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• 23 • Power Quality
Introduction 23.1
Examples 23.6
Chap23 exe 20/06/02 16:21 Page 411
• 23 • Power Quality
23.1 INTRODUCTION
Over the last thirty years or so, the amount of equipment
containing electronics has increased dramatically. Such
equipment can both cause and be affected by
electromagnetic disturbances. A disturbance that
affects a process control computer in a large industrial
complex could easily result in shutdown of the process.
The lost production and product loss/recycling during
start-up represents a large cost to the business.
Similarly, a protection relay affected by a disturbance
through conduction or radiation from nearby conductors
could trip a feeder or substation, causing loss of supply
to a large number of consumers. At the other end of the
scale, a domestic user of a PC has to re-boot the PC due
to a transient voltage dip, causing annoyance to that
and other similarly affected users. Therefore,
transporters and users of electrical energy have become
much more interested in the nature and frequency of
disturbances in the power supply. The topic has become
known by the title of Power Quality.
reasonable in terms of disturbances that might occur and Table 23.2 lists the limits given in Standard EN 50160
what equipment should withstand. and notes where other standards have similar limits.
Table 23.1 provides a broad classification of the
disturbances that may occur on a power system, some Type of Voltage Limits from Measurement Typical Other applicable
disturbance Level EN50160 period duration standards
typical causes of them and the potential impact on
Voltage 95% of
equipment. From this Table, it will be evident that the Variation 230V +/- 10% 1 week -
electricity supply waveform, often thought of as Voltage Dips 230V 10-1000/year 10ms –1sec IEEE 1159
composed of pure sinusoidal quantities, can suffer a wide 230V 5% to 10%
Several Short
Rapid voltage per day duration
variety of disturbances. The following sections of this changes Short
Chapter describe the causes in more detail, along with 1kV-35kV <6% Per day duration IEEE 1159
450
Unbalanced loads Overheating in
Voltage Unbalanced motors/generators 400
imbalance impedances Interruption of 3-phase 350
operation 300
Affected by disturbance
Power system faults Loss of supply 250
Short and long Equipment failures to customer equipment Withstand
200
voltage Control malfunctions Computer shutdowns disturbance
interruptions 150
CB tripping Motor tripping
100
Heavy network loading All equipment 50
Affected by disturbance
Loss of generation without backup 0
Undervoltage Poor power factor supply facilities 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000
Lack of var support Duration of disturbance (ms)
Lightning Control system resetting Figure 23.1: ITI curve for equipment
Transients Capacitive switching Damage to sensitive susceptibility
Non –linear switching loads electronic components
System voltage regulation Damage to insulation
23.3 CAUSES AND IMPACT OF POWER insulator flashover, collisions due to birds, and
QUALITY PROBLEMS excavations damaging cables. Multiple voltage dips, as
illustrated in Figure 23.3, cause more problems for
Each of the Power Quality disturbance categories
equipment than a single isolated dip.
detailed in Table 23.1 is now examined in more detail as
to the possible causes and the impact on consumers. The impact on consumers may range from the annoying
(non-periodic light flicker) to the serious (tripping of
sensitive loads and stalling of motors). Where repeated
23.3.1 Voltage Dips dips occur over a period of several hours, the repeated
Figure 23.2 shows the profile of a voltage dip, together shutdowns of equipment can give rise to serious
with the associated definitions. The major cause of production problems. Figure 23.4 shows an actual
voltage dips on a supply system is a fault on the system, voltage dip, as captured by a Power Quality recorder.
that is sufficiently remote electrically that a voltage
interruption does not occur. Other sources are the starting 100
of large loads (especially common in industrial systems), 80
60
and, occasionally, the supply of large inductive loads. 40
20
0
-20 Time
Vrms
-40
Nom. High
-60
PQ Standards -80
Nom. Low -100
x % below nominal
o a
User defined setpoints Figure 23.4: Recording of a voltage dip
Retained Voltage
Interruption Typical data for undervoltage disturbances on power
Time systems during evolving faults are shown in Figure 23.5.
Figure 23.2: Voltage dip profile
Disturbances that lie in the front right-hand portion of
the histogram are the ones that cause most problems,
Voltage dips due to the latter are usually due to poor design but fortunately these are quite rare.
of the network feeding the consumer. A voltage dip is the
Retained voltage
most common supply disturbance causing interruption of
Power Quality
0-10% 61-70%
production in an industrial plant. Faults on a supply 41-50% 81-90%
network will always occur, and in industrial systems, it is 51-60% 91-100%
often practice to specify equipment to ride-through Number of undervoltage disturbances recorded
voltage dips of up to 0.2s. The most common exception is
contactors, which may well drop out if the voltage dips 16
below 80% of rated voltage for more than 50-100ms. 15
14
Motor protection relays that have an undervoltage element 13
setting that is too sensitive is another cause. Since 12
11
Number of incidents/yr
11-20%
10-50ms
50-100ms
100-500ms
Retained voltage
>10s
Retained Voltage
Interruption Duration of disturbance
Time
Figure 23.5: Undervoltage disturbance histogram
Figure 23.3: Multiple voltage dip
23.3.2 Voltage Surges/Spikes
Other network-related fault causes are weather–related
(such as snow, ice, wind, salt spray, dust) causing Voltage surges/spikes are the opposite of dips – a rise
that may be nearly instantaneous (spike) or takes place are sufficiently high enough, protective devices may shut
over a longer duration (surge). These are most often the equipment down to avoid damage. Some equipment,
caused by lightning strikes and arcing during switching such as certain protection devices, may maloperate and
operations on circuit breakers/contactors (fault cause unnecessary shutdowns.
clearance, circuit switching, especially switch-off of
inductive loads). Figure 23.6 shows the profile of a 150
voltage surge. 100
50
Vrms
User defined setpoints 0
Nom. High
Time
-50
Nom. Low
PQ Standards -100
-150
Power Quality
irrespective of duration. Other causes are failures in
equipment, and control and protection malfunctions.
23.4 POWER QUALITY MONITORING
Electrical equipment ceases to function under such
If an installation or network is thought to be suffering
conditions, with undervoltage protection devices leading
from problems related to Power Quality, suitable
to tripping of some loads.
measurements should to be taken to confirm the initial
Short interruptions may be no more than an diagnosis. These measurements will also help quantify
inconvenience to some consumers (e.g. domestic the extent of the problem(s) and provide assistance in
consumers), but for commercial and industrial determining the most suitable solutions. Finally, follow-
consumers (e.g. semiconductor manufacture) may lead up measurements after installation will confirm the • 23 •
to lengthy serious production losses with large financial effectiveness of the remedial measures taken.
impact. Longer interruptions will cause production loss
in most industries, as induction and synchronous motors
cannot tolerate more than 1-2 seconds interruption 23.4.1 Type of Installation
without having to be tripped, if only to prevent excessive
Monitoring equipment for Power Quality may be suitable
current surges and resulting large voltage dips on supply
for either temporary or permanent installation on a
restoration.
supply network. Permanent installation is most likely to
On the other hand, vital computer systems are often fed be used by Utilities for routine monitoring of parts of
via a UPS supply that may be capable of supplying power their networks to ensure that regulatory limits are being
from batteries for several hours in the event of a mains complied with and to monitor general trends in respect
supply failure. More modern devices such as Dynamic of power quality issues. Consumers with sensitive loads
Voltage Restorers can also be used to provide continuity may also install permanent monitoring devices in order
of supply due to a supply interruption. For interruptions to monitor Power Quality and provide supporting
lasting some time, a standby generator can be provide a evidence in the event of a claim for compensation being
limited supply to essential loads, but cannot be started in made against the supplier if loss occurs due to a power
time to prevent an interruption occurring. quality problem whose source is in the Utility network.
The performance of any devices installed to improve 23.4.2 Connection to the Supply
Power Quality can also be monitored.
Connection to the supply being monitored may present
Such devices may have a data link to a DCS or data problems. For LV supplies, the voltage inputs are usually
logger in order to provide historical data recording and taken directly to the instrument in single-phase or three-
data processing/presentation facilities. They are quite phase form as required. Monitoring of currents may be
small and are fitted in a suitable cubicle forming part of through a current shunt or suitable CT, depending on
a switchboard line-up. The data link may be hard-wired, circuit rating. At higher voltages, VT’s and CT’s already
use a modem connection to a telephone line, or in the fitted for instrumentation/protection purposes are used.
case of a utility with many geographically-dispersed In general, the conventional electromagnetic voltage or
substations, radio links for data transmission may be current transformer is suitable for use without special
used. Internal data storage will be provided to ensure considerations being required, but capacitor voltage
effective use of the data link. The units may be self- or transformers often have a low-pass filter on the output
auxiliary supply powered, and in the case of important that has the potential to seriously affect readings of
Utility substations may have battery-backed supplies to harmonics and transient phenomena. In such cases, the
ensure capture of voltage interruptions. Time input to the monitoring device must be taken prior to
synchronisation may be required to ensure accurate filtering, or the filter characteristics must be determined
identification of events. and the measured signals processed to take account of
the filtering prior to analysis being undertaken. In
For investigation of particular problems, a portable
addition, the CVT itself may have a non-linear transfer
instrument is more suitable. The same range of Power
function with respect to frequency, though the variety of
Quality measurement capabilities is provided as for
types of CVT and difficulties of testing make
permanent instrumentation. The instrument may have
confirmation of this point virtually impossible at present.
built-in analysis/data storage capabilities, but external
storage in the form of floppy discs or a data link to a Where harmonics or high-frequency phenomena are
laptop or desktop PC is commonplace. Analysis/report being measured, suitable connecting leads between the
writing software running on a PC is often available, transducers and the measuring instrument are required to
which may be more comprehensive than that provide in avoid signal distortion. This is especially important if long
the instrument itself. cable runs are used; this may be the case if the measuring
instruments are centralised but measurements are being
Figure 23.8 illustrates a Power Quality meter that is
made at a number of switchboards.
available (MiCOM M720 range).
Power Quality
Equipment Application
Voltage variations
UPS Supply interruptions
Power Quality
Frequency variations
Earthing practices Harmonics
Filters (Active/Passive) Harmonics
Voltage variations
Energy Storage Devices
Supply interruptions
Table 23.3: Power system disturbance
classification to EN 50160
D.C.-D.C.
being used up in maintaining output voltage and current. The dips can also be seen using the graphical viewing
The transformer is normally of 1:1 ratio, although taps facilities of the instrument. Figure 23.16(a) shows the
may be provided for fine adjustment of output voltage. display of the envelope of the r.m.s. voltage, and Figure
Appropriate shielding of the windings enables the impact 23.16(b), the same data magnified. The number,
of voltage spikes to be reduced. It is used in LV systems, magnitude and frequency of the dips can be clearly seen.
with a power output of up to a few tens of kVA. A detailed view of one dip shows clearly that the dips are
only just outside the normal supply voltage limits (Figure
23.17).
23.6 EXAMPLES
The following sections show some examples of the
measurement of Power Quality problems, using an
ALSTOM M720 Power Quality meter.
Power Quality
Figure 23.15: Voltage dip recording
Figure 23.18: Detailed view of
voltage dip waveform
• 23 •