Eco-Cultural Resource Use in Diyakapilla Village

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ECO-CULTURAL RESOURCE USE IN DIYAKAPILLA VILLAGE

BASE LINE SURVEY REPORT OF THE ECO-CULTURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT PROJECT
K.S. FERNANDO and S.S.S. JASINGHE
Centre for Eco-cultural Studies (CES) Diyakapilla, Sigiriya Sri Lanka
ECO-CULTURAL RESOURCE USE IN DIYAKAPILLA
ECO-CULTURAL RESOURCE USE IN DIYAKAPILLA VILLAGE

BASE LINE SURVEY REPORT OF THE ECO-CULTURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT PROJECT
K.S. FERNANDO and S.S.S. JASINGHE
@ Centre for Eco-cultural Studies (CES) 2001
Cover photograph: The Sigiriya Sanctuary Photographs: S.S.S. Jasinghe and K. S. Fernando Cover Design: .S.S.S. Jasinghe
Centre for Eco-cultural Studies (CES) Diyakapilla Sigiriya Sri Lanka centeco@sltnet.lk www.cessrilanka.org
1.0
INTRODUCTION The Sigiriya area is one of the most diverse and productive ecosystems that provides economic, environmental and social benefits to the local communities. The diverse habitats incorporated within this area are the Tropical Dry-mixed Evergreen Forest type, dry grasslands, village forests, home gardens and tank environments that harbour over 80% of the Dry Zone vertebrate fauna -- the majority of which are considered to be nationally threatened owing to the loss or modification of habitats; almost 60% of the Dry Zone flora; and the invertebrate faunal group facing a direct threat from the extensive use of agricultural pesticides and fungicides. The introduction of national laws to protect endangered environments and cultural sites include Sigiriya in its entirety as a designated Protected Area (PA) that yet, contains several occupied traditional villages, including Diyakapilla and neighbouring Kosgaha Ala. Among the designated Protected Areas are the World Heritage Site of the Sigiriya royal palace complex and archaeological reserve; Sigiriya wildlife sanctuary; and the Minneriya-Giritale Nature Reserve. Yet most of these ecosystems continue to face the threat of diverse increased human activities that endanger the environment and its associated wildlife that could be prevented by adequate measures.
Fig.1. Protected Area signage.
The corresponding lifeways of the traditional agricultural community of Diyakapilla governed by agriculture, livestock management, hunting, gathering and fishing among other subsistence practices have also considerably influenced the environment. The site was selected owing to its given location and potential to develop community-based natural resource management that would assist in controlling the communitys present dependence on the natural forest environment; to promote non-destructive nature-based enterprises; and eco-cultural research envisaged for the sustainability of the forest environs. The proposed project aims to focus on comparative eco-cultural studies and initiate an appropriate methodology for the sustainable use of natural resources by the local communities in the Diyakapilla/Sigiriya area, with the strengthening of local communities through skills development, providing incentives for development of alternative income generation activities, etc. Preventing further village expansion into wildlife Protected Areas and controlling the demand for forestlands impose a legal, political, social and economic challenge to the authorities concerned primarily due to inadequate measures for collaboration and effective community participation. The baseline survey pertaining to the study area is necessitated to comprehend the present status of village lifeways that concern PA management. The baseline survey was carried out to obtain the preliminary data required to develop a strategy for a and community-based cultural participation resource in the environmental local
management model that provides active community management of Protected Areas. Fig. 2. Map of Sri Lanka showing the study region.
1.1
LOCATION
Diyakapilla is situated approximately 3 km east of the nearest establishment in Sigiriya within the Sigiriya wildlife sanctuary on the peripheries of the archaeological reserve and World Heritage Site of the Sigiriya Royal complex and the western boundary of the Minneriya-Giritale Nature Reserve. Dambulla to the southwest of Diyakapilla is the nearest major town and economic centre; and Habarana to the north as the hub, also serve as important tourist destinations.
Fig. 3. Map of the study area of Diyakapilla.
1.2
CLIMATE The climate throughout the Dry Zone is largely influenced by the convectional rainfall pattern that governs the agricultural calendar. The principal rains are received annually from the northeast monsoon between December and February, with brief inter-monsoonal periods from MarchApril and October-November. The mean annual temperature falls within the range of 25o and 27o C. The wind velocity of the region increases
dramatically and drops to a lower degree in October, while the south-westerly winds that blow across Sigiriya area reach their peak in June and July.
1.3
GEOLOGY
The area belongs to the Highland Series dating back to the Pre-cambrian
Period. The rock types distributed in the area include magmatite gneiss, quartzite or quartz and crystalline limestone. Monoliths such as Sigiriya, Pidurangala and Mapagala dominate the landscape and are important for their geological formation and cultural value. The dominant types of soil prevalent in the area are Reddish-brown Earth and Low Humic Gley soil.
Fig. 4. The Sigiriya Rock monolith.
1.4
WATER RESOURCES Water is evidently the most severely deficient resource in Diyakapilla for drinking, bathing or sustained agricultural practices. The main natural waterways of Migolla Ala and Kuda Ulpota flow across Diyakapilla on the
southern and northern sides respectively, and fall into the village tank of Kosgaha Ala vava or Vannigamaya vava in Kosgaha Ala further east. The majority of inhabitants presently use selected sites these waterways for bathing in, with some sites reserved for drinking purposes. The initiative to develop the existing waterways for sustained benefits is, however, evidently minimal, with the exception of one spring well upstream on Migolla Ala that has been conserved with thoughtful consideration to cleanliness and hygiene and is often useful in the long dry period in August and September when most water holes in the area dry out. The remaining sites and drinking water wells are largely neglected through a lack of concern, despite the continued need for potable water. The few sources of available water fit for drinking and bathing are located along in a few home gardens with approximately 8 m deep wells. These wells are often shared by only the closest kin and neighbours, while the remaining families depend on the few available perennial water sources in Pihilla -- a site marked by the present construction of a causeway or in Kosgaha Ala. As such, a well dug by the Mahaveli authorities is available for use for the families of the owners of the compound in which it is located, and is restricted for common usage. Additionally, two to three wells that are less deep dry out during the dry period and are thus seasonally neglected used over or an
indefinite period. Fig.5. The village tank: Vannigamaya vava, also known as Kosgaha Ala vava.
The only tube well installed in the Primary School yard is accessible to all members of the community, except when it runs dry with an increased demand for water, used for drinking and cooking. The eastern sector of the village particularly lacks water owing to the widespread dispersal of the subterranean limestone belt. A single well contains drinking water with two more available for bathing at the lower end of the hamlet and is shared by a number of families. A further two spring wells are available for individual use on the south-eastern periphery. A seasonal waterway along the route to Kosgaha Ala is also used for bathing, while a common perennial stream is located further east in Pihilla.
1.5
VEGETATION The most widespread vegetation type in the Dry Zone is the Tropical Drymixed Evergreen Forest ecosystem (Gunatilleke 1990; Andrews 1961; Holmes 1956; Rosayro 1950). It has also been described as a Semi-deciduous Forest ecosystem (Greller and Balasubramaniam 1990) and further nominated as a Semi-evergreen Forest by Dittus (1977). The vegetation in the area concerned is representative of the Dry Zone lowland vegetation widely known as secondary forests. The abandonment of the great kingdoms and tanks in the past coincides with the development of this forest type, in addition to sustained chena practices (slash-and-burn or shifting cultivation) in the area. The dominant species in this forest ecosystem include Manilkara hexandra (Palu), Drypetes sepiaria (Vira) Diospyros ebenum (Kaluvara), Chloroxylon swietenia (Buruta), Berrya cordifolia (Halmilla), Vitex altissima (milla) and Schleichera oleosa (Kon).
The vegetation along the waterways in moist conditions occurs with the moist facies of the former general type. The most abundant species in this habitat are Vitex leucoxylon (Nabada), Madhuka longifolia (Mi), Berrya cordifolia (Halmilla) Diospyros malabarica (Timbiri), Hydnocarpus venenata (Makulu) and Mitragyna parvifolia (Halamba) and Terminalia arjuna (Kumbuk). Since these deciduous species are not all necessarily simultaneously leafless the forest appears evergreen throughout the year. Species such as Manilkara hexandra (Palu) and Diospyros ebenum (Kaluvara) are commonly evergreen emergent, with species such as Mimusops elangi (Munamal) also occasionally found (Rosayro 1958, Holmes 1956, Cramer (1993). The ground vegetation in this forest ecosystem is relatively sparse and may be observed in open areas and large forest gaps mostly induced by the felling of trees. The undergrowth is floristically very poor and is mostly dominated by a few grasses and annual herbs. The Scrub Forest environment consists mainly of thorny and non-thorny shrubs scattered are cinera Ziziphus (Masan), oenoplia (Karamba) Lantana and a few The trees.
thorny shrubs found Dichrostrachys (Andara), mauritiana Ziziphus (Eraminiya) and carmera Fig. 6. CES researches on a floristic survey.
and Carissa spinarum
(Gandapana) to name a few.
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The dominant non-thorny shrub species are Eupatorium odoratum (Podisinnomaran), Bauhinia tomentosa (Petan), Memecylon umbellatum (Korakaha), Phyllanthus polyphyllus (Kuratiya), Croton laccifer (Kappetiya), Glycosmis angustifolia (Bolpana) and Glycosmis pentaphylla (Dhodampana), among others. This forest type is unique in appearance due to the presence of scattered trees such as Pterospermum subrifolium (Velang), Bauhinia racemosa (Maila), Vitex negundo (Nika) and Grewia damine (Dhamunu).
1.6 FAUNA OF THE SIGIRIYA WILDLIFE SANCTUARY The fauna of the Sigiriya Sanctuary and its environs are characteristic of the diverse species of Birds, Mammals, Reptiles, Amphibians, Freshwater Fishes, Insects, etc. that are common throughout the Dry Zone. The region supports over 80% of the Dry Zone vertebrate fauna -- of which most are considered to be nationally threatened owing to the loss or modification of habitats -- in addition to almost over 60% of the Dry Zone flora. The invertebrate faunal group consisting of Butterflies and Moths, Beetles and Spiders, among others is another fascinating natural resource that has not received due attention.
1.6.1
Mammals Of the diverse species of fauna represented in Sigiriya, approximately 40 species are mammals. Of these, pride of place goes to the majestic Elephant whose migratory route lies across the study area. Sigiriya also provides an ideal habitat for the four living non-human primate species found in Sri Lanka. Squirrels Fig. 7. Slender Loris.
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are another interesting group of mammals common in forested areas. The Wild Boar, Porcupine and numerous species of Deer are also dominant in the forests. Of particular interest are other nocturnal mammals such as the Civet Cat and Otter who are rarely seen, although they may be observed during the day after a careful search of the forest.
Table 1. Some selected mammals recorded in the area.
Flying fox (Pteropus giganteus), Indian Porcupine (Hystrix indica), Malabar Bandicoot (Bandicota indica), Palm Squirrel (Funambulus palmarum), Giant Squirrel (Ratufa
macroura), Black-naped Hare (Lepus nigricollis), Slender Loris (Loris tardigradus), Grey
Langur (Trachypithecus entellus), Purple-faced Leaf Monkey (Semnopithecus vetulus), Toque Monkey (Macaca sinica), Ring-tailed Civet (Viverricula indica), Grey mongoose (Herpestes
edwardsi),
Black-tipped
Mongoose
(Herpestes
smithii),
Fishing
Cat
(Prinonailurus viverrinus), Otter (Lutra lutra), Jackal (Carnis aures), Elephant (Elephas
maximus), Mouse Deer (Moschiola meminna), Spotted Deer (Axis axis), Sambhur (Cervus unicolor), Barking Deer (Muntiacus muntijak), Wild Boar (Sus scrofa), Indian Pangolin
(Manis crassicaudata).
1.6.2
Birds The Sigiriya region contains over 170 species of migrant and resident birds. Of these, approximately 50% are considered to be nationally threatened. Numerous types of Babblers, Bulbuls, Barbets, Flycatchers, Eagles, Parakeets, Pigeons, Owls and Woodpeckers are common as are Kingfishers, Egrets, Herons, Cormorants and Storks that are found in tank environments. Migrant birds such as the Forest Wagtail, Indian Pitta, Orange-headed Ground Thrush and Blue Rock thrushes are the most attractive species found in the area when winter sets in the Northern Hemisphere.
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Table 2. Some selected birds recorded in the area.
Black-headed
Ibis
(Threskiornis
melanocephalus),
Eurasian
Spoonbill
(Platalea
leucorodia) White-breasted Waterhen (Amaurornis phoenicurus), Barred Buttonquail
(Turnix suscitator), Black Eagle (Ictinaetus malayensis), Crested Serpent Eagle (Spilornis
cheela), Sri Lanka Grey Hornbill (Tockus gingalensis), Malabar Pied Hornbill
(Anthracoceros coronatus), Sri Lanka Jungle Fowl (Gallus lafayettii), Spot-bellied Eagle Owl (Bubo nipalensis), Oriental Scops Owl (Otus sunia), Blue-faced Malkoha (Rhopodytes
viridirostris), Common Kingfisher (Alcedo atthis), Stork-billed Kingfisher (Halycon capensis), Crimson-fronted Barbet (Megalaima rubricapilla), Coppersmith Barbet
(Megalaima haemacephala), Gold Leafbird (Chloropsis aurfrons), Flame Minivet (Pericrocotus flammeus), White-browed Fantail (Rhipidura aureola), Racket-tailed Drongo (Dicrurus paradiscus), Black-naped Flycatcher (Hypothymis azurea), Paradise Flycatcher (Terpsiphone paradisi), Orange-headed Thrush (Zoothera citrina), Black-headed Yellow Bulbul (Pycnonotus melanicterus), Common tailorbird (Orthotomus sutrius), Large-billed Leaf Warbler (Phylloscopus magnirostris), Dark-fronted Babbler (Rhopocichla atriceps), Brown-capped Babbler (Pellorneum fuscocapillum).
1.6.3
Fishes Over 45 species of freshwater fish have been recorded in the area and the majority are tank-living species. Introduced fish food species are the most dominant in tank environments. Numerous species of indigenous fish are found in streams and rock pools and are less frequent in irrigated channels.
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Table 3. Some selected freshwater fishes recorded in the area.
Sicarplet (Amblypharyngodon melettinus), Giant Danio (Danio malabaricus), Flying Barb (Esomos themoicos), Red-side Barb (Puntius bimaculatus), Swamp Barb (Puntius chola), Filamented Barb (Puntius filamantosas), Silver Barb (Puntius vittatus), Scarlet-banded Barb (Puntius amphibius), Olive Barb (Puntius sarana), Blue Labuca (Chela laubuka), Striped Rasbora (Rasbora daniconius), Stone Sucker (Garra ceylonensis), Common Spiny Loach (Lepidocephalichthys thamalis), Striped Dwarf Catfish, (Mystus vittatus), Stinging Catfish (Heteropneustes fossilis), Orange Chromide (Etroplus maculatus), Pearl Spot (Etroplus
suratensis),
Tilapiya
(Saratherodon
mossambicus),
Bar
Eyed
Goby
(Glossogobius guuris), Scribbled Goby (Awaous grammepomus), Brown Snakehead (Channa gachua), Walking Catfish (Clarias brachysoma).
1.6.4
Amphibians Of the amphibians recorded in Sri Lanka, over 15 species are distributed in numerous habitats in the Sigiriya area including streams, tanks, mud flats, paddy fields, home gardens and forested areas. The forest floor and canopy also contain numerous species demanding further taxonomic studies.
Table 4. Some selected amphibians recorded in the area.
Common Toad (Bufo melanostictus), Fergusons Dwarf Toad (Bufo fergusonii), Red Narrow-Mouthed Frog (Mycrohyla rubra), Ornate Narrow-mouthed Frog (Mycrohyla
ornata), Spotted Ramanella (Ramanella variegata), Common Bull Frog (Koloula taprobanica), Balloon Frog (Uperodon systoma), Skipper Frog (Euphlyctis cyanophtyctis),
Six-toed Green-frog (Euphlyctis hexadactylus), Common Paddyfield Frog (Limnonectes

limnocharis), Common Wood-frog (Rana gracilis), Lanka Chunam Tree Frog (Polypedates maculatus).
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1.6.5
Reptiles Diverse species of reptiles numbering over 75 have been recorded in the area including Snakes, Geckos, Agamide Lizards and Skinks.
Table 5. Some common reptiles recorded in the area.
Common Rat Snake (Ptyas mucosus), Sebas Bronze-back (Dendrolaphis tristis), Green Whip Snake (Ahaetulla nasutus), Brown Speckled Whip Snake (Ahaetulla pulverulentus),
Flying Snake (Chysophelea ornata), Flying Snake (Chrysopelea taprobanica), Checkered Keel-back (Xenochrophis asperrimus ), Buff-striped Keel-back (Amphiesma stolata), Cobra (Naja naja), Russels Viper (Doboia russelli), Merrem's hump-nose Viper (Hypnale hypnale), Green pit Viper (Trimeresurus trigonocephalus), Garden Lizard (Calotes versicolor), Earless Lizard (Otocriptis wiegmanni), Spotted Gecko (Hemidactylus maculatus),
Common
House
Gecko (Hemidactylus frenatus), Crocodile
Gecko
(Hemidactylus leschenaulti), Scaly Gecko (Hemidactylus triedrus), Devil Gecko (Ceckoella

yakhuna), Common Skink (Mabuya carinata) Spotted Skink (Mabuya macularia), Hard-
shelled Terrapin (Melanochelys trijuga), Soft-shelled Terrapin (Lissemys punctata), Star tortoise (Geochelone elegans), Land Monitor (Varanus bengalensis), Water Monitor (Varanus salvator), Marsh Crocodile (Crocodylus palustris).
1.6.6
Insects Of the 242 species of Butterflies distributed in Sri Lanka, over 60 species may be observed in the area. Some of them are mostly common in open areas, while others inhabit the more dense jungle thickets. A higher number of Butterfly species may be observed during the seasonal migrations, particularly during March and April.
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Table 6. Common butterflies recorded in the area.
Common Cerulean (Jamides celeno), Red Pierrot (Talicada nyseus), Common Tiger (Danaus
chrysippus), Glassy Tiger (Danaus aglea), Tree Nymph (Idea Lynceus), Indian Crow (Euploea Core), Great Crow, (Euploea phaenareta), Common Leopard (Phalanta phalantha), Common
Sailor (Neptis hylas), Lime Butterfly (Papilio demoleus), Banded Peacock (Papilio crino), Common Mormon (Papilio polytes), Crimson Rose (Atrophaneura hector), Common Rose (Atrophaneura aristolochiae), Common Birdwing (Troides helena), Common Emigrant (Catospsilia crocale), Lemmon Emigrant (Catopsilia pomona), Common Jezebel (Delias
eucharis), Common Gull (Cepora nerissa), Common Grassy Yellow (Eurema hecabe), Common
Bushbrown (Mycalesis perseus), Common Eveningbrown (Melanitis leda).
2.0
METHODOLOGY The standard methods applied in socio-anthropological and faunal and floristic research studies were employed in carrying out the present survey. Questionnaires designed to meet the overall objectives of the proposed project and those of the Institute (Centre for Eco-cultural Studies/CES) serve as the preliminary method for retrieval of the demographic data. Direct and indirect observations and local knowledge collected through formal and informal discussions with the local community provide specific information pertaining to folklore, traditions and present lifeways. The available standard one inch to one mile map published by the Survey Department of Sri Lanka was also used for a study of the area.
3.0
PAST RESEARCH STUDIES The few recognized studies hitherto carried out in the area incorporates Diyakapilla within the overall archaeological landscape researched under the
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Settlement Archaeology Project -- tersely dubbed SARCP -- of the Postgraduate Institute of Archaeology1 (vide Bandaranayake et al. 1990; 1994:9). The archaeological and ethnographic studies carried out under SARCP since 1988 have served to provide evidence of diverse cultural activities in the region dating back many millennia. The evidence relating to past human activities in the study area are also substantiated by early settlement indicators found in the vicinity of the present and old settlement (Sinhala: purana gammadda) of Diyakapilla, Kosgaha Ala (since abandoned), as well as east of Kiri Oya. These sites are marked by iron slag, brick and pottery sites that have been recorded upon their discovery (vide Manjusri 1988: 24 September 1988; vide Manatunga 1990:79, 82). Substantiated by these investigations, Diyakapilla is evidently one of several recognized purana (traditional) villages in the Sigiriya region (vide Manatunga 1990:77). Among the other recognized villages are the vestigial Vadda hamlet of Gallinda (since abandoned2), Ilukvava, Kosgaha Ala and Alakolavava (ibid.). The ethnoarchaeological component of SARCP has also investigated the extant lifeways of the diverse settlements in the region in relation to social practices and material culture, among other aspects to provide greater visibility in interpreting the archaeological record (vide Myrdal-Runebjer 1994:227). Despite the cultural significance corroborated by these studies, they have, however, had no direct effect on the existing structure or the lifeways of the inhabitants. The present community has been ineffectually informed of the archaeological significance of their traditional landscape, or measures for its preservation and promotion to the world outside.
1 2
PGIAR At the time of its investigation by the present researcher

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3.0
HISTORY OF DIYAKAPILLA The site of Diyakapilla is historically known as a place of Buddhist ritual and worship involving the water-cutting ceremony associated with the 1600 yearold history of the Sigiriya Kingdom -- a practice that is now obsolete, but testified in name (pers. comm. A. G.3 Wijesinghe) A rock slab inscribed with a figure of a peacock was evidently removed from the site believed to have been a ceremonial site, by the Archaeology Department in recent years and perhaps placed in the Museum in Kandy (pers. comm. A. G. Wijesinghe). The remains of a forest monastery lying scattered in the forest surroundings approximately 1/2 km east of the present settlement in the vicinity of Pihilla, are among the few signs that bear testimony to past religious activities (vide Manjusri 1988: 24 September 1988). The recent history of the settlement documents the arrival of settlers from Kalavava in Anuradhapura during the early 20th century as recalled by their descendants, the extant older generation. The settlers were members of a single family of cattle herders (Sinhala Pattikula; Enderan) whose herds had caused considerable damage to the bund of the reservoir built in the reign of King Dhatusena in 5th century A.D., thus leading the authorities to direct the herders away from the tank. Tradition has it that they arrived in Sigiriya and occupied the property safeguarded by the Archaeological Department that again led to their ultimate shift to Diyakapilla (pers. comm. A. G. Wijesinghe; pers. comm. A. G. Appurala).
Alut Gedara
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5.0 5.1
TRADITIONAL AND PRESENT LAND-USE PATTERN
Population and settlement layout Diyakapilla is first mentioned by Lawrie (1990:170) in 1881 with a population comprising 8 individuals and a century later with a population of 132 inhabitants as revealed in the SARCP investigations (vide Wickremesekara 1990:162). The extant population approximates 147 inhabitants comprising 40 resident families largely composed of the descendants of a small kin group bearing the names of Alut Gedara and Senanayake Mudiyanselage (vide Wickremesekara 1990:162), with the exception of one non-related family bearing the name of Ratnayake Mudiyanselage. The notable absence of Gamagedara, a name corresponding with other villages in the area as indicated in the SARCP investigations is presently evident. Consequently, recognized social ties are commonly held with a number of selected contiguous settlements of corresponding context in conformance with the traditional Dry Zone settlement pattern representative of others in the area, in addition to the prevailing custom of cross-cousin marriage (Fernando 2001:9; vide Ievers 1899:89-90; vide Karunananda 1990:39; 1993:vii;). The tendency has been to contract marriages with the cattle herder-agriculturists of the traditional settlement in Ilukvava (present Mahasengama) and others of comparable caste in the environs at Kibissa and Pollattava. Alternately, other settlements outside the area in Matale, Galevela, Horivila (Senadhiriyagama) and Minneriya are also perceived (Wickremesekara 1990:163, 165; pers. comm. A. G. Wijesinghe; pers. comm. Muthumanika). The first habitations in Diyakapilla pertaining to the family from Kalavava as known to the present folk were located in the vicinity of Pihilla owing to the availability of water at the site. This site was occupied until recently as evident by traces of human settlement, with its last occupants shifting to the
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present location in Diyakapilla. The dispersal of a segment of the community to the presently abandoned settlement of Kosgaha Ala approximately 1.5 km east and the present location in Diyakapilla was also subsequently seen. The efforts of Vanniya and Gamaya of the second generation of settlers resulted with the damming of the Kosgaha Ala stream to hold the waters of the tributaries of the Kiri Oya to enable irrigated agriculture; and after whom the tank has since been named Vannigamaya vava or Kosgaha Ala vava. The settlement of Kosgaha Ala was abandoned in 1995 with the shift of the 7 resident families to the present location in Diyakapilla. The shift was attributed to a combination of factors including the influence of social pressures; an increase in damage to house and property by the wild elephant population; and the impact of the wildlife Protected Area system on the traditional lifeways of the inhabitants following the declaration of the designated Sigiriya wildlife sanctuary, Minneriya-Giritale Nature Reserve, etc. Lying due west of the old settlements, the present settlement of Diyakapilla is dispersed in an east-west orientation and extends over an area approximating 250 acres (2 km2) along either side of the main gravel road that continues towards Minneriya along one track and Kosgaha Ala and Dikkanda Ala along another. The historically recognized old pilgrim also route to Minneriya continues Fig. 8. The abandoned hamlet in Kosgaha Ala.
past the main village road from Kosgaha Ala and narrows
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into the depths of the forest. This track though less circuitous than the main road is frequented by wild animals -- the elephant, leopard, bear and wild boar -- by which it is now seldom used by these and other villagers journeying to and from Minneriya. Composed of habitations each with its own compound of 1 to 2 acre home gardens and a Primary School, Diyakapilla is fringed by seasonal chena fields. The most typical structures built in the 2-3 acre home gardens are a dwelling and a small toilet located outdoors. The three original dwellings occupied by the second generation of siblings are located at the entrance to the present settlement and are yet in occupation. A few residents have shifted to other settlements in the greater region in Kandalama, Galevela and Kakirava among other areas, while one family with house and property in Diyakapilla and Dikkanda Ala have shifted to Kibissa recently.
6.0
SUBSISTENCE Much of the surrounding landscape has been transformed over time from intensive subsistence activities. Combined, the varied practices have had a direct impact on the environment now managed under the Protected Area system that aims to curb land-use within PAs. Resulting from past human activities, the diverse habitats in the area surrounding Diyakapilla largely correspond with those in the area comprising Dry-mixed Evergreen Forests, dry grasslands, abandoned chena lands that have given way to scrublands, home gardens, tank environments and perennial waterways. The hill ranges contain relatively undisturbed forest cover that serve as the catchment from which several streams in the area originate. For example, Yan Oya. The subsistence practices of the majority of inhabitants continue to influence the forest environment. As with the older generation, a few members of the
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younger generation presently pursue and are committed toward their agricultural practices with adequate foresight to sustain them in the future. The majority are, however, evidently easily prone to external influences with slight tendency toward long-term social or economic benefits. Alternative income generation activities within the present framework are considerably minimal. The majority of males have sought employment as casual workers of the Cultural Triangle Sigiriya Project and tourist hotels in Sigiriya or similarly in or outside the village setting. The females are similarly employed in casual labour work necessitated in seasonal agricultural practices mostly outside Diyakapilla or in small food catering establishments in Sigiriya New Town and are mainly reliant on a daily wage.
6.1
Agricultural productions
6.1.1
Paddy and chena cultivation and home gardening As in the past, the majority of inhabitants are principally sustained by agriculture. Corresponding with the greater part of the Dry Zone, the lifeways of the agricultural community of Diyakapilla are largely governed by the seasonal agricultural calendar. Sedentary agriculture comprising irrigated rice (Sinhala: Vi; Oryza sativa) cultivation and/or shifting cultivation are the mainstay economies.
The chena fields are mostly located in proximity to the village boundaries. Traditional chena practices are mostly obsolete having being curbed by wildlife conservation policies. The present fields in Diyakapilla are scattered in isolated parts of the village peripheries that are less frequented by the law implementing authorities; or are located in proximity to the home gardens nearer the forest cover. The chena fields are seasonally prepared during the
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Maha season by independent or shared family groups. A few fields have been transformed into farmlands that are cultivated year-round. Those with wells that have been developed have been converted into agricultural fields with the farming of cash crops as well. The traditionally cultivated paddy fields on the eastern peripheries of the village in Ikiri vela is said to have been abandoned about two decades ago resulting from an insufficient acreage to sustain the population. Most of the present paddy fields held are located in Kosgaha Ala and to a lesser extent in Peikkulama and Dikkanda Ala. Combined, they are all located within the wildlife Protected Areas. These and the fields held by a single family in Peikkulama approximately 7 km away are located within the peripheries of the Sigiriya wildlife sanctuary. The remaining fields in Dikkanda Ala some 3 km east of Kosgaha Ala are located within the peripheries of the Protected Area in Minneriya-Giritale Nature Reserve. These fields were, as of now traditionally cultivated with the waters of the Dikkanda Ala vava that principally irrigates the Fig. 9. A Tala chena field in Diyakapilla. Maha seasons crops.
Further, cash crops may be grown in the fields nearer the settlement in Kosgaha Ala during the less intensive Yala season of cultivation, depending on the availability of water following the preceding season of cultivation. Diverse other crops may also be grown in the fields under the Mahaveli irrigation scheme. The grains cultivated in the seasonal chena cycle as with the paddy and garden produce, are often sold independently and at random when the need arises. The agricultural practices concerned are often carried
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out with money or goods (tractors, water motors, water pipes, insecticides/pesticides, etc.) borrowed on loan or credit. The traditional method of ploughing with buffaloes is obsolete and is replaced by hand tractors or larger tractors. At present, the only hand tractor in Diyakapilla is owned by an individual household for use in their fields. In keeping with the agricultural calendar to avoid delays and harm to crops, the other agriculturists hire tractors from neighbouring settlements to work their own fields. Essentially, the shared labour of the individual and/or extended family is obtained, while labour from Diyakapilla or neighbouring villages may be recruited if required when sowing, weeding or harvesting takes place. Paddy, pumpkin of a as are with other
irrigated cash crops, such as sometimes neighbouring carried out with the support businessman or interested persons from outside the village, as many of the present inhabitants are yet unable to bear the entire costs involved. The initia expenses are thus taken care of and a tractor provided to plough the fields and transport the harvest from the paddy fields to the hamlet along the 1.5 km irregular track. Additional assistance is provided in the harvesting process for a percentage of the share as well, thus covering the cost of investment while retaining a profit. Fig. 10. Paddy fields in Kosgaha Ala.
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Table 7. Grain and other dominant crops cultivated Sinhala name
English name
Maize; Indian corn Mustard Gingelly Finger Millet Green Gram Brinjal
Tibbatu Elabatu
Botanical name
Bada Iringu Aba Tala Kurakkan Mung Batu Tibbatu Elabatu Karavila Asamodagam Kakiri Pipingnga Alu puhul Vattakka Miris
Zeamays indentata Brassica sp. Sesamum indicum Eleusine coracana Phaseolus aureus Solanum surattense
Solanum indicum Solanum xanthocarpum Mormordica charantia Trachyspermum roxburghlanum Cucumis sp. Cucumis sp. Benincasa hispida Cucurbita sp.
Capsicum sp.Var. acuminatum
Bitter gourd
Asamodagam
Cucumber Cucumber Ash pumpkin Pumpkin Chilli
The home gardens contain a selection of plant foods for home consumption needs and for sale of vegetables, fruits, leaves, yams and woody plants. Seasonal cash crops cultivated in agricultural fields provide an additional means of income. The produce is often sold to independent collectors from outside the hamlet for a minimal set price for re-sale to established markets at neighbouring hotels or other establishments. The majority of home gardens contain a few selected species of crops and woody plants. Home gardening is also greatly dependent on water. The home gardens are considerably neglected at present owing to the scarcity of perennial water or difficulty in accessing the water that may be available. With the availability of ground water, a well is sometimes dug at a suitable location for home consumption needs.
25
The soil development methods introduced by agricultural experts previously are evidently minimally applied. Certain crops introduced recently such as cashew nut, teak, mango and lime, among others are the most favoured for home garden mixed-cropping. Papaw and banana also bring considerable cash and is cultivated by some residents.
Table 8. Fruits and edible leaves common in home gardens
Sinhala name
Pra Pol Vl dhodam Dhehi Kesel Amba Beli Dhelum Dhodam Jm Dhivl Gaslab Anda Kat anda Vli anda Kos Ratakaj
English name
Guava Coconut Passion fruit Lime Banana Mango Beli Pomegranate Orange (ambul; pani) Jam Wood-apple Papaya Sugar apple Soursop Custard Apple Bullock heart Jak Ground nut
Botanical name
Psidium guajava Cocos nucifera Passiflora edulis Citrus hystrix Musa sapientum Mangifera indica Aegle marmelos Punica granatum Citrus aurantium; Citrus sinensis Muntingia calabura Limonia acidissima Carica papaya Annona squamosa Annona muricata Annona reticulata Artocarpus heterophyllus Arachis hypogaea
6.2
Hunting, trapping and fishing As in the past, these as with other forest-dwelling village communities supplement their income with hunting, fishing and gathering of wild food
26
species including bees honey (vide Fernando 2001:6). Hunting and fishing have a long history in the area dating back to the Mesolithic culture phase of the Stone Age. Although these practices are curbed under the Protected Area system and the hunting of large mammals has in particular decreased in recent years, small game hunting prevails. The Black-naped Hare, Indian Porcupine, Mouse Deer, Gray Langur), Purple-faced Leaf Monkey, Hard-shelled Terrapin, Soft-shelled Terrapin and the Indian Pangolin are some of the faunal species commonly hunted for food. The Spotted Deer, Sambhur, Barking Deer and Wild Boar are also hunted though rarely, while the Jungle Fowl and diverse pigeons are among the birds favoured. The present mode of hunting in the greater region is mostly with three types of firearms. The Paturam thuvakkuva (Cartridge-firing shotgun) of which two such licensed guns are available in Diyakapilla. The Beheth thuvakkuva (Muzzle-loader) is the most commonly used, while the Bandina thuvakkuva (Self-triggered gun/Trap gun) is also found among a few families. Possession of the two latter types is illegal and offenders will be liable for prosecution if apprehended by the authorities. These types of firearms are thus mostly used in areas that are least visited by the officials and are often kept hidden in the chena or paddy fields or in the forest and are only obtained when necessary. Traps are also used mostly in the environs of the chena or paddy fields. The types of traps used in the past are now obsolete. The common types in use are the Deadfall (Sinhala: habaka) -- a weighted trap, Noose (Sinhala: manda), Pitfall with pit-spear (Sinhala: boruvala), Lati thibima (snaring with sticky sap/glue). Fishing nets are also used for snaring small animals such as the Black-naped Hare and birds, and are laid out along the fences in the agricultural fields.
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Fishing is a seasonal practice engaged in during the dry period in JulyOctober when the tank water subsides and a lull follows the Yala season of agriculture. Fishing is mostly a leisure activity sought for home consumption needs to add flavour to the regular diet and provides an additional source of income to some families who sell their produce with nets, while fishhooks are limited to a few users. The village tank in Kosgaha Ala is Fig. 11. Night fishing in Kosgaha Ala vava. the most common site for tank fishing and introduced fish species, such as Tilapiya (Saratherodon mossambicus) are mostly sought. Rock pools such as Alle Vala are infrequently used for angling owing to its more distant location. Further, edible and non-edible herbs, fruits, fuelwood and honey from wild bee colonies are also among the numerous wild produce commonly gathered from the forest environs by these and other social groups. locally. The most common mode of fishing is
6.3
Livestock management Despite the communitys herding origins the efforts for livestock management is considerably limited at present. 9 families are small-scale herders, each with under thirty head of cattle compared with the larger, often countless herds managed by the preceding generation (pers. comm. A. G. Wijesinghe 2000). The influence of cattle herding in the area surrounding Diyakapilla and Kosgaha Ala, extending into Dikkanda Ala in what is now
28
the designated Protected Area of Minneriya-Giritale Nature Reserve is considerable, having been extensively used for grazing in the past. A rocky outcrop shaded by scrub referred to as Karapitiya almost adjacent to the present paddy fields in Dikkanda Ala vel yaya held the cattle in the past (pers. comm. A. G. M. Jayathilaka 2000). At present, the cattle are usually left to graze in pastures nearer the village around Boralu vala -- that serves as the western boundary of the village -- Kadigaha Damana, Ikiri Vela as well as around Pihilla, Manik Pitiya, Amuna Pitiya and Sohon Pitiya in the southern and north-eastern quarters. Open cattle pens are constructed in proximity to the permanent dwellings to house the animals at night for protection from possible predators (particularly leopard), while the animals are released in the mornings and allowed to graze till late afternoon. During the seasonal nightly crop-watching period, however, the cattle and buffalo are left to graze in the open in proximity to the agricultural fields and watch huts. The only present economic use of cattle and buffaloes is their sale to the Muslim traders from neighbouring settlements. The cattle raised with a minimal of effort are not commonly reared for dairy products, despite the existing potential for such an enterprise. The non-dairy cattle -- Batu harak (a small variety) are mostly raised for meat with the sale of the live animal. The milk of the cow is obtained for home consumption with minimal efforts to increase production owing to a general lack of interest, work and other commitments. Shifts in lifeways, laws for wildlife conservation and lands curtailed for grazing as well as reduced numbers of cattle are further causes for the lapse. Additionally, a few families also rear the common domestic fowl. One family in particular has developed an interest in poultry with a systematically constructed a coop. The birds are often left to forage during the day in the vicinity of the home gardens and cooped at night in small enclosures for protection from predatory animals. The birds are, however, few in number
29
and are mostly reared for eggs, breeding or sale of the bird. Eggs in small numbers are either consumed at home, sold locally and/or to traders.
6.4
Beekeeping Beekeeping or apiculture as a commercial venture using systematic methods of production is not common to Diyakapilla. The practice is restricted to two or three families who maintain colonies in their home gardens in hollowed logs, disused pots or the traditional technique of housing the colony in a single-roomed box. Natural bee colonies are, however, abundant in the forest surroundings. The honey of the bee is mostly harvested from the wild colonies annually during the peak season in May-August and to a lesser extent in February and March. Over 500 to 600 bottles may be collected from the wild colonies for sale to shops in Sigiriya or to chauffeur guides for a price ranging between Rs.100/- to 125/- per large bottle. With systematic management, however, the income earned from this venture would be adequate as with the potential for beekeeping in these environs with the dominant vegetation type being conducive to bees. Numerous floral species favoured by the common bee (Apis indica) are widespread in and around Diyakapilla. Fig. 12. A wild bee colony.
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6.2 6.2.1
NON-AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIONS
Mi oil extraction The seeds of the Mi (Madhuka longifolia) tree are collected seasonally for processing into oil. The oil is traditionally used for cooking and also serves as a local remedy. The seeds collected by women and children in the dry period prior to the Maha seasons intense agricultural season are left to dry and stored in bags. The seeds are processed when the males who assist in the tedious process of extracting the oil are less confined by agricultural activities in May/June. The task is carried out outdoors and is often a communal activity. A male often joined by the women, older children, or neighbouring females engage in processing the hard-shelled seeds. Traditional methods of oil extraction using a sack made of woven pan (Ceyperus sp.) are obsolescent by and are replaced modern
receptacles such as plastic fertiliser sacks. Fig. 13. Extraction of Mi oil using a pressing-device. The oil extracted is collected into half or one litre bottles in which they are sold and/or kept for home usage. A half litre bottle is initially sold at approximately Rs.50/- per bottle. The prices decrease to approximately Rs. 40/- when a larger supply of oil is available in the area in the months ahead and vice versa.
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6.2.2
Brick-making The only type of building material produced in the village is brick. Brick making commences during the dry period and is infrequently engaged in by a few families. Bricks are mostly produced for home consumption needs and/or sold locally. The fuelwood for firing the bricks are collected from the surroundings for which selected Fig. 14. Brick firing. branches may also be felled.
6.2.3
Traditional rush/reed products The women engage in traditional mat weaving of mats or basketry using a wild rush/reed plant species -- Pan (Ceyperus sp.) -- and the fronds of coconut, tal, etc. The practice is, however, growing obsolescent. The raw material is collected from several sites in Kosgaha Ala and the neighbourhood of Peikkulama, Potana and Pidurangala. The weavers skilled are in mostly weaving
sleeping mats, baskets and shallow receptacles. The products woven are for primarily not
household use and are commercially Fig. 15. Collection of Gallaha Pan. produced, without colour or design.
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7.0
ENERGY CONSUMPTION The hamlet is one of several others in the area without an electricity supply. The local residents are mostly reliant on kerosene oil for lighting. The existing power lines extend only as far as Sigiriya Town, while a main power line supplies electricity to the neighbouring tourist establishments and other settlements. While an electricity supply to the village would provide direct social and economic benefits -- enhance productivity and minimise the existing human-elephant conflict rampant in the area -- the numerous attempts made by the residents to obtain a supply have thus far been futile. The most common mode of energy used in cooking is fuelwood. The required supply including fallen branches or those from dead trees are collected from the surrounding home gardens, chenas and forestlands. The dry period in August is the most effective for storing a considerable supply for the months ahead when the annual monsoon makes the task more difficult. Females in particular often accompanied by one or more others engage in the practice of collecting the required fuelwood individual and often for cross the the households
village peripheries some 500 m and rarely over 1 km. A bundle of sticks is also collected as a frequent practice on the way home from the chena or paddy fields. Fig. 16. Firewood, a common resource found in the surrounding forest.
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8.0 8.1
VILLAGE INFRASTRUCTURE The Road Network The access route to Diyakapilla from Sigiriya via a 3 km gravel track requires travelling through a forest thicket that is also frequented by the wild elephant. The road surface is prone to erosion in monsoonal weather particularly towards the village end. Further access from the lower end of the village track is hampered by the limestone belt dispersed in the area, and limits use to tractors. The road is left muddied in wet weather towards the first open plains encountered in Ikiri Vela, making travelling difficult along the track to Pihilla and Kosgaha Ala on foot or by tractor and to herd the grazing cattle to and from the village. Further lies the old pilgrim route to Minneriya now mostly re-grown with vegetation through infrequent usage. The more circuitous road approached from Sigiriya via Inamaluva or Dambulla is accessed, with the current availability of public transport.
8.2
Transport Public transport to the village has often been minimal and is one of the major problems faced by the Diyakapilla community. Until the latter half of Year 2000, the Secondary School students of Sigiriya Madya Maha Vidyalaya have had little option but to travel 5 km to school daily on foot or by bicycle. The elephant is often encountered by the residents and students on their way to school, and being vulnerable to attack fear often leads them back home or to seek assistance if they are in the vicinity of the village. The efforts of the Principal of the Primary School and resident teachers have led to the introduction of public transport to Diyakapilla towards the end of Year 2000, with a school bus arranged to transport the students to and from school. Its regularity is, however, questionable with the bus often not reporting for duty for days.
34
Public transport along the tarred tract from Sigiriya to Habarana via Mahasengama (Illukvava) and Gallinda is, however, lacking. A bus service presently operates only as far as Mahasengama 3.2 km north of Sigiriya, while the remaining 5.6 km route leading to Habarana is neglected. Habarana, Minneriya, Polonnaruva, etc. to the north-east may thus be accessed along the operative bus route from Sigiriya-Inamaluva or Sigiriya-Dambulla, while the jungle route to Minneriya via Diyakapilla is also infrequently accessed. Bicycles are the most common mode of transport and are owned by the majority of male residents. Additionally, two motorcycles are owned by two families are the fastest mode of travel at present. The motorcycles serve as the main mode of transport in an emergency whether day or at night. Women mostly travel on foot or are doubled on bicycles. Additionally, three-wheelers may be hired from Sigiriya Town. 8.3
Native Medicinal Cures and Other Medical Practices A few male and female elders in the village are versed in traditional native medicinal practices for the treatment of minor ailments. The local residents are mostly versed in home remedies used in day-to-day requirements. Additionally, assistance is sought from the God Minneriya shrine in Diyakapilla which serves to counteract certain physical and psychological problems that are encountered by the residents of Diyakapilla as well as the numerous others living in the greater area. Western medical treatment is also resorted to as required, from the nearest medical dispensary in Kibissa approximately 7 km away or from the Dambulla Base Hospital 18 km away.
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8.4
Education
8.4.1 Primary Schooling The Primary School is the only public establishment that presently exists in Diyakapilla. The Principal and two resident teachers are responsible for the education provided for all the relevant subjects included in the curricula from Grades One to Five, as well as for the welfare of its twenty students. The school comprises a Principals office and one building housing all five grades. Toilet facilities are at a moderate level, while water is a scarce resource. 8.4.2
Secondary Schooling There are no existing facilities for secondary school education in Diyakapilla. The secondary school students are thus required to travel approximately 5 km to the Sigiriya Madya Maha Vidyalaya on foot, bicycle or the recently introduced, but irregular school bus service situated beyond the main Sigiriya town on the Dambulla-Sigiriya route. Education at a higher level than the Ordinary level examination has often been lacking, with the exception of perhaps one or two of its residents in the past (pers. comm. A.G. Gunadasa 2001).
8.5
Retail Stores Diyakapilla does not have a retail store that sells even the basic commodities. The only small store operating at present sells only kerosene, sugar and a type of local cigarette beedi that is also sold by one of the village elders at his house. All other requirements have to be purchased at the nearest store in Sigiriya town or at the Sunday Fair in Dambulla. Two stores that were previously in operation are inoperative at present as they were evidently ineffectively managed, with the goods taken for home consumption needs.
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8.6
Community Meeting Place The small community hall situated at the entrance to the hamlet serves as the main centre for village gatherings and the monthly society meetings held by the Funerary Welfare Organisation, the Farmer Organisation and other society meetings.
9.0
RELIGIOUS BELIEFS AND CUSTOMS The residents of Diyakapilla are largely incorporated within the overall Buddhist farming community of the region. The ancient cave monastery at Pidurangala serves as the principal temple of worship, while the hamlet itself is devoid of a temple. The Chief Incumbent of the Pidurangala Raja Maha Viharaya maintains religious affiliations with the hamlet, in addition to the Incumbent of the new temple complex in Sigiriya, with participation in the religious ceremonies held. The centrally located Buddhist temple in Sigiriya Town was demolished in the mid-1990s and relocated to Sigiriya New Town under the settlement relocation plan of the Central Cultural Funds Sigiriya Cultural Triangle Project. Additionally, the community of Diyakapilla customarily visit the Pidurangala shrine in veneration of the Hindu pantheon of Gods influencing the Buddhist rituals, such as Vishnu and Kataragama to make and fulfill vows. The only vestige of a Buddhist place of ritual are as revealed above located north-east of the present habitations, while the only present place of worship is discerned in the makeshift altar for offering flowers at the foot of the Bodhiya (Bo tree) in the school yard that also contains a small shrine housing a Buddha image and an altar for flowers. The Primary School staff is also committed toward extending their services to organise the religious activities in the village in keeping with the
37
Buddhist calendar. The programmes conducted including observing sil for children and parents, active Vesak and Poson pandol competitions for children and annual pilgrimages to a site of worship, or cultural site of significance. Introduction of a Dhamma School (Daham Pasala) by the two resident school teachers and the support of the Principal of the Primary School and parents on Sundays serves to benefit the young on the practical teachings of Buddhism. The most intense beliefs lie in the worship of God Minneriya (the incarnate of King Mahasena) [274-301 A.D.) for blessings and protection (Sinhala: shanthi karma). The only religious establishment that is popularly visited by numerous inhabitants from neighbouring and other settlements is the God Minneriya devalaya or shrine, that is one of two in the area. With the other located at the vestigial Vadda village in Gallinda (vide Manatunga 1990: 75). Rituals at the God Minneriya devalaya are customarily held twice weekly on the days considered auspicious (Sinhala: kemmura), Wednesdays and Saturdays. Devotees who habitually visit the shrine seek assistance in times of trouble for which payments are made in cash or kind to the lay priest-medium (Sinhala: Animitirala). The annual festivities in particular are held in September under the patronage of the lay priest medium a descendant of the family from Kala Vava. The traditional beliefs pertaining to cattle herding among the community extends to the veneration of Maggara deviyo, whose assistance is sought in a ritual ceremony that takes place prior to the Sinhalese New Year (pers. comm.. A.G. Wijesinghe; pers. comm.. A.G. Dayaratne). As the protector of cattle, the assistance of the deity is sought to prevent the spread of epidemics among their cattle and
38
protection from possible predators, such as leopard. The neighbouring settlements of Illukvava, Gallinda and Pidurangala are also believed to adhere to this tradition. The forest-based inhabitants of Diyakapilla as with other forest-dwellers adhere to the practice of hanging a freshly broken sprig of leaves on a branch with a prayer to God Minneriya, prior to entering a forest at a given location. This rule is customarily adhered to prior to undertaking a specific subsistence-related activity, whether hunting, gathering fishing or when exploring the forest environs. This gesture symbolises a request for protection from the guardian deity within whose forest domain the forest communities live. The extant community, particularly the older generation also believes in the practice of Hadi Huniyam (witchcraft). It is commonly assumed that a sudden economic or other setback such as an illness suffered by an individual is due to the influence of a magical charm inflicted by one who may not often be thought of favourably. This action would often influence the mental makeup of the person it is directed toward as well as his/her family. In such a situation, assistance is often sought from the Animitirala to prevent or counteract the influence of the charm. A further belief involves the practice of kem krama in day-to-day life, for ailments and agricultural practices that are expected to bring favourable results and to prevent misfortunes.
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Diagram 1. Priority Demands for Forest Resources in Diyakapilla
Chena fields Grazing lands Paddy fields Habitations Mining and gravel extraction Timber/hardwood species Hunting, trapping Gathering: - Bees honey
- Edible herbs, leaves, fruits, tubers etc. - Wild grasses ( - Medicinal herbs - Fuelwood Vine for cordage Timber posts/poles
Demand for forest resources
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10.0
LOCAL-LEVEL DECISION-MAKING Decisions concerning most village activities and the welfare of the community are usually taken upon the advice or influence of the Primary School Principal, resident teachers or the Grama Niladhari (local State representatives). Additionally, the influence of the Divisional Secretariat, the District Officer of the Agricultural Department and the Department of the Wildlife Conservation (DWLC) are essential in influencing the decisions made at the local level, with concern to State legislation. The centralised decision of a family, elder or nuclear family are often respected and mostly adhered to. A higher level of respect for elders is particularly common among the present generation and to some extent, by the younger generation with respect to traditions. The local Buddhist monks as well as the Animitirala of the village shrine also influence certain decisions.
11.0
REPRESENTATION
OF
LOCAL
SOCIETIES
AND
COMMUNITY ORGANISATIONS 11.1 Pubudu Funerary Welfare Organisation The Funerary Welfare Organisation is the most effective and efficiently managed local organisation in Diyakapilla, at present. It was established under the leadership of the Primary School teachers and is now entirely managed by the appointed Committee comprising the residents of Diyakapilla. Its primary objective is to assist one another on the death of a community member. The organisation also seeks to work towards the welfare of the community, basic infrastructural development of the village such as
41
the maintenance of the road, community meeting place, etc. The required funding is obtained from the membership fees and donations received from interested external sources. A credit programme amounting to Rs.1500/-, with an interest rate of 15% per month has also been introduced for the benefit of its members. 11.2
Isuru Farmer Society The Isuru Farmer Society was established with the direction of the Agrarian Community Services Centre (Govi Jana Seva Kendraya) of the Agricultural Department in Kibissa. The society serves to provide the necessary services pertaining to the development of agricultural practices in the respective villages in the surrounding area, and is a decision-making body for collectively deciding which crops and acreage may be cultivated in the agricultural fields available. The main objective is to maintain the village tank in Kosgaha Ala, upon which the irrigated agricultural practices in the village are entirely dependent; to ensure other concerned services, such as crop watching and effective distribution of irrigated waters, among others.
11.3
Parents School Development Association The Parents School Development Association was established with the guidance of the resident teachers of the Primary School, to provide the necessary supportive services to the School. The Association ensures that the education of the children is in order, is responsible for maintenance of the school property, the protective fence, to tidy the surroundings and provide nutritional food and beverage to the students in combined efforts extending to shrama dhana programmes.
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11.4
Samurdhi Group The Samurdhi group was established with the direction and influence of the Government Samurdhi aid programme for the beneficiaries of the village. Its main objective is to maintain unity among its recipients and to enhance collective decision-making and the well-being of the community members.
11.5
Diyakapilla Environmental Development Committee (DEDC) DEDC was initiated by the Centre for Eco-cultural Studies and is the most recently established community organisation. Its primary aim is to monitor and implement the activities proposed under the Ecocultural Resource Management Project. The Committee is composed of the representatives of each of the village organisations and selected representatives at the local level.
12.0
REPRESENTATION OF GOVERNMENT ORGANISATIONS The responsible administrative concerns in the study area are the Grama Niladhari of the Maillattava Division who serves as the administering Government representative at the local level, the Dambulla Divisional Secretariat operates at district level and the administrative division of Matale District is responsible for its overall jurisdiction. The Police Station in Kibissa serves as the relevant law enforcement agency and the Department of Wildlife Conservation (DWLC) Range Office recently established in Ahalagala in proximity to Sigiriya Town, is the overall administrative body concerned for managing the Sigiriya wildlife sanctuary and Minneriya-Giritale Nature Reserve, with the Beat Office located in Peikkulama.
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The present land-use system falls under the management of DWLC, owing to the geographic location of the wildlife Protected Area system. Further, the Archaeology Department and Cultural Triangle Project are the relevant institutes concerned with safeguarding the cultural monuments and sites distributed in the area.
13.0
BANKING AND CREDIT FACILITIES The main source for facilitating credit facilities in the village is the Funerary Welfare Society that provides small loan schemes on interest to all members, depending on the availability of funds. Additionally, numerous banking facilities are available to the local community. The major banks are located in Inamaluva (The Peoples Bank), Habarana or Dambulla which is the popularly visited place. The bank that is most commonly accessed is, however, the Rural Bank (Sinhala: Gramiya Bankuva) housed at the Govi Jana Seva Kendraya in Kibissa, which provides adequate banking and credit facilities. The Govi Jana Seva Kendraya also provides an effective loan scheme amounting to Rs.100,000/- for members of the Diyakapilla Farmer Organization for agriculture-related activities. Further, the State-sponsored Samurdhi programme provides a maximum of Rs.25,000/- to initiate or develop self-employment activities for all Samurdhi recipients.
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14.0
ENVIRONMENTAL STATUS
Major Issues Observed Observations reveal that the Protected Areas comprising the Sigiriya Wildlife Sanctuary, the Sigiriya World Heritage Site and archaeological reserve are often prone to environmental hazards owing to the unauthorized actions of the private hoteliers, Government authorities and the local community:
14.1
Unplanned and ad hoc development activities Commercial encroachment of land by the private sector, i. e. the tourist hotel establishments. Encroachment of the property of the World Heritage Site and the Sigiriya wildlife sanctuary with unauthorised clearing of land that is in violation of the Fauna and Flora Protection Ordinance, the Environment Act and the Archaeological Act.
14.2
Haphazard waste disposal
Garbage disposal: The unauthorized disposal of garbage including non-biodegradable plastic in secluded areas of the designated Sigiriya wildlife sanctuary in proximity to Diyakapilla village has been a common practice of the established tourist hotels. The effects of the illegal dumping grounds have produced breeding grounds for the mosquito and led to increased health hazards, while creating artificial feeding grounds for the wild elephant population and intensifying the human-elephant conflict in the area.
45
14.3
Pollution of aquatic environments Further acts of violation of standing laws such as the illegal and regular draining of sewage into the Sigiriya tank (Sinhala: vava) environment by outside investors, such as the tourist hotels have led to increased environmental and health hazards. It is important to note that this artificial reservoir that once played a key role in the hydraulics of Sigiriya Kingdom in 5th century AD, yet serves as a vital resource to local communities and wildlife.
14.4
Mining and quarrying activities Illegal quarrying of Duvannagala -- an archaeological site situated within the designated Sigiriya wildlife sanctuary. Duvannagala is an extensive rock outcrop that once stood as the third largest in Sigiriya, until its recent exploitation by the authorities. Although several Government bodies serve as the legal custodians of Duvannagala, the site has faced excessive destruction from quarrying of the site; thus disregarding its overall potential and geological through and extreme archaeological value neglect. Further, the impact of the blasting of Duvannagala on the World Heritage Site of Sigiriya Rock and its famous Fig. 17. Quarrying of Duvannagala rock. frescoes are also untold.
46
14.5
Extraction of Gravel The excavation of gravel pits for the construction of roads is another matter that requires immediate attention. A vast acreage of the wildlife sanctuary has already been cleared of forest for the expansion of extensive roadways at the cost of the unique forest habitat vital to the Dry Zone fauna and flora, that provide alternative means of support to the forest-dwelling people. These gravel pits have now developed into regular unauthorized refuse dumping grounds for the tourist hotels and also serve as breeding grounds for mosquitoes, thus leading to increased health hazards.
14.6.
Gemming Non-residents with the support of some local residents have used selected sites within the periphery of the wildlife sanctuary in the vicinity of Diyakapilla, for the illegal mining of gems. The evidence for gemming is corroborated by the considerably sized pits scattered in the area.
47
14.7 Poaching Wild game hunting -- now deemed poaching -- is still a continued practice among a segment of this forest dwellers. Agriculture as the economic mainstay is supplemented with hunting that brings better and quicker returns. The wild game species mostly pursued is the Sambhur Sri Lankas largest species of deer the spotted deer and wild boar, for their meat. The demand is mostly from the middleman/traders operating in Sigiriya, Kibissa, Ilukvava and Pidurangala. The game flesh is usually transported via a jungle route; or by main road during the early hourse of the day or in the late evenings to avoid confrontation with the DWLC or Polive, being the relevant authorities concerned. Prohibited by law, the offence is punishable by a term in jail or fine, if apprehended. 14.8.
The human-elephant conflict Adverse effects of the human-elephant conflict prevail in the area owing to numerous reasons. The geographical setting of Diyakapilla, the continued agricultural practices that attract the large herbivore to the cultivated fields that may result in excessive damage to lives and property; the secondary forest cover and the surrounding plains that maximize the conflict of interests for resources between the humans and wild elephants; and the water also elephant the to dry both and Fig. 18. A victim of the prevailing conflict.
resources wild during threat humans
frequented by the
period, increase the
48
elephants. A preventive measure to minimize the conflict was the establishment of the electric fence by the DWLC that extends from Vavala and crosses the periphery of Diyakapilla and approaches the Gallinda Kanda (range of hills). The electric fence has lacked maintenance over the past several years and is presently inoperative.
14.9.
Illicit felling of trees The woodcraft industry was traditionally unknown in the Sigiriya region. The art was introduced in recent years with the development of the tourist industry from which arose the demand for it. The craftsmen employed in woodcarving are thus mostly from the southern coastal region such as Galle, while the local youth presently employed in the several woodcraft shops in the area are learning the skill. The local development of woodcraft has thus promoted the exploitation of valued hardwood timber species found in the area, though protected by the law. Certain members of the local community engage in harvesting the trees and supplying the timber. Fig. 19. Clearing of forests.
15.0
PRESENT STATUS OF TOURISM The existing tour programme entails a pre-arranged village tour conducted for the benefit of the tourists eager to observe traditional village lifeways accompanied by a local or foreign tour guide and or a hotel employee, as
49
well as a local associate from Diyakapilla who only serves as the porter or helper and receives a service tip of approximately Rs. 150 or 200/=, in addition to a picnic lunch for the effort or service provided. The tour comprises a visit to the home of the local associate and/or a scenic tour of the forest hamlet leading to the village tank further east in Kosgaha la. The first tour entails a visit to a village dwelling usually that of the local associate to display methods and uses of traditional lithic and other implements common to a village setting -- the grinding stone (Sinhala: miris gala), the quern for grinding kurakkhan), the wooden pestle and mortar for pounding, displayed by the spouse and or uninvited guests or neighbours. If time permits, the tour group is accompanied on a nature hike to the old hamlet of Kosgaha la. A picnic lunch organised by the hotel is set on the tank bund -- a place of scenic beauty with the presence of aquatic and other wildlife --overlooking the agricultural fields. Systematic organisation of such ought to visits be
encouraged for the benefit of the tourists who wish to experience the Fig. 20. Tourists visiting the Diyakapilla Primary School. culture and environmental setting of a forest hamlet of this nature and its ecological aspects, as well as the local community. Visits that are not prearranged often do not adhere to the local custom of remaining at the entrance of the compound (Sinhala: kadulla) until permission for entry is granted by the householder. Instead, the tendency is for the visiting tour
50
guide and tourists to enter the compound without prior permission from a householder. These and the pre-arranged visits detailed above also result in havoc, with the compound often filled to capacity with the presence of uninvited neighbours who habitually commandeer the setting as well as the householders and create an aura of unpleasantness contrary to accustomed traditional lifeways. The householders concerned are usually unable to prevent these unwelcome visits and are accustomed to accepting them with submissiveness. A further problem encountered is the harassment of tourists by a few village children opt to stay away from school with the arrival of the visiting tour groups with the knowledge of their parents, mostly encouraged by small handouts.
16.0
DISCUSSION The uncontrolled exploitation of natural resources in the area has intensified in recent years with the expansion of human settlements and a corresponding increase in requirements. For example, large-scale development projects and chemical-using agricultural practices, shorter periods of fallow in chena cultivation, the illegal extraction of valued timber species and unsystematic use of natural habitats for commercial purposes are some visible changes (vide Jasinghe et al. 1999). Chena practices and/or paddy cultivation as the principal means of support have potential to develop for obtaining maximum profits. Present-day restrictions on traditional chena practices are a recurrent problem owing to the location of the chena lands within the wildlife Protected Area system, causing considerable damage to the existing vegetation cover. Consideration of the fundamental requirements of local/regional/global bio-diversity conservation aims to ensure the protection and maintenance
51
of ecosystems and natural habitats; with maintenance and recovery of viable populations of species in their natural surroundings. The need for adequate measures within and outside Protected Areas to protect genes, species, habitats and ecosystems is increasingly felt, while addressing the human demands for the above resources, particularly for land. This ecosystem approach constitutes the primary framework of the proposed actions of the Eco-cultural Resource Management Project that intends to assist in addressing issues identified in the National Biodiversity Conservation Action Plan and Environmental Action Plan. Strengthening the local community through the development of skills, providing alternative income generation activities, as well as the eco-cultural resource monitoring programme and habitat enrichment programme proposed for restoration of the degraded environment would enable the long-term use of local resources. Primarily due to inadequate collaboration, the lack of an effective strategy for community participation and communication; it is required that the present status of the lifeways of the local communities are adequately identified to initiate an appropriate methodology for the sustainable use of natural resources by the traditional Dry Zone forest-dwelling community. The opportune location of Diyakapilla within the wildlife Protected Area with proximity to the World Heritage Site of Sigiriya and numerous other ancient settlements and monastic sites testifies to the ample opportunities available for the development of long-term economic and social benefits that aim toward ultimate self-sufficiency. The area is also rich in archaeological sites that are the valued property and heritage of all Sri Lankans. These archaeological treasures are extensively distributed in the area and include sites, monuments, ancient kingdoms, village habitations, monastic complexes (stupas) rock art, Early Brahmi inscriptions and cave complexes that date back to the prehistoric, protohistoric, Early and Middle Historical Periods of the regions prolonged history.
52
Providing non-destructive alternative means of livelihood to reduce the dependency on the forest for economic necessities requires a collective effort for the implementation of legal, economic and social polices. A political will would thus be an ideal requirement for adopting effective new strategies, with a model to obtain community involvement in managing Protected Areas and a cognitive change of the official agencies concerned, to prevent further commercial encroachment into wildlife, cultural and other Protected Areas, as well as controlling the demand for land within the Protected Area system.
53
REFERENCES 1. Ashton, M., S. Gunatilleke, N. de Zoysa, M.D. Dassanayake, N. Gunatilleke and S. Wijesundera. 1997. A Field Guide to the Common Trees and Shrubs of Sri Lanka. Colombo: WHT Publications (Pvt.) Limited. 2. Bandaranayake, S. and M. Mogren. 1994. Further Studies in the Settlement Archaeology of the Sigiriya-Dambulla Region. Colombo: PGIAR. 3. Fernando, K.S. 2001. Living Traditions: an introduction to the vestigial Vadda group of Gallinda in Sigiriya. Centre for Eco-cultural Studies, Diyakapilla, Sigiriya (CES). (A technical report). 4. Fernando, S and S.S.S. Jasinghe. 2000. World Heritage Site in Danger: A Case Study from the World Heritage Site of Sigiriya. Centre for Ecocultural Studies, Diyakapilla, Sigiriya (CES). 5. Ievers, R. W. 1899. Manual of the NCP, Ceylon. George J. A. Skeen, Colombo: Government Printer of Ceylon. 6. Jasinghe, S. S. S. 2000. Biodiversity of Sigiriya wildlife Sanctuary. Centre for Eco-cultural Studies, Diyakapilla, Sigiriya (CES). (A technical report). 7. Jasinghe, S. S. S. and S. Maithripala. 1997. A Note on the Ecology of the Eastern Precinct of Sigiriya Rampart. A monograph of the Postgraduate Institute of Archaeology (PGIAR)-University of Kelaniya, Colombo. 8. Karunananda, U. 1990. Nuvarakalaviya. Kelaniya: Shiela Printing Works. [In Sinhala.]
54
9.
Karunananda, U. 1993: Tamankaduva. Kadavata: Abhaya Mudrana Shilpiyo. [In Sinhala.]
10.
Lawrie, A. C. An Extract From A Gazetteer of the Central Province of Ceylon Vol. 1 & 11. Colombo 1898 (reprint 1988). In S. Bandaranayake, M. Mogren and S. Epitawatte (Eds.). The Settlement Archaeology of the Sigiriya-Dambulla Region. Colombo: Postgraduate Institute of Archaeology (PGIAR). Pp. 169-193.
11. 12.
Manjusri. M. 1988. Journal of the SAREC Project. [Unpublished.] Manatunga, Anura. 1990. The Kiri Oya Valley. In S. Bandaranayake, M. Mogren and S. Epitawatte (Eds.). The Settlement Archaeology of the Sigiriya-Dambulla Region. Colombo: Postgraduate Institute of Archaeology (PGIAR). Pp. 73-92.
13.
Myrdal-Runebjer, Eva. 1994. Premodern Sigirya Region an Ethnoarchaeological perspective. In S. Bandaranayake and M. Mogren (Eds.). Further Studies in the Settlement Archaeology of the Sigiriya-Dambulla Region. Colombo: Postgraduate Institute of Archaeology (PGIAR). Pp. 241262.
14.
Myrdal-Runebjer, Eva. 1994. Food procurement: Labour Processes and Environmental Setting. In S. Bandaranayake and M. Mogren (Eds.).
Further Studies in the Settlement Archaeology of the Sigiriya-Dambulla Region. Colombo: Postgraduate Institute of Archaeology (PGIAR). Pp. 241262. 13. Wickremesekera, Channa 1990. A Catalogue of Villages. In S. Bandaranayake, M. Mogren and S. Epitawatte (Eds.). 1990. The
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Settlement Archaeology of the Sigiriya-Dambulla Region. Colombo: Postgraduate Institute of Archaeology (PGIAR). 161-166.
56
17.0
RECOMMENDATIONS
Development of home gardens: The systematic development of home gardens is proposed with the re-introduction of soil conservation measures and mapping of home gardens.
Establishment of a local market: The organized sale of the village produce comprising the numerous grains (paddy, kurakkhan/tala/mung/etc.), processed food (aggala/ tala/etc.), fruits (papaw/plantain/etc.) oil (Mi/kohomba), bees honey and support the traditional rush/reed weaving industry that is growing obsolescent, etc., that would serve to establish a selfsustained market managed by the local community.
The potential to promote a market for the local produce as a finished product is considerable with the existing market being a greater than-average number of visitors to the World Heritage Site of Sigiriya. For example, the sale of mixed crops grown throughout the agricultural cycle; of traditional sweets/dairy products that are usually made/obtained for home consumption needs; and processed foods (lime pickle, preserves, etc.); traditional rush/reed weaving. The weaving of rush/reed products will be revived to encourage and support the experienced weavers and others interested. The raw materials that are not available in the immediate surroundings will be obtained from Kosgaha la and neighbouring Pidurangala and more distant Potana, until it can be grown in favourable areas such as Ikirivela in Diyakapilla.
57
Eco-cultural tourism programme serve (forestall the
To initiate eco-cultural tourism programme to
present tendencies) strengthen the local tourism industry with the systematic training of a selected number of residents of Diyakapilla, with others associated with the industry from a number of settlements located within the Sigiriya wildlife sanctuary. The establishment of a visitor centre will enable systematic management of the village tours for the benefit of the local inhabitants as well as the tourists.
58
CES was established in January 1998 by a team of interdisciplinary researchers whose aim was to create an institute for participatory eco-cultural development in Sri Lanka through research, education, awareness and community development. CES is registered as a non-governmental research institute concerned with issues pertaining to the present eco-cultural status of Sri Lanka and advocates sustainable measures to suit the local environment and cultures. Collaborative undertakings with other eco-culture friendly institutes will create an extensive network to promote awareness and foster eco-cultural development in Sri Lanka.
The majority of CES members are presently involved in various consultancy and research-oriented activities for Government and Non-governmental concerns as well as universities.
Objectives
To conduct eco-cultural studies To conduct eco-cultural education, awareness, and Training programmes To establish and maintain an interpretation centre To promote environment-friendly local industries to assist local communities To promote non-destructive nature-based local enterprises
Centre for Eco-cultural Studies (CES) PO Box 03, Sigiriya, Sri Lanka. E-mail: centeco@sltnet.lk Web: www.cessrilanka.org

Eco-Cultural Resource Use in Diyakapilla Village - Baseline Survey Report of The Eco-Cultural Resource Management Project, 2001

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Eco-Cultural Resource Use in Diyakapilla Village - Baseline Survey Report of The Eco-Cultural Resource Management Project, 2001

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1

K.S. FERNANDO and S.S.S. JASINGHE

Centre for Eco-cultural Studies (CES) Diyakapilla, Sigiriya Sri Lanka

ECO-CULTURAL RESOURCE USE IN DIYAKAPILLA

ECO-CULTURAL RESOURCE USE IN DIYAKAPILLA VILLAGE

K.S. FERNANDO and S.S.S. JASINGHE

@ Centre for Eco-cultural Studies (CES) 2001

ECO-CULTURAL RESOURCE USE IN DIYAKAPILLA

Fig.1. Protected Area signage.

ECO-CULTURAL RESOURCE USE IN DIYAKAPILLA

ECO-CULTURAL RESOURCE USE IN DIYAKAPILLA

Fig. 3. Map of the study area of Diyakapilla.

ECO-CULTURAL RESOURCE USE IN DIYAKAPILLA

Fig. 4. The Sigiriya Rock monolith.

ECO-CULTURAL RESOURCE USE IN DIYAKAPILLA

ECO-CULTURAL RESOURCE USE IN DIYAKAPILLA

ECO-CULTURAL RESOURCE USE IN DIYAKAPILLA

and Carissa spinarum

(Gandapana) to name a few.

ECO-CULTURAL RESOURCE USE IN DIYAKAPILLA

ECO-CULTURAL RESOURCE USE IN DIYAKAPILLA

Table 1. Some selected mammals recorded in the area.

ECO-CULTURAL RESOURCE USE IN DIYAKAPILLA

Table 2. Some selected birds recorded in the area.

leucorodia) White-breasted Waterhen (Amaurornis phoenicurus), Barred Buttonquail

ECO-CULTURAL RESOURCE USE IN DIYAKAPILLA

Table 3. Some selected freshwater fishes recorded in the area.

Table 4. Some selected amphibians recorded in the area.

Six-toed Green-frog (Euphlyctis hexadactylus), Common Paddyfield Frog (Limnonectes

ECO-CULTURAL RESOURCE USE IN DIYAKAPILLA

Table 5. Some common reptiles recorded in the area.

Gecko (Hemidactylus frenatus), Crocodile

(Hemidactylus leschenaulti), Scaly Gecko (Hemidactylus triedrus), Devil Gecko (Ceckoella

ECO-CULTURAL RESOURCE USE IN DIYAKAPILLA

Table 6. Common butterflies recorded in the area.

Bushbrown (Mycalesis perseus), Common Eveningbrown (Melanitis leda).

ECO-CULTURAL RESOURCE USE IN DIYAKAPILLA

PGIAR At the time of its investigation by the present researcher

TRADITIONAL AND PRESENT LAND-USE PATTERN

ECO-CULTURAL RESOURCE USE IN DIYAKAPILLA

ECO-CULTURAL RESOURCE USE IN DIYAKAPILLA

ECO-CULTURAL RESOURCE USE IN DIYAKAPILLA

ECO-CULTURAL RESOURCE USE IN DIYAKAPILLA

ECO-CULTURAL RESOURCE USE IN DIYAKAPILLA

ECO-CULTURAL RESOURCE USE IN DIYAKAPILLA

Table 7. Grain and other dominant crops cultivated Sinhala name

Cucumber Cucumber Ash pumpkin Pumpkin Chilli

ECO-CULTURAL RESOURCE USE IN DIYAKAPILLA

Table 8. Fruits and edible leaves common in home gardens

ECO-CULTURAL RESOURCE USE IN DIYAKAPILLA

ECO-CULTURAL RESOURCE USE IN DIYAKAPILLA

ECO-CULTURAL RESOURCE USE IN DIYAKAPILLA

ECO-CULTURAL RESOURCE USE IN DIYAKAPILLA

ECO-CULTURAL RESOURCE USE IN DIYAKAPILLA

ECO-CULTURAL RESOURCE USE IN DIYAKAPILLA

ECO-CULTURAL RESOURCE USE IN DIYAKAPILLA

ECO-CULTURAL RESOURCE USE IN DIYAKAPILLA

ECO-CULTURAL RESOURCE USE IN DIYAKAPILLA

ECO-CULTURAL RESOURCE USE IN DIYAKAPILLA

ECO-CULTURAL RESOURCE USE IN DIYAKAPILLA

ECO-CULTURAL RESOURCE USE IN DIYAKAPILLA

ECO-CULTURAL RESOURCE USE IN DIYAKAPILLA