Utilization of Human Excreta Derived Resources for the Benefit of Urban Poor: An Integrated Approach toward Improved Sanitation

Akira Sakai*, Qazi Azaduzzaman**, Musleh Uddin**, Hidenori Harada*** and Md. Nazmul Ahsan****

*University of Marketing and Distribution Sciences, 3-1 Gakuen-nishi-machi, Nishi-ku, Kobe, 651-2188, Japan (E-mail: akira_sakai@red.umds.ac.jp) ** Japan Association of Drainage and Environment Bangladesh Office, House No.66 (Flat 4A), Road No.8, Block C, Niketon, Gulshan-1, Dhaka-1212, Bangladesh (E-mail: aazad013@yahoo.com, mmuparvez@yahoo.com) *** Graduate School of Global Environmental Studies, Kyoto University, Yoshida-honmachi. Sakyo-ku, 606-8501, Kyoto, Japan (E-mail: harada.hidenori.8v@kyoto-u.ac.jp) ****Fisheries & Marine Resource Technology Discipline, Khulna University, Khulna 9208, Bangladesh (E-mail: nazmul_ku@yahoo.com)

Abstract In most of the urban poor settlements in developing countries, sanitation facilities are insufficient. Even if public toilets exist, it is usual the number of toilets is limited, some toilets are malfunctioned and defecated human excreta are seldom managed sanitarily. For example, there is no provision for sludge disposal despite toilets have septic tanks. Moreover, raw effluents from the septic tanks are directly contaminating water channels in urban areas. The authors implemented a baseline survey in Khulna city of Bangladesh to grasp the current situation of water use and sanitation and peoples concern on sanitation. Comparison to other areas of the city revealed that the most unhygienic environment prevails in the poor settlements with a high frequency of water borne diseases. The awareness level of residents on sanitation is low. Improving sanitation in urban poor settlements has been high on any development issues in Khulna city. Therefore, developing sanitation system with appropriate human excreta management is required urgently. The authors have developed a model for human excreta management in the urban poor settlements. Human excreta are treated as follows; urine can be used with organic compost to increase nutrient concentration whereas feces are decomposed to generate fuel gas through a biogas plant. The effects of the model have been verified through experiments. The results, up to now, reveal that installing the system, a community of poor settlement can expect to be provided benefit related to human excreta derived resources in addition to improved sanitation.

Keywords Urban sanitation; resource recovery; human excreta management

INTRODUCTION The number of people living in the poor settlements in urban area of developing countries is increasing drastically. In most of the urban poor settlements, the sanitation facilities are insufficient. Even if public toilets exist, the number of the toilets is limited; moreover it is frequent those are broken, malfunctioned and finally abandoned to use. Even though the toilets are used, defecated human excreta are seldom managed properly. Up to now, various development projects have been carried out with little, if any, success in improving urban sanitary situation as far as the sanitary human excreta management is concerned. For example, although toilets having septic tanks have installed, there is no provision for sludge disposal. Raw effluents from septic tanks in lack of proper maintenance are directly contaminating water channels inside the city and rivers. A baseline survey result in Khulna city of Bangladesh implemented by the authors revealed that the most unhygienic environment prevails in the poor settlements with a high frequency of water borne diseases. Furthermore, compared to other areas of the city, the residents have less awareness on sanitation. Improving sanitation in urban poor settlements has been high on any development agenda in Khulna city. In this paper, based on the problems identified from the baseline survey result mentioned above, a model of

human excreta management, which derives resources from human excreta, will be proposed for the urban poor settlements, considering social acceptance as well as technological and environmental sustainability. To make the model in practice, experiments have been done as a preliminary phase. Through the result of the experiments, application of the model to the urban poor settlements will be discussed.

CURRENT SANITARY SITUATION OF URBAN POOR SETTLEMENTS IN KHULNA CITY Poor Settlements in Khulna City Khulna city (Khulna City Cooperation; KCC hereinafter) is the third largest city in Bangladesh, located in the southwest of the country. It covers 45.65 km2 and has nearly 1.5 million inhabitants. Khulna is an important river port city and has become center for industrial development. There are 613 slums in KCC and the population living in slum areas is 227,500 (BCAS, 2005). The authors have implemented a baseline survey regarding water supply and sanitation in various areas of KCC in January 2010 and 2011. Total samples are 700, in which slum and colony is defined as the urban poor settlements. Colony has been a residential area for the workers of factories, for example, but houses and infrastructure including sanitation facility is dilapidated with the times. Three slums and one colony have been selected as survey sites. The numbers of samples of slum and colony are 160 and 40, respectively. According to the results, types of the toilet in the poor settlements are septic tank (62%), pit latrine (17%) and other types including hanging latrine and direct discharge into drain (21%). Although the percentage of septic tank users is relatively high, it is easy to observe malfunctioning toilets regardless the toilet types. Fig 1 shows the answer against the question Did anybody of your family suffer from water borne diseases during last one year? There is a remarkable difference in the occurrence of water borne disease between poor settlements and other areas. As shown in Fig 2 and 3, peoples concern on sanitation is relatively low in the poor settlements compared to other areas. On the other hand, although the conditions related to the living environment are inferior, the willingness to improve their situation is low especially in slum residents as shown Fig 4.
Suffering from Water borne Disease (Last 1 Year)
Slum Colony Other KCCTotal 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Do you think your current defecation practise pollute water?

Slum Colony OtherAreas KCCTotal 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Yes

No

Yes

Middle

No

Fig 1 Frequesncy of disease occurrence

Fig 2 Concern on sanitation (1)

Are you concerned about your domestic wastewater?

Slum Colony OtherAreas KCCTotal

Willingness to Improve your Living Environment

Slum Colony Other Areas KCC Total

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%
0% 20% 40% Middle 60% 80% 100%

Yes

Middle

No

I want to improve it

I don't care

Fig 3 Concern on sanitation (2)

Fig 4 Willingness to improve environment

Water Flow Surrounding Slum Areas Fig 5 shows water supply and wastewater flow diagram surrounding slums. These flow rates are calculated based on total slum population, unit water usage per person and ratio of discharge points of black and gray waters, which are obtained from the baseline survey result mentioned above. It is assumed that water quality of canal or drain at downstream of slum areas are polluted, as septic tank is sole treatment facilities and most of them are not properly maintained, low frequency of sludge removal, for example. Water quality test result at points of drain receiving discharge from some slums shows pollution of organic matters and fecal coliform bacteria as shown Table 1.

Fig 5 Flow diagram of water supply and wastewater surrounding slums Table 1 Water quality test result at downstream of slum areas
DO BRAC slum Mashjid slum Ashrat slum mg/L 1.6 0.7 1.3 EC s/cm 3450 3540 6750 BOD mg/L 166 162 160 COD mg/L 270 255 254 SS mg/L 4213 456 4712 TDS mg/L 1720 1770 3370 NH4-N mg/L 4.4 4.3 4.4 NO3-N mg/L 6.3 6.1 10.8 PO4-P mg/L 0.44 0.39 1.21 Coliform Bacteria MPN/100mL 5 >1.1x10 5 >1.1x10 5 >1.1x10 Fecal coliform Bacteria MPN/101mL 5 1.1x10 4 1.5x10 5 1.1x10

Problem Identification The Baseline survey result reveals problems related to sanitation in urban slums in KCC. Lack of appropriate sanitation, that is small number of toilets, insufficient maintenance of toilet and lack of human excreta management, affects health of the residents themselves and causes various impacts on environment of surrounding residential areas and natural water resources. Another problem is low awareness level and low willingness to improve their living environment among the residents, which might hamper the sanitary improvement and pollution control on water environment. To raise residents motivation, along with awareness program and proper information release, it is necessary to provide some incentive to improve sanitary situation.

PROPOSAL OF SANITATION SYSTEM APPLIED FOR URBAN POOR SETTLEMENTS Requirements for Sanitation System Applied to the Urban Poor Settlements Generally speaking, hygienic situation without bad smell or fly is required for the toilets. In addition, in the

context of sanitary human excreta management, utilization of human excreta derived resource is also attractive way and provides incentive to motivate slum residents. Working with ecological sanitation in the rural areas of Bangladesh, the authors found that the socio-cultural concern of using human excreta as fertilizer can be successfully addressed through awareness program and actual practice (Sakai, et al., 2007). Users of ecological sanitation have been brought the benefit of using human excreta derived fertilizer for increasing crop productivity (Sakai, et al., 2010). It is one of key factors that users and rural communities accept ecological sanitation. In contrast, operation and maintenance of ecological sanitation for public use in urban poor settlements appeared to be unacceptable, besides unlike the users in rural area, it is not readily apparent for urban residents to use resource by themselves if fertile value of human excreta is utilized. Human excreta can be used as energy source also, and hence urban residents can also utilize human excreta derived resource. Therefore, along with using as energy source, a technology involving on-site treatment of human excreta and off-site use of such resources generate impetus to motivate urban poor residents to install and manage sanitation facility properly. Appropriate management ensure a sustainable sanitation solution in the urban poor settlements. Proposal of Sanitation System Through a series of consultation meetings and focus group discussions with different stakeholders, the authors have developed a model for human excreta management in the urban poor settlements as depicted in Fig 1. As illustrated in the figure, urine will be used with organic compost, which is processed with various biodegradable solid wastes, to increase nutrient contents. On the other hand, fuel gas can be generated from accumulated human feces by using a biogas plant. In addition to solid wastes, sludge materials from biogas might also serve as a raw material for compost. The model proposes an on-site composting facility thereby negating the transportation issue of raw urine and feces of large volumes for off-site treatment or dumping. Biogas can be used in a community centre or supplied to some households near the plant. Processed compost can be a product of organic fertilizer and income might be brought to the slum community by selling urine collected from urinal. This model aims at community based resource utilization for the better livelihood.
Urban poor settlement
Public Toilets Community Center

Urinal

Defecation Bio-gas plant

Fuel

Septic Tank
Solid Waste

Compost Processing (Adding Urine)

Soak pit Sludge

Organic Matters

Application in Rural Area

Fig 6 Model for sanitation improvement in the urban poor settlements

SURVEY ON BIOGAS SANITATION SYSTEM Description of the plant In Bangladesh, biogas technology is commonly applying cattle excreta, but practices of applying human excreta are few. Research on biogas sanitation system is also limited (UNU-IAS, 2005). The plant surveyed is constructed at a dormitory of Shinomori Islamic School located in KCC. Students use the toilet connected to a biogas plant. The number of the students is 175. The plant was constructed in 2006. Design retention time is 20 days. As the effluent from the biogas plant has high concentration of organic matter, the effluent is treated by septic tank. Water quality and sludge test results Water quality parameters at some points of the plant have been analyzed including coliform bacteria and fecal coliform bacteria. As for sludge, nutrient content was analyzed. Parasites and protozoa test of sludge has also done. Table 2 shows organic matters are being decomposed and the number of fecal coliform bacteria is reduced. Reduction of Kjeldahl nitrogen indicates nitrogen is being accumulated in sludge. Sludge test result shows relatively high concentration of nitrogen and phosphorus. From the test result of parasites and protozoa, only Ascaris spp. (40 egg/g), Giardia spp. (200 cyst/g) is detected. The results indicate the biogas plant is capable to make excreta biologically stable, and septic tank is functioning to reduce organic concentration. Table 2 Water quality test result
pH Influent Digester Septic i fl Effluent tank 7.01 6.43 6.46 6.47 BOD5 mg/L 6780 1556 778 482 COD mg/L 15594 3180 1379 631 EC s/cm 9480 5570 4150 1385 TDS mg/L 3400 2680 2225 2255 TSS mg/L 1245 369 198 106 Coliform Fecal Coliform Bacteria Bacteria mg/L MPN/100m MPN/100mL L 2874 >1.2x104 >1.2x104 780 1.1x104 >1.2x104 TKN 326 152 >1.2x104 >1.2x10
4

7.5x102 2.1x102

Table 3 Sludge test result

Sludge Moisture 85.63% TKN 2.81 g/100g dry T-P 1.42 g/100g dry K 0.16 g/100g dry

Biogas production and benefit Biogas volume was measured at the terminal point in the kitchen of the school, where biogas is used for cooking in the morning and noon time, for 3.5 hours totally. According to the school, about 70% of wooden fuel is saved by using biogas. In the experiment, water is heated by biogas using 20L pan. Calories provided by biogas were measured from the change of water temperature and volume. Gas volume was measured using measuring cylinder. The rate of calorie supply is constant for about 3 hours, then fall down rapidly. The experiment result is summarized in Table 4. The result corresponds to what hear from the school. From the calorie per biogas volume and estimated gas volume, it is expected for every toilet user to get 450mL of hot water. The well maintained biogas plant provides benefit to the school. It is said a household buys 20BDT (Bangladesh Taka) wooden fuels for cooking purpose. Assuming the same percentage of wooden fuel saving as the school, a household saves around 5,000BDT annually. Biologically stable sludge might be useful as a source of nutrient rich organic fertilizer. Not only monetary benefit, through the reduction of organic matters, water environment is expected to be improved.

Table 4 Biogas generation relating information

No. of users Gas flow under steady state Calorie supply under steady state CH4 Concentration Calorie per gas volume Total supplied calorie Estimated gas volume Calorie loss (assuming 5500 Kcal/CH4m3) Calorie per user Equivalent to boiling water 25 - 100C 175 15.88 31.9 48 2008 5890 2.93 24 33.7 449 persons L/min Kcal/min Kcal/m Kcal m3/day Kcal mL
3

EFFECT OF URINE ON VEGETABLE YIELD Outline of the experiment Use of excess chemical fertilizer has brought various problems; low organic content in soils of farm is a typical example of its impact. Although organic fertilizer is recommended; sometimes nutrient contents are low for sufficient yield. On the other hand, urine is nutrient rich and many of the ecological sanitation users have obtained increased harvest in crops and vegetables by applying urine as fertilizer. The authors have implemented an experiment to know the effect of mixed use of urine and compost as a preliminary phase to develop a technology to produce urine added compost. The experiment has been done at a farm which locates in the peri-urban area of Khulna city. Tomato was selected as a crop to grow. Four treatments were set for the experiment as shown in the Table 5. For each treatment five plots are prepared, having area of 3.81 x 2.14 (8.16 m2) and 30 seedlings were planted for each plot. Period of experiment is from November 2010 to March 2011. The soil test result of the composite sample from multiple points of the experiment plots indicates low content of organic carbon (1.1%) and nitrogen, medium content of phosphorus and high content of potassium. Nutrient content of compost and urine applied is shown in Table 6. The compost consists of poultry litter, bone meal, cow dung, water hyacinth, mustered oil cake, Azolla sp., saw dust and ash. Table 5 Treatments of the experiment
Treatment T1: control T2: compost T3: urine T4: urine + compost fertilizing condition 6.5 kg/plot, applied 3 times 165 L/plot, applied 3 times 165 L and 6.5kg/plot, applied 3 times

Table 6 Nutrient contents of applied urine and compost

urine compost N 4710 mg/L 17.5 mg/g P 645 mg/L 9 mg/g K 1580 mg/L 6 mg/g

Fertile Effect of Urine Fig 7 shows average yield of tomato among five plots for each treatment. Difference between T1 and T2 does not show statistical significance. However, difference between T1 and T3 shows significance at 5%. Differences between T4 and other treatments show statistical significance at 1%. The result indicates both organic matter and nutrients are necessary for the satisfactory production in the low organic content farm. Comparing T2 and T4, assuming the increased yield is brought by urine application and price of tomato is 10BDT/kg, 1L urine is equivalents to 2BDT. Compared to the previous survey (Takahashi, et al., 2009), this amount is bigger.

YieldofTomato,kg/m2

6 5 4 3 2 1 0 Control Compost Urine Urine+ Compost

Fig 7 Differnce of tomato yield for each fertilizing condition

PROVISION OF IMPROVED SANITATION FOR THE URBAN POOR SETTLEMENTS The sanitation system proposed in this paper aims at improved sanitation with appropriate human excreta management, deriving resource from human excreta to utilize it both on-site and off-site, which is intended to form incentive among residents in urban poor settlement. To make it in practice, a scheme shown in Fig 8 is recommended. The scheme consists of following steps; 1) awareness raising on sanitation among the community members, 2) problem identification under participation of the community, 3) forming willingness to improve sanitation, 4) selection of technical option and site selection of the necessary facilities, 5) establishing community based organization (CBO).

Fig 7 Implementation scheme of the sanitation system Installed toilets and facilities are expected to be continuously maintained by CBO independently. Roles of CBO are not only to conduct facility maintenance, but also to cover overall management of the sanitation system, which consist of followings; 1) To determination cost sharing for contribution by the community 2) To set-up management rule and make it familiarize among the community 3) To make securing of financing for management: initial deposit, monthly charge and/or fee per usage

4) To maintain toilets and facilities 5) To serve biogas to the community or common use at a community center near the biogas plant 6) To manage selling or utilization of urine: invitation of compost factory near the settlement or establish such factory by themselves 7) Accounting

CONCLUSION Outcomes Based on the baseline survey, the authors have discussed the necessity to improve sanitation of urban poor settlements. As an incentive might be necessary to form willingness to improve current sanitary situation, and a model was developed to utilize human excreta derived resources as shown Fig 1. To make the model practical, function of a biogas plant and the effect of urine when it is used with organic compost ought to be ascertained preliminarily. Based on the experiment results, following outcomes are obtained; 1) Well-maintained biogas plant brings sanitary improvement and reduction of pollutants, in addition to deriving biogas from human excreta which is available as fuel. 2) Applying organic compost and urine as fertilizer has brought increased yield of tomato. 3) Implementation scheme and roles of community based organization are considered. Subjects for the next step To make the model feasible, various subjects including technical and social aspects still exists as follows; 1) To develop a technology to produce urine mixed compost and verify its effect 2) To confirm the stability of biogas generation based on a continuous survey of biogas plant function 3) To develop measures to utilize sludge from biogas plant as resources As a final target of the research, the authors intend to implement a case study based on actual slum area, to estimate overall benefit of the proposed sanitation system.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This study was implemented as a part of research named Sanitation constraints classification and alternatives evaluation for Asian cities, supported by the Japan Ministry of Environment, Grant #K22047, 2008-2011. The authors would like to express gratitude to the following persons; Mr. Rahman, G. M. T. of Environment Friendly Agricultural Development Foundation (EFADF) for his positive involvement especially for set-up the experiment plot and providing organic compost. Mr. Md. Ibrahim, the school master of Shinomori Islamic School, for offering various conveniences for the survey of the biogas plant. Mr. Md. Wahiduzzaman, an engineer of Local Government Engineering Department, Bangladesh, for his effective suggestion on biogas plant survey. Various survey practices have been done with dedicated support of staffs of Khulna University and Japan Association of Drainage and Environment (JADE). REFERENCES
Bangladesh Centre for Advanced Studies (2005) Quantity and Quality Assessment of Khulna City Solid Waste for Electricity Generation Sakai A., et al. (2007) Challenges to Overcome the Problems Related with Sanitation in Rural Area of Bangladesh, Annual Conference, Bangladesh Regional Science Association, 1, 15pages (CD-ROM), Dhaka, Bangladesh. Sakai, A., Takahashi, K. and Azaduzzaman, Q. (2010) An Example of Benefit Estimation Related with Ecological Sanitation in Rural Areas of Bangladesh, International Water Association, Decentralized Wastewater Treatment Solutions in Developing Countries, Surabaya, Indonesia, 8 pages (CD-ROM) Takahashi, K., Sakai, A., Hosaka, H. and Takamura, S. (2009) An Effect and Benefit Evaluation of Eco-San Toilet Installment in Bangladesh Rural Area, Environmental and Sanitary Engineering Research, 23(1), 2-12. UNU-IAS (2005) Water and Sanitation in an Urban Poor Settlement: A Case Study of Bauniabad, Bangladesh