FUNDAMENTALS OF

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
(IT-305)

BY: BHAVNESH KUMAR
R/Faculty associate
School of engineering
Unit 2 Sinusoidal Steady State Analysis
of Networks

AC Fundamentals
Phasor diagram solution of AC Ciruits
Power in 1-phase AC circuits
Power in 3-phase AC circuits.


Why AC ?

Alternating voltages can be stepped up or stepped down
efficiently by means of a transformer.
AC motors (induction motors) are cheaper and simpler in
construction than DC motors.
The Switchgear (switches, circuit breakers etc.) for AC system is
simpler than DC system.
Important A.C. Terminology
Waveform: The shape of the curve obtained by plotting the
instantaneous values of voltage or current as ordinate against
time as abcissa is called its waveform or wave shape.
Instantaneous value : The value of alternating quantity at any
instant is called instantaneous value.
Cycle: one complete set of positive and negative values of an
alternating quantity is known as a cycle.
Time period (T): The time taken in seconds to complete one
cycle of an alternating quantity is called its time period.
Frequency (f): The number of cycles that occur in one second
is called the frequency of the alternating quantity. Its unit is
hertz and

f
T
1
=
Frequency
The number of cycles per second of a waveform
is called its frequency.
Frequency is denoted f.
The unit of frequency is the hertz.
1 Hz = 1 cycle per second

Electrical Circuit Theory 5
Period
The period of a waveform is the duration of one
cycle.
It is measured in units of time.
It is the inverse of frequency.
T = 1/f
For 50 Hz T=0.02 s
Electrical Circuit Theory 6
Alternating Current
Voltages of ac sources alternate in polarity
and vary in magnitude.
These voltages produce currents which vary
in magnitude and alternate in direction.
A sinusoidal ac waveform starts at zero,
increases to a positive maximum, decreases
to zero, changes polarity, increases to a
negative maximum, then returns to zero.
7
Sinusoidal waveforms

Electrical Circuit Theory 8
The Basic Sine Wave Equation
The voltage produced by a generator is
e = E
m
sin o.
E
m
is the maximum voltage and o is the
instantaneous angular position of the rotating
coil of the generator.
The voltage at any point on the sine wave
may be found by multiplying E
m
times the sine
of angle at that point.
Electrical Circuit Theory 10
Angular Velocity
The rate at which the generator coil rotates is
called its angular velocity, e.
The units for e are revolutions/second,
degrees/sec, or radians/sec.

Electrical Circuit Theory 11
t
t
e o
o
e
=
=
Radian Measure
e is usually expressed in radians.
2t radians = 360
To convert from degrees to radians, multiply by
t/180.
To convert from radians to degrees, multiply by
180/t.
Electrical Circuit Theory 12
Relationship between e,T, and f
One cycle of a sine wave may be
represented by o = 2t rads or t = T s.
Electrical Circuit Theory 13
f
T
T
t
t e
t
e
t e
e o
2
2
2
=
=
=
=
AC Fundamentals
In d.c. system, the voltage and current are constant so there is no problem
of specifying their magnitudes. However, an alternating voltage or current
varies from instant to instant.
how to express the magnitude of an alternating quantity ?

There are four ways to express it , namely
i. Peak value
ii. Average value or mean value
iii. R.M.S. value or effective value
iv. Peak-to-peak value
Peak Value
The peak value of a voltage or current is its
maximum value with respect to zero.
If a sine wave rides on top of a dc value, the
peak is the sum of the dc voltage and the ac
waveform amplitude.
Electrical Circuit Theory 15
Amplitude and Peak-to-Peak
Value
The amplitude of a sine wave is the distance
from its average to its peak.
We use E
m
for amplitude.
Peak-to-peak voltage is measured between the
minimum and maximum peaks.
We use E
p-p
or V
p-p
.
16

Electrical Circuit Theory 17
Average Value
To find an average value of a waveform,
divide the area under the waveform by the
length of its base.
Areas above the axis are positive, areas
below the axis are negative.
Average values are also called dc values
because dc meters indicate average values
rather than instantaneous values.
Electrical Circuit Theory 18
Average Value
The current waveform shown in Fig. 12.3a, is periodic in nature, with time
period, T. It is positive for first half cycle, while it is negative for second half
cycle.
The average value of the waveform, is defined as



NOTE: Only half cycle, or half of the time period, is to be used for computing the
average value, as the average value of the waveform over full cycle is zero (0).

If the half time period (T/2) is divided into 6 equal time intervals (T),




Please note that no. of time intervals is n = 6.
Average value of Sinusoidal Voltage
Waveform
Sine Wave Averages
The average value of a sine wave over a
complete cycle is zero.
The average over a half cycle is not zero.
The full-wave average is 2/t=0.637 times the
maximum value.
The half-wave average is 1/t= 0.318 times the
maximum value.
21
RMS or Effective Value

The effective or r.m.s. value of an alternating current is that steady state
current(d.c.)which when flowing through a given resistance for a given
time produces the same amount of heat as produced by the alternating
current when flowing through the same resistance for the same time.




Note: The average value cannot be used to specify a sinusoidal voltage or
current because its value over a cycle is zero and cannot be used for power
calculation.

Let I be the value of the direct current that produces the same energy dissipated in
the resistance R, as produced by the periodic waveform with half time period
subdivided into n time intervals,
R.M.S. value of Sinusoidal Voltage
Waveform
Phase Difference
Phase difference is
the angular
displacement between
waveforms at the same
frequency.
If the angular
displacement is 0, the
waveforms are in
phase; otherwise they
are out of phase.
If v
1
= 5 sin(100t) and
v
2
= 3 sin(100t - 30), v
1

leads v
2
by 30.
Electrical Circuit Theory 25
Voltages and Currents with
Phase Shifts
If a sine wave does not pass through zero at
t = 0, it has a phase shift.
For a waveform shifted left,
v = V
m
sin(et + u).
For a waveform shifted right,
v = V
m
sin(et - u).
26
Alternating Quantities Analysis
We can perform basic arithmetic operations such as addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division on two or more quantities
that vary sinusoidally at the same frequency by:

plotting each sinusoidal quantity and then make point-by-point
summation, subtraction etc. to get the resultant wave.

Analytical solution using trignometric identities.

Phasor representation
Phasor representation
Charles P. Steinmetz introduced, in 1893, introduced the concept of
using a constant amplitude line rotating at a frequency to represent
a sinusoid.
Phasor ?

A phasor is a rotating line whose projection on a vertical axis
can be used to represent sinusoidally varying quantities.
A sinusoidal waveform can be created by plotting the vertical
projection of a phasor that rotates in the counterclockwise
direction at a constant angular velocity e.
Phasors apply only to sinusoidal waveforms.
Rotating Phasor

Electrical Circuit Theory 29
Shifted Sine Waves
Phasors may be used
to represent shifted
waveforms.
The angle u is the
position of the phasor
at t = 0 seconds.

Electrical Circuit Theory 30
Sinusoidal source complex number

Electrical Circuit Theory 31
Complex Number Review
A complex number is in the form a + jb,
where j =
a is the real part and b is the imaginary part
of the complex number.
This called the rectangular form.
A complex number may be represented
graphically with a being the horizontal
component and b being the vertical
component.

Electrical Circuit Theory 32
1
Conversion between Rectangular
and Polar Forms
If C = a + jb in rectangular form, then C = CZu,
where
Electrical Circuit Theory 33
a
b
b a C
C b
C a
1
2 2

=
+ =
=
=
tan
sin
cos
u
u
u
Complex Number Review
j
2
= -1
j
3
= -j
j
4
= 1
1/j = -j
To add complex numbers, add the real parts and
imaginary parts separately.
Subtraction is done similarly.
Electrical Circuit Theory 34
Review of Complex Numbers
To multiply or divide complex numbers, it is best
to convert to polar form first.
(AZu)(BZ|) = (AB)Z(u + |)
(AZu)/(BZ|) = (A/B)Z(u - |)
(1/CZu) = (1/C)Z-u
The complex conjugate of a + jb is a - jb.


35
Summing waveforms point by point

Electrical Circuit Theory 36
Summing phasors

Electrical Circuit Theory 37
Important Notes
Until now, we have used peak values when
writing voltages and current in phasor form. It
is more common that they be written as RMS
values.
To add or subtract sinusoidal voltages or
currents, convert to phasor form, add or
subtract, then convert back to sinusoidal
form.
Quantities expressed as phasors are said to
be in phasor domain or frequency domain.
38
R,L, and C Circuits with Sinusoidal
Excitation
R, L, and C circuit elements each have quite
different electrical properties.
These differences result in different voltage-
current relationships.
When a circuit is connected to a sinusoidal
source, all currents and voltages in the circuit
will be sinusoidal.
These sine waves will have the same
frequency as the source and will differ from it
only in terms of their magnitudes and angles.

Electrical Circuit Theory 39
Resistance and Sinusoidal AC
In a purely resistive circuit, Ohms Law
applies; the current is proportional to the
voltage.
Current variations follow voltage variations,
each reaching their peak values at the same
time.
The voltage and current of a resistor are in
phase.
Electrical Circuit Theory 40
Resistance
For a resistor, the voltage and current are in
phase.
If the voltage has a phase angle, the current has
the same angle.
The impedance of a resistor is equal to RZ0.
Electrical Circuit Theory 41
Inductive Circuit
The voltage of an inductor is proportional to
the rate of change of the current.
Because the voltage is greatest when the rate
of change (or the slope) of the current is
greatest, the voltage and current are not in
phase.
The voltage phasor leads the current by 90
for an inductor.
Electrical Circuit Theory 42
Inductive Reactance
Inductive reactance, X
L
, represents the
opposition that inductance presents to current
for the sinusoidal ac case.
X
L
is frequency-dependent.
X
L
= V/I and has units of ohms.
X
L
= eL = 2tfL
Electrical Circuit Theory 43
Inductance
For an inductor, voltage leads current by 90.
If the voltage has an angle of 0, the current has
an angle of -90.
The impedance of an inductor is X
L
Z90.
Electrical Circuit Theory 44
Inductance V and I

Electrical Circuit Theory 45
Inductance V and I

Electrical Circuit Theory 46
Capacitive Circuits
In a capacitive circuit, the current is proportional
to the rate of change of the voltage.
The current will be greatest when the rate of
change of the voltage is greatest, so the voltage
and current are out of phase.
For a capacitor, the current leads the voltage by
90.
Electrical Circuit Theory 47
Capacitive Reactance
Capacitive reactance, X
C
, represents the
opposition that capacitance presents to
current for the sinusoidal case.
X
C
is frequency-dependent. As the frequency
increases, X
C
decreases.
X
C
= V/I and has units of ohms.


Electrical Circuit Theory 48
fC C
X
C
t e 2
1 1
= =
Capacitance
For a capacitor, the current leads the voltage by
90.
If the voltage has an angle of 0, the current has
an angle of 90.
The impedance of a capacitor is given as X
C
Z-
90.
Electrical Circuit Theory 49
Capacitance V and I

Electrical Circuit Theory 50
Impedance
The opposition that a circuit element
presents to current is the impedance,
Z.
Z = V/I, is in units of ohms
Z in phasor form is ZZu where u is the
phase difference between the voltage
and current.
Electrical Circuit Theory 51
Phasors for L,C,R
i
et
e
V
R
i
et
e
V
L
i
et
e
V
C

Suppose:
i i t
m
= sine
V Ri t
R m
= sine
V
C
i t
C m
=
1
e
e cos
V Li t
L m
= e e cos
t
i
V
R
0
x .. , 0
r1
n
r1
0 2 4 6
1
0
1
f( ) x
x
x .. , 0
r1
n
r1
0 2 4 6
1
0
1
f( ) x
x
V
C
x .. , 0
r1
n
r1
0 2 4 6
1
0
1
f( ) x
x
x .. , 0
r1
n
r1
0 2 4 6
1
0
1
f( ) x
x
0
i
i
0
x .. , 0
r1
n
r1
0 2 4 6
1
0
1
f( ) x
x
V
L
x .. , 0
r1
n
r1
0 2 4 6
1
0
1
1.01
1.01
f( ) x
6.28 0 x
Conclusion
AC voltages and currents can be represented as
phasors.
Since phasors have magnitude and angle, they
can be viewed as complex numbers.
A voltage given as 100 sin(314t + 30) can be
written as 100Z30.
Electrical Circuit Theory 53
Home work
Not to be handed in,
but should help on exams!





Solved examples of Chapter 1 & 2 of B. L. theraja
vol.1