properly modified
and these modifications have to be modeled.
- 41 -
Start
End
- 42 -
4.3.1 Defining the Addendum and Dedendum Parameters
Figure 4.6 shows the schematics of the addendum and dedendum for the
spherical involute curve of the pinion. The spherical involute curve is trimmed
from the base circle to the addendum line (the tip circle) and will apply to the long-
addendum pinion. However, if the spherical involute curve has a shorter length
from the pitch point to the base line, its curve has to be extended to the dedendum
line (the root circle) by extrapolation. In this manner, the tooth profile is
determined. The addendum and dedendum angles (θa1 and θd1) of the pinion are
defined as per the following equations.
.
a = 1.17m − (4-4)
d = 1.788m − a (4-5)
θ = tan (4-6)
θ = tan (4-7)
These equations should be used only for differential gears. For the side gear, the
tooth profile can be similarly obtained.
- 43 -
C
[Pinion]
Extrapolated
Base circle
dedendum
Addendum
P
Spherical
dedendum
Involute Curve
angle
Pitch circle
Addendum angle
Figure 4.6 Schematics of the addendum and dedendum for a spherical involute
curve.
- 44 -
4.3.2 Generating Spherical Involute Curve
The spherical involute curve for the pinion, which is shown in Figure 4.7, is
defined in the gear-fixed coordinate system that is defined in Subsection 4.2. The
spherical involute curve is generated from the base-circle point (D) to the tip-circle
point (Pt1), which is determined through the following vector, OPt1.
OP ⃗ = ξn ⃗ (4-8)
η =ψ −ψ (4-10)
γ =γ +θ (4-11)
For the above equations, ψt1 and ψp1 are obtained through Eqs. (3-8) and (3-12),
respectively.
Once the angular variables, such as ηt1 and γt1, are determined, the spherical
involute curve is defined from D to Pt1 and is also expressed by the following
vector, OA.
OA⃗ = ξn ⃗ (4-12)
η = ψ −ψ (4-14)
- 45 -
z10, z1
θd1
ξ
Pt1 Tip circle
θa1
ψt1
ψP
O
[Pinion]
- 46 -
4.3.3 Defining the Tooth-Thickness Factors
For a spherical involute bevel gear, the tooth geometry is quite different from the
Octoid tooth-form of Gleason bevel gears but the difference in the tooth size is
slight; hence, the tooth-thickness factors proposed by Gleason Works are applied to
this study.
Figure 4.8 shows definitions of the tooth thickness for a spherical involute bevel
gear; these are expressed as the circular tooth thickness (t1 and t2), chordal
thickness (tc1 and tc2), and angular thickness (θt1 and θt2), as follows.
t = πm − t (4-16)
t =t − ( )
− (4-17)
t =t − ( )
− (4-18)
θ = tan (4-19)
θ = tan (4-20)
- 47 -
C
[Pinion]
Base circle
t1
t2
P
Pitch circle
θt1 θt2
O
[Side Gear]
- 48 -
Figure 4.9 shows the whole tooth profile with a mirrored curve. For modeling
the whole bevel gear tooth, a mirror-image of the spherical involute curve is
obtained for a tooth about the tooth center line. To achieve this, the angle, θ1, which
is the angular thickness of the pinion tooth at any point on the calculated spherical
involute curve, is found from θt1 and ψP1. Then, θ1 can be calculated as follows:
θ = θ − 2(ψ − ψ ) (4-21)
Through the foregoing value of θ1, the coordinates for the mirror-image of the
spherical involute curve are given by:
OA⃗ = ξn ⃗ (4-22)
η = ψ −ψ +θ (4-24)
In the case of the side gear, the coordinates for the mirror-image are similarly
calculated.
- 49 -
C
Base circle
γ1
θ1 Pr1
Tip circle
P θd1
Pitch circle
Pt1
θa1
ψP
ψ1 ψP O
[Pinion]
Figure 4.9 Tooth profile for the whole gear.
- 50 -
4.3.4 Defining the Face and Root Parameters
Figure 4.7 shows the tooth-form in light of the face and root parameters; the
tooth tip and bottom are sloped more steeply.
- 51 -
4.4 Tooth-Form Modification
In the case of straight bevel gear tooth-form modification, the modification has
to be applied for enabling some adjustment of the gears in assembly and for
compensating loads without concentrating loads on the ends of teeth. Straight bevel
gears with a generated tooth-form (via Coniflex tools) are widely used for various
purposes. Crowning is directly achieved by the tools. In addition, straight bevel
gears with a milled tooth-form (via Revacycle tools) enable manual tooth-form
modification [28]. In this thesis, a method of tooth-form modification, which is
effectively applied to the CAD model of a spherical involute bevel gear, is
proposed.
- 52 -
4.4.1 Geometrical Considerations
For differential bevel gears that are machined or forged, the tooth form is based
on generation or milling; further, some modification of the tooth form is entailed.
Therefore, differential bevel gears with a spherical involute tooth-form must have
similar tooth-form modifications.
The parameters to be applied for modification are as shown in Figure 4.11 and
the flowchart of tooth-form modification is shown in Figure 4.10. Table 4.1 lists
the definitions of the parameters for modifying the tooth flank. These parameters
are customized to differential bevel gears.
- 53 -
Start
Preparing a Completely
Modeled Tooth Flank
Profile Modification
(root and tip relief)
Lead Modification
(Crowning)
End
- 54 -
4.4.2 Defining the Range of Modification
Almost all differential bevel gears have modified tooth flanks but it is difficult to
know the exact range of modification as well as the extent of modification, such as
the tip and root reliefs. However, these ranges have to be parametrically defined for
modeling tooth-form modification. Therefore, the range is defined as the center-
point dimensions of the contact area and modifiable flank dimensions. (Refer to
Figure 4.11.) These dimensions of the range of modification are the basis for the
next steps. The procedures for defining the range are as follows.
(2) Specify the position of the contact area. The position that is specified in this
step will be the origin of tooth-form modification.
- 55 -
Table 4.1 Definitions of the parameter for tooth modification.
Parameters Description
- 56 -
Amount of
lead contact
Tip relief
Amount of
profile contact
Center point of
contact area
Distance 1
Distance 2
Root relief
- 57 -
4.4.3 Profile Modification
The range of the tooth flank to be modified is first defined. The sectors of the
spherical involute tooth profile are also determined. These sectors are shown in
Figure 4.11. The sectors near the tip and root will be eliminated and the middle
sector remains a pure spherical involute. The profile-modification concept and the
relevant parameters are shown in Figure 4.12. The applied parameters are defined
as angular values, such as θca (the angular extent of tip relief), θcd (the angular
extent of root relief), Φca (the angular range of tip relief), and Φcd (the angular
range of root relief). These parameters are determined from the values in Table 4.1.
To define the profile modification, several important points are required, such as
the tip-relief point (Pt-r), root-relief point (Pr-r), tip-relief range point (Pt-r-r), and
root-relief range point (Pr-r-r).
(2) Specify extents of the modification (Ca and Cd) and calculate these in angular
terms (θca and θcd).
(3) Create offset points (Pt-r and P r-r) that are rotated from the tip and base points
(Pt and Pb) as the angular amounts of modification (θca and θcd). Therefore, Pt-r and
Pr-r are obtained in the gear-fixed coordinate system as follows.
OP ⃗ = x ı⃗ + y ⃗+z k⃗ (4-25)
z = ξ cos γ (4-28)
- 58 -
η = ψ −ψ (4-29)
γ = γ +θ (4-30)
ψt and ψp, which feature in the above equations, are obtained through Eqs. (3-8)
and (3-12), respectively.
OP ⃗ = x ı⃗ + y ⃗+z k⃗ (4-31)
z = ξ cos γ (4-34)
η = −ψ (4-35)
(4) Specify the tip and root relief range points (Pt-r-r and Pr-r-r) between the tip and
base points (Pt and Pb). The points can be obtained by using the angles of φca and
φcd; these are defined in the gear-fixed coordinate system as follows.
OP ⃗ = ξn ⃗ (4-36)
η =ψ −ψ (4-38)
γ = γ +θ −φ (4-39)
- 59 -
ψtrr and ψp, which feature in the above equations, are obtained through Eqs. (3-8)
and (3-12), respectively.
OP ⃗ = ξn ⃗ (4-40)
η =ψ −ψ (4-42)
γ = γ +θ +φ (4-43)
As before, ψtrr and ψp, which feature in the above equations, are obtained through
Eqs. (3-8) and (3-12), respectively.
(5) Connect the points of Pt-r, Pt-r-r, Pr-r-r, Pr-r, and Pr by a B-spline. Therefore, the
modified tooth-profile can be obtained as follows.
1 for t ≤ t < t
N (t) = (4-46)
0 for otherwise
- 60 -
C
Base circle
Pr
cd
Root circle
Pr-r
Pb
Pitch circle
Pr-r-r
Modified tooth
Pt-r-r
profile
Φcd
Tip circle Pt Not modified
ca
Φca θca
OPr-r
θcd
Pt-r
Not modified
tooth surface
OPt-r
- 61 -
4.4.4 Crowning
The sectors in the lead direction are determined by the procedure of Subsection
4.3.2 and are shown in Figure 4.11. The sectors near the toe and heel will be
eliminated and the middle sector remains. The crowning concept and its relevant
parameters are shown in Figure 4.13. The parameters are defined as θc-heel (angular
extent of heel crowning), θc-toe (angular extent of toe crowning), Cheel (crown length
of heel crowning), and Ctoe (crown length of toe crowning). These parameters are
determined from the values of Table 4.1. To define the crowning, several important
points, such as the crowning points between the heel and toe (Pcrown-r and Pcrown-t),
are needed.
(2) Specify the extent of crowning for the heel and toe and calculate this in
angular terms (θc-heel and θc-toe).
(3) To determine the crowned tooth, rotate the modified profile (in Subsection
4.4.3) around the z-axis of the gear-fixed coordinate system with respect to the two
angles, θc-heel and θc-toe.
(4) Define the crowning points between the heel and toe (Pcrown-r and Pcrown-t);
these are scaled points from the tip and root points and are therefore calculated as
follows.
OP ⃗= OP ⃗ (4-47)
OP ⃗= OP ⃗ (4-48)
(5) Join the offset points and the toe and heel points by the B-spline.
- 62 -
O
Θc-toe
Pcrown-toe
Pcrown-wheel
Ctoe
F Cwheel
Tip circle
Θc-wheel
Base circle
Not modified
tooth surface Pt-r
Tip-Root Relief and
Crowned Tooth
Pr-r
Tip and root
relieved tooth
Amount of crown
profile
Pr
Root circle
- 63 -
4.5 Contact Pattern Simulation
The tooth contact pattern refers to the contact trace that is obtained by rolling
between the tooth flanks of the bevel gears on a low-load condition. A prediction of
the tooth contact pattern between the pinion and side-gear tooth flanks for which
the tooth-forms have been modified is required for adjusting the contact area and
avoiding load concentration. This is commonly undertaken for differential bevel
gears. To predict the tooth contact pattern, the rolling action (envelope) of the side
gear around the pinion is simulated. Figure 4.14 shows this rolling action. The
predicted contact pattern is shown in Figure 4.15. This example shows that the
rolling areas of the side-gear flank are in good contact with the pinion flank.
The example parameters of the tooth modification are listed in Table 4.2. This
modification makes the tooth contact to be 65% around the center area; the extent
of relief and crowning is 100μm.
Figure 4.15 shows the contact pattern, which indicates that the contact is good
and that the modifications are suitable.
- 64 -
Rolling trace of
side gear flank
Pinion flank
- 65 -
Figure 4.15 Contact pattern between the pinion and the side gear.
- 66 -
4.5.2 Simulation Examples
Examples of simulations of the tooth contact pattern are shown in this subsection
for demonstrating the ability to adjust and customize the contact patterns via the
proposed profile modification and crowning methods. The differences among the
central, toe and heel contact are shown in Figure 4.16 through to Figure 4.18.
These contact patterns are simulated by using the parameters of profile
modification and crowning listed in Tables 4.3 and 4.4.
In the case of the central contact ((a) of Figure 4.16, Figure 4.17 and Figure
4.18), the areas of contact are located in the middle of the tooth surface (the areas
of contact are shown as red-colored areas on the tooth flanks of the pinion and side
gear). The central contact shows that the tooth flank is properly modified. The toe
and heel contacts ((b) and (c) of Figure 4.16, Figure 4.17 and Figure 4.18) are also
simulated to show the contact is shifted toward one of the outer (heel) or inner (toe)
portions of the tooth surface by changing the parameter as necessary to effect such
a shifting of the contact position.
By using the developed program for simulating the tooth contact patterns of
bevel gear sets, the contact patterns are properly and easily adjusted and
customized. It is very practical to minimize a trial-and-error and to correct the tooth
contact pattern in the manufacturing processes because the program enables to
predict the proper contact pattern. The program is also used to predict the contact
pattern of the spiral bevel gears and the example is shown in the Figure 4.19. The
tooth contact area is properly simulated in the middle of the tooth surface.
- 67 -
Table 4.3 Parameters of differential bevel gears for forging.
Parameters Pinion Side Differential
NO. TEETH 10 EA 14 EA
MODULE 5.107
PRESSURE ANGLE 22.5˚
AXIS ANGLE 90˚
WHOLE DEPTH 10.32
ADDENDUM 5.63 3.60
DEDENDUM 4.69 6.72
PITCH ANGLE 35˚32’ 54˚26’
FACE ANGLE 48˚29’ 61˚40’
ROOT ANGLE 28˚20’ 41˚31’
- 68 -
(a) Central contact
Figure 4.16 Contact pattern for a bevel gear set (side gear).
- 69 -
(a) Central contact
- 70 -
(a) Central contact
- 71 -
Figure 4.19 Contact pattern simulation of spiral bevel gear
- 72 -
4.5.3 Simulation for the Shaft Angle Deviations
Common bevel gears are designed to be mounted on shafts which offset from
each other by 90degs; the designed shaft angle is 90degs and the gear set is
machined on the condition that the shaft angle is determined as 90degs. However,
the common bevel gears have some machining errors or assembling errors and
these errors make the tooth contact poor. On the other hands, spherical involute
bevel gears have better tooth contact and it is a unique merit.
The simulation is carried out to verify the contact merits of the spherical involute
tooth form by using various shaft angles from 85degs to 95degs. The tooth contact
simulation results for the shaft angle deviations are shown in Figure 4.20 and the
simulation shows that the each tooth contacts are equally made but its profile
direction position is moved to the root or top. Therefore, although the spherical
involute bevel gears have some machining errors or assembling errors, they can be
smoothly contacted.
Shaft
angle: 90deg 89deg 88deg 87deg 86deg 85deg
- 73 -
4.6 Design Program that uses CATIA-VBA
Through this program, the conventional design steps, including the machining
and measuring processes for the master gear and 3D-CAD of the master gear
model for an electrode, are reduced to one step. In addition, this program can
simulate the contact pattern of the gear flanks; hence, it can easily improve the
contact performance. Furthermore, because it has a spherical involute tooth profile,
the kinematical performance is improved.
- 74 -
1. Input Parameters
Amount of
lead contact
Tip relief
Amount of
profile contact
Center point of
contact area
Distance 1
- 75 -
Figure 4.22 Input window of the CATIA-VBA
- 76 -
Chapter 5
For applying this integrated design program (refer Chapter 4), a conceptual
model of a pair of automotive differential gears for forging is considered and its
parameters are obtained. The differential model is mounted on the transaxle of a
commercial car of Hyundai Motors.
The design parameters, which are input to the program, are listed in Table 5.1.
The tooth-modification parameters are listed in Table 5.2. These modifications
make the tooth contact to be 50% in the lead length but 100% in the profile
direction. The extents of relief and crowning are 100μm. The contact pattern
simulation is shown below.
- 77 -
Table 5.1 Parameters of the differential bevel gears for forging
Parameters Pinion Side Differential
NO. TEETH 10 EA 14 EA
MODULE 5.107
PRESSURE ANGLE 22.5˚
AXIS ANGLE 90˚
WHOLE DEPTH 10.32
ADDENDUM 5.63 3.60
DEDENDUM 4.69 6.72
PITCH ANGLE 35˚32’ 54˚26’
FACE ANGLE 48˚29’ 61˚40’
ROOT ANGLE 28˚20’ 41˚31’
- 78 -
5.2 Design Results
The main results of the design are a 3D-CAD model of the differential bevel
gears and the contact pattern. The 3D-CAD model can be converted to CAM data
for machine electrodes by PowerMill. The contact pattern will be analyzed through
the contact test for the electrodes.
- 79 -
(2) CNC CAM data simulations are undertaken through PowerMill.
(c) Finishing
- 80 -
(3) Tooth Contact Pattern Simulations: The contact pattern is shown in the
middle area of the tooth flank.
- 81 -
5.3 Manufacturing
The 3D-CAD model has to be converted to CAM data through CAM S/W, such
as PowerMill, for manufacturing electrodes. Based on these CAM data, the
electrodes that are modeled by the integrated design program can be manufactured.
To verify the 3D-CAD model of the differential bevel gears that were designed
by the integrated program, prototypes of the differential bevel gears were machined
and these were tested on a bevel gear contact test machine, as shown in Figure 5.4.
A pair of the prototype gears was installed on the contact test machine to ensure
that the shaft angle was exactly 90°and that the shafts intersected. Figure 5.5 shows
the contact test scene of the prototype gears. As shown in Figure 5.6, a compound
was pasted on the surface of the bevel gears for carrying out the contact test on the
test-bench.
Figure 5.7 shows the results of the contact test; the contact areas have been
properly located on the surfaces of the bevel gears. These show that crowning has
been reasonably applied on the gear surface and that the spherical involute profiles
are perfectly modeled.
- 82 -
Figure 5.4 Bevel gear contact test machine (Gleason Works)
- 83 -
Figure 5.5 Prototype contact test
- 84 -
Figure 5.6 Machined bevel gears for forging
- 85 -
Chapter 6
Conclusion
To verify the tooth forms and gear meshes of the modeled electrodes for a bevel
gear set, prototypes were developed of electrodes for one gear set that had localized
tooth-form modifications. The results of the rolling test of the gear were compared
with the calculated results. The tooth flank surface was measured on a CMM.
(2) A CAD program was developed for integrating the forging process.
(3) By the use of the integrated CAD program, bevel gear sets with spherical
involute tooth forms were modeled for automotive differentials.
(4) To quantitatively adjust the contact area between the gears, lead modification
(crowning) and profile modification methods were proposed for differential bevel
gears.
(5) The contact patterns were simulated under conditions of light loads.
- 86 -
(6) A prototype of a bevel gear set for an electrode was modeled and
manufactured.
(7) The actual contact patterns of the prototype were compared with the
simulated results.
- 87 -
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- 92 -
Appendix A
In triangle ΔOB1C1,
A B = OA tanΓ (A-3)
OB = OA /cosΓ (A-4)
A C = OA tanB (A-5)
OC = OA /cosB (A-6)
- 93 -
cosA = cosBcosΓ + sinBsinΓcosα (A-7)
- 94 -
tanΓ = tanAcosβ (A-11)
- 95 -
CAD of Forged Involute Bevel Gear
박 문 우
초록
- 96 -