CHAPTER 1

STRESS AND STRAIN

2
1. Todays Objectives:
Students will be able to:
explain some of the important principles of statics.
use the principles to determine internal resultant loadings in a body.
3. explain the concepts of normal, shear, bearing and thermal stress.
Topics:
Introduction
Main Principles of Statics
Stress
Normal Stress
Shear Stress
Bearing Stress
Thermal Stre
4
Overview of Mechanics
1.1 Introduction
Mechanics : The study of how bodies react to forces acting on them
RIGID BODIES
(Things that do not change shape)
Statics : The study of bodies
in an equilibrium
DEFORMABLE BODIES
(Things that do change shape)
FLUIDS
Mechanics of Materials :
The study of the relationships
between the external loads
applied to a deformable body and
the intensity of internal forces
acting within the body.
Incompressible Compressible
Dynamics :
1. Kinematics concerned
with the geometric aspects
of the motion
2. Kinetics concerned
with the forces causing the
motion.
5
External Loads
1.2 Main Principles of Statics
External Loads
Surface Forces
- caused by direct contact of one body with
the surface of another.
Body Force
- developed when one body exerts a force on
another body without direct physical contact
between the bodies.
- e.g earths gravitation (weight)
concentrated force
linear distributed load, w(s)
STRESS AND
STRAIN
Axial Load
Normal Stress
Shear Stress
Bearing Stress
Allowable Stress
Deformation of Structural under Axial
Load
Statically indeterminate problem
Thermal Stress
Stress And Strain
Mechanics of material is a study of the
relationship between the external loads applied
to a deformable body and the intensity of
internal forces acting within the body.
Stress = the intensity of the internal force on a
specific plane (area) passing through a point.
Strain = describe the deformation by changes in
length of line segments and the changes in the
angles between them
8
Type of Stress
1.1 Introduction
Normal Stress : stress which acts perpendicular, or normal to, the
() cross section of the load-carrying member.
: can be either compressive or tensile.
Shear Stress : stress which acts tangent to the cross section of
() the load-carrying member.
: refers to a cutting-like action.
Normal Stress and
Normal Strain
Normal Stress, o
the intensity of force, or force per unit area,
acting normal to AA
A positive sign will be used to indicate a tensile stress
(member in tension)
A negative sign will be used to indicate a compressive
stress (member in compression)
o = P / A
(a)
(b)
Stress ( o ) = Force (P)
Cross Section (A)
Unit: Nm
-

N/mm
2
or MPa
N/m
2
or Pa
11
Examples of Axially
Loaded Bar
1.4 Axial Loading Normal Stress
Usually long and slender structural members
Typical examples : truss members, hangers, bolts
Assumptions :
1. Uniform deformation: Bar
remains straight before and
after load is applied, and
cross section remains flat or
plane during deformation
2. In order for uniform
deformation, force P be
applied along centroidal axis
of cross section C
12
Average Normal Stress
Distribution
A
P
A P
A F F F
A
z Rz
=
=
= E = | +
} }
o
o
o d d ;
= average normal stress at any point
on cross sectional area
P = internal resultant normal force
A = x-sectional area of the bar
1.4 Axial Loading Normal Stress
13
Procedure of Analysis
Use equation of = P/A for x-sectional area of a member when
section subjected to internal resultant force P
Internal Loading
Section member perpendicular to its longitudinal axis at pt
where normal stress is to be determined
Draw free-body diagram
Use equation of force equilibrium to obtain internal axial
force P at the section
Determine members x-sectional area at the section
Compute average normal stress = P/A
Average Normal Stress
1.4 Axial Loading Normal Stress
Example 1.1:
Two solid cylindrical rods AB and BC are welded
together at B and loaded as shown. Knowing that
d1=30mm and d2=20mm, find average normal
stress at the midsection of (a) rod AB, (b) rod BC.
Example 1.2
Two solid cylindrical roads AB and BC are welded
together at B and loaded as shown. Knowing that
d1 = 30 mm and d2 = 50 mm, find the average
normal stress in the mid section of (a) rod AB, (b)
rod BC.
Normal strain, c is the elongation or
contraction of a line segment per unit of
length
AL = elongation
Lo = length
c = AL / Lo
strain normal
L
=
o
= c
* AL= o
Example 1.3:
Determine the corresponding strain for a bar of
length L=0.600m and uniform cross section which
undergoes a deformation o=15010
-6
m.
6
6
6
150 10 m
250 10 m m
L 0 600m
250 10 250
/
.
@

o
c = = =
=
Stress and Strain Example
1.4 A cable and strut assembly ABC supports a vertical load
P=12kN. The cable has an effective cross sectional area of
160mm, and the strut has an area of 340mm.
(a)Calculate the normal stresses in the cable and strut.
(b)If the cable elongates 1.1mm, what is the strain?
(c)If the strut shortens 0.37mm, what is the strain?
Answer
a)62.5Mpa
29.41 Mpa
b) 4.4x10-4 m
1.48x10-4 m
1.5 The bar shown has a square cross section (20mm
x 40mm) and length, L=2.8m. If an axial force of
70kN is applied along the centroidal axis of the
bar cross sectional area, determine the stress
and strain if the bar end up with 4m length.
70kN 70kN
2.8m
The Stress-Strain Diagram
Tensile test is a experiment to determine the
load-deformation behavior of the material.
Data from tensile test can be plot into stress
and strain diagram.
Example of test specimen
- note the dog-bone geometry
28
Universal Testing Machine - equipment used to
subject a specimen to tension, compression,
bending, etc. loads and measure its response
29
Stress-Strain Diagrams
A number of important mechanical
properties of materials that be deduced
from stress-strain diagram are illustrated
in figure above.
30
Point O-A = linear relationship between stress
and strain
Point A = proportional limit (o
PL
)
The ratio of stress to strain in this linear region
of stress-strain diagram is called Young Modulus
or the Modulus of Elasticity given
At point A-B, specimen begins yielding.
Point B = yield point
Point B-C = specimen continues to elongate without any increase in
stress. Its refer as perfectly plastic zone
Point C = stress begins to increase
Point C-D = refer as the zone of strain hardening
Point D = ultimate stress/strength ; specimen
begins to neck-down
Point E = fracture stress
c
o
A
A
= E
o < o
PL
Unit: MPa
31
Point O to A
Point C to D
Point D to E
At point E
Normal or engineering stress can be determine
by dividing the applied load by the specimen
original cross sectional area.
True stress is calculated using the actual cross
sectional area at the instant the load is
measured.
31
Some of the materials like aluminum (ductile),
does not have clearly yield point such as
structural steel. Therefore, stress value
called the offset yield stress, o
YL
is used
in line of a yield point stress.
As illustrated, the offset yield stress is
determine by;
Drawing a straight line that best fits the data in initial (linear)
portion of the stress-strain diagram
Second line is then drawn parallel to the original line but offset
by specified amount of strain
The intersection of this second line with
the stress-strain curve determine the
offset yield stress.
Commonly used offset value is 0.002/0.2%
32
Brittle material such as ceramic and glass
have low tensile stress value but high in
compressive stress. Stress-strain diagram for
brittle material.
Example 1.6
The 4 mm diameter cable BC is made of a steel
with E=200GPa. Knowing that the maximum
stress in the cable must not exceed 190MPa
and that the elongation of the cable must not
exceed 6mm, find the maximum load P that can
be applied as shown
33
Elasticity and Plasticity
Elasticity refers to the property of a material such that
it returns to its original dimensions after unloading
Any material which deforms when subjected to load and
returns to its original dimensions when unloaded is said to
be elastic.
If also the stress is proportional to the strain, the
material is said to be linear elastic, otherwise it is non-
linear elastic.
Beyond the elastic limit, some residual strain or
permanent strains will remain in the material upon
unloading
The residual elongation corresponding to the permanent
strain is called the permanent set
34
The amount of strain which is recovered upon unloading is
called the elastic recovery.
35
Poisson's Ratio, v
When an elastic, homogenous and isotropic material is
subjected to uniform tension, it stretches axially but
contracts laterally along its entire length.
Similarly, if the material is subjected to axial
compression, it shortens axially but bulges out laterally
(sideways).
The ratio of lateral strain to axial strain is a constant
known as the Poisson's ratio,
where the strains are caused by uniaxial stress only
axial
lateral
v
c
c
=
36
Example 2.8
A prismatic bar of circular cross-section
is loaded by tensile forces P = 85 kN. The
bar has length of 3 m and diameter of 30
mm. It is made from aluminum with modulus
of elasticity of 70 GPa and poisson's ratio
v= 1/3. Calculate the elongation, Al,and the
decrease in diameter Ad.
37
Example 2.9
A 10 cm diameter steel rod is loaded with 862 kN axial
force. Knowing that the E=207 GPa and v= 0.29,
determine the deformation of rod diameter after
being loaded.
Solution
o in rod, o =
o < E axial strain
Lateral strain,

38
MPa
m
N x
A
p
7 . 109
) 1 . 0 (
4
1
10 862
2 2
3
= =
t
00053 . 0
10 207
7 . 109
3
= = =
MPa x
MPa
E
a
o
c
) 00053 . 0 ( 29 . ) ( o
a l
= = c v c
000154 . 0 =
) 1 . 0 )( 000154 . 0 ( ) ( = = A D d
l
c
cm 00154 . 0 =
Latihan Tegasan dan Terikan
1. Satu rasuk tegar AD disokong oleh wayar keluli CF,
sambungan tembaga BE dan penyangkut pada A. Rasuk
berada dlm keadaan horizontal sebelum beban P
dikenakan. Nilai modulus kekenyalan bagi keluli,
E
k
=210GPa dan bagi tembaga, E
t
=105GPa. Luas keratan
rentas bagi keluli, A
k
=0.00015m
2
dan bagi tembaga
A
t
=0.0018m
2
. Carikan tegasan dlm wayar keluli dan
sambungan tembaga.
39
2. Satu silinder konkrit berisi keluli digunakan sebagai
teras dalam bangunan. Daya mampatan yang disokong
oleh teras ialah P=100kN. Tentukan tegasan paksi
dalam silinder keluli dan konkrit dan juga pemendekan
pada teras. Diberi E
keluli
= 200 GPa dan E
konkrit
= 24
GPa
40
P
0.6m
keluli
konkrit
0.15m
0.18m
Shear Stress
A force acting parallel or tangential to a section taken
through a material (i.e. in
the plane of the material) is called a shear force
The shear force intensity, i.e. shear force divided by the area
over which it acts, is called the average shear stress, t
t = shear stress
V = shear force
A = cross-sectional area
Shear stress arises as a result of the direct action of forces
trying to cut through a material, it is known as direct shear
force
Shear stresses can also arise indirectly as a result of tension,
torsion or bending of a member.
A
V
= t
41
Depending on the type of connection, a connecting
element (bolt, rivet, pin) may be subjected to single
shear or double shear as shown.
Rivet in Single Shear
4
2
d
P
A
V
t
t = =
42
Rivet in Double Shear
Example 2.10
For the 12 mm diameter bolt shown in the
bolted joint below, determine the average
shearing stress in the bolt.
2 2
2
)
4
( 2
d
P
d
P
A
V
t
t
t = = =
43
Shear Strain
The effect of shear stress is to distort the shape of a
body by inducing shear strains
The shear strain, is a measure of the angular
distortion of the body.
(units: degrees, radians)
L
V
x

L
x
=
44
Bearing Stress
Bearing stress is also known as a contact stress
Bearing stress in shaft key;
Bearing stress in rivet and plat;
rhL
M
L h
r M
A
P
b
b
2
) 2 (
= = = o
td
P
b
= o
45
Example 2.11
A circular punch, B can withstand the
maximum shear stress of 300MPa.
Determine the minimum load P that must
be place on the plate in order to make a
hole of 50mm diameter. Given the
thickness of plate is 10mm.
Die
P
50mm
10mm
46
Example 2.12
Satu kunci segiempat tepat b x h x l
(15mm x 10mm x 75mm) digunakan untuk
menyambung gear dengan aci berdiameter,
d = 70mm. Momen yang dipindahkan oleh
kunci ialah 1000kNmm. Tentukan:
(a) Tegasan ricih dalam kunci
(b) Tegasan galas antara kunci dan shaft
r=35mm
P
b=15mm
h=10mm
47
Shear Modulus
It also known as Shear Modulus of Elasticity or the
Modulus of Rigidity.
Value of shear modulus can be occur from the linear region
of shear stress-strain diagram.
The modulus young (E), poissons ratio(v) and the modulus
of rigidity (G) can be related as
t G =
Unit : Pa
) 1 ( 2 v +
=
E
G
48
Example 2.13
A standard tension test is used to determine the
properties of an experimental plastic. The test specimen is
a 15 mm diameter rod and it is subjected to a 3.5 kN
tensile force. Knowing that an elongation of 11 mm and a
decrease in diameter of 0.62 mm are observed in a 120 mm
gage length. Determine the modulus of elasticy, the
modulus of rigidity, and Poissons ratio of the material.
49
P P
m
m
Stress on an inclined plane
Both normal stress and shear stress exist on an inclined
plane (plane m-m).
50
The stresses are the same throughout the entire bar,
the stresses on the inclined surface must be uniformly
distributed.
The bar is in equilibrium. Consequently, the resultant of
the uniformly distributed stress must equal to P, even
though the stress act on the inclined surface m-m.
P
P
m
m
51
To investigate the stresses acting on the inclined plane,
compute the components of the resultant force P acts
on the perpendicular and parallel to the plane.
The orientation of the inclined surface can be defined
by the angle between the x axis and the normal n.
When working with planes, the orientation of the plane
is specified by the normal to the plane.
P
P
t
n
x

52
The perpendicular component (acting in the n
direction) is termed the normal force N:
The parallel component (acting in the t direction) is
termed the shear force V:
P
P
t
n
x

N
V
N = P cos
V = - P sin
53
Since stress is defined as force per area, the
magnitude of the normal and the shear stress on
the inclined plane surface depends on the area
exposed when the plane m-m cut the material.
The area of the bar on the inclined plane depends
on the angle
As the angle of the inclined plane increase in
magnitude, the exposed area A
n
also increase.
Both normal and shear stress magnitude will be
directly affected by the orientation of the plane.
A
n
= A / Cos
54
Normal stress on an inclined plane
Average shear stress on an inclined plane
55
) cos (
cos
u
u
o
A
P
A
N
n
n
= =
u o u
2 2
Cos Cos
A
P
= =
) / ( u
u
t
Cos A
PSin
A
V
n
= =
u o u u 2
2
1
Sin Cos Sin
A
P
= =
Example 2.14
The bar shown has a square cross section for which the
depth and thickness are 40 mm. If an axial force of 800
N is applied along the centroidal axis of the bars cross
section area, determine the average normal stress and
average shear stress acting on the material along:
(a) Section plane a-a
(b) Section plane b-b
56
800 N
a
a
b
b
20mm
20mm
60
o
Example 2.15
The inclined member is subjected to a compressive force
of 600 N. Determine the average compressive shear
stress along the areas of contact defined by AB and BC,
and the average shear stress along the horizontal plane
defined by EDB.
57
600 N
4
3
1cm
1.5 cm
3 cm
2 cm
A
B
C
D
E
Volume Change
Because of the change in the dimensions of a body as a
result of tension or compression, the volume of the
body also changes within the elastic limit.
Consider a rectangular parallel piped having sides a, b
and c in the x, y and z directions, respectively.
58
The tensile force P causes an axial elongation of ac and
lateral contractions of bvc and cvc in the x, y, and z
directions respectively. Hence,
Initial volume of body, V
o
= abc
Final volume, V
f
= (a + ac)(b - bvc)(c - cvc)
= abc(1 + c)(1 - vc)
2
Initial
body
59
Expanding and neglecting higher orders of c (since c is
very small),
Final volume, V
f
= abc(1 + c - 2vc)
Change in volume,
AV = Final Volume - Initial Volume
= abc(1 + c - 2 vc) - abc
= abc(1 + c - 2 vc - 1)
= abc(c - 2 vc)
= V
o
c(1 - 2 v)
Hence,
Dilatation,
AV = Vo c(1 - 2 v)
60
) 2 1 ( v c =
A
o
V
V
) 2 1 ( v
o
=
E
e =
Isotropic material is subjected to general triaxial
stress o
x
, o
y
and o
z
.
Since all strain satisfy c << 1, so
c
v
= c
x
+ c
y
+ c
z
c
x
=
c
y
=
c
z
=
| | ) (
1
z y x
E
o o v o +
| | ) (
1
z x y
E
o o v o +
| | ) (
1
y x z
E
o o v o +
) (
2 1
z y x v
E
o o o
v
c + +

=
61
Example 2.16
A titanium alloy bar has the following original dimensions: x =
10cm; y = 4cm; and z = 2cm. The bar is subjected to stresses o
x
= 14 N and o
y
= - 6 N, as indicated in figure below. The
remaining stresses (o
z
, t
xy
, t
xz
and t
yz
) are all zero. Let E = 16
kN and v = 0.33 for the titanium alloy.
(a)Determine the changes in the length for
Ax, Ay and Az.
(b) Determine the dilatation, c
v
.
z
x
y
14 N
14 N
6 N
6 N
62
Allowable Stress
Applied load that is less than the load the member can
fully support. (maximum load)
One method of specifying the allowable load for the
design or analysis of a member is use a number called
the Factor of Safety (FS).
Allowable-Stress Design
allow
fail
F
F
FS =
FS > 1
FS
or
FS
yield
allow
yield
allow
t
t
o
o = =
63
Example 2.17
The suspended rod is supported at its end by a fixed-
connected circular disk as shown in figure. If the rod
passes through a 40 mm diameter hole, determine the
minimum required diameter of the rod and the minimum
thickness of the disk needed to support the 20 kN load.
The allowable normal stress for the disk is o
allow
= 60
MPa and the allowable shear stress for the disk is t
allow
=
35 MPa.
64
40 mm
d
20kN
t
Static Indeterminacy
Structures for which internal forces
and reactions cannot be determined
from statics alone are said to be
statically indeterminate.
A structure will be statically
indeterminate whenever it is held by
more supports than are required to
maintain its equilibrium.
Redundant reactions are replaced
with unknown loads which along with
the other loads must produce
compatible deformations
Deformations due to actual loads and
redundant reactions are determined
separately and then added or
superposed.
0 = + =
R L
o o o
65
Example 2.18
Determine the reactions at A and B for the steel bar
and loading shown, assuming a close fit at both
supports before the loads are applied.
66
Example 2.19
Two cylindrical rods, CD made of steel (E=29MPa) and
AC made of aluminum (E=10.4MPa), are joined at C and
restrained by rigid supports at A and D. Determine
(a) the reactions at A and D
(b) The deflection of point C
8 cm 10 cm 10 cm
18 N
14 N
cm cm
67
Thermal Stresses
A temperature change results in a change in
length or thermal strain. There is no stress
associated with the thermal strain unless the
elongation is restrained by the supports.
( )
coef. expansion thermal =
= A =
o
o o o
AE
PL
L T
P T
Treat the additional support as redundant
and apply the principle of superposition.
( ) 0
0
= + A
= + =
AE
PL
L T
P T
o
o o o
The thermal deformation and the deformation from
the redundant support must be compatible.
( )
( ) T E
A
P
T AE P
P T
A = =
A =
= + =
o o
o
o o o 0
68
Example 2.20
At room temperature (27
o
C) a 0.02 cm gap exists
between the ends of the rods shown. At a later time
when the temperature has reaches 227
0
C, determine
(a)The normal stress in the aluminum rod
(b)The change in length of the aluminum rod
12cm
10cm
0.02cm
cm
2
cm
2
Pa Pa
C
69