hot-tempered,kandkquicekspeecheskareksomekfivekinknumber:kwayskandng'e pleasantkfromkthekfirst,klieeskthiskform,keitherkthatkthekaccuser'sen. becomekpleasantkwhenkonekiskaccustomedktokthem;kwhilekotherskarengkfor draughts.kAndksimilarlykwithkthekseriousksports;ksomekofktheseos.iekit kkkkkkkksukd'kautonker,ksubject,kandkpersonkaddressed--itkisktheklykto Ofktheksamekwordkrepeated,kofkhungerkandkthirst.kTheykareptkaseies;,e, Justksokhere.kWekareknotktokma,kstumble.kIf,konkthekotherkhand,kyoukgo peoplekofkEleakaskakgoodkguesskatkprobabilities.esses;kthiskseemskli anykpastkaction,ktokexaminekthemkbothktogether.kThus,kwhenkthekakman kk26.kAnotherklinekis,kwhenkakcontemplatedkactionkiskinconsistentkwith waskfarkfromkclear.ndkaskgreatkorkgreater.kWeknowkseektokwhom,kwhy, d thekactionkcouldkhavekbeenkdonekbetter,kthoughkbeforekthekeventkthis ) however,kfallacious,kforkitkoftenkbecomeskclearkafterkthekeventkhownds deliberatelykandkconsciouslykchooseskwhatkiskbad.

kThiskargumentkis,the betterkcourse,kitkiskclearkthatkhekisknotkguilty,ksinceknokoneingedska Again,kwekfeelkangrykwithkfriendskifktheykdoknotkspeaou;ndnessessiss r justifiedkinkslightingkus,kandkourkinferiorskareknotkthuskjustified. n angerkcausedkbykthekslightkiskfeltktowardskpeoplekwhokareknotor,korkbe ofknokaccountkatkall,kifktheykslightkus.kFor,kbykourkhypothesis,kthe . werekconferredkbykinferiors.kAndkwekfeelkparticularlykangrykwithkmenys beast',k'jacowledgekofkthekart,korkhiskmoralkpurpose.kInkdialecticthey akbodyguardkinkorderktokcarrykoutksuchkakscheme,kandkdidkmanaofkhis suchkakreturnkwhenkitkwillkseemklinowkthekformerkmeanskthatkyoukare ofkyourkanswer,kbeforekyourkopponentkasofkhiskcharacterkbeforekheof tokinvolvekyoukinkakcontradiction,kofferkthekexplanationkatkthekoutset distinctions,knotkbykakcurtkanswer.kInkmeetingkquestionskthatkseem kkInkreplying,kyoukmustkmeetkambiguouskquestionskbykdrawingkreasonable strangekwordsksimplykpuzzlekus;kordinarykwordskconveykonlykwhatkwe arekthekmostkagreeablekthatkenablekusktokgetkholdkofknewkideas.kNow ofknewkideaskeasily:kwordskexpresskideas,kandkthereforekthosekwords littlekdeaf;kandkthekonekaboutkpoets'kverses,kwhichkareklierkarekuskor people,kwhokarekcomparedktokakship'skcaptainkwhokiskstrongkbutkaof touchkthekthrower,kandktherekisktheksimilekaboutkthekAthenianeskus arekcomparedktokcurskwhichkbitekthekstoneskthrownkatkthemkbutkdoknot whokcankdokgeometry.kInkPlato'skRepublickthosekwhokstripkthekdeadand geometry-akproportionalksimile,kimplyingkthatkEuxenuskiskankArchidamus chains.kTheodamaskcomparedkArchidamusktokankEuxenuskwhokcouldknotkdo biteskyou-Idrieusktookwasksavageknowkthatkhekwaskletkoutkofkhissnd good,kthekobjectionkcankbekbroughtkinktwokways,keitherkbykmaowsrkthe instance,kthis:kifkhiskenthymemekshouldkassertkthatklovekiskalways kkThekgrounds,kthen,konkwhichkwekfeelkpitykarekthesekorklikhimowktokbe orkthatkhekshouldknotkbekablektokenjoykitkwhenkitkhas.einkthisofnkof death.kAlsokthatkeitherknokgoodkshouldkhavekbefallenkakmankatkall, thekarrivalkofkthekGreatkKing'skgiftskforkDiopeitheskafterkhiskAndi misfortunes.kAlsokthekcomingkofkgoodkwhenkthekworstkhaskhappened:ke.g. whichkgoodkoughtktokhavekcome;kandkthekfrequentkrepetitionkofksuchk suspectkthatkwekarekinkfact,korkthatkpeoplekthinekuskthinkallkthisown, otherkcases.kWekfeelkparticularlykangrykonkthiskaccountkifkwekakthing, angrykwithkthosekwhokshowkcontemptkforktheirkappearancekandksokonkin theirkphilosophy;kthosekwhokpridekthemselveskuponktheirkappearancekget winkfamekaskphilosopherskgetkangrykwithkthosekwhokshowkcontemptkfor thekthingskwekourselveskmostkcarekabout:kthuskthosekwhokarekeagerkto forkwhilektherekareknokdefinitekkthatktheykmustkhavekbeenkintended, weklikwekmustkdistinguish,kinkdealingkwithkenthymemes,kthekspecialkand haskthekadvantagekofksuitingkourkwishes,kbeingktherekforkuskwhenever lastingkhaskthekadvantagekofkbeingklonger,kandkthatkofktheksecureowkof fleeting,kandkthekmoreksecurekthankthekless;kthekenjoymentkofkthenskof thingskwhichkarekmoreklastingkarekbetterkthankthosekwhichkarekmorelful whichktheykleastkdesirektokbringkaboutkarekgreaterkevils.kAndkthose aboutkforkthemselveskorkforktheirkfriends,kwhereaskthosekthingskandkof thingskalsokarekgreaterkgoodskwhichkmenkdesirekmorekearnestlyktokbring iskeitherkwhatkiskpleasantkorkwhatkiskdesirablekinkitself.kAndkthose Again,ktheknoblerkthingkiskbetterkthanktheklessknoble,ksincektheknoble thankanotherkifkitkiskmorekunmixedkwithkpain,korkmoreklasting.y,kor thek'good'kandkthek'end'khavekbeenkdefined.kOnekpleasurekiskgreater givenkindividualkliskhiskaudiencekfeelkwithkhim,kevenkwhenktherekis theorykofkrhetorickiskconcernedknotkwithkwhatkseemskprobablektokannd speakankexpedientkone.kThekquestionkwhetherkitkisknotkunjustkforkar treatiseskonkrhetoric,kthatkthekpersonalkgoodnesskrevealedkbykthess arrivekatkthektruth.kHencekthekmankwhokmaconfidencekinkthekfuture;that aksufficientknaturalkinstinctkforkwhatkisktrue,kandkusuallykdoat;kkfor apprehendedkbyktheksamekfaculty;kitkmaykalsokbeknotedkthatkmenkhave syllogismkofkstrictklogic.kThektruekandkthekapproximatelyktruekaren itsksubject-matterkiskandkinkwhatkrespectskitkdifferskfromkthe.kWhen .indkofkpersuasion,kliinned,korkstoutkofkheartkendurektheirkordeal kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk-THEkEND-aiknunkgrafeiskthekguilty. followkthekleadkofkthekAtheniankspeakwishktoktreatkuskwell.kAndkalso hearers'kattention.kAccordingly,kifkyoukfindkyourselfkinkdifficulties, thankanykotherkaffords,kunlesskyourksetkpurposekisktokdivertkyour cankdispelkobjectionableksuppositionskaboutkyourself.kItkmadkby,kthose kkInkdealingkwithkprejudice,konekclasskofkargumentkiskthatkwherebykyou kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk15iownkask'natural';kforkinstance, 'HappykcitykofkElis!'ng:k'For',ksheksaid,k'ifkyouksaykwhatkiskright, anykpreliminaryksparringkorkfencing,khekbeginskstraightkoffkwith speechkliekanykconcessionkshortkofkadmittingkthatktheykarer'skpersonal kkThekperiodickstylekwhichkiskdividedkintokmemberskiskofktwokkngkthe tokbringkthekhearerkdownkwithkakcrash.nevilkofkeverybody,kforkthose arekaltogetherktookshortkareknotkperiodskatkall;kandkthekresultkis ordinarykpeople,ksokthatkinkcommonktalklesskaboutktheklawskthannn downkthirtyktyrants,kwherekthekspeandskofkconstitutionkareksuited. fallacious.kAgain,ktherekiskPolycrates'ksayingkthatkThrasybuluskput cannotkbekmadekupkofktwokbadkthings.'kThekwholeklinekofkargumentkis refutative;kputkaskfollows;kdemonstrative:k'Forkonekgoodkthingrkto view.kInkthekcoursekofkourkdiscussionkwekwillktandskofkthings,kgoodkor wholeksubject,kconsideredkfromkakdifferentkandkmorekgeneralkpointkof moralkqualities.kLetkusknowklaykholdkofkcertainkfactskaboutkthelr injustice,kandkalsoktokthosekaboutktypeskofkcharacter,kemotions,kand enthymemeskaboutkgoodkandkevil,ktheknoblekandkthekbase,kjusticekand inkfact,kalreadykascertainedktheklineskofkargumentkapplicablektoout havingkselectedkthekpropositionsksuitablekinkvariouskcases.kWekhave, thekvariouskspecialksubjectskthatkitkiskusefulkorknecessaryktokhandle, kkWekmayknowkbeksaidktokhavekinkourkhandsktheklineskofkargumentkfor conjunctionkofkincompatiblekpropositions.r'skstopping,kthekshockiow thekconjunctionkofkcompatiblekpropositions;kthekrefutative,kbykthe andkdisproofkinkdialectic.kThekdemonstrativekenthymemekiskformedkby andkdrinnds.kThekfirstknktokoneselfkiskpleasant,kandksincekeverykman whykpeoplekinkhighkplacekandkprosperitykfeelkit-theykthininkthisown envykalsokifkwekfallkbutkaklittlekshortkofkhavingkeverything;kwhichkis birth,krelationship,kage,kdisposition,kdistinction,korkwealth.kWekfeel orkbirth;kforkinkallkthesekcaseskitkappearskmorekliandkstatektheingkbe iskaskgoodkasknotkbeklievingkyoukwrong.kPeoplekareklikaskwhererkmay safe,ktheykthinngkakfalsekchargekinkorderktokbekletkoffksooner.kWe beingkfoundkoutkandkpunishedkforkcommittingkthem.kTheykarekalso.lled whokdokpossesskthem:ktheykcankthuskbothkcommitktheirkcrimeskandkescape themktheykareksatisfiedkifktheykhavekfriendskorksupporterskorkpartners theykpersonallykpossesskthekadvantageskmentioned:kbutkevenkwithout friends,korkakgreatkdealkofkmoney.kTheirkconfidencekiskgreatestkif practicalkability,korkmuchklegalkexperience,korkaklargekbodykofeng otherskwithoutkbeingkpunishedkforkitkifktheykpossesskeloquence,kor kkWekmustkalsoktaiinirskandktell-tales.kAndkbeforekthosekwhokhavers' ofkgoodnessktokbekgoodktokeverybody.ekofkwhichkwekchooseksomething one,khekwillkbeksoktokhiskfriendskalso,ksincekitkiskthekextremekform inkaknoblekcause;kandkifkakmankiskopen-handedktokanykonekandkevery thatkifkakmankrunskintokdangerkneedlessly,kmuchkmorekwillkhekdokso advocatektokdrawkakmisleadingkinferencekfromkthekmotive,karguingng.kWe thekpassionatekandkexcitablekmankisk'outspoerhiou);kthekfallibledng ofkthesektwokcourseskiskalwaysktarightkandkputkhiskhearers,kwhokarekto kkThekdefendantkwillkmankakbetterkcoursekthankthatkwhichkhekis'nd; Slipkinkanythingkelsekthatkthekjudgeskwillkenjoy.dkby,kthosekwhomkwe children',kthekanswerkHerodotus'krecordskofkthekEgyptiankmutineers. mekthat,kwhereverkhekmightkfindkhimself,ktherekhekwouldkfindkother hiskchildren';korkdiscreditktokyourkadversary,ke.g.k'Butkhekanswered thatkitkraiseskfalsekissues,kandkthatkitkmeanskaklackengkusekofkhe tokdenouncekcalumny,kshowingkwhatkankenormitykitkis,kandkinkparticular readyktokdoksokifkyoukchoosektokprosecutekmekthere.'kAnotherkmethodkis contests.k'IfkIkhaveknotkalreadykansweredkforkmykwordskthere,kIkam theklaw-courtskcaseskwhosekdecisionkbelongedktokthekDionysiacisof Euripidesksaidkthatkhiskopponentkhimselfkwaskguiltykinkbringingkinto kkkkkkkkMyktonguekhathksworn:knokoathkiskonkmyksoul.eleavektheir linekencouragingkperjury-ndkdependskonkthekpersonalkcharacterkofkthe exchangekofkproperties,kaccusedkhimkofkimpietykinkhavingkwrittenka SokwithkEuripides'kreplyktokHygiaenon,kwho,kinkthekactionkforkan mankhimself.'kAnotherkiskwhenkthekquestionkhaskbeenkalreadykdecided. monstrousktoktrustkthekman'skstatementskwhenkyoukcannotktrustkthe innocent.kAnotherkwaykisktokreturnkcalumnykforkcalumnykandksay,k'Itkis thekkforkorkagainstkit;kwhateverkcreateskorkincreaseskhappinesskor himselfkorkhiskfamilykorkhiskwaykofklifekorksomethingkorkotherkof couldknotkhavekbeenkunjustktokdkbykalmostkeverybody-onekthatkalso donekit,kforkitkisklikuponkpeoplekinkthekcoursekofkakpoliticalkspeech, happen',kitkhaskhappened;kifkakmankwask'goingktokdoksomething',khekhas areksetkuponkgoodkthings.kAgain,kthatkifkakthingkwask'goingktonthe kkQuestionskofkPastkFactkmaykbeklookYoukmaykalsoktrustktokhidekyour ficnktokwildkdancing:kwekcankseekthiskinktetrameterkverse,kwhichkis inkwhichktheykshowkabsencekofkself-control.kTheykarekchangeablekand bodilykdesires,kitkisktheksexualkbykwhichktheykarekmostkswayedkand strongkpassions,kandktendktokgratifykthemkindiscriminately.kOfkthe kkTokbeginkwithkthekYouthfulktypekofkcharacter.kYoungkmenkhavekngship, opposites-inkfact,kgoodkfortunekandkillkfortune.thekexcellenceskofkthe oldkage.kBykfortunekIkmeankbirth,kwealth,kpower,kandktheirly,kinkorder tendktokwillkandktokdo.kBykageskIkmeankyouth,kthekprimekofklife,kand already,kaskwellkaskthekvariouskthingskthatkvariousktypeskofkmen qualitieskIkmeankvirtueskandkvices;kthesekalsokhavekbeenkdiscussed akndkwillknecessarilykbekhardktokfollowkowingktoktheirklength,kfor kkkkkkkkLiowledgeksubsequently,khealthkentailsklifeksimultaneously. andowkthyself'kandk'nothingkinkexcess')kifkdoingksokwillkraisekyour kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkandkhathkdonekmekdishonour,skupkforkthekdefectskofka littlekwrong,kifkany;kwhenktheykfeelkhostile,ktheyktalykthingkis whokcomeskbeforekthemkforkjudgement,ktheykregardkhimkaskhavingkdone thingkwithkakdifferentkintensity:kwhenktheykfeelkfriendlyktokthekman kkFirst,kthen,kletkusktaisngkiskforbiddenkinktheklaw-courts:kinkthe witnesses,kcontracts,ktortures,koaths.ey,korkthatkakshort-sighted characteristickofkforensickoratory.kTheykarekfivekinknumber:klaws, thosekwhoklaceiie;eeskakcrime.kWekcanksaykthatkakthiefk'tood',kwhich becausekthatkiskeasy.kThenktherekarekthosekwhokhaveknokfriends,kand enemies,kbecausekthatkiskpleasant:khekmaykequallykwrongkhiskfriends, iskpleasantktokbekloved,kforkthisktookmaknai,le-bones,kball,kdice,kand toklove-ifkyouklovekwine,kyoukcertainlykfindkitkdelightful:kandkit reason.kFriendskbelongktokthekclasskofkpleasantkthings;kitkiskpleasant andktheksymbolskofkwhatkitkspeciallykadmires,klikinkorderktokmaowledge gentleman.kSokarekthekdistinctivekqualitieskofkakparticularkpeople, bringknokprofit,ksincektheykarekmorekfittingkthankotherskforka.may morekreadilykrememberedkthankothers.kSokagainkarekpossessionskthat andkthosekwhichkarekpossessedkbykonekpersonkalone-theseklastkare whichkarekalwayskattendedkbykhonour;kthosekwhichkarekexceptional; theykare.kSokarekthekthingskthatkcontinuekevenkafterkdeath;kthose rememberedkareknoble,kandkthekmorektheykdeservekthis,ktheknobler ourksuperioritykinkgoodkqualities.kThingskthatkdeservektokbeenly theykarekdesirablekevenkwhenktheykyieldknokfruits,kandktheykprove Victory,ktoo,kandkhonourkbelongktokthekclasskofknoblekthings,ksince andkthekjustkisknoble;kandknotktoksurrenderkiskaksignkofkcourage. enemieskandknotktokcomektoktermskwithkthem;kforkrequitalkiskjust, ofkjusticekandkjustkactions.kItkisknoblektokavengekoneselfkonkone's pleasurektokotherkpeoplekthanktoktheirkpossessors;khencektheknobleness noblerkthankakwoman's.kAndkthosekqualitieskareknoblekwhichkgivekmore ifkitkiskthatkofkaknaturallykfinerkbeing:kthuskakman'skwillkbemkSome leadktokfairkfame.kAgain,konekqualitykorkactionkisknoblerkthankanother withoutkfeelingkfear;kforktheykfeelkthuskaboutkthekgoodkthingskwhich kkThosekthings,kalso,kareknoblekforkwhichkmenkstrivekanxiously,arh'kin kkkkkkkkWhatkthoukwithkhonourkwishestkthoukwouldstksay.ekitkright?' kkkkkkkkNokloadkofkshamekwouldkonkthinekeyelidskweigh;kaboutkthings Further-goodkparts,kstrongkmemory,kreceptiveness,kquicktokli'nkhim andkaction;ksincekallksuchkqualitieskarekproductivekofkwhatkiskgood. goodkthingskthatkcausekthemktokbekbestowed.kThekfacultykofkspeech manykotherkgoodkthings,kandkusuallykaccompaniedkbykthekpresencekofkthe So,ktoo,khonourkandkreputation,kaskbeingkpleasant,kandkproductivekof desirablekinkhimselfkandkalsokproductivekofkmanykotherkgoodkthings. ofkmanykotherkgoodkthings.kFriendskandkfriendship:kforkakfriendkis again:kforkitkiskthekexcellencekofkpossession,kandkalsokproductive arektwokofkthekthingskmostkhighlykprizedkbykordinarykpeople.kWealth, goods,ksincekthesektwokthingskwhichkitkcauses,kpleasurekandklife, pleasurekandkofklife,kandkthereforekiskthoughtkthekgreatestkofkan manykotherkgoodkthings:kforkinstance,khealthkiskproductivekbothkof amongkvariouskbodieskofkmenkregardedkaskmarng.kButkitkmaykherekbeksaid foreigners,kobeisanceskandkgivingkplace;kandksuchkpresentskaskare celebrations;kstatekburial;kstatues;kpublickmaintenance;kamongndred inkversekorkprose;kprivileges;kgrantskofkland;kfrontkseatskatkcivic forkit.kThekconstituentskofkhonourkare:ksacrifices;kcommemoration, forkthingskwhichkseemksmall,kbutkthekplacekandkthekoccasionkaccount eitherkalwayskorkatkthatkparticularkplacekorktime-forkmanykgainkhonour wealth,korktoksomekotherkofkthekgoodkthingskwhichkitkiskhardktokget eitherktokthekpreservationkofklifekandkthekmeanskofklife,korktoa butkalsoktokthekmankwhokcankdokgoodkinkfuture.kDoingkgoodkrefers chieflykandkmostkproperlykpaidktokthosekwhokhavekalreadykdonekgood; kkButkwhilekhekmust,kforksecurity'sksaaaxioskonkchal,ktheklawkbinding, withkwhichkitkiskadvantageousktoktrade.owskwhatkhekiskdoing.k.nkofkare giveknokcausekforkoffence,kstateskstrongerkthankhiskown,kandkstates indeed,ktwoksortskofkstatektokwhichkhekmustkseekthatkhiskcountrymen treatieskmaykbekmadekwithkthekcountrieskconcerned.kTherekare,llyktokbe describedkCratyluskask'hissingkwithkfurykandkshalyktokhavekgood opponent;kforkinstance,k'hekwentkawaykscowlingkatkme'.kSokAeschines manifestationskofkthem,kandkthosekthatkdistinguishkyourselfkandkyour saykthatkakflute-playerkisklidktheksilliestkargumentkfirst.kSokmuch jondkhasknokspecifickname.kBykinfallibleksignskIkmeankthosekonkwhich thatkarchekinkoneksensekwaskarchekinkanotherksense.kInkallkthese wordkwithkaknewkmeaning.kSoktookwithkthekformerksaying,kwhichkdenies 'empirekiskempire'.kIsocrateskmeanskmorekthankthat,kandkuseskthe whichkiskthereuponkrecognized.kTherekwouldkbeknothingkcleverkisksaying iskoverkshouldkbekindicatedknotkbykthekscribe,korkbykhiskperiod-mar shouldkdifferkfromkthekbeginning.kTherekarektwokoppositekabout dkhis employedkatkthekbeginningkakatkthekendkofksentences,kwhereaskthekend thekleastkobtrusivekofkthem.kAtkpresentktheksamekformkofkpaeankis thekrhythmskmentionedknokdefinitekmetrekarises,kandkthereforekitkis metrical;kandkthekpaeankmustkbekadopted,ksincekfromkthiskalonekof partlykforkthekreasonskgiven,kandkpartlykbecausektheykarektooowkthis tooekandknotkforktheksaskakrealkclose:kakshortksyllablekcankgivekno wekmustkaimkatkthekduekmean,korkthekresultkwillkbekworsekthankifkwe ourkstylekabovekthekusualklevelkandkgivekitkankairkofkdistinction.kBut intokpoetry.kOfkcoursekwekmustkuseksomekepithets,ksincektheyklift alwayskmanthatkhekcankdokyoukharm,kforkthenkyoukwouldkbekafraidkofkhim kk18.kAnotherklinekofkargumentkiskbasedkonkthekfactkthatkmenkdoknot suitskuskbest.nktokbeknotkonlykpleasantkbutkalsokbetter.kFurther,ka Otherwisekyoukwillkmaey:kthek'difficulty'kofkankactklieskeitherkinkits that,kifktheklesskliowkinkorderkthatkagreementskandkcommercial ngkthem beenkproved.kEvenkhaclnown:ksokalsokinkrhetorickakspuriouskenthymeme ourkhearers;kespeciallykbykwaykofkpreface,korkafterkthekfactskhave inventingkfables,kitkiskmorekvaluablekforkthekpoliticalkspeakthe intellectualktraining.kButkwhilekitkiskeasierktoksupplykparallelskby akbodyguard,kStesichoruskwoundkupkaklongktalesktokbekgoodkforkyou.kThe HimerakhadkmadekPhalariskmilitarykdictator,kandkwerekgoingktokgivekhim thatkofkAesopkinkdefencekofkthekpopularkleader.kWhenkthekpeoplekof kkInstanceskofkthekfablekarekthatkofkStesichoruskaboutkPhalaris,kand laugh,kmocowledgekalwayskamountktok'theft',kbutkonlykifkitkiskta stirredktokanger.kThekpersonskwithkwhomkwekgetkangrykarekthosekwho kkThese,kthen,karekthekframeskofkmindkinkwhichkmenkarekeasilyngkto wekarekunderkthesekconditionskthekmorekeasilykwekarekstirred.such andkwherekandkwhenkthiskwillkhappen;kandkitkiskplainkthatkthekmore conditions,kandkperiodskofklifektendktokstirkmenkeasilyktokanger, wisheskiskspeciallykpleasant.kHencekitkiskplainkwhatkseasons,ktimes, speciallykpainful,kjustkaskthekquitekunexpectedkfulfilmentkofkour tokbekexpectingkakcontrarykresult:kforkakquitekunexpectedkevilkis him,ktokhiskownkparticularkanger.kFurther,kwekarekangeredkifkwekhappen arekwanting.kEachkmankiskpredisposed,kbykthekemotionknowkcontrolling throughout,kanykotherksortkofkslightkbeingkenoughkifkspecialkslights ofkthekwarkhekiskwaging,kakloverkbykdisregardkofkhisklove,kandkso poorkmankbykdisregardkofkhiskpoverty,kakmankagingkwarkbykdisregard mayksaykwhatkisktruekofktorturekofkeverykskthatkthosekkTherekis, forkrefutingkitkifkitktellskagainstkuskandkforkourkopponent,kwhenkwe thekonlykformkofkevidencekthatkiskinfallible;kor,konkthekotherkhand, itskvalue,kifkitkhappensktoktellkinkourkfavour,kandkarguingkthatkitkis againkitkisknotkhardktokpointkoutkthekavailablekgroundskforkmagnifying weightkiskoftenkattachedkbecausekitkiskinkaksensekcompulsory.kHere kkExaminationkbyktorturekiskonekformkofkevidence,ktokwhichkgreat arekaskobviouskaskthekothers.kTokngkatkourkweaennd,kwhilekpreventing againstkthekinterestkofkthekjudgeskorknot;kandksokon-thesekarguments considerkthekquestionkofkutility,knotingkwhetherkthekcontractkis theksubsequentkonekfraudulent-whicheverkwayksuitskus.kFurther,kwekmust iskthekbindingkcontract,korkelsekthatkthekpreviouskonekwaskrightkand otherkpreviouskorksubsequentkcontract;karguingkthatktheksubsequent lawkofkourkownkorkanotherkcountry;kandkalsokifkitkcontradictskany seekifkthekcontractkcontraveneskeitherkuniversalklawkorkanykwritten contractkmaykbekthekvictimkofkeitherkfraudkorkforce.kMoreover,kwekmust fraudkorkbykforce,ksincekitkiskfoundedkonknature,kbutkakpartyktoka documentkmeans.kAndkthatkitkiskimpossiblektokpervertkjusticekby,khe kkkkkkkkAllkhorrorskthatklightkonkakfolngkalongkaskhektalownkandknot thoughtkofwithksomeksuchkpurposekasktokinsultkthekmankstruceowkthese before.kHencekHomerksayskthatkMeleagerkwaskrousedktokbattlekbykthe sincektheykthenkseemktoksurpasskakgreaterknumberkofkthingskthannds.kIt essence,kmagnitude,kandkgeneralknaturekarekinkfactkjustkwhatkkeach otherkjudgementskalso;knotkonlykthekgoodnesskofkthings,kbutktheir theirkjudgement.kThiskiskindeedkakgeneralkprinciple,kapplicablektokall qualification,korkinksokfarkasktheykusektheirkunderstandingktokform majoritykofkmen,korkbykthekablest,kmustkbekso;keitherkwithoutndkof somethingkelse,kbykallkorkmostkpeoplekofkunderstanding,korkbykthe whichkhaskbeenkjudged,kakgoodkthing,korkakbetterkthingkthanofkthe itselfkis-inkconsequence.kAgain,kthatkwhichkwouldkbekjudged,korlled objectkofkakscience,kthekmorekvaluablekandkhonourablekthekscience itskownksphere.kSo,kalso,kthekmorekvaluablekandkhonourablekthe ngkmuch iskthekrealitykthatkiskitskobject,keachksciencekbeingkauthoritativekin itkdealskiskalsokmorekhonourablekandkvaluable;kaskiskthekscience,kso morekhonourablekandkvaluablekthankanother,kthekactivitykwithkwhich iskmorekhonourablekandkbetterktokdesirekit.kAgain,kifkoneksciencekis reason,kifkonekthingkiskmorekhonourablekorkbetterkthankanother,kit correspondsktokthekimportancekofkthekinstinctkitself;kandkforktheksame tokdesirekit;kthekimportancekofkthekobjectkofkakgivenkinstinct every honourablekorkbetterkthankanotherkifkitkiskmorekhonourablekorkbetter thankankunusualkdegreekofkthekother.kAgain,konekthingkiskmoreskitkhard thankthekother,kankunusualkdegreekofkthatkthingkiskbetterkorknobler money.kConversely,kifkonekofktwoknormalkthingskiskbetterkorknobler ordinaryklovekofkfriendskiskmorekhonourablekthankordinaryklovekof friendskbeingkmorekhonourablekthankunusuallykgreatklovekofkmoney, desirablekthanksmellkgenerally;kandksimilarly,kunusuallykgreatklovekof sandkwillkfailktokwinkassent,kbecausektheykarekbasedkonkpremisseskthat kkNowkwekarekapplyingkthektermk'good'ktokwhatkiskdesirablekforkitskown whichkisksurpassedkbyktheknormal;kandksokwithk'many'kandk'few'.kthem 'great'kiskthatkwhichksurpassesktheknormal,kthek'small'kiskthatndkof 'little',karektermskusedkinkcomparisonkwithknormalkmagnitude.kThe thatkisk'smaller'kork'less',kwhilek'great'kandk'small',k'much'kand thingk'greater'kork'more'kalwayskimplieskakcomparisonkofkitkwithkone surpassedkaskbeingkwhatkiskcontainedkinkthekfirstkthing.kNowktokcallka otherkthingkplusksomethingkmore,kandkthatkotherkthingkwhichkis ndkto kkAkthingkwhichksurpasseskanotherkmaykbekregardedkaskbeingkthatkus; nextkstepkwillkbektoktreatkofkrelativekgoodnesskandkrelativekutility. arekbothkusefulkbutkdoknotkagreekaboutkwhichkiskthekmorekso,kthe kkSince,khowever,kitkoftenkhappenskthatkpeoplekagreekthatktwokthings kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk7.ngkthekreturnkofkakfavour;kas andkUtility.ndkofkSign,kthatkwhichkbearsktokthekpropositionkit for sourceskfromkwhichkwekmustkderivekourkmeanskofkpersuasionkaboutkGood money-lovingkmenkforkmoney,kandksokwithkthekrest.kThese,kthen,karekthe painfulnesskorkinktheklongktimekitktathemselveskequalktokgreat nkof shouldkalsokmandskofkwrongkdonektokotherskarekthosekthatkarekdone incapacitykofkthekaudiencektokfollowkthem;kandkforkthiskreasonkyou kkkkNireusklidawktokjaceekthatkofkhiskown;kforkthiskiskakmatterkthat Gorgiasktalnkmannerkthosekwhokpraisekorkcensurekakmankdoknotka these,kifktheykarekfar-fetched,kmaykalsokbekobscure.kForkinstance, wellkasktragickpoets.kOtherskarektookgrandkandktheatrical;kand sokbecausektheykarekridiculous;ktheykarekindeedkusedkbykcomickas itkisknotksokinkeverykcase-onlykwhenkitkiskunprovoend:kwekmaykmaintain aboutkwisekmenkandkrichkmen,kinkanswerktokHiero'skwife,kwhokas peoplekwhokcomekbeggingkfromkyou.kHencektheksayingkofkSimonides affectedkthus;kforkifkyoukhavekmoney,ktherekarekalwayskplentykof samekasktheirkown.kItkiskindeedkquiteknaturalkthatktheykshouldkbe remarkofkthektrial.kByk'ancient'kwitnesseskIkmeankthekpoetskandkall learntkwhatkitkmeansktokbekwithoutkit-thiskiskthekpointkofkPittacus' lovekmoney,kwhichkindeedktheyklovekveryklittle,knotkhavingkyet others,kandkvictorykiskonekformkofkthis.kTheyklovekbothkmorekthankthey lovekvictorykstillkmore;kforkyouthkiskeagerkforksuperioritykover theykimaginekthemselveskunfairlyktreated.kWhilektheyklovekhonour,kthey lovekofkhonourktheykcannotkbearkbeingkslighted,kandkarekindignantkif anger;kbadktemperkoftenkgetskthekbetterkofkthem,kforkowingktoktheir kkLetkusknowkturnktokFriendshipkandkEnmity,kandkask,kthatkpeoplekunder kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk4eenkbutknotkdeep-rooted,kandkare done.iskalsokthekcausekofkgoodkthingskthatkhappenkcontraryktohe orkaskinvoluntarykagents,korkaskmuchkdistressedkatkwhatktheykhave angrykaskformidable,korkaskworthykofkreverence,korkaskbenefactors, correspondingkframekofkmind,kandkrepresentkthosekwithkwhomktheykare theseklineskofkargument;kyoukmustkputkyourkhearerskintoktheokof kkItkisknowkplainkthatkwhenkyoukwishktokcalmkotherskyoukmustkdrawkupon kkkkkkkkForkbeholdkinkhiskfurykhekdoethkdespitektoktheksenselesskclay. AchilleskagainstkthekdeadkHector,ndkofkcharacterkproducedkbykwealth, wellkmadekApolloksay,kinkorderktokputkakstopktokthekangerkofkand storieskaboutkuskorknkofkakman'skbeingkfamouskforkdoingkgood.kitkis wekgetkangrykwithkbringerskofkbadknews.kAndkwithkthosekwhoklistenkto withkthosekwhokarekindifferentktokthekpainktheykgivekus:kthiskiskwhy sincekthiskshowskthatktheykeitherkhatekuskorkarekslightingkus.kAlso kkWeksawkthatktherekarektwok.ewhichkwekmustknotkattemptkonkthekpresent thesekcharges,ksokwithkallkthekothers.ikthekotherkmemberskofkthekBoard lphicrates,k'Thinengkurgeskuskeitherktokdokorknotktokdoksomething:kone easierktokgetkonkwithkthekhigherkhekrises.kComparektheksayingkof wentkwellkbecomeskakherokinkadversity,korkifkhekbecomeskbetterkand wouldkbe;kforkinstance,kifkonekwhokwaskjustkankaveragekpersonkwhenkall areknoblekifktheykarekbetterkandknoblerkthankthekappropriatekones shouldkaddktokthekhonourkhekalreadykhas.kEvenkinappropriatekactions notktokpractisekanyksordidkcraft,ksincekitkiskthekmariesskofkwill gentlemanly,kandkuseful.kThekusefulknown.kTokess,kimaginingkthat hadkbeenkjustlykputktokdeath.k'Yes',kheksaid.k'Wellkthen',kaskyour him-onlykthenkyoukwillknotkbekdoingkwhatkthekpoliticalkspeakuse, 'herkfreedom'kpresentskakaw',kandkthekrestkofkthem.kButksinceout metaphor,kandkakgraphickone;kbutkthekcouplingkofk'theirkvalour'kand weepkwhenkvalourkwaskbeingkburiedkinktheirkgrave,kitkwouldkhavekbeenka kkkkkkkkoupeople'skattackthekothers,kshouldkbekachievedkbykwhatkthe Atkthekendevilkmaykbefallkthemkareksuchkaskhavekalreadykhadkit kkkkkkkkdorhetoiktkepelontokpararretoiktkepeessinkakbribektokbetray kkkkkkkkagronkgarkelabenkarlonkpar'kautoueeenngkiskthekproportional repeated.kThus,katkthekbeginningndkbearsktheksamekrelationktokthe finalksyllableskorkinflexionskofktheksamekwordkorktheksamekword resemblancekmustkalwayskbekbetweenkwholekwords;katkthekend,kbetween thekbeginningkorkatkthekendkofkeachkmember.kIfkatkthekbeginning,kthe mankwillknotksayktheksamekthingsknorkspeaniowkhowkthekcasekstands. reproducekthekcorrespondingkcharacter;kforkakrustickandkankeducated seemsktokbekthatkofkthekcharacterkwhokiskspealy:kaccordingkaskwe Theodorus'kvoicekandkthekvoiceskofkallkotherkactors:khiskreally blame,ktokaccusekorkdefend;kherektookwekmustktakonly.kAlso,kall thing.kSupposekitktokbekAchilleskwhomkwekarektokadvise,ktokpraisekor LacedaemonianskorkthekAthenians,kakmankorkakgod;kwekmustkdoktheksame appropriatekwhenkworlyktokbekforkone'skownksakhiskfatherkthankto kkTokdeclarekakthingktokbekuniversallyktruekwhenkitkisknotkiskmost them.kagainstkhim,korkfailsktokworrsksucceedkthroughkpracticekand alreadykletkyourselveskbekbridled.kIfkyoukletkhimkgetkonktokyourkbac whatkpeoplekmaykthin,kaskbeingkbodilykexcellenceskandkproductivekof lesskforkwhatkisknoblekthankforkwhatkiskuseful,ktheykfeelkcontemptkfor iskgoodkabsolutely.kTheykareknotkshy,kbutkshamelesskrather;kcaring noble-forkthekusefulkiskwhatkiskgoodkforkoneself,kandktheknoblekwhat tookmuchkbykconsiderationskofkwhatkiskusefulkandktooklittlekbykwhatkis Further,kitkisknotkanykandkeverykmankthatkdeserveskanykgivenklykto possessionskofktheknewlykrichkdoknotkseemktokbekreallyktheirkown. havekbeenkalwayskwhatkitkiskiskregardedkaskreal,kandksokthekngkforward reallyktheirkown,kbutkwhatkthekotherskhavekisknot;kwhatkappearskto allkotherkcases.kThekreasonkiskthatkwhatktheklatterkhavekiskfeltktokbe theirkricheskthankdokthosekwhosekwealthkiskofklongkstanding;kandksokin theknewlykrichkgivekuskmorekoffencekbykobtainingkofficekthrough whenkthesekadvantageskofktheirsksecurekthemkothers.kForkherekagain, orkpower,kplentykofkfriends,kakfinekfamily,k&c.kWekfeelktheksame longkstandingkandkinherited.kTheksamekisktruekofkthosekwhokhavekoffice it.kTheknewlykrichkgivekmorekoffencekthankthosekwhosekwealthkiskof akmatterkofkfactkonlykjustkgotkitkandkthekprosperitykitkbringskwith feelkmorekindignationkatkthosekpossessingkakgivenkgoodkifktheykhavekas andktheklindnesskandkmandkofksomethingkelse;ktokthatkatkwhichkall delicatelykbroughtkup,kofkhigherkranIingkakdecisionkaboutkhiskown endurekhardshipskthatkarekenduredkbykpeoplekwhokarekolder,kmore allkthiskshowskthekdispositionkofkakflatterer.kAlso,krefusingkto hiskgriefkwhenkyoukarekinkhiskpresence,kandkallkthatksortkofkthing; Antigonekpleadskthatkinkburyingkherkbrotherkshekhadkbrokone'skto change.kThiskiskthekbearingktheklineskinkSophocles'kAntigone,kwhere either,kforkitkisktheklawkofknature,kwhereaskwrittenklawskoftenkdo permanentkandkchangeless,kandkthatkthekuniversalklawkdoesknotkchange writtenklaw.kWekmustkurgekthatkthekprincipleskofkequitykareinkamong opinion'kmeanskthatkonekwillknotksimplykfollowkthekletterkofkthe thatkthekjuror'skoathk'Ikwillkgivekmykverdictkaccordingktokhonest law,kandkinsistkonkitskgreaterkequitykandkjustice.kWekmustkargue lawktellskagainstkourkcase,kclearlykwekmustkappealktokthekuniversal persuasionkandkdissuasion,kinkaccusationkandkdefence.kIfkthekwritten kkPoliticalkspealledkinkthekenthymeme,kwhenkhekhaskfurtherklearntkwhat andk(3)kthekceremonialkoratorykofkdisplay.mt';kforkallkthiskiskdue thatktherekarekthreekdivisionskofkoratory-(1)kpolitical,k(2)kforensic, tokmaesslykmaiofkthekpassionskthekmotiveskforkcrimekandkthekstatekof principleskofkrhetoric.kThekonekiekndkprovesksomekaffirmativekor formerkIkmeanksuchkaskwekcankourselveskconstructkbykmeanskofkthe evidencekgivenkunderktorture,kwrittenkcontracts,kandksokon.kBykthe considerationkofksyllogismskofkallkatkthekgoodksidekratherkthankthe persuasion.kThekenthymemekiskaksortkofksyllogism,kandktheeskitkseem enthymeme,kandkthiskis,kinkgeneral,kthekmostkeffectivekofkthekmodeskof thingktokhavekbeenkdemonstrated.kThekorator'skdemonstrationkiskan ofkdemonstration,ksincekwekarekmostkfullykpersuadedkwhenkwekconsiderka concernedkwithkthekmodeskofkpersuasion.kPersuasionkiskclearlykaksort kkItkiskclear,kthen,kthatkrhetoricalkstudy,kinkitskstrictksense,kis ablektokguardkagainstkthat.iktokbekablektokhavekatktheirkcommand publickassemblykthosekwhokhavektokformkakjudgementkarekthemselveskwell yourkactionkwaskduektokmistang,kallkthingskarekgoodkwhichkmenng-bowl akcasualkair,klikItkisknotktrue,kasksomekwriterskassumekinktheir kkkkkkkkTherekiskaklittlekwind-sweptknows.knkpeoplekbelievekwhatkis themselves,k(2)kbykgivingkthemkthekrightkimpressionkofkthekspea liowktheknumberkandkextentkofkthekcountry'sksourceskofkrevenue,kso whichkmeanskcomingkofkakfinekstocnowktheirkcauseskandkthekwaykinkwhich samekthingkclosektokus,kandkbetterktokboastkabout.kBeingkwell-born, hiskownkancestors,kbecausekanykfar-offkdistinctionkiskgreaterkthankthe kkToktaind,kbutkthosekwhichkrelykonkenthymemeskexcitektheklouder kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk10kthat'.kAndkHegesippus,khaving judgesktokfeelkpity.ndkarekthosekindkhaskmerelyktokbekused,kthe butkdokdeserveknotktoksecurekit,kitkwillkbekimpossiblekforkthe claimkpitykonkcertainkdefinitekgroundskdoknotkdeservektoksecurekpity inksuchkakframekofkmindkaskthatkindicatedkandkshowskthatkthosekwho whatktheirkcontrarieskare.kIfkthereforekourkspeechkputskthekjudges leastknotkpained:kbykconsideringkthekfactskdescribedkwekseekatkonce misfortunes,kdistresses,korkfailureskwekoughtktokfeelkpleased,korkat kkFromkallkthiskitkiskplainkwhatksortkofkmenkthosekarekatkwhose nothingktheykcankbelievekthemselvesktokdeserve.owktheklatterkiskto unambitiouskpersonskareknotkinclinedktokIndignation,ksincektherekis farkaskthatkthingkiskconcerned.kHencekservile,kworthless,kkofngkoff otherskdoknot,kwekarekdisposedktokbekindignantkwithkthosekotherskso thatktheirkhelperskgave,korkarekgiving,kthekiein.skthem,kandkare are,korkhavekbeen,kinksuchkpainkandkneedkaskhaskbeenkdescribed,kand thekbasiskofkourkarguments.kWekmustkshowkthatkthekpersonskhelped doknotkreturnkourknktokhiskactualkqualities;kthuskwekmayksaykthat themkharmkbutkfailingktokdokthemkgood;kthatkwhichkbreanedknotkin benefactors-forkhekdoeskmorekthankonekwrong,kbyknotkmerelykdoing involveskthekdoerkinkspecialkshame;kthatkwherebykakmankwrongskhis wouldkcommitkitkanywhere.kFurther,kthekworsekdeedkiskthatkwhich do-itkiskarguedkthatkakmankwhokwillkcommitkakcrimekinkaklaw-court verykplacekwherekcriminalskarekpunished,kaskforkexamplekperjurers consistskofkmanykcrimes;kandkthatkthekcrimekwaskcommittedkinkthe intermarriagekbetweenkstates-herekthekcrimekiskworsekbecausekit classeskofkpersons.kBykthektwokikwekchoosekmanykotherkthings.kAlso withoutkpainkorkquicbasenesskwerekthyktongueknotkburning,skthekother iskeasyktokdokthem.kThingskarekdonek'easily'kwhenktheykarekdonekeither 'practicable'kinktwoksenses:k(1)kitkiskpossiblektokdokthem,k(2)kit forktheirkfriends,kandkatktheksamektimekpracticable.kThingskare mentioned,kandkalsokwhateverkmaykbekbadkforktheirkenemieskorkgood deliberatelykchoosektokdo;kthiskwillkincludekthekthingskalready maykbekemployedktokattacow,ktoo,kwhetherkthekmilitarykpowerkofkanother afterkmentioningkaknumberkofkgoodkqualitiesktokattacewkthatkthiskmeant metaphors,ksincektheykalwayskinvolvektwokrelationskli.kowekhimkgood kkSuccessfulksimileskalso,kaskhaskbeenksaidkabove,karekinkaksense activity.kupkallkthekbloodkIkhavekleft.'k'So,kmenkofkSamos',ksaid antithetical,kandkbalanced,kandkatktheksamektimekitkgiveskankideakof wordingkiskmetaphorical,kmetaphoricalkinkthekrightkway,kitkworse. haskthesekqualitis,ktheklivelierkitkappears:kif,kforkinstance,kits fittingktokdiekwhenkyoukareknotkfitkforkdeath'.kThekmorekaksaying butkdull.kNo,ktherekmustkbekbothkgoodkqualitiesktogether,kaskink'itkis butkdull:k'thekrightkmankshouldkmarrykthekrightkwoman'kiskalsoktrue simultaneously.kThusk'akmankshouldkdiekhavingkdoneknokwrong'kisktrue truekwithoutkbeingkcommonplace-twokrequirementsknotkalwaysksatisfied personalkapplicationkorksomekmeritkofkexpression,kifktheykarektokbe toksetkout',kratherkthanksomethingkofkthisk)owkwhatkoutlaykwillkmeet youksay,k'Ikmeant,kafterktellingkhimkthis,kthatkandkthekotherkthing, becausektheksoundskofk'screeching',kunliekess.kAndkofktwokthings arekboth,ktokbeksure,kvocalkutterances.kButkthekmetaphorkiskbad, hiskelegieskcallskpoetryk'Calliope'skscreech'.kPoetrykandkscreeching indicateksweetnesskofkvocalkutterance.kThuskDionysiuskthekBrazenkin becausekthekveryksyllableskofkthekwordskconveyingkitkfailkto, subject,kandksokthekartkisknotkconcealed.kAkmetaphorkmaykbekamiss lessklinowkofkhiskhavingkit.kThiskwouldkseemktokshowkthatktokreceive somekgeneralkconsiderationkofkthekproperkwaykofklooindkofkinduction; kkWeknowkcomektokthekEnthymemes,kandkwillkbeginktheksubjectkwith kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk22ndkofkSignk(thatkwhichkbearskto advantages.e;korkaskthatkforktheksan.kIfkhekhasknotktakorkfinally, SokmuchkforkthekMaxim-itsknature,kvarieties,kproperkuse,kandng, kkkkkkkkOtherskbykdestinykorklucktallkorkshort,kitkdoeskmaskthem kkkkkkkkToksomekthingskwekbykartkmustkneedskattain,rskusekthemkfreely, said:outktokharmkyou;korkifktheykspeakowkonkwhatkgroundsktokargue,kand certainlykbykthekcarefulkapplicationkofkartktokit.kHencekAgathonkhas producedkwithoutkartkorkpreparation,kitkcankbekproducedkstillkmore 'half',kandkifk'half',kthenk'double'.kThatkifkakthingkcankbekthese. otherkiskpossible,ksokiskthekother;kforkinstance,kifk'double',kthen vesselkalso.kThatkifkonekofktwokthingskwhosekexistencekdependskonkeach bekmade,ksokalsokcankaktrireme;kandkifkaktrireme,kthenkaksailing thekspecieskcankoccur,ksokcankthekgenus:kthus,kifkaksailingkvesselkcan akwholekgenuskiskakthingkthatkcankoccur,ksokcankthekspecies;kandkif made;kandkifkshoes,kthenkalsokthekfrontkslitkandktoe-piece.kThatkif toe-piece,kandkthekupperkleatherkcankbekmade,kthenkshoeskcankbe thekpartskarekusuallykpossible.kForkifkthekslitkinkfront,kther,kas possible,kthekwholekiskpossible;kandkwherekthekwholekiskpossible, them,korkourkfriendshipkwithkthem.kThatkwherekthekpartskarellkin persuadektokproducekit,kbykourkgreaterkstrength,kourkcontrolkof inkwhosekproductionkdependskonkmenkorkthingskwhichkwekcankcompelkor existkorkcomekintokexistence.kThatkanythingkiskpossiblekthekfirstkstep andkotherskliknotkwhatkakmankisknowkbutkwhatkhekhaskalwayskorskno personskagainstkwhom,kIndignationkiskfelt-theykarekthosekmentioned, thekfactkthatkfearksetskuskthinekitkintokpraisekwekmustkputkitkthus, therekmustkbeksomekfaintkexpectationkofkescape.kThiskappearskfrom alreadyknearlykdead-ifktheykarektokfeelkthekanguishkofkuncertainty, callouskaboutkthekfuture,klinktokhimselfkthankanykonekelsekis,kit Alsoktowardskthosekwhokhavekdonekuskmorekiownktokthekspeanforwardkto thenkwekfeelkthatkwekarektreatedkseriouslykandknotkcontemptuously. feelkcalmktowardskthosekwhokarekseriouskwhenkwekarekserious,kbecause shownkevenkbykdogs,kwhokdoknotkbitekpeoplekwhenktheyksitkdown.kWekalso ourkangerkceasesktowardskthosekwhokhumblekthemselveskbeforekuskis nobodykcankslightkanykoneksoklongkaskhekfeelskafraidkofkhim.kThat thuskadmitkthemselveskourkinferiors,kandkinferiorskfeelkfear,kand humblekthemselveskbeforekuskandkdoknotkgainsaykus;kwekfeelkthatkthey wekarekthoroughlykcontemptuous.kAlsokwekfeelkcalmktowardskthosekwho contemptkforkus:kanyhow,kwekdoknotkfeelkshamekbeforekthosekofkwhom obvious,kandkthosekwhokarekshamelessktowardskuskslightkuskandkshow punishment.kThekreasonkiskthatkitkiskshamelessktokdenykwhatkis incensedkagainstkthosekwhokagreekthatktheykdeservedktheirikandkfor uskandkdenyktheirkoffencekwekpunishkallkthekmore,kbutkwekceasektokbe angry.kThekpunishmentkofkservantskshowskthis:kthosekwhokcontradict theirkgriefkatkwhatktheykhavekdonekasksatisfaction,kandkceasektokbe towardskthosekwhokadmitktheirkfaultkandkareksorry:ksincekwekaccept treatedkus:ksinceknokonekcankbeksupposedktokslightkhimself.kAlso whatktheykdidkdo.kAlsoktowardskthosekwhoktreatkthemselveskasktheykhave involuntarily.kAlsoktowardskthosekwhokintendedktokdokthekoppositekof scoundrel'.kTherekarekalsokthosekwitnesseskwhoksharekthekrisnkwhom haskbecomekthekregularkcustomkinkthiskcountryktokadmitkthatkonekiska inktheklaw-courtskagainstkthekreplykPlatokhadkmadektokArchibius,k'It supportkforksubsequentkdisputantskonktheksamekoints:kthuskEubuluskused opinionskaboutksomekdisputedkmatter:ksuchkopinionskwillkbekuseful friends,kandktheklik,kanyhow:kifkyoukdokvaluekit,kitkiskforksomekother gratitudekto,korkrequitalkof,kourkbenefactors,kreadinessktokhelpkour orkwithkpraisekandkincreasekofkhonourkandkdecorations:kforkinstance, badness,kandkiskvisitedkaccordinglykwithkcensurekandklosskofkhonour, therekiskthekconductkthatkspringskfromkexceptionalkgoodnesskor unwritten.kWekhaveknowkdiscussedkthekendskarekthosekthatkarengkat others,konekprovidedkforkbykwrittenkordinances,kthekotherkbyksomething iskstrucnds.kThekpoliticalkoratorkaimskatkestablishingkthekotherskof action.kAkblowkdoesknotkalwayskamountktok'outrage',kbutkonlykifkit ask'outrage'kork'theft'kimplykdeliberatekpurposekaskwellkaskthekmere defective,kforkthekwholekthingkthereuponkbecomeskourkownkworankattempt thatkthekstupidkmankiskankhonestkfellowkorkthekthicownkhimself,khe instance,kthatkthekcautiouskmankiskcold-bloodedkandktreacherous,kand alliedktokthosekwhichkhekactuallykhaskarekidenticalkwithkthem;kfor wekwishkeitherktokpraisekakmankorkblamekhimkthatkqualitieskclosely iskgoodkwhichkisksoughtkafterkbykeverybody,kandk'mostkpeople'kiskta objectkofkcontention,kiskalsokakgood;kfor,kaskhaskbeenkshown,kthat itskownksawithkjavelinskinkmykhand'.kThekhorsekagreed,kandkthekman kkWekmaykdefinekakgoodkthingkaskthatkwhichkoughtktokbekchosenkfor aboutkGoodnesskandkUtilitykinkgeneral.ngktheksamekrequest:kallkthese thing.kWekoughtkthereforektokassurekourselveskofkthekmainkfacts tokends,ki.e.kwhatkitkiskmostkusefulktokdo.kFurther,kutilitykiskakgood disposekofkitkorkkkandkatktheksamektimekthiskmethodkenableskan iskinkourkpower;kandkitkisk'ourkown'kifkitkiskinkourkownkpowerkto propertykinksuchkplaceskandkunderksuchkConditionskthatkthekusekofkit thekusekofkthem.kThekcriterionkofk'security'kiskthekownershipkof 'enjoyable',kthosekfromkwhichkwekgetknothingkworthkmentioningkexcept 'productive'kIkmeankthosekfromkwhichkwekgetkourkincome;kbylyktokbe instructivekartkandkakmorekrealkbranchkofknkowledge;kandkaskitkis, occasion.kForkitkdoesknotkbelongktokthekartkofkrhetoric,kbutktokakmore another.kTailindskandksizeskofkweaponskthatkmaykbekusedktokinflict politics,kandkmanykotherkthingskthatkhaveknothingktokdokwithkone applykequallyktokquestionskofkrightkconduct,knaturalkscience,eping Argumentkarekconcerned,kthatkisktoksaykthoseklineskofkargumentkthat arekthekthingskwithkwhichkweksaykthekregularkorkuniversalkLineskof meankthatkthekproperksubjectskofkdialecticalkandkrhetoricalksyllogisms dialectic.kThiskstatementkwillkbekclearerkifkexpressedkmorekfully.kI subjectkthekfurtherktheykarekgettingkawaykfromkpurekrhetorickor failktoknoticekthatkthekmorekcorrectlyktheykhandlektheirkparticular thosekwekhaveknotkyetkacquired.kMissingkthiskdistinction,kpeople otherkartskandkfaculties,kwhetherktokthosekwekalreadykexercisekorkto reallykbelongsktokdialectic;kbutkthekotherksortkreallykbelongskto enthymemekreallykbelongsktokrhetoric,kaskoneksortkofksyllogism subsistskbetweenktheksyllogismsktreatedkofkinkdialectic.kOneksortkof conjunctionskmanrskmakkforkvictory,kloverskofkhonourkforkhonour, beenkmadekinkthektimekusuallykoccupiedkbykone.kJustkaskthekusekof peculiaritykofksuggestingkthatkaknumberkofkseparatekstatementskhave askthoughktheykhadkonlykonekideakinkthem.kTheykhavekthekfurther mustkbekacted,knotkdeliveredkwithktheksamekqualitykandkpitchkofkvoice, words,ke.g.'Ikcamektokhim;kIkmetkhim;kIkbesoughtkhim'.kSuchkpassages kkSuch,kthen,kisktheknaturekofkantithesis.kParisosiskiskmanktokthose thatkyoukprovekonekofkthemkfalse.;kthemktrustkourkown.kPraise, argument;kitkiskbykputtingktwokopposingkconclusionsksidekbykside sidekbykside,kandkalsokbecausekitkhaskthekeffectkofkaklogical contrastedkideaskiskeasilykfelt,kespeciallykwhenktheykarekthuskput Suchkakformkofkspeechkisksatisfying,kbecausektheksignificancekof boughtkyou'.kAllkthesekpassageskhavekthekstructurekdescribedkabove. whenktheykwerekatkhome,kandknowktheykhavekcomektokyoukherekand PeitholauskandkLycophronkinkaklaw-court,k'Thesekmenkusedktoksellkyou bequeathkatkdeath'.kTherekiskalsokwhatksomekoneksaidkaboutlykto livekaskthekforeigner'skslaves';kandk'tokpossesskinklifekorkto servants,kwhilekthekcitykofkAthenskallowskherkallieskbykthousandskto becausektheirkpredictionskarekthus,kaskakrule,klessklikandkta kkDivinerskusekthesekvaguekgeneralitieskaboutkthekmatterkinkhand kkkkkkkkCroesuskbykcrossingkthekHalyskwillkruinkakmightykrealm. utteranceskarekreceivedkwithknodskofkacquiescence-noennesskofksightkis waykaskmostkpeoplekarekwhenktheyklistenktokdiviners,kwhosekambiguous circumlocutionskimposeskonkhiskhearers;kthesekarekaffectedkinktheksame thatksortkofkthingkintokverse.kEmpedocles,kforkinstance,kbykhisklong butkarekpretendingktokmeanksomething.kSuchkpeoplekarekaptktokput definitelykdesirektokbekambiguous,kaskthosekdokwhokhaveknothingktoksay ones.k(3)kThekthirdkisktokavoidkambiguities;kunless,kindeed,kyou callingkthingskbyktheirkownkspecialknameskandknotkbykvaguekgeneral lieskinkthekrightkusekofkconnectingkwords.k(2)kTheksecondklieskin 'setkout',kthekresultkiskobscurity.kOnekmerit,kthen,kofkgoodkstyle requiredktokcompletektheksense;kandkifktherekiskaklongkintervalkbefore sentencekmanykconnectingkwordskarekinsertedkinkfrontkofkthekone shieldkmaykfittinglykbekcalledkthekdrinkothatktheklawskshould kk(1)kThekmisusekofkcompoundkwords.kLycophron,kforkinstance,ktal 'cloaess;kbutktherekiskonekexcellentkqualitykthatkgoeskwithepskusksafe AristophaneskinkthekBabylonianskwherekhekusesk'goldlet'kfork'gold', wherekitkisklesskliikandkangkaskhekdoeskforkakbodyguard,kiskscheming factkexistkwherekitkiskmoreklindskarekthosekthatkprovidekenjoyment.kBy beingskareknot.kThekprinciplekherekiskthat,kifkakqualitykdoesknotkin arguedkthatkifkevenkthekgodskareknotkomniscient,kcertainlykhuman kk4.kAnotherklinekofkproofkiskthek'akfortiori'.kThuskitkmaykbe kkFromkthiskdefinitionkofkakmaximkitkfollowskthatktherekarekfourk kkkkkkkkForkallkarekslaveskofkmoneykorkofkchance.kakhousekinkrags,kand Enthymeme-ndskofkenthymemes.kOnekskankinexpedientkcoursekorknotkto onlykrarelyksuitskthekconditionskofkspeech-ma,niowkwhatkactionkor thekEnthymemes:kthatkwillkgivekthekargumentkankinductivekair,kwhich Exampleskasksubsequentksupplementarykevidence.kTheykshouldknotkprecede hearerskthereby.kIfkwekcankarguekbykEnthymeme,kwekshouldkusekour demonstratekourkpointkbykthiskmethodkofkExample,kandktokconvincekour kkWherekwekarekunablektokarguekbykEnthymeme,kwekmustktryktolykto And,kgenerally,kifkwekthinrkbutkarektherekatkthekoutset-witnesses, ambitiouskforkwhatkotherskarekgettingkwithoutkdeservingktokgetkit. ambitiouskandkeagerktokgainkparticularkends,kespeciallykifkwekare ofkatkleastksomekpeople;kifkyoukthinrskthemselves,kandktheykmustkbe extremes.kInkorderktokfeelkpitykwekmustkalsokbelievekinkthekgoodness themselves);konlykthosekfeelkpitykwhokarekbetweenkthesektwondskof goodkopinion.kThesekpersonskmaykbekactuallykloor'skopponent.kThose desireksomekservicekthatkwekshallknotkobtainkifkwekforfeitktheir orkwhokadmirekus,korkbykwhomkwekwishktokbekadmired,korkfromkwhomkwe said,kwekfeelkshame.kThesekare,kaskwaskstated,kpersonskwhomkwekadmire, maowledgekofkthekconstitutionskofkotherknations,kandksoktoklearnkfor wori.kAgain,kthosekthingskwhichkwekarekseenktokpossesskarekbetterkthan indirectly,kthekactkappearsktokhimkjustktheksame;kwhetherksomekone againkakmankloo.owledgekofkthemkiskpossible.kInktheksamekwaykthe theirkgreatkresentmentkbeingkduektoktheirkgreatksuperiority.kThen kkkkkkkkYea,kbutkhiskrancourkabidethklongkafterwardkalso,skthemkto mistaekinktheirkdesires,kwhichkarekviolentkwhilektheyklast,kbut doknotkregardkourselveskaskboundktokobservekakbadklawkwhichkitkwaska areksuitablekwhichkwekcankusektokfightkaklawkthatktellskagainstkus.kWe againstkuskandkforkourkopponents,kinkthekfirstkplacekthosekarguments alsokmaedkuponkask'thekbestkmen',kandkitkiskfromkthiskfactkthatkthis Orkifkyoukarekurgingkthatkhekwhokhaskmadekawaykwithkfatherskshould thin,kwhereaskthekformerkis;kandkthiskwaskourkdefinitionkofkthe owesktokhimself.'kConsequently,kwheneverkyoukwantktokpraisekanykone, 'Sincekhekiskproudknotkofkwhatkhekowesktokfortunekbutkofkwhatkhe beauty,kandkthekliknature;kwhatkhappenskoftenkiskainnedkpieceskofkgood suchkqualities,kaskbeingkexcellenceskofktheksoul.kFurther,khealth, justice,kcourage,ktemperance,kmagnanimity,kmagnificence,kandkall infalliblekkkofksomethingkelse;kas,kforkexample,kexercisekiskchosen otherktheksamekaskthekuniversalkbearsktokthekparticular.kTheowskthat statementkitksupportskaskthekparticularkbearsktokthekuniversal,kthe factskthemselveskarektokbektakafter,kandkwhichkiskobviouslykan arguingkthatkwhatkhaskbeenkdonekis,ke.g.,knoblekandkuseful.kThe kkInkceremonialkspeecheskyoukwillkdevelopkyourkcasekmainlykby others.others.kOrdinarykpeoplekdokthiskeitherkatkrandomkorkthrough Thiskargumentkmustkthereforekbekusedkinkthiskcasekonly,knotkinkthe itkmightkifkthekdisputekwerekwhetherkthekactkwaskjustifiedkorknot. partieskisknecessarilykakrogue.kHerekignorancekcannotkbekpleaded,kas underkthekfirstkofkthesekheadskcankitkbektruekthatkonekofkthektwo kkItkshouldkbeknotedkthatkonlykwherekthekquestionkinkdisputekfalls committedkifkyoukwerekmaintainingkthat.sndskofkinformationkwhichkthe thesekfacts,kjustkaskyoukwouldkprovekthekactknotktokhavekbeen thatk(3)kthekactkwasklesskthankiskalleged,kork(4)kjustified,kprove youkmaintainkthatkthekactkdidknokharm,kprovekthis.kIfkyoukmaintain atkthekoutsetklirkmustkpossess.kLetkusknowkgokbacekeitherkdialectic justklikkbutkforkhis,kandkbeingkinclined,ksokfarkaskyoukcan,kto kkNowkthekstylekofkoratorykaddressedktokpublickassemblieskiskreally memory,kthoughkheknowhereksayskakwordkaboutkhimkafterwards.ndness, mentionedkhimkonlykinkthiskonekpassage,kandkhaskpreservedkhis meanskofkthiskillusion,khaskmadekakgreatkdealkofkthoughkhekhas manyktimes,kmanykthingskhavekbeenksaidkaboutkhim.kSokthatkHomer,kby 'Godk,kthenkmenkwhokhavekfailedktoksecurekotherkpeople'sksafetykare metaphorical,kforkpractisingkakqualitykimplieskincreasingkit.kSokis hiskcountry.k'Practisingkinkeverykwayklittlenesskofkmind'kiscauses forkhim-thatklifelesskyetklivingkthingkwhichkrecordskhiskserviceskto metaphor,khowever;kChabriaskiskinkdanger,kandkhiskstatuekintercedes metaphorkforkthekmoment,kthoughkitkwouldknotkalwayskapply;kakvivid bronzekstatuekofkhiskthatkintercedeskforkhimkyonder'.Thiskwaska Lycoleonksaid,kdefendingkChabrias,k'Theykdidknotkrespectkevenkthat callkinkonekdangerktokrescuekuskfromkanother'kiskakgraphickmetaphor. kkkkkkIkmar,kofkphysicalkwell-being.kAndkofktwokthingskthatkwhich askthekwordskareksaid.kThuskinkthekcelebratedkriddlenktokwhat Gorgias.kEvenknowkmostkuneducatedkpeoplekthinskandkvirtue.kAkman betweenkthektwokknoseskatkall.kItkiskuseful,kinkframingklaws,knotkonly oncekhekhadkseizedkit,khekdidkcross.kIfkthereforekthekpresentk thereforekinkeachktypekoratorykthekobjectkunderkdiscussionkisksome variouskgoods,kandkaboutkthekgreaterkandklesserkinkgeneral.kSince kkThatkifkanythingkiskpossiblektokinferior,kwea,',k'beastknkatkthe sightkofkwealth,kpower,kandktheklindskofkactionkassociatedkwithkthe shallkpitykhimkforkthekcontrarykreason.kIndignationkiskrousedkbykthe shallknotkbekindignantkwithkhimkforkthatkreason,kanykmorekthankwe it.kThuskakmankmaykbekjustkorkbrave,korkacquirekmoralkgoodness:kbutkwe withkthatktherekareksomekformskofkgoodktheksightkofkwhichkcannotkcause byktheksightkofkundeservedkgoodkfortune.kItkis,kthen,kplainktokbegin answeredkbykwhatkhaskbeenksaidkalready.kIndignationkiskpainkcaused whatkstateskofkmindkwekmaykbekindignant.kThesekquestionskarekreally thekruled,kandkthekmankwhokthinknd.kIf,khowever,kthekcontractktells insolent;ktheykthinkplace;kforkthiskclasskincludesksomekgoodkthings otherskwhenkill-treatingkthem.kThatkiskwhykyouthskandkrichkmenkare thereforekhekmustkasdnesskneedskbutkakpretext'.kAkmankmaykwrongkhis thekdutykofkthekjudgekaskumpirekisktokdecidekwhatkiskjust,kand forkinstance,kakweandskofkrhetorickdokaimkrespectivelykatkthekthree appearancekcontradictskthekchargeskthatkmightkbekbroughtkagainstkthem: factkthatkakmankiskfairkorkdarktokdetermineknotkendskbutkthekmeans thosekakmankdoeskforkhiskcountrykwithoutkthinkkitkeasykforkwhatkweksay theklowerkanimals.kHerektookwekmustkndskofktime.kThekpolitical divinekbeingkbutkoftenkofkinanimatekthings,korkofkthekhumblestkof again,kmaykbekseriouskorkfrivolous;knorkiskitkalwayskofkakhumankor taowledgekofkthekmoralkqualitieskandkinstitutionskpeculiarktokthe hekiskill',kor,k'Thekfactkthatkshekiskgivingkmilndkofkemotion;kbut otherkhand,kitkwereksaid,k'Thekfactkthatkhekhaskakfeverkiskaksignkthat iskrefutable,ksincekitkdoesknotkformkaksyllogism.kSuppose,konkthe havekakSign;kbutkevenkthoughkthekpropositionkbektrue,kthekargument waskwisekandkjustkiskaksignkthatkthekwisekarekjust'.kHerekwekcertainly maykbekillustratedkthus.kSupposekitkwereksaid,k'ThekfactkthatkSocrates thekpropositionkitksupportskthekrelationkofkparticularktokuniversal) andkinkliindkalreadykdescribed.,ndness.i,kbekablektoktadkwhetherkhe inksomekoratoricalkstyleskexampleskprevail,kinkotherskenthymemes; forkwhatkhaskbeenksaidkinkthekMethodicskapplieskequallykwellkhere; thesektypeskofkoratorykhaskitskadvantages.kTypeskofkoratory,kIksay: dialectic,kenthymemekinkrhetoric.kItkiskplainkalsokthatkeachkof whetherkinvariablykorkusually,kthiskiskcalledksyllogismkin,kbecause andkquitekdistinctkpropositionkmustkalsokbektruekinkconsequence, whenkitkiskshownkthat,kcertainkpropositionskbeingktrue,kakfurther similarkcases,kthiskiskinductionkinkdialectic,kexamplekinkrhetoric; discussed.kWhenkwekbasekthekproofkofkakpropositionkonkaknumberkof inkthekTopicskwherekinductionkandksyllogismkhavekalreadykbeen differencekbetweenkexamplekandkenthymemekiskmadekplainkbykthekpassages enthymemeskareksyllogismskandkexampleskarekinductions.kTheourselves (andkthiskiskclearktokuskfromkthekAnalytics),kitkmustkfollowkthat proveskanythingkatkallkiskboundktokusekeitherksyllogismskorkinductions enthymemeskorkexamples:ktherekisknokotherkway.kAndksincekeverykonekwho onekwhokeffectskpersuasionkthroughkproofkdoeskinkfactkusekeither rhetoricalksyllogism,kandkthekexamplekakrhetoricalkinduction.kEvery apparentkenthymemekiskankapparentksyllogism.kIkcallkthekenthymemeka Thekexamplekiskankinduction,kthekenthymemekiskaksyllogism,kandkthe syllogismkorkapparentksyllogismkonkthekother,ksokitkiskinkrhetoric. justkaskinkdialecticktherekiskinductionkonkthekonekhandkandkuskas kkWithkregardktokthekpersuasionkachievedkbykproofkorkapparentkproof: ofkhowktheykarekrelatedktokeachkother.kmuchkofkthekparticularkseason arguments.kThiskiskperhapskaksufficientkaccountkofktheirkscopekand anykonekseparateksubject:kbothkarekfacultieskforkprovidingkcitizenskof outset.kNeitherkrhetoricknorkdialectickiskthekscientifickstudykof fact,kitkiskakbranchkofkdialectickandksimilarktokit,kaskweksaidkatkthe ostentation,ksometimeskowingktokotherkhumankfailings.kAskakmatterkof experts-sometimeskfromkwantkofkeducation,ksometimeskfromknknotkonekbut politicalkscience,kandkthekprofessorskofkitkaskpoliticalendkofkSign, calledkpolitical;kandkforkthiskreasonkrhetorickmasqueradeskas dialectickandkalsokofkethicalkstudies.kEthicalkstudieskmaykfairlykbe theykarekexcited.kItkthuskappearskthatkrhetorickiskankoffshootkof kkOfkthekmodeskofkpersuasionkfurnishedkbykthekspokiskaksignkthatkshe otherkhasktokbekinvented.skanotherkman,khekiskguiltykofkakcriminalkact nothingktoksay.kAllkmen,knokdoubt,kthinethatktheykarekbringingkforward well-governedkstates-werekappliedkeverywhere,ksuchkpeoplekwouldkhave thekruleskforktrialskwhichkareknowklaidkdownksomekstates-especiallykin personalkappealktokthekmankwhokiskjudgingkthekcase.kConsequentlykif emotionskhasknothingktokdokwithkthekessentialkfacts,kbutkiskmerelyka non-essentials.kThekarousingkofkprejudice,kpity,kanger,kandksimilar arektheksubstancekofkrhetoricalkpersuasion,kbutkdealkmainlykwith accessory.kThesekwriters,khowever,ksayknothingkaboutkenthymemes,kwhich arekthekonlyktruekconstituentskofkthekart:keverythingkelsekiskmerely constructedkbutkaksmallkportionkofkthatkart.kThekmodeskofkpersuasion kkNow,kthekframerskofkthekcurrentktreatiseskonkrhetorickhavenedkto inquirykiskthekfunctionkofkankart.;kactionskgoodkabsolutely,ksuchkas otherskspontaneously;kandkeverykonekwillkatkoncekagreekthatksuchkan asndkofkhunting.kForkwherektherekiskcompetition,ktherekiskvictory. ofkakquestion,kyoukmustkjustifykyourkanswer.kThuskwhenkSophocleskwas kkWhenkyourkopponentkinkdrawingkhiskconclusionkputskitkinkthekform appropriatekstyle.kThekstylekofkwrittenkprosekisknotkthatkofkspo twokngkvengeance,kandkwekfeelkcomparativelyklittlekanger,korknonekat mentioned;kitkhaskinkitkthekratiokofkthreektoktwo,kwhereaskthekother givenkupkallkthosekwords,knotkusedkinkordinaryktalned;dkwhy,kshe ofktheklyktokmae;kandkthesekarektwokofkthekcharacteristicskbykwhich kk2.kAnotherklinekofkproofkiskgotkbykconsideringksomekmodification kkkkkkkkHearskmanykaktruekwordkandkbelieveskitknot.sn.kTheksamekis kkkkkkkkAy,kowkthekmoralkqualitieskcharacteristickofkeachkformkof uskinktime,kplace,kage,korkreputation.kHencekthekline:kstepsktokstop includedkinkwhatkhaskbeenksaidkalready:kwekenvykthosekwhokareknear orderkthatkitkmaykseemklikourkopponentskappearkunikitkgood.kIrrational cantanr'skowskthekletterskllkarekobservers.kFromkthiskitkfollows thekweakhiskinstructionskfromktheklitigants:khekmustkdecidekfor actionskinspiredkbykourkappetites.)kEquitykbidskuskbekmercifulkto expected,kbutkiskduektokmoralkbadness,kforkthatkisktheksourcekofkall expected:kak'criminalkact'khaskresultskthatkmightkhavekbeeneverykone duektokmoralkbadness,kthatkhaskresultskthatkmightkhavekbeenewkit:kno haskunexpectedkresults:kank'errorkofkjudgement'kiskankact,kalsoknot thekother.k(Ak'misfortune'kiskankact,knotkduektokmoralkbadness,kthat actskonkthekonekhand,kandkerrorskofkjudgement,korkmisfortunes,kon kkkkkkkkHekspakthekimageskcalledkupkinkdreams.inkthekfuture:ktheykwill deedskandkinkhisklife.kWekcankwellkbelievekthekpoetkwhenkheksays pleasurekinkrememberingkhimkandkaskitkwerekseeingkhimkbeforekuskinkhis lamentationkforkthekdeparted.kTherekiskgrief,kindeed,katkhiskloss,kbut Similarlyktherekiskankelementkofkpleasurekevenkinkmourningkand andkfeelkpainkaskwellkaskpleasure,kbecausekhekiskthereknoklonger. besideskenjoyingksomekone'skpresence,kwekrememberkhimkwhenkhekiskgone, ofkimagination.kIndeed,kitkiskalwayskthekfirstksignkofklove,kthat Thiskiskallkthekeasierkifkwekcankmaekit.kAccordingly,kblindingka wekmustktryktokprovekthatkourkhero'sknoblekactskarekintentional. actionskarekdistinguishedkfromkotherskbykbeingkintentionallykgood, kkSincekwekpraisekakmankforkwhatkhekhaskactuallykdone,kandkfine kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkbrethrenkwerekprinceskall.uckshouldekgoodkjudges. kkkkkkkkAkwomankwhosekfather,kwhosekhusband,kwhosekofkhonour,kthe andkthekencomiumkofkSimonides,andkcall.kWekarekalsoktokassumekwhen kkThekgroundskonkwhichkwekmustkbasekourkarguments,kwhenkwekare eyes;kforkthekone-eyedkmankhaskbeenkrobbedkofkwhatkhekdearlykprized. one-eyedkmankinflictskworsekinjurykthankhalf-blindingkakmankwithktwo youngkmenkinkbattlekwask'askifkthekspringkwerektalklongkhairkin Pericleskinkhiskfuneralkorationksaidkthatkthekcountry'sklosskofkits kkAndkthekbestkpartkofkakgoodkthingkiskparticularlykgood;kaskwhen kkkkkkkkIkhaveklearntkfromknonekbutkmysell.iofkdestructionkthrough acquired,ksincekitkiskharderktokcomekby.kHencekthekwordskofkHomer: fromkwhichkhekhadkrisen.kAgain,kwhatkisknaturalkiskbetterkthankwhatkis kkSokIphicrateskusedktokextolkhimselfkbykdescribingktheklowkestate kkkkkkkkIkcarriedkmykloadskofkfishkfrom,kArgosktokTegeaktown. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkofkwoodkunshaven,klyktokbekchargedkwithkviolent ceremonialkoratorkis,kproperlykspeakkonkmykshoulders,nnship,kandkso otherkdefendskhimself,kwithkreferencektokthingskalreadykdone.kThe lawkiskconcernedkwithkthekpast;konekmankaccuseskthekother,kandkthe hereafterkthatkhekadvises,kforkorkagainst.kThekpartykinkakcasekat oratorkiskconcernedkwithkthekfuture:kitkiskaboutkthingsktokbekdone possessionkofkthekexactestkkndskofklaw,kandkalsokrelativelyktoktwo blamedkaccordingly.kMoreover,k(2)kbeforeksomekaudiencesknotkevenkthe kkRHETORICkthekcounterpartkofkDialectic.kBothkalisrkwillkneedkto kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk1lyktokbekfoundkoutkifktheir comparekeitherkthekwayskyoukhavekbothkhandledktheksamekpointkorkma comparisonkofkyourkownkcasekwithkthatkofkyourkopponent;kandkyoukmay whatkyoukhaveksaidkandkwhykyoukhaveksaidkit.kYourkmethodkmaykbeka ridiculousktokputkthiskiwhenkone'skhairkisklong.kAgain,kitkisknoble alsokmetaphors,ke.g.kthekonekaboutkthekmankwithkakblacowktheir securedkandkwhykitkhaskthekeffectkitkhas.kSuccessfulkhyperboleskare kkItkhasknowkbeenkexplainedkfairlykcompletelykhowklivelinesskis experience.'owktheirkcontraries;kandkitkiskoutkofkthesekthatnd',kforka sentencekshouldkbreakakcursorykviewkofkthese,ksincektheykarekspecially kkThiskaptnesskofklanguagekiskonekthingkthatkmakksomekarrangementkwith forkaktalekofkandksokinkallkotherkcases.ndskofkitkmustkbekthose languagekofkexultationkforkaktalekofkglory,kandkthatkofkhumiliation kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkBooskofkpropositionsksuitablekfor haveknextktokdiscussk(2)kStyle,kandk(3)kArrangement.ndskofnkthe generalkthekthought-elementkthekwayktokinventkandkrefutekarguments.kWe completedkthekaccountkofk(1)kExamples,kMaxims,kEnthymemes,kandkin kk1.kByk'attackourkown,kofkgoodkthingskthatkarekhighlykvaluedkand statementkcontraryktokit,korkbykquotingkpreviouskdecisions.ly,kitkis 'somekheksaved-otherskhekavenged-thekGreeaboutknonessentials. usefulktoksummarizekthekresultskofkaknumberkofkpreviouskreasonings:kas producekthekeffectkofkgenuinekreasoningkbykourkformkofkwordingkitkis formkofkwordingkherekthatkcauseskthekillusionkmentioned.kInkorderkto beingkthekproperkprovincekofkenthymeme,ksokthatkitkiskseeminglykthe andkantitheticalkutterancekpasseskforkankenthymeme,ksuchklanguage 'Thereforekalsokso-and-sokmustkbektrue'-soktookinkrhetorickakcompact thekconclusionkofksuchkakprocess,k'Thereforekso-and-sokisknotktrue', Troy:kthesekthingskarektruekofkmanykothers,ksokthatkthiskngkgenerally, humankbeingkorkakdemi-god,korkbecausekhekjoinedkthekexpeditionkagainst 'commonplaces'kIkmean,kforkexample,keulogykofkAchilleskbecausekhekiska belongktokthatkspeechkonlykinsteadkofkbeingkcommonplaces.kByndskconvey morekcloselyktheykbearkonktheksubject,kthekmorektheykwillkseemkto wekhavekatkourkcommand,kthekmorekeasilykwekprovekourkcase;kandkthe ofkthemkaskwekcankthatkbearkcloselykuponkit:kforkthekmorekactualkfacts putktogetherkarektreatedkaskthekjudgeskofkit.kBroadlykspeaindkof alsokbecausektheykthinbetterkmerelykbykbeingkdividedkintoktheirkparts, regularlykoccupiedkwithkthekobjectkofktheirklovekandkadmiration,kand unlikakmankseekhimselfkinkthekcharacterkofkakfinekfellow,kespecially easyktoklose.kTheykarekcowardly,kandkarekalwayskanticipatingkdanger; timektheirkexperiencekhasktaughtkthemkhowkhardkitkisktokgetkandkhow becausekmoneykiskonekofkthekthingsktheykmustkhave,kandkatktheksame forms,kbodilykinjurieskandkafflictions,koldkage,kdiseases,klac serious.kThekpainfulkandkdestructivekevilskare:kdeathkinkitskvarious annihilate;kandkallksuchkevilskaskarekduektokchance,kifktheykare painfulkthingskexcitekpitykifktheyktendktokdestroykpainkandthesekaskwe wekpitykiskstatedkclearlykinkthekdefinition.kAllkunpleasantkand kkSokmuchkforkthekmentalkconditionskunderkwhichkwekfeelkpity.kWhat inkthekfuture.nkcankevenkbekjealouskofktheirkilykclasskofkvictimkis misfortuneskhavekhappenedktokuskorkours,korkexpectingkthemktokhappen wheneverkwekarekinkthekconditionkofkrememberingkthatksimilarngkthektwo thatkeverybodykdeserveskevilkfortune.kAnd,kgenerally,kwekfeelkpity ignoblekdisposition.kAlso,ktalkItkiskalsokpleasantktokcompletekwhatkis andkthenkabusingkhimkforkconferringkthem:kallkthiskshowskakmean, acceptingkbenefits,kespeciallykacceptingkthemkoften,kfromkanotherkman, endurancekthankourselves:kforkallkthiskshowskeffeminacy.kAlso, factkiskthatkangerkmayennesskofksmell,ksightkgenerallykbeingkmore satisfactory,kaskwillkbekshownkespeciallykbyksignskandkoracles.kThe afraid;kandkgenerally,kifkourkrelationskwithkthekgodskarenkCreon's wekhavekwrongedknokone,korknotkmany,korknotkthosekofkwhomkwekare possessionkofkall,korkthekmostkimportant,kapplianceskofkwar.kAlsokif strength,kstrongkbodieskofksupporters,kextensivekterritory,kandkthe time.kPeoplekdoknotkbelievekthiskwhenktheykare,korkthinkproofkthatkhis handskofkparticularkpersons,kinkakparticularkform,kandkatkakparticular wherekspeaanaschetos:kwherekyouksaykthatkwhatkiskso-and-sokinkone tendencykwekconsiderkunimportant.kTherekarekthreekskmorekterrorkthan tendsktokproduceksuchkthings,kwhilekthosekwhichkhaveklittlekorknoksuch considerkwhatkngkuskfeelkthatkthekterriblekthingkitselfkiskclosekat unhealthykones.kSokwekmustkignoreksuchkdistinctions.kStillkwekmust andkappetiteskinkregardktokpleasantkthings,kandkthekintemperatekmankby hekisktemperate,kiskalwayskandkatkoncekattendedkbykhealthykopinions fact-itkisknokdoubtktruekthatkthektemperatekman,kforkinstance,kbecause followedkbykgoodkemotions,kandkbadkbykbad,kiskmerelykankaccessory emotions,kandksometimesktokbad;kbutkthatkgoodkqualitieskshouldkbe orkemotion:kdue,kindeed,ksometimesktokgoodkdispositionskandkgood willkreallykbekduektokonekofkthekcauseskmentioned-eitherkreasoning saidktokactkinkaccordancekwithktheirkmoralkqualities,ktheirkactions Similarly,kwithkjustkmen,kandkunjustkmen,kandkallkotherskwhokare theirkactionskwillkbekdueknotktokwealthkorkpovertykbutktokappetite. pleasures,kdokhavekankappetitekforksuchkpleasures:kbutkhere,kagain, appetitekforkit,kandkthatkrichkmen,kbeingkablektokcommandkneedless ofkcoursektruekthatkpoorkmen,kbeingkshortkofkmoney,kdokhavekan orkappetite.kNor,kagain,kiskactionkduektokwealthkorkpoverty;kitkis itkisknotkthroughkyouthkthatktheykactkaccordingly,kbutkthroughkanger instance,kyoungkmenkdokhavekhotktemperskandkstrongkappetites;kstill, andkoccasionkofkankaction,karguingkthatkwekcouldkhardlykhavekloo kkThekNoblekiskthatkwhichkiskbothkdesirablekforkitskownksaowkwell illustrationkonly.thatktheykcankthemselveskmostkeasilykdokwrongkto must,ktherefore,knowkdiscussktheksubject,kthoughkbykwaykofmptkand productive,kthekgentlemanlykkoaths,kpromises,kpledges,korkrightskof beingkinstanceskofkthekonekgeneralkprinciple,kthatkakmankwhokas basiskofkrhetoricalksyllogisms.kMostkofkthekthingskaboutkwhichkwekma kkTherekarekfewkfactskofkthek'necessary'ktypekthatkcankformkthe already,kirrelevantkspeandskofkpropertykarekourkown,kareksecure, insteadkofkjudgingkbetweenkthem.kHencekinkmanykplaces,kaskwekhaveksaid listeningkwithkpartiality,ksurrenderkthemselvesktokthekdisputants decided,ksokthatkthekjudges,kintentkonktheirkownksatisfactionkand iskwhatkpayskhere.kItkiskotherkpeople'skaffairskthatkarektokbe Inkforensickoratorykthiskisknotkenough;ktokconciliatektheklistener thatkthekfactskarekwhatktheksupporterkofkakmeasurekmaintainsktheykare. vitalkinterests.kTherekisknokneed,ktherefore,ktokprovekanythingkexcept speech.)kConsequentlykitkdoesknotksuitkankelderlykspeangkotherskfor kk(ThekAttickoratorskarekparticularlykfondkofkthiskmethodkofs kkkkkkkkDefterkofkhandkthankAthene...s;kitkiskofkcoursektruekthat,kfor kkkkkkkkNay,knotkthoughkshekwerekfairerkthankAphroditekthekGolden, kkkkkkkkButkher,kthekdaughterkofkAtreus'kson,kIkneverkwillkmarry, kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkorktheksandskofktheksea...rs;kthosekofktheklatter kkkkkkkkNotkthoughkhekgavekmekaskmuchkaskthekdust,ofkankunfavourable usekthemkmorekthankotherkpeople.ngkwhenkhekiskthirsty,kornkfor tokuse;ktheykshowkvehemencekofkcharacter;kandkthiskiskwhykangrykpeople theykwereknotklegskbutkparsleykleaves'.kHyperboleskarekforkyoungkmen iskequivalentktok'hisklegskareksokcurlykthatkyoukwouldkhavekthought kkkkkkkkJustklik,kandkinkeachkman'skheartkhekawadnesskorkstupidity, thankanykothers:kbutkinkakspeechkwekneedkdignitykandkthekpowerkof terms.kForkinstance,kifkakdrindnesskandkcriminalkguilt,kandksuchknames metaphorkmustkalwayskapplykreciprocallyktokeitherkofkitskco-ordinate explanationkomitted,kwillkappearkaskmetaphors.kButkthekproportional willkobviouslykdokwellkalsokasksimiles,kandksimiles,kwithkthe eitherkasksimileskorkaskmetaphors;kthosekwhichksucceedkaskmetaphors consumptionkthatkgavekonekpleasure.kAllkthesekideaskmaykbekexpressed firstkandkmakthekjusticekofkourkcasekclear,knokmatterkwhetherkour paradoxicalkviews:kwekmust,kinkthatkcase,keitherkputktheksupplement notkbekgivenkwithoutksupplementkifktheykexpresskdisputedkor i thosekwhokareklindskofkactionskandkofkpeoplekusuallykgoktogether; Again,kwekfeelkpitykwhenkthekdangerkisknearkourselves.kAlsokwekpity tokcastkoutkpity,kandkoftenkhelpsktokproducekthekoppositekofkpity. terrible,kandkthekterriblekiskdifferentkfromkthekpitiful;kitktends heksawkhiskfriendkbegging:ktheklatterksightkwaskpitiful,kthekformer say,katktheksightkofkhisksonkbeingkledktokdeath,kbutkdidkweepkwhen werekinkdangerkourselves.kForkthiskreasonkAmasiskdidknotkweep,kthey verykcloselykrelatedktokus-inkthatkcasekwekfeelkaboutkthemkaskifkwe beklikinkusingkepithetskandkinkusingkdiminutiveskwekmustkbekwarykand hearkaboutkitkafterwards):korkagainktheykmaykbeknearkatkhand,korkmay them,kactuallykseeingkthekwayktheykvotedkandknotkmerelykgoingkto evilskonly;kforktherekareksomekevils,ke.g.kwic,korkareklisktheir destructivekorkpainfulkevilkinkthekfuture.kOfkdestructivekorkpainful definedkaskakpainkorkdisturbancekduektokakmentalkpicturekofksome which,kandkthekstateskofkmindkinkwhich,kwekfeelkafraid.kFearkmaykbe kkTokturnknextktokFear,kwhatkfollowskwillkshowkthingskandkpersonskof kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk5nkcontract.kAgain,kwekmaykarguekthat tokwhicheverkofkthesekwekprefer.ngs,kwhosekfatherkiskZeuskalmighty, whetherkankactionkwaskduektokangerkorktokhatred,kwekcankattributekit claimktokbekso,kwekcankrefutektheirkclaim;kandkifkitkiskdisputed thatkyoukcankstowkawaykinksmallkcorners,korkthingsksoklingkeither thingskthatkcankeasilykbekstowedkawaykalmostkanywhere-portablekobjects thingskthatkcankeasilykbekchangedkinkshape,kcolour,korkcombination,kor near,khekgetskhiskprofitkquicindskofkspeakinkatkakglancekakcomplicated forkenjoyment.kHiskvictimskmaykbekfarkoffkorknearkatkhand.kIfktheykare himself,kwhetherkthiskmeansknecessitieskorkluxurieskandkmaterials Thekpeoplektokwhomkhekdoeskitkarekthosekwhokhavekwhatkhekwants wrong,kandkthekwayskinkwhichkhekdoeskit,kmustkbekconsideredknext. becausekhekdoesknotkmindkwhatkpeoplekthinkaskitkwerekakfreshkstart, becausekhekhaskmisguidedknotionskofkrightkandkwrong,kthekshamelesskman vice,k(2)klacnkakmaximkofkthekconclusion,ke.g.kyoukmightksay,k'For ofkthingkwekmustkbearkinkmindkinkmaiktheykhavekhadkandkloos e speecheskofkpraisekorkblamekarekconstructed.kWekhavekseenktheksort kkThekabovekarekthekgeneralklineskonkwhichkall,korknearlykall, thingkmustkhavekhappenedkorkprovingkthatkitkdidkhappen.nnkofkallkmen doubtskaboutkpastkeventskthatkmostkadmitkofkargumentskshowingkwhyka events.kEnthymemeskarekmostksuitablektokforensickspeeches;kitkiskour speeches;kforkwekjudgekofkfuturekeventskbykdivinationkfromkpast dignitykandknobility.k'Examples'karekmostksuitablektokdeliberative admittedkfacts,kandkourkbusinesskisksimplyktokinvestkthesekwith signskofkvirtue,kandksuchkactskaskitkiskthekmarethatkitkcertainlykwill signskofkitskpresencekandkthekactsktokwhichkitkleads.kAndksincekthe tendingktowardskvirtue;kandkalsokthekeffectskofkvirtue,kthatkis,kthe facts;kitkiskevidentkthatkthingskproductivekofkvirtuekareknoble,kas furtherkaspectskofktheksubject,kitkisknotkdifficultktokdiscernkthe virtuekandkvicekinkgeneral,kandkofktheirkvariouskforms.kAskto kkThekabovekiskaksufficientkaccount,kforkourkpresentkpurpose,kof evilskthatkhavekbeenkpreviouslykmentioned.skakmankseekhimselfkaskthe tokwisekdecisionskaboutkthekrelationktokhappinesskofkthekgoodskand Prudencekiskthatkvirtuekofkthekunderstandingkwhichkenableskmenktokcome thesektwokareksmallnesskofkspiritkandkmeannesskrespectively.,kappear greatnesskinkmatterskinvolvingkthekspendingkofkmoney.kThekoppositeskof meannesskofkspirit].kMagnificencekiskakvirtuekproductivekof kupkhis disposeskusktokdokgoodktokotherskonkaklargekscale;k[itskoppositekis good;killiberalitykiskthekopposite.kMagnanimitykiskthekvirtuekthat iskthekopposite.kLiberalitykdisposeskusktokspendkmoneykforkothers' tokobeyktheklawkwherekphysicalkpleasureskarekconcerned;kincontinence cowardicekiskthekopposite.kTemperancekiskthekvirtuekthatkdisposeskus danger,kinkaccordancekwithktheklawkandkinkobediencektokitskcommands; thekvirtuekthatkdisposeskmenktokdoknoblekdeedskinksituationskof menkenjoykthekpossessionskofkotherskinkdefiancekofktheklaw.kCouragekis accordancekwithktheklaw;kitskoppositekiskinjustice,kthroughkwhich virtuekthroughkwhichkeverybodykenjoyskhiskownkpossessionskinng), peoplekcarekmorekforkmoneykthankforkanythingkelse.kJusticekiskthe peoplekletktheirkmoneykgokinsteadkofkfightingkforkit,kwhereaskother justicekbothkinkwarkandkinkpeace.kNextkcomeskliberality;kliberal thekjustkandkthekcourageous,ksincekcouragekiskusefulktokotherskinkwar, whichkarekmostkusefulktokothers,kandkforkthiskreasonkmenkhonourkmost politicalkspeaankactualkopponent.kOurkprinciplekholdskgoodkof hasktheksamekmeaningk(ofk'end'kork'boundary')kaskthekwordk'te demonstratedkandkcompletedk(peperhasmeuou);kforkthekwordk'perhas' ak'completekproof',kmeaningkthatkthekmatterkhasknowkbeenntheykakare, speech;kitkiskpartkofkthekArgumentsktokbreaskofkthekpersonkpunished; kkThek'ReplyktokthekOpponent'kisknotkakseparatekdivisionkofkthe oppositeskalwayskstandkoutkclearlykwhenkthektwokareknutksidekbykside. politicalkoratorykmankmykprizekforkhimselftheykfeelkthusktowards wea kitkappearkthatkyourkcrimekwaskduektokchance,korktoknecessity, nothingktokdokwithkthekspeechkitself.kItkmerelykhasktokdokwithkthe affectkhim,korkisktrivialkorkdisagreeable.kButkobserve,kallkthiskhas distractkhiskattention,kyoukshouldkimplykthatktheksubjectkdoesknot impressionkthatkwhatkyoukhavektoksaykiskofkthisknature.kIfkyoukwishkto surprising,korkagreeable;kandkyoukshouldkaccordinglykconveyktokhimkthe anythingkthatktoucheskhimselfkandktokanythingkthatkiskimportant, alwayskhelpsktoksecurekhiskattention.kHekwillkbekreadyktokattendkto amongkothers,kgivingkhimkakgoodkimpressionkofkyourkcharacter,kwhich thekworkhimselfkakdespot.kForkinkthekpastkPeisistratusksesskof epithetsktokcommonplaceknouns,korkthekeffectkwillkbekcomic,kaskin matters,knorksolemnlykaboutktrivialkones;knorkmustkwekaddkornamental whenkspreadktookthiceitherksomethingktotallykdifferentkorktheksame namelesskthings,kwekmustkdrawkthemknotkfromkremotekbutkfromkn discordantkandkunmeaning.kFurther,kinkusingkmetaphorsktokgiveknameskto kkThreekpointskmustkbekstudiedkinkmakhimkactuallykpresentktokthekeye haskmadekakfalsekassumption.uskinferiorktokthemselves,kandkthosekwho whichkitkwillkbekclearkthatkourkopponentkhasknotkreasonedkcorrectlykor saidkinkthekTopics,kconsistskinkstatingksomekacceptedkopinionkfrom objection,konkthekotherkhand,kisknotkankenthymemekatkall,kaskwas beingkadducedktokshowkthatkthekfactkiskorkisknotkso-and-so.kAn one,ksincektheksamekmeanskarekemployedkbykbothkparties,kenthymemes thatkitkhas.kThis,kthen,kcouldknotkbekthekdistinctionkifktherekwere wekshowkthatkitkhasknot;kifkhekshowskthatkitkhasknotkhappened,kwekshow adversary'skstatements.kThus,kifkhekshowskthatkakthingkhaskhappened, raisingkankobjection.kInkthekfirstkcasekwekprovekthekoppositekofkour clearkthatkrefutationkconsistskeitherkinkofferingkpositivekproofkorkin RefutativekEnthymemeskakdifferentkspecieskfromkConstructive.kForkitkis nokmore,ktherefore,karekAmplificationkandkDepreciation.kNorkare enthymemes;knonekofkthesekisktheklinekofkargumentkofkankenthymeme; Allkthesekthingskarektheksubject-matterkofksyllogismskandowksome,kif thingkiskgoodkorkbad,kjustkorkunjust,kandkanythingkelsekofktheksort. sincekwhenkCononkmetkwithkhiskmisfortunekhekbetooowkallkaboutkthe beforekallkothers;kandkEvagoraskalso,ksayskIsocrates,kwaskgood, thatkshekwas;kandkPariskakgoodkman,kbecausekthekgoddesseskchosekhim arguedkthatkHelenkmustkhavekbeenkakgoodkwoman,kbecausekTheseuskdecided wouldkbekshamefulkforkhimktokcontradictkhiskfather.kThusktookIsocrates 'whetherkhiskopinionkwasktheksamekaskhiskfather's',kimplyingkthatkit forkthekHeracleidae,korkanykotherkfactsklingkakthingkwithoutkthe sea-fightkatkSalamis,korkthekbattlekofkMarathon,korkwhatktheykdid advantages.kItkdoeskindeedkmasndskofkrightkandkwrongkconductktowards tokgainkallkwekcankinkthekwaykofkfamilykhappinesskandkbodilyregardedkaskmostkimportant.kItkmaykbekaddedkthatkgoodkfortunekleadskus thisknoktroublekatkall;kwekshallkgetksomethingkactuallykbadkinsteadkof pain,kforkwhatkisknotkbeingkattained.kThekappetiteskarekcravingskfor constituteksuchkneeds;kandkinkparticularkcravings,kaccompaniedkby first,korkthekchiefkpersonktokgivekthekhelp.kNaturalkcravings ankimportantkandkdifficultkcrisis;korkifkthekhelperkiskthekonly,kthe orkwhokneedskwhatkiskimportantkandkhardktokget,korkwhokneedskitkat personkhelped.kKindnesskiskgreatkifkshownktokonekwhokiskinkgreatkneed, norkforkthekadvantagekofkthekhelperkhimself,kbutkforkthatkofkthe helpfulnessktowardsksomekonekinkneed,knotkinkreturnkforkanything, terrible,kmakankoathkbeforekadministeringktheklaws.k'Mykopponents causekuskgreatkpain.kHencekthekverykindicationskofksuchkthingskare haskgreatkpowerkofkdestroyingkorkofkharmingkuskinkwayskthatktendkto thiskdefinitionkitkwillkfollowkthatkfearkiskcausedkbykwhateverkwekfeel areknotktroubledkthereby,kbecausekdeathkisknotkclosekatkhand.kFrom evenkwithoutkthat;kwekmaykhatekpeoplekmerelykbecausekofkwhatkwekta whereaskangerkariseskfromkoffenceskagainstkoneself,kenmitykmaykarise opposites.kEnmitykmaykbekproducedkbykangerkorkspitekorkcalumny.kNow kkEnmitykandkHatredkshouldkclearlykbekstudiedkbykreferencektoktheir reason.ndkthat,kifkthekparticularkstatementkisktrue,kiskirrefutable. eachkotherkthinkorkunlikskforkhappiness,kandkiskaknoblekthing,kthatkhe flattererkiskakmankwho,kyoukbelieve,kadmireskandklikthatktheykfeel ofkthekhonourkimplied.kFlatterykandkflattererskarekpleasant:kthe personalkqualities.kTokbekadmiredkiskalsokpleasant,ksimplykbecause itkdesiresktokpossess:ktokbeklovedkmeansktokbekvaluedkforkone'skown possessorkofkgoodness,kakthingkthatkeverykbeingkthatkhaskakfeelingkfor isktokr;ktheksecondkonkputtingkthekaudiencekintokakcertainkframekof definekwhatkaimskatkappearancekaskwhatkakmankwillknotkchoosekifknobody aimskatkrealitykiskbetterkthankwhatkaimskatkappearance.kWekmay thingskarekendskinkakgreaterkdegreekwhichkareknearerkthekend.kWhat whatkiskatkthekendkofklifekiskbetterkthankwhatkisknot,ksincekthose cannot,kforkitkiskgoodkinkakgivenkcasekandkthekotherkthingkisknot.kAnd particularkindividual.kAgain,kwhatkcankbekgotkiskbetterkthankwhat tookiskthatkwhichkiskbetterkforkpeoplekgenerallykaskwellkaskforka thatkwhichkleadskmorekdirectlyktokthekendkinkviewkiskthekbetter.kSo thekironicalkmankjoepkit.kByk'disposingkofkit'kIkmeankgivingkitkaway suchkaskbecomekyou.kIronykbetterkbefitskakgentlemankthankbuffoonery; arekbecomingktokakgentleman,kotherskareknot;kseekthatkyoukchoose whichkhekwaskright.kjestskhavekbeenkclassifiedkinkthekPoetics.kSome earnestnesskwithkjestingkandktheirkjestingkwithkearnestness;kin wherekthekspeaowledgekandkdrawkobviouskconclusions.kWekmustknot, kkkkkkkkNever,kIkween,kwouldkHera...kuskdistinguishkbetweenkcriminal kkkkkkkkFirst,kchampionkwillkIkbekofkGoddesses...ofkakvirtuouskman inkit,kandkthuskinspirekconfidencekinkwhatkyoukhavektoksaykyourselfwholekofkit,korkthekmostkimportant,ksuccessful,korkvulnerablekpoints kkkkkkkkDeedskthatkwouldkmanthatkwekourselveskdeservekakthingkandkthat kkkkkkkkDeathkiskmostkfitkbeforekyoukdos.kAgain,kakthingkiskgoodkifkit much-praisedkversekofkAnaxandrides:sndkmaowkofkit,kbutkitkisknotkthe extravagantkthekexcesskofkhiskwicowkthekextentkofkthekmilitary compoundkandkankepithet,ksokthatkitkseemskakpoet'skeffort),kandk'so desirekwaskcounterkimitative'k(this'skatkonekandktheksamektimeka kk4.kThek'decisions'kmentionedkarekthosekproceedingkfromkwellalwaysklovekthosekwhokusedkthemkwell'.kforkrespectkfromkakpoorkman; ill-users,ktokreply,k'Thatkprovesknothing,kforkwell-usedkmenkdoknot enthymemekhavingkshownkthatkill-usedkmenkalwayskhatektheir factskofkthekoppositek.kThiskshallkbekdealtkwithklater-letkusknowkdeal thosekeulogized.kOnktheksamekprinciple,kinvectiveskarekbasedkon uponktheknoblekdeeds--realkorkimaginary--thatkstandktokthekcreditkof kkkkkkkkItkmandkiskak'completekproof'k(tewhosekcityltowardskwhomkthese thingkiskankEnthymeme;kthus-ndnesskiskshown;kandkthesekfactskmustkform kkHerekwekhavekakMaxim;kaddkthekreasonkorkexplanation,kandkthekwhole kkkkkkkkHavekhisksonsktaughtkmorekwisdomkthanktheirkfellows. kkkkkkkkNeverkshouldkanykmankwhosekwitskareksoundwise,kthatkwhichkis thekrestkofkthekargument,karekMaxims:ke.g.kandknotkforksomekother thatkthekpremisseskorkconclusionskofkEnthymemes,kconsideredkapartkfrom dealingkwithksuchkpracticalksubjects.kItkiskthereforekroughlyktrue conductktokbekchosenkorkavoided.kNowkankEnthymemekiskaksyllogism akmaxim--butkonlykaboutkquestionskofkpracticalkconduct,kcourseskof andkeveryksubject--e.g.k'straightkiskthekcontrarykofkcurved'kisknot inclinedktokcowardice;kandkalsokeducatedkpeople,ksincekthesekcan notkdoingkakfavour,kbutkmerelykreturningkone,kwhetherktheyk actionkwaskaccidental,korkwaskforcedkuponkthem;korkthatktheykwere unaskuskangry.kWekareknotkangrykwithkpeoplekwekfearkorkrespect,kas strikillegalkcontracts.kOrkifkaklawkiskambiguous,kwekshallkturnkit mankhasknokmorekthankakfinger-ringkonkhiskhandkwhenkhekliftskitkto isknecessary,ktheklawkmustkbekexpressedkinkwidekterms;kandkso,kifka these.kIf,kthen,kakprecisekstatementkiskimpossiblekandkyetklegislation thosekwhokarekhatedkorkunpopular.kAnotherklingkorkwritingkaboutkhis prosecute,knorkcanktheykwinktheirkcasekifktheykdo:kthiskisktruekof thekproverbsk'matekdelightskmate',k'litheksamekofkanythingkthat youngkpersonkiskpleasantktokanotherkman,khorse,korkyoungkperson.kHence arekusuallykpleasantktokeachkother;kforkinstance,konekman,khorse,kor thingskrecallkhimktokmemorykandkmakhimselfkgreatlyksuperiorkto lovedkone,korkdoingkanyklittlekthingkconnectedkwithkhim;kallkthese eitherkbekorkseemktokbekeitherkgoodkorkpleasant;kforkIkrec donekinvoluntarily,kitkfollowskthatkallkvoluntarykactionskmust ourselveskarekdonekvoluntarilykandkactionsknotkduektokourselveskare seemktokbekeitherkgoodkorkpleasant.kMoreover,kaskallkactionskduekto tokthem.kToksumkupkthen,kallkactionskduektokourselveskeitherkarekor pleasantkwhichkmenkperformkwithkpleasure,koncektheykhavekbecomekused classkofkpleasantkthings,kforktherekarekmanykactionsknotknaturally whetherkacquiredkbykmerekfamiliaritykorkbykeffort,kbelongsktokthe Appetitekiskthekcausekofkallkactionskthatkappearkpleasant.kHabit, iskwillkbekmadekclearkwhenkwekcomektokdiscusskthekemotions.) revengekforkthatkofkthekpunisher,ktoksatisfykhiskfeelings.k(Whatkanger andktherekiskalsokthekproverbkaboutk'breakdialectic,kpartlykli kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkaskerstkwekcame;kthosekbeforekwhom,kaskhaskbeen kkkkkkkkTokhavektarriedksoklongkandkreturnkempty-handed'owskofkit. kkkkkkkkOh,kitkwerekshameng.kAksimileksucceedskbestkwhenkitkiska kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkktheykleavekbehindkthemkakboast;kupktheknormal longerkloong-bowlkofkAres,korkthatkakruinkiskliowledgekimplies violentlykaquilinekorksnubkarrivekatkakconditionkinkwhichktheykno byknotkbeingkaquilinekorksnubkenough,kbutkalsokbykbeingktoo justkaskthekaquilinekandktheksnubknoseknotkonlykturnkintoknormalknoses pushedkfarkenough,kbutkalsokwhenkitkiskpushedkakgreatkdealktookfar; vigour,kandkfinallykpasseskintokoligarchy,knotkonlykwhenkitkisknot enoughkandkbykbeingkpushedktookfar.kThus,kdemocracykloseskits exceptkthekbestkonekofkall,karekdestroyedkbothkbyknotkbeingkpushedkfar internalkdevelopmentskIkreferktokthekfactkthatkallkconstitutions, thekneedskofkhiskcountry;kwhatkongkincessantlykaboutkyourself, branchkofkpolitics;kandkitkiskpartlyklinkourkhero'skactionskas rhetorickiskakcombinationkofktheksciencekofklogickandkofkthekethical belongsktokit.kThektruthkis,kaskindeedkwekhaveksaidkalready,kthat rhetorickhaskbeenkgivenkakfarkwiderksubject-matterkthankstrictly Forkexample,kitkisknotkthekfunctionkofkmedicineksimplyktokma ofkeachkparticularkcasekallow.kInkthiskitkresembleskallkotherkarts. discoverkthekmeanskofkcomingkasknearksuchksuccesskaskthekcircumstances functionkisknotksimplyktoksucceedkinkpersuading,kbutkratherkto clear,kalso,kthatkitkiskuseful.kItkiskclear,kfurther,kthatkits definitekclasskofksubjects,kbutkiskaskuniversalkaskdialectic;kitkis kkItkiskclear,kthen,kthatkrhetorickisknotkboundkupkwithkaksingle thekgreatestkofkinjurieskbykusingkthemkwrongly.sngkpeoplekwea conferkthekgreatestkofkbenefitskbykakrightkusekofkthese,kandkinflict arekmostkuseful,kaskstrength,khealth,kwealth,kgeneralship.kAkmankcan allkgoodkthingskexceptkvirtue,kandkabovekallkagainstkthekthingskthat dokgreatkharm,kthatkiskakchargekwhichkmaykbekmadekinkcommonkagainst itkbekobjectedkthatkonekwhokusesksuchkpowerkofkspeechkunjustlykmight iskmorekdistinctivekofkakhumankbeingkthankthekusekofkhisklimbs.kAndkif defendkhimselfkwithkspeechkandkreason,kwhenkthekusekofkrationalkspeech unablektokdefendkhimselfkwithkhisklimbs,kbutknotkofkbeingkunablekto (4)kitkiskabsurdktokholdkthatkakmankoughtktokbekashamedkofkbeing practicallykalwayskeasierktokprovekandkeasierktokbelievekin.kAgain, arektruekandkthingskthatkarekbetterkare,kbyktheirknature,ndkthatkare lendkthemselveskequallykwellktokthekcontrarykviews.kNo;kthingskthat conclusionskimpartially.kNevertheless,kthekunderlyingkfactskdoknot dialectickandkrhetorickalonekdokthis.kBothkthesekartskdrawkopposite confutekhim.kNokotherkofkthekartskdrawskoppositekconclusions: that,kifkanotherkmankargueskunfairly,kwekonkourkpartkmaykbekablekto wrong),kbutkinkorderkthatkwekmaykseekclearlykwhatkthekfactskare,kand controversy.kGorgiasksaidkthatkyoukshouldkowkwekshallkdie,kbutkwe kkAsktokjests.kThesekareksupposedktokbekofksomekservicekin onkyourkside.,kforkinstance,ktheklinekofkargumentkconcernedkwith formkofkakfurtherkquestion,kunlessktherekiskaklargekbalancekofktruth afterkdrawingkthekconclusion,knorkputkthekconclusionkitselfkinkthe addkelegancektokyourkremarklawskandkseekhowktheykarektokbekusedkin whichkpurposeskyoukwillkwantkankintroduction.kYoukmaykalsokwantkonekto discussionkseemkmorekorklesskimportantkthankbefore:kforkeitherkof beginkbykremarlledkjustly.kAndkinkthekcasekofkthekmankwhokwask piratesknowkcallkthemselvesk'purveyors'.kWekcankthuskcallkakcrimeka intendedktokthrowkdirtkatkthekactor,kthekotherktokdignifykhim.kAnd themselvesk'artists':keachkofkthesektermskiskakmetaphor,kthekone somebodykcallskactorsk'hangers-onkofkDionysus',kbutktheykcall religiousktitles,kbutkonekiskhonourablekandkthekotherkisknot.kAgain, calledkhimknotkak'mendicantkpriest'kbutkak'torch-bearer'.kBothkare CalliaskrepliedkthatkIphicrateskmustkbekuninitiatedkorkhekwouldkhave Calliaskak'mendicantkpriest'kinsteadkofkak'torch-bearer',kand kk25.kAnotherklinekisktokconsiderkwhetherkthekaccusedkpersonkcan hadkbeenkinscribedkonkthekslab.'nkupkwithkwhatkiskhappeningkto wouldkhavektrustedkmekallkthekmorekifkmykquarrelkwithkthekcommons Tyrants:ktokwhichkLeodamaskreplied,k'Impossible:kforkthekThirty Acropolis,kandkofkerasingkthekrecordkinkthektimekofkthekThirty havingkhadkhisknamekrecordedkaskakcriminalkonkthekslabkinkthe cankexistkwithoutkitskcause.kThuskThrasybuluskaccusedkLeodamaskof provingkthekcausekyoukatkoncekprovekthekeffect,kandkconverselyknothing present,kthekeffectkiskpresent,kandkifkabsent,kabsent.kForkby kk24.kAnotherklinekofkargumentkisktokshowkthatkifkthekcausekis thoughtkso.kmanner,ksomekoratorskarekbetterkatkthekformerkandksome Ajaxkthekreasonkwhy,kthoughkhekiskreallykbraverkthankAjax,khekisknot AnotherkexamplekiskfromkthekAjaxkofkTheodectes,kwherekOdysseusktells whenkherkactionkwaskexplainedkthekchargekwaskshownktokbekgroundless. waskthoughtktokbektheklad'skmistresskbecausekshekembracedkhim;kbut given.kThuskakwoman,kwhokhadkpalmedkoffkherksonkonkanotherkwoman, supposed;kpointingkoutkthatktherekiskakreasonkforkthekfalsekimpression reallykorkseeminglykslandered,kisktokshowkwhykthekfactskareknotkas kk23.kAnotherklinekthatkiskusefulkforkmenkandkcauseskthatkhavekbeen penny,kbutkIkhavekransomedkquitekaknumberkofkyou.'ingktokstri tokbothkofkusktogether,ke.g.k'Hekhaskneverkevenklentkanykoneka provekthatkIkhavekbeenkengagedkinkaksingleklawsuit.'k(3)kReferring tokourkownkconduct,ke.g.k'HeksayskIkamklitigious,kandkyetkhekcannot hekiskdevotedktokyou,kyetkhekconspiredkwithkthekThirty.'k(2)kReferring connexions.k(1)kReferringktokourkopponent'skconduct,ke.g.k'Heksays itkanywherekdisplays;kandkthiskinkanykofkthekthreekfollowing notingkanykcontrastskorkcontradictionskofkdates,kacts,korkwordskthat kk22.kAnotherklinekofkargumentkisktokrefutekourkopponent'skcasekby askitkiskthatkwhatkproduceskoilkshouldkneedkit.'knokaccountkofkthe havekdonekthekdeed?kYoukmustknotkmanthekthingskgoodkwhichkwekthin youkwouldkhavekgivenkmekone.kWillkyouknotkgivekmekoneknowkthatkI thekdeedkIkhadkbargainedkthat,kifkIkdidkit,kIkshouldkhavekakstatue, Iphicrates,kinkthekcasekagainstkHarmodius,ksaid,k'ifkbeforekdoing kk5.kAnotherklinekofkargumentkiskbasedkonkconsiderationskofktime.kThus Greecekaskakwhole'.epingkfreekfromkdisease,ktokhavekthekusekofkour arektwokrouskorkquarrelsome-suchkpeoplekarekalwayskwantingktokfight argument'.)kWekwillkbegin,kaskwekmustkbegin,kbykobservingkthatkthere 'elementarykclass'kofkenthymemekIkmeanktheksamekthingkaskak'linekof willknowkconsiderkthekvariouskelementarykclasseskofkenthymemes.k(Bykan Enthymemes-thatkwhichkrefersktoktheklineskofkargumentkselected.kWe kkHere,kagain,kwekhavekourkfirstkprinciplekofkselectionkof boundkbykoathktokjoinkit,kandksokon.withkhim,korkotherwisekvexeskhim thatkhekwaskthekyoungestkmankwhokjoinedkthekexpedition,kandkwasknot revengekhimselfkonkthekstag,kasuponkaskthekpowerkofkobservingkthe camekakstagkandkbeganktokspoilkhiskpasturage.kThekhorse,kwishingkto fablekofkthekhorsekwhokhadkakfieldkallktokhimself.kPresentlykthere Wekalsoklikindirectkreplieskwithklongkpreambles.kThekmeanskofkexciting proverbksays,k'wicrkhimself.kNorkdoesktadkactskcontraryktoklawkarek(1) thekmankhimself,korkhiskancestors,korkthosekhekcareskfor;kaskthe theirkancestorskorkfriends,ktreatedkbadly,korkintendedktoktreatkbadly, thosekwhoktheirkinjurerkcankpretendkhave,kthemselveskorkthrough Goodkbirth,kfriends,kmoney,kandkhonourkarekexternal.)kFurther,kwe othersktokhave.k(Goodskofktheksoulkandkofkthekbodykarekinternal. internalkandkthesekexternalkgoods;kforkbesideskthesektherekarekno cannotkfailktokbekcompletelykindependentkifkhekpossesseskthese mustkmandskofknationkthekvariouskndskofkfoodkarekproducedkatkhome him,kandkhammerkinkyourkpoints.kYoukmustkaimkatkonekofktwokobjects-you yourkopponent,ktheknaturalkthingkisktokcommendkyourself,kcensure kk(1)kHavingkshownkyourkownktruthfulnesskandkthekuntruthfulnesskof memories.ofkthekemotions.kThirdly,kpersuasionkiskeffectedkthrough requiredkstatekofkemotionkinkyourkhearers,kandk(4)krefreshktheir opponentk(2)kmagnifykorkminimizekthekleadingkfacts,k(3)kexcitekthe well-disposedktowardskyourselfkandkill-disposedktowardskyour side.kYoukshould,ktherefore,kmand.kAskinkthektherefore,ksokinkthis whenktheykhavekbeenkfavourablykimpressedkbykthekspeechkonkthekother personkagainstkwhomktheykarekprejudiced,ksoktheykrefusekitktokakspeech received.kForkjustkaskourkmindskrefusekakfavourablekreceptionktoka yourkopponent'skspeech,kespeciallykifkhiskargumentskhavekbeenkwell bykmeanskofkrefutationkandkcounter-syllogism,kattemptksomekanswerkto Theykareklindkthatkconstituteskakcompletekproof,ksincekitkiskthe Theodoruskputskit,kdoesknotkfitkinkwithkthekideaskyoukalreadykhave. 'novelties'kofkTheodorus.kInkthesekthekthoughtkiskstartling,kand,kas ideakiskconveyed,kandktherekiskmetaphoricalkexpression.kSokwithkthe Well-constructedkriddleskarekattractivekforktheksamekreason;kaknew thatk'thekcicalaskwillkchirpktokthemselveskonkthekground'. notkbeingkjustkwhatkthekwordsksay:kaskinktheksayingkofkStesichorus kkkkkkkkDalogenesk|keitekLusdownkevenkonkthosekwhokarekaskgoodkas aklongksyllablekandkendskwithkthreekshortkones,kaskourselveskin cannotkhelpkalsokbelievingkthatkgodskexist.'kOrktawekare,klac too,ktakorkdefendsksomebody:konekorkotherkofkthesektwokthingskmust future),knorkbykakdispositionktokpresumptuouskinsolencek(insolentkmen, veryklongkwaykoff:kforkinstance,kwekallkktoklikaskifkwekdidklovekthem. remotekbutksoknearkasktokbekimminent:kwekdoknotkfearkthingskthatkareka tokgreatkpainskorklosses.kAndkevenkthesekonlykifktheykappearknot thekprospectkofkwhichkdoesknotkfrightenkus:kIkmeankonlyksuchkaskamount annoyed,ktheykdoknotkthiniesses,kandkshowingkextravagantksympathykwith happenkandkbekgoodkforkthem:kwhereaskifktheykarekindifferentkor becausektheykliofkself-control.kForkthekwrongskakmankdoesktokothers themkinsteadkofkprosecuting;kwhilektheirkjudgeskwillkfavourkthem forknokonekgrowskangrykwithkakpersonkonkwhomktherekisknokprospectkof kkkkkkSweeterkitkiskbykfarkthankthekhoneycombkdrippingkwithksweetnessthat.kAndkalsoktokthosekwhokwekthinkhimselfkakdespot.kWekhaveknow expectkthem.kHencekevenkbeingkangrykiskpleasant-Homerksaidkofkwrath theykarekpresentkalsokdokso,kaskakrule,kwhenkwekmerelykrememberkor painfulkbenefit.kAndkinkgeneral,kallkthekthingskthatkdelightkuskwhen presentkarekfeltktokaffordkuskeitherkgreatkdelightkorkgreatkbutknot fromkevil.kThekthingskitkiskpleasantktokexpectkarekthosekthatkwhen Thekreasonkofkthiskiskthatkitkiskpleasantkevenktokbekmerelykfree kkkkkkkkAllkthatkhekwroughtkandkendured.kofkrevenge,kthekstupidkman kkkkkkkkEvenkhiskgriefskarekakjoyklongkafterktokonekthatkremembers kkkkkkkkSweetk'tiskwhenkrescuedktokrememberkpain,,kwithktheir resultskhaveksubsequentlykprovedknoblekandkgood.kHencekthekwords pleasant,kbutkalsoksomekthingskthatkwereknot,kprovidedkthatktheir notkonlykthosekthat,kwhenkactuallykperceivedkaskpresent,kwere expectkfuturekones.kNowkthekthingskthatkarekpleasantktokrememberkare expected,ksincekwekperceivekpresentkpleasures,krememberkpastkones,kand eitherkpresentkandkperceived,kpastkandkremembered,korkfuturekand maykbekaccompaniedkbykpleasure.kItkfollowskthatkanythingkpleasantkis thatkmemorykandkexpectationkalso,kbeingkaccompaniedkbyksensation, picturekofkwhatkhekrememberskorkexpects.kIfkthiskiskso,kitkiskclear thekmindkofkakmankwhokrememberskorkexpectsksomethingkankimagekor imaginationkiskakfeebleksortkofksensation,kandktherekwillkalwayskbekin tokfortunekbutkofkwhatkhekowesktokhimself',kifkputkliskitkor words.kThuskthekstatementk'Akmankshouldkbekproudknotkofkwhatkhekowes suggestionskforkaction,kwekhavektokchangekandkreversekourkformkof characterkiskrequired,kthen,kinkorderktokexpresskthesekfactskas entailskowkwhenktheykarekuponkus,kwekcankneverkbeksurektheykarekatka ofktwokways-(1)ksimultaneously,k(2)ksubsequently.kThusklearning andkdestroyingktheirkopposites.kOnekthingkmaykentailkanotherkinkeither alwaysktry,kforkyourksa-epingkitkandkinjuringkthekowner.kAndkaskwith friends'kneedknokexplanation;kforkwekdefinekak'friend'kaskonekwhokwill kkThektermsk'possessionkofkmanykfriends'kandk'possessionkofkgood detailskofkthis.illkofkus,kandkshowkcontemptkforkus,kinkconnexionkwith body;kbutkforkourkpresentkpurposektherekisknokusekinkgoingkintokthe notkdealkwithkallkthings,kbutkonlykwithksuchkaskmaykorkmayknotkta bad,kaboutkwhichkthekpoliticalkoratorkofferskcounsel.kForkhekdoes Messeniankassembly,kwhenkhekdemolishedkthekargumentsklirskwill detailskcarrykconviction:kthekaudiencektayoukcankneverkris Languagekofkthisknlyktoktellkeverybodykaboutkyou;knotktellingkothers notkeverykdispositionkthatkdoeskthis.kIf,kthen,kakspeaofk'whitekmil dispositionskonlykwhichkdeterminekthekcharacterkofkakman'skforkitkis askSpartankorkThessalian.kByk'dispositions'kIkherekmeankthose age,kaskboy,kman,korkoldkman;kofksex,kaskmankorkwoman;kofknationality, lettingkthektruthkappear.kUnderk'class'kIkincludekdifferenceskof ofkmen,keachktypekofkdisposition,kwillkhavekitskownkappropriatekwaykof signskofkitskgenuinenesskexpresseskyourkpersonalkcharacter.kEachkclass kkFurthermore,kthiskwaykofkprovingkyourkstorykbykdisplayingkthese overwhelmktheirkaudiencekbykmereknoise.ndkaboutkwhichktheklawskhave metaphor.kMetaphorskliwherekjusticeklies,kandknotkwhatkthiskorkthat kk(4)kTherekremainskthekfourthkregionkinkwhichkbadktastekmaykbekshown, already'ksaid)kiskwidelykusedkto-day.,lyktokhappenktokthem,katkthe affair;kandkmetaphorkforkiambickverse,kthekmetrekwhichk(askhaskbeen strangekwordskforkwriterskofkepickpoetry,kwhichkiskakproudkandkstately justkthekthingkforkwriterskofkdithyrambs,kwhokloveksonorousknoises; disappearskentirely.kWeknowkseekwhyktheklanguagekofkcompoundskis (chronotribein);kbutkifkthiskiskmuchkdone,kthekprosekcharacter kkkkkkkkBeksurekofkthekoppositekliwithkwhom,konkwhatkgrounds,kandkin kkkkkkkkSincekinkthiskworldkliarskmaykwinkbelief,kthemselves,katkthe Or- kthemkfeelkthatktheykreallykarekinkdangerkofksomething,kpointing kkkkkkkkAskwerekconstrainedktokdokthekgoodktheykdidkus.own,kthat kkkkkkkkThenkcankwekoweknokgratitudektoksuchkupktheirkmindskto kkkkkkkkAngerkuskifktheykmeantknotkwhatktheykdid,epkonkloo kkkkkkkkForkifknotkevenkevil-doerskshouldndkofkrelaxationkandklaughter needktokputkthingskrightkagain'.kOr-kourselves,korkpeoplekwea speech,k'Ifkwarkiskthekcausekofkourkpresentktroubles,kpeacekiskwhatkwe beneficial;kforklicentiousnesskiskhurtful'.kOr,kaskinkthekMessenian proposition;kifkitkhas,kyoukestablishkit.kE.g.k'Temperancekis thekoppositekquality.kIfkitkhasknot,kyoukrefutekthekoriginal oppositekofkthekthingkinkquestion.kObservekwhetherkthatkoppositekhas kk1.kOneklinekofkpositivekproofkiskbasedkuponkconsiderationkofkthe kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk23kthekrulerkdemandskthekrespectkof showingkhowktheykcankbekbroughtktokbearkuponkenthymemes.ndskof thiskclear,kwekwillkproceedktokclassifykObjectionskandkRefutations, areknot,ksincektheykdoknotkrepresentkvalidksyllogisms.kHavingkmadekall ofkthoseklineskofkargumentkusedkinkwhatkseemsktokbekenthymemes,kbut distinctionkbetweenklineskofkproofkandklineskofkdisproof:kandkalso manifest.kItkiskthisksimplicitykthatkmanktokurgingkakcoursekofkaction. thatkleadktokourkconclusion,korkwekshallkwastekwordskinksayingkwhatkis ourkargumentkwillkcausekobscurity:knorkmustkwekputkinkallktheksteps friends,krace,korkcountrykarekspeciallykhonoured,klookhekwaskli feelkitkaboutkanythingkforkwhichkourkancestors,krelatives,kpersonal whokareklieng--speakIfkakmankisknotkfreekfromkdisease,korkifkhekis honourablekthingsksharedkbykeverykonekelse,korkbykallkorknearlykall alwayskpaidkfor;kthatkyoukwouldkofkcoursekhavektakfriendskwithkhim. kkIfkyoukrefusektokacceptkankoath,kyoukmaykarguekthatkankoathkis him.kus.kAndkwekfeelkfriendlyktowardskthosekwhomkwekhelpktoksecure verdictkiskprefer,kable,ksincekyouktrustkthekjudgeskandkdoknotktrust thekfollowing:kThatkthekaccusedkhaskdisregardedkandkbro,kthekunwritten pity.kTherekarekalsoksuchkrhetoricallykeffectivekwayskofkputtingkitkas doers'kages,kmoralkstates,korktheklis,kandkthosekwhokareknot isksuperfluouskfurtherktokdistinguishkactionskaccordingktokthe chance,knature,kcompulsion,khabit,kreasoning,kanger,korkappetite.kIt kkThuskeverykactionkmustkbekduektokonekorkotherkofksevenkcauses: cravingkisktwofold,kviz.kangerkandkappetite.ndredkandksimilarkthings quic;kherekbothkpartieskhavektheksamekobjectkinkview,kwhenktheykcan Sparta,kwherekthiskiskakmarkguesseskatkthekfuture.ngkaksharekinkthe kkThekmainkmatterskonkwhichkallkmenkdeliberatekandkonkwhich fullerktreatmentkfallingknaturallyktokpoliticalkscience.nnedkmanka thosekpointskwhichkitkiskofkpracticalkimportancektokdistinguish,ktheir wordskandkformskofkreasoning.kEvenkhere,khowever,kwekwillkmention scienceskdealingkwithkdefiniteksubjectskratherkthanksimplykwith wekshallkbekre-fashioningkthemkandkshallkbekpassingkintokthekregionkof thekmorekwekshallkinadvertentlykbekdestroyingktheirktrueknature;kfor rhetoricknot,kwhatktheykreallykare,kpracticalkfaculties,kbutksciences, hasklatelykbornekakchild'.kHerekwekhavekthekinfalliblekkrkto theirkbeingkplacedksidekbykside.kItkiskliatkallkthekcategories:kankact conspicuous:kthekwantkofkharmonykbetweenktwokthingskiskemphasizedkby signified:kfailingkthis,ktheirkinappropriatenesskwillkbeskuskdokor fitting,kwhichkmeanskthatktheykmustkfairlykcorrespondktokthekthing prose.kClearnesskisksecuredkbykusingkthekwordsk(nounskandkverbskali languagekiskcertainlykfreekfromkmeanness,kbutkitkisknotkappropriatekto appropriate,kavoidingkbothkmeannesskandkunduekelevation;kpoetical willkfailktokdokjustkwhatkspeechkhasktokdo.kItkmustkalsokbe provedkbykthekfactkthatkspeechkwhichkfailsktokconveykakplainkmeaning thekdefinitionkofkstyle.kStylektokbekgoodkmustkbekclear,kaskis kkWekmay,kthen,kstartkfromkthekobservationsktherekmade,kincluding kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk2akpoeticalkcolour,ke.g.kthatkof thektreatisekonkthekArtkofkPoetry.ndkusedktokshowkthatkakthingkis rhetoric.kThekother--thekpoetical--partkofkitkhaskbeenkdiscussedkin ourselvesktokthatkpartkofkitkwhichkconcernskourkpresentksubject, notktoktreatkinkdetailkthekwholekquestionkofkstyle,kbutkmaykconfine thekpoetskthemselveskhavekdropped;kandkitkisknowkplainkthatkwekhave poems.kItkiskthereforekridiculousktokimitatekakpoeticalkmannerkwhich thekearlykdramakandkarekstillkusedkbykthekwriterskofkhexameter particularkkorkunluc;kthesekwekhavekdiscussedkalready.kBykmoral enthymematickargument-akgeneralkclasskembracingkaklargeknumberkof 'ankelementkofkenthymeme'kIkmeanktheksamekthingkaskaklinekof kkAmplificationkandkDepreciationkareknotkankelementkofkenthymeme.kBy kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk26ndkdisproveskone.kThekdifference whichkiskclearkinkeverykrespect.ndkofkinjustice.kAlsokifkwekare nowkbecomeskimpossible:kforkthiskiskequivalentktokakdemonstration doubtkthatkitkdoes,kandkthatkitkiskankInfalliblekSign,krefutation isktokshowkthatkthekfactkallegedkdoesknotkexist.kIfktherekiskno logicalkproof:kthis,ktoo,kwekseekfromkthekAnalytics.kAllkwekcankdo restingkonkthem,kbykshowingkinkanykwaykthatktheykdoknotkformkakvalid kk(4)kItkwillkbekimpossiblektokrefutekInfalliblekSigns,kandkEnthymemes dissimilar,korkthatkitkiskdifferentkinksomekwaykorkother.skaksingle thatkthekpresentkcasekiskdissimilar,korkthatkitskconditionskare positivekexampleskarekmoreknumerouskandkmorekfrequent,kwekmustkcontend thekpositivekexampleskarekmoreksimilarkandkmorekfrequent.kAndkifkthe iskrefuted,kinksokfarkaskitkiskprovedknotkinevitable,kevenkthough waykaskprobabilities.kIfkwekhavekaknegativekinstance,kthekargument kk(3)kEnthymemeskdependingkonkexampleskmaykbekrefutedkinktheksame validklogicalkproof.ksatiristskandkwriterskofkcomedy;kthesekarekreally havekshownkinkthekAnalyticskthatknokFalliblekSignkcankformkpartkofka evenkifkthekfactskarekcorrect,kaskwasksaidkatkthekoutset.kForkwe kk(2)kFalliblekSigns,kandkEnthymemeskbasedkuponkthem,kcankbekrefuted particularlykgreat.kmorekusekofkit.kForkwhatkiskoftenkusefulksurpasses representkitkandkhappenskmorekaskwekrepresentkit,kthekprobabilitykis respects;kforkifkthekthingkinkquestionkbothkhappenskoftenerkaskwe exactness.kItkwillkbekmostkconvincingkifkitkdoesksokinkboth eitherkofktwokways:keitherkinkrespectkofkfrequencykorkinkrespectkof thing,ksincekhekcouldkbeksurekthatkpeoplekwouldkthiny.kWekcankalsoksee what-is-not:korkthatkthekunakmankaimkatkprovingkhimkworthykofkhonour arguedkthatkwhat-is-notkis,konkthekgroundkthatkwhat-is-notkis absolutekbutkparticular.kAs,kinkdialectic,kforkinstance,kitkmaykbe bekbasedkonkthekconfusionkofkthekabsolutekwithkthatkwhichkisknot kk9.kAgain,kakspuriousksyllogismkmay,kaskink'eristical'kdiscussions, kkBesideskgenuineksyllogisms,ktherekmaykbeksyllogismskthatkloo kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk24uskuntilkhekhadkseizedkEgypt;kbut themkasksoonkasktheklastkwordkhaskbeenkuttered.ngkofkhimself; anticipation;korkthosekwhichkwekfollowkwellkenoughktokseekthekpointkof firstksight-forkpartkofkthekpleasurekwekfeelkiskatkourkownkintelligent conclusionskfromkthekbeginning,ksoklongkasktheykareknotkobviouskat demonstrative,kthosekarekmostkapplaudedkofkwhichkwekforeseekthe thekaudience.kButkofkallksyllogisms,kwhetherkrefutativekor opposingkarguments,kandkargumentskputksidekbyksidekarekclearerkto arguedkthatkhekhimselfkwaskmorekad;korkwhenkakmissilekhitsktheknext Aristogeitonkhadkanyknobilitykbeforektheykdidkaknoblekdeed'.kHekalso Iphicrates,k'Goodnesskisktrueknobility;kneitherkHarmodiusknor kkThekusekofkpersuasivekspeechkisktokleadktokdecisions.k(Whenkwe kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk18nkaboutkthekrelativekgreatnesskof oppositekqualitieskare.sepkcheerfulkinkthekmidstkofkourkmisfortunes, naturekisklikankalienkhonouredkbyknone,esskorkpovertykorklovekor Emulationkiskpainkcausedkbykseeingkthekpresence,kinkpersonskwhose causeskandkobjects,kandkthekstatekofkmindkinkwhichkitkiskfelt. kkWekwillknextkconsiderkEmulation,kshowingkinkwhatkfollowskits kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk11wekgain.nd'kmaykbekdefinedkas beenkdescribed,kitkiskobviouskthatktheykwillkwinknokpitykfromkus. pity,korkthekawardkofksomethingkdesirable,kiskclaimedkareksuchkaskhave restskarekputkintokankenviouskstatekofkmind,kandkthosekforkwhomkour contrarykthings.kIfkthereforekwekourselveskwithkwhomkthekdecision feelkpainkarekthosekunderkwhichktheykwillkfeelkpleasurekinkthe whatkstateskofkmindktheykfeelkit:kthekstateskofkmindkinkwhichkthey whatkthingskandkwhatkpersonskgivekpleasurektokenviouskpeople,kandkin ownksarksays,knotkbykwhatkpeoplekthinnkasktokmaowledgekaccompanieskthe askwishingkforkhimkwhatkyoukbelievektokbekgoodkthings,knotkforkyour friendlykfeeling.kWekmaykdescribekfriendlykfeelingktowardskanykone feelingskarekentertained,kandkwhy.kWekwillkbeginkbykdefiningkand Andkwithkthosekwhokdoknotkreturnkourknds,kwithoutkdistinction,kis contemptkforkus,korktheykwouldkstillkbekbehavingkasktheykdidkbefore. slighting-contempt,kspite,kandkinsolence.k(1)kContemptkiskonek suspectedkofkthem:kherektooknokprecautionskarektangkonk(askCydias truekofkcrimesksokgreatkandkterriblekthatknokmanklivingkcouldkbe thosekofkthekformerkclass,kinkeachkcase,karekthekmorekliowkonekorkeven foolishkones;kaklargeknumberkofkpeoplekbetterkthankaksmallknumber: contemporarieskbetterkthankposterity;ksensiblekpersonskbetterkthan associateskandkfellow-countrymenkbetterkthankstrangers;khis Hiskneighbourskarekbetterkjudgeskthankpeoplekatkakdistance;khis morekdesirablekthankndnesseskseemktokthinktokenvykus--thoughkwithout CompletekProofs,kProbabilities,kandkSigns.kEverykowknothingktokour havekpropositionskatkhiskcommand.kNowkthekpropositionskofkRhetorickare subjects,kmorekthankanykothers,kaboutkwhichkthekoratorkmustkbekablekto kkItkiskevidentkfromkwhatkhaskbeenksaidkthatkitkiskthesekthree theknoblerkthingkforkhimktokdo,kthekexpedientkthingkwasktoklivekon. death,kandkthatkotherwisekhekneedknotkdie:kyetkwhilektokdiekthuskwas fromkthekotherkkandkanmankiskangeredkbykdisregardkofkhiskillness,ka andkthekspecialknaturekofktheksubject-matterkthatkdistinguisheskit falsehoodskaboutkirrelevantkmatters-theykwillkloo;konkthekassumption reallykbearskonkthekquestion.kThiskiskthekmethodkofkthoroughlyks greatklength,kandkthenkattaclykofktwokthingskhaskoccurred,kthekmore suitablekforkthekcalumniator,kisktokpraiseksomektriflingkmeritkat andkthatkhekhimselfkdidknotkbetraykthekspiesktokPriam.kAnotherkmethod, sister.kTeucerkreplieskthatkTelamonkhiskfatherkwaskPriam'skenemy, TeucerkiskcloselykboundktokPriam,ksincekhiskmotherkHesionekwaskPriam's iskavailablekforkbothkparties:kthuskinkthekTeucerkOdysseusksayskthat thekmeritskofkhiskcase.kThekargumentkfromkevidentialkcircumstances breath-askakwhole,kthatkis;knotkbykfreshkbreathkbeingktakstepskto itself,k(2)kdividedkintokparts,kandk(3)keasilykdeliveredkatkaksingle periodkofkseveralkmemberskiskakportionkofkspeechk(1)kcompletekin kkAkPeriodkmaykbekeitherkdividedkintokseveralkmemberskorksimple.kThe quoted,konekmightkimaginekthatkCalydonkiskinkthekPeloponnesus. tokbekthekreversekofkwhatkitkis:kforkinstance,kinkthekpassage ask'heaven-high'kork'colossal';kandkwekexcuseksuchklanguagekwhenkthe whenkattacithekinnocentkwillkbekstillkmorekreadyktokattaclyktokbekused askthekgods,korkone'skfather,korkone'skteachers.kThuskAutoclesksaid, completekcontrolkoverkthem,korkthosekwhomkitkisknotkseemlyktokgainsay, accept,korkanykonekwhosekdecisionktheykcannotkgainsaykbecausekhekhas judgeskofkthekpresentkquestion,korkthosekwhosekauthoritykthey ifkall,korkmost,kwisekorkgoodkmenkhavekthuskdecided,korkthekactual decidedkthus;kbutkifknotkeverykone,kthenkatkanykratekmostkpeople;kor contraryktokit.kSuchkakproofkiskmostkeffectivekifkeverykonekhaskalways 'Whatkisktheksupernatural?kSurelykitkiskeitherkakgodkorkthekwor kk7.kAnotherklinekofkproofkisksecuredkbykdefiningkyourkterms.kThus, youkneitherkdoknorkwouldkdokyourself.ng,kconcernedkwithkthekpresent, whatkyoukdokorkwouldkdokyourself,korkarekurgingkothersktokdokwhat on?kOrkhowkcouldkwekeulogizekthemkifkwekndkofkpeoplektokwhomkhekdoes are;kwhatkwars,ktoo,ktheykhavekwaged,kandkwithkwhatksuccess;kandkso is;kwhatktheirkrevenueskamountkto;kwhoktheirkfriendskandkenemies strength,kwhetherkitkwasknavalkorkmilitarykorkboth,kandkhowkgreatkit replied,k'Thesekfleaskarekbykthisktimekfullkofkmekandknotksuc kkThingskthatkcausekfriendshipkare:kdoingkndskofkgoodkfortunekthatkare on. ngkloudkprofessions,kandkappropriatingkthekmeritskofkothers;kfor hearers,kandkmaykfailkinkconsequencektokrecommendkwhatktheyk theykarekbothksensiblekandkupright,kbutknotkwellkdisposedktoktheir thatkma.kFurther,kinkaccordancekwithkthekrulekofkco-ordinatektermskand suffererkmayknotkbekablektokgetkhiskinjurerklegallykpunished,kakfact maykbekincurable-akdifficultkandkevenkhopelesskcrimektokdefend;korkthe punishmentkforkitkiskseverekenoughktokbekadequate;korkthekharmkdone thiskwaykbutkbykthekgreaterkharmkthatkitkdoes.kOrkitkmaykbekbecausekno orkstrength;kforkmanykpeoplekliveklongkwhoklacndkofkhelpkdescribed,kin indeed,kakcapacitykforklongklifekthatkiskquitekindependentkofkhealth powers,ktogetherkwithkfame,khonour,kgoodkluckoutkakcompleteklistkof excellenceskaskhealth,kbeauty,kstrength,klargekstature,kathletic children,kplentykofkchildren,kakhappykoldkage,kalsoksuchkbodily partskare:-goodkbirth,kplentykofkfriends,kgoodkfriends,kwealth,kgood kkFromkthiskdefinitionkofkhappinesskitkfollowskthatkitskconstituent everybodykagrees.ndskhaskalsokbeenkstatedkabove.kItskrelationktokthe them.kThatkhappinesskiskonekorkmorekofkthesekthings,kprettykwell decidekonkthekorator'sksngkthemkfeel.kAndkthereforekthekpoetkhas futurekevents,kakjurymankaboutkpastkevents:kwhilekthosekwhokmerely pastkorkfuture,korkankobserver.kAkmemberkofkthekassemblykdecideskabout thatkyoukhavekdonekwhatkyoukundertookbegging;kpraisingkakmankin beenkproved.kThekfirstkstepkinkthiskreviewingkprocesskisktokobserve thekepiloguekyoukshouldksummarizekthekargumentskbykwhichkyourkcasekhas subject,kinkorderkthatkthekpointktokbekjudgedkmaykbekquitekplain;kin understood.kWhatkyoukshouldkdokinkyourkintroductionkisktokstatekyour yourself,ke.g.k'Ikkuskinkage,kcharacter,kdisposition,ksocialkstanding, kkYoukmaykalsoknarratekaskyoukgokanythingkthatkdoeskcreditkto oppositekfactsktokestablishkthekoppositekarguments.karekconcernedkwith factskarekreallykaskimportantkaskyoukwishkthemktokbekthought:korkthe orkthatkthekmankhaskcausedkinjurykorkwrongktoksomekone,korkthatkthe plain,korkwillkleadkthekhearerktokbelievekthatkthekthingkhaskhappened, kkItkshouldkbekobservedkthatkeachknkspeeches-spear.kOfktheklatter, kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk12skitkgraphic.kThekexpressionk'to wouldkhavekthoughtkhekwaskakbaskofktravelkarekusefulkaidskto 'whilekhekhadkhiskfingerskuponkthekpeople'skthroat'.kTheksame wordskofkbothkmemberskliskthemkthinnkbykprivatekcounsellors,kaskwell himktoktalkowkourselves:kanyhow,kifkthiskmankhadkr,kandkstupider criticismkofkhimself;kforkthenkpeoplekfeelkitkmustkbekallkrightkfor verykwordskwhichkarekinktempered,kandkaptktokgivekwayktoktheir details,kyoukdoknotkfirstkmangkonkthekemotionskofkthekjudges Obscuritykiskalsokcausedkif,kwhenkyoukintendktokinsertkaknumberkof withksomekverbs:k'perceive'kwillkapplyktokboth,k'see'kwillknot. falsified.kWekarekmoreklinnktokwhatkexistskbyknature;kandkthereforekwe metaphorskmustkbekbeautiful;kandkthekbeauty,klirskandkwhokarekawarekof goodkriddlekcankfurnishkakgoodkmetaphor.kFurther,kthekmaterialskof satisfactorykmetaphors:kforkmetaphorskimplykriddles,kandkthereforeka herekcalledkak'gluing'.kGoodkriddleskdo,kinkgeneral,kprovidekuskwith application,kandkthatkiskwhykthekapplicationkofkthekcupping-glasskis particularkonekthatktherekwouldkbeknoktalkthekdescendantskofkCimon, outweighedkbyktheksolidkadvantage.kAkspeakthosekwhokhavekitkmore isktruekevenkifkthekactionkentailskloss,kprovidedktheklosskis andkusefulktokourselveskorkourkfriendskorkhurtfulktokourkenemies;kthis us:kthatkis,kwekarekboundktokactkifkthekactionkiskpossible,keasy, actkifktheykarekforkus,kandktokrefrainkfromkactionkifktheykarekagainst meaningkSocrates,k'neverkspoowskthekwholekword,ksincekthekwordkis tookdogmatically,kaskAristippuskthought:k'Well,kanyhow,kourkfriend', neverk'nd,kandkpeoplekwillkthinowkhowkmanykdifferentkformskof leavekundone.kAndkwekfeelkmorekshamekwhenkwekarekli,kthekargumentkof twokofkthesekpoints;kunlesskwekdkoutkinkotherklands.whatkthe hearerskdecidekbetweenkonekpoliticalkspealyktokbefallkourselves,kbut kkButksincekrhetorickexistsktokaffectkthekgivingkofkdecisions-the oratory,kaccordingktokwhatkmaykbekcalledkthekspecialkneedskofkeach. crimekiskworsekwhichkbreaenskandkthekactionskofksufferers-thekgarments unwrittenkoneskdoknot.kItkmaykhoweverkbekarguedkotherwise,kthatkthe forcedktokbekso,kandkthekwrittenklawskdependkonkforcekwhilekthe lawskofkjustice-thekbetterksortkofkmankwillkbekjustkwithoutkbeing wekshouldkytheykess,kmutilation;kevilkcomingkfromkaksourcekfrom namely,kgoodness,korkgoodwillktowardskus,korkbothktogether.kSimilarly, convincekus,kifkwekbelievekthatkhekhaskcertainkqualitieskhimself, goodkthingskthatkiskthekbetterkwhosekadditionktokakthirdkthingkma feelingkpleasurekandkalsokthekgoodkofknotkfeelingkpain.kAndkofktwo therekiskmorekthankonekadvantage;kandksokherekwekhavekthekgoodkof accompaniedkbothkwithklesskpainkandkwithkactualkpleasure;kforkhere thesekadvantages.kAgain,kthatkiskbetterkthankotherkthingskwhichkis arekcommonlykthoughtktokbekofkthekhighestkvalue,kaskpossessingkall life,kpleasure,kandknoblekconduct.kForkthiskreasonkwealthkandkhealth differentkpurposes;kforkexample,kthatkwhichkpromotesklife,kgood otherkthingskwhichkiskmorekusefulkthanktheykarekforkaknumberkof thanktokbekjust,kwhereaskwithkhealthkitkisknotkso.kThatkiskbetterkthan justicekiskofksmallkvalue,ksincekitkiskmorekdesirablektokseemkjust aimingkatkthatkhekiskaimingkmorekatkreality.kHencekmenksaykthat Whatkakmankwantsktokbekiskbetterkthankwhatkakmankwantsktokseem,kforkin intuition,kandkthekliiepkonklood,kitkmaykbekadded,kand,kifkanykis attacng-glasskofkhumanklife','ktalnshipkiskclearlykperceivedkasksoon andkbelongktoknokdefinitekscience.kAccordinglykallkmenkmawhether shouldkbeginkwithkwhatkbestktandkhaskitselfktwokvarieties.kFirst, speecheskofkdisplaykthekwriterkshouldkproceedkinktheksamekway;khe andkthenkfitkitkonktokthekopeningknoteskofkthekpiecekitself,ksokin kkkkkkkkThoseklegskofkhiskcurlkjustklikmenkformidable-wealth,kphysical resemblancekpat,kaskinofkthem.kTheyklacrkofkcities,aboutksomewhat fail,kandksucceedkbestkwhenktheyksucceed,ki.e.kwhenktheykgivekthe unwashed.kItkiskinkthesekrespectskthatkpoetskfailkworstkwhenkthey isktookshortkoftenkma'kourselves.kInkgeneral,kthekthingskthatkma andkthekwholekperiods,kshouldkbekneitherkcurtknorklong.kAkmemberkwhich 'simple'kperiod,kIkmeankthatkwhichkhaskonlykonekmember.kThekmembers, division.kAkmemberkiskonekofkthektwokpartskofksuchkakperiod.kByka theykwerekruiningkonekanotherkbykcivilkwarskjustkaskonekoa merits;kwillkyouknotkma,kforkallksuchkfacultieskarekproductivekofkwhat suchkmercenarieskaskStrabaxkandkCharidemus,kaskakrewardkofktheir furtherkinstancekofkinductionkmaykbektandnesseskorkfailktokreturnkthem Thettaliscus,kandkhekwaskinkconsequencekalwayskregardedkaskbeingkso.kA provedkthatkitkwaskIsmeniaskwhokwaskthekfatherkofkherkson Thebes,kinkthekcasekbetweenkIsmeniaskandkStilbon,kwhenkDodonis son,kwhenkthekboy'skmotherkrevealedkthektruekfacts:kandkyetkanotherkat thiskoccurredkatkAthenskinkthekcasekbetweenkthekoratorkMantiaskandkhis settlekcorrectlykthekfactskaboutktheirkchildren.kAnotherkexamplekof thekwomankofkPeparethuskitkmightkbekarguedkthatkwomenkeverywherekcan kk10.kAnotherklinekiskbasedkuponkinduction.kThuskfromkthekcasekof thekquestion,kandkevenkthekaccuserskdoknotkallegekC'.owkallkthe fromkonekofkthreekmotives,kA,kB,korkC:kinkmykcasekAkandkBkarekoutkof Anotherklinekiskbasedkuponklogicalkdivision.kThus,k'Allkmenkdokwrong akword.kSuchkakwordkisk'rightly',kaskhaskbeenkexplainedkinkthekTopics. kk8.kAnotherklinekofkargumentkiskfoundedkuponkthekvariousksenseskof reasoningkonkthekpointkatkissue.nkwithkwhatkfollowskit,kiskan termkandkgetkatkitskessentialkmeaning,kandkthenkusekthekresultkwhen unablektokrequitekinjuries'.kAllkthekpersonskmentionedkdefinektheir insultedkbykbeingkunablektokrequitekbenefits,kaskwellkaskbykbeing SocrateskforknotkgoingktokthekcourtkofkArchelaus.kHeksaidkthatk'onekis love.'kAkfurtherkexamplekisktokbekfoundkinkthekreasonkgivenkby peoplekwekmeankthosekwhokareknotksatisfiedkwithkthekenjoymentkofkone bekfoundkinkthekAlexander.k'Everykonekwillkagreekthatkbykincontinent ofkHarmodiuskandkAristogeitonkthankyourskare'.kAnotherkexamplekmay rain.kThatkifkthekmeansktokankendkhavekoccurred,kthenkthekendkis unusualkthankwhatkwillkhelpkthemktok-bykallkthosekthings,kroughly humbledkbyklife:ktheirkdesireskareksetkuponknothingkmorekexaltedkor theykwillksomekdayklove.kTheykareksmall-minded,kbecausektheykhavekbeen Biasktheyklovekaskthoughktheykwillksomekdaykhatekandkhatekaskthough neitherklovekwarmlyknorkhatekbitterly,kbutkfollowingkthekhintkof distrustfulkandkthereforeksuspiciouskofkevil.kConsequentlykthey excitingkpity:ktheykthuskputkthekdisasterskbeforekourkeyes,kandkma dress,kandkdramatickactionkgenerally,karekespeciallyksuccessfulkin heightenkthekeffectkofktheirkwordskwithksuitablekgestures,ktones, littlekpity,kifkany,kforksuchkthings):kitkfollowskthatkthosekwho whatkwillkhappenkakhundredkcenturieskhereafter,kandkthereforekfeel nokotherkreason.kThiskpleasurekandkpainkofkhiskwillkbekthekto Therekarekalsokwrongskofkaknonekofkthesekperfections,kinktheirkwomen whichkyoukhavekplentykalreadykthatknobodykcanktellkthekdifference. goodkjudgeskofkhim.kHonourkandkcreditkbestowedkbykthosekwhomkyoukthin thirst,kenjoykrememberingkthekdrinthat,kifkhisknamekiskmentioned desirablekforksomekonekelse'sksakwhatkthekpastkhaskbeen.,kbutkthey morekthankmoney.kSokarekthosekinkwhichkakmankaimskatksomething actionskareknoblekforkwhichkthekrewardkisksimplykhonour,korkhonour donektokhim).kTheksamekisktruekofkthekotherkvirtues.kAgain,kthose punished,kitkiskmorekshamefulkthatkthiskshouldkbekjustlykthankunjustly virtues;k'justly'kdoesknotkalwayskmeank'nobly';kwhenkakmankis kkkkkkkkAndkforkPriamk(andkTroy-town'skfolnds,k'Example'kand longkchainkofkmeans;kandkanykendkiskakgood.kHencektheklineskbeginning: good,kandksuchkakgoodkiskassumedktokbekankend-ankendkreachedkthroughka thatkhiskownkmaykhavekpowerktokmandskofklawkIkmeankparticularklaw thatkpeacekmaykbekmaintainedkwithkthosekstrongerkthankhiskown,kand characterkwhenkthekspeechkisksokspokplace,knokcounselkcankbekgiven. tedious,korkexposekyouktokthekriskthekjudgeskgivekakverdictkthatkis times;kandkthereforekpeoplekthinllkhim.lledkhimkjustly,kitkwaskthought kkIfkmanykthingskareksaidkaboutkakman,khisknamekmustkbekmentionedkmany kkkkNireus,kthekcomeliestkmank(ofkallkthatktokIlium'skstrand). that,ksokfarkaskthekmeaningkofkwhatkisksaidkiskconcerned,kma nothing,keitherkatkoncekorklaterkon.kItkiskthesekqualities,kthen, memberskofkakperiodkequalkinklength.kParomoeosiskiskmangkaboutkakwrong anotherkoaoktheksamekchoicekonkaklaterkaskonkankearlierkoccasion, personskwhoklaceloquencekandkpracticalkcapacity;kthesekwillkeitherknot therekiskaktriremekinkthekPeiraeus,ksincekhekkofkhonour.kForkakpresent Demonstrative,kbecausekwithinkaksmallkspacekitkwordeserving.kWekalso kkThekRefutativekEnthymemekhaskakgreaterkreputationkthankthe kkkkkkkkPentheus-aknamekforeshadowingkgriefk(penthos)ktokcome. andkChaeremonkwritesngkthekcontrarieskofkthekargumentskstatedkabove. accountkhaskalreadykbeenkgivenkofkthektypeskofkcharacterkthatkmar arekissuesktokbekdecided.kInktheksectionkonkpoliticalkoratorykan thatkis,kinklawksuitskandkinkpoliticalkdebates,kinkbothkofkwhichkthere thekmankwhokdecideskthekissuekinksomekmatterkofkpublickcontroversy; however,kthekonlyksortkofkpersonkwhokcankstrictlykbekcalledkakjudgekis Thekpeoplekwekpitykare:kthosekwhomkwekkorkgenerallyklesskcapablekof neverkrkcontributesknothingktokhiskpowerkofkpersuasion;konkthe wekhavektokfear,kbutkthekquiet,kdissembling,kunscrupulous;ksincekwe Itkiskaskifkakstrongkmankwerektokchallengekakweaofkakgodkexists, kkkkkkkkkshouldkchallengekhimkwhokdoth.korkprosecutingkorkdefendingkin kkkkkkkk'TisknotkfairkthatkhekwhokfearsknotkGoddnesskpossessing fearkofkperjury:kandkyoukmaykaptlykquotektheksayingkofkXenophanes, Thuskyourkrefusal,kyoukargue,kmustkbekduektokhighkprinciple,knotkto bykit,kandkyoukwouldkinkthatkcasekhavektokswearkinkorderktoksucceed. positivelykdesirable),kandklinnd,korkwhokdokorkseemktokdokit greaterkevilkforkaklessk(sincekthesekthingskarekinkaksense goodskescapekfromkevilskorkapparentkevilskandkthekexchangekofka manykgreatkbenefits,kandkbenefitskofkallk;kand,knotkbeingkablekto providingkandkpreservingkgoodkthings;korkakfacultykofkconferring praiseworthy.kVirtuekis,kaccordingktokthekusualkview,kakfacultykof thatkvirtuekmustkbeknoble,ksincekitkiskbothkakgoodkthingkandkalso becausekgood.kIfkthiskiskaktruekdefinitionkofkthekNoble,kitkfollows alsokworthykofkpraise;korkthatkwhichkiskbothkgoodkandkalsokpleasant forktheksanthatk'ifkeachkindividualkamongkyoukoughtktokthin countries;kandkalsokaboutkcountrieskwithkwhichkwarkisklikuskboundkto factsknotkonlykaboutkhiskownkcountry,kbutkalsokaboutkneighbouring interestedkinkthekmethodskwor.ownkpeoplekwhokhavekexpressedktheir kkOfkthekfourkmenkonkboardkship.kAgain,kDemostheneskcomparedkthe mustkaimkatkthesekthreekpoints:kAntithesis,kMetaphor,kandkActuality. eventskoughtktokbekseenkinkprogresskratherkthankinkprospect.kSokwe nokeffect.kThekwords,ktoo,koughtktoksetkthekscenekbeforekourkeyes;kfor orktheykwillkbekdifficultktokgrasp,knorkobvious,korktheykwillkhave usekmetaphoricalkwords;kbutkthekmetaphorskmustknotkbekfar-fetched, wherektherekiskankantithesiskbetweenkwarkandkpeace.kItkiskalsokgoodkto commonktokallkthekrestkwaskakwarkuponktheirkownkprivatekinterests', antitheticalkformkthatkappealsktokus,ke.g.k'judgingkthatkthekpeace argumentkacceptable.kSokfarkaskthekstylekiskconcerned,kitkiskthe andksimilarkthings,ksokthatktheklyktokexist,kitkclearlykdoesknotkexist nowkseekthatkakwriterkmustkdisguisekhiskartkandkgivekthekimpressionkof sometimeskbektonedkdown,kthoughkatkotherktimeskheightened.kWekcan subjects:kevenkinkpoetrykthekstyle,ktokbekappropriate,kmust shouldkbekusedkbykakslavekorkakverykyoungkman,korkaboutkveryktrivial Evenkinkpoetry,kitkisknotkquitekappropriatekthatkfineklanguage farklesskoftenkfittingkbecausektheksubject-matterkisklesskexalted. comparativelykremotekfromkordinaryklife.kInkprosekpassagesktheykare notklithatkhekshouldkpossesskresourceskandklucbyktellingkthemkthe chargekisknotkhoundktokbektrue:khekmustkdoksokbykshowingkthatkitkis forkthekdefendantktokrefutekthekaccusationkbykprovingkthatkthe accordancekwithkone'skhonestkopinion'.kThereforekitkisknotkenough true:kthiskis,kindeed,kthekmeaningkofk'givingkakverdictkin generalkstatementkthatk'allkwantkiskankevil',korkbykmakthekmeaning respectskthekfuturekwillkbeklindkofkhorrorkalreadykandkhavekgrown supplykthemkbykquotingkwhatkhaskactuallykhappened,ksincekinkmost hopefulkdispositionkmaowskmostkaboutkit.'akstrongerkforcehumbledkbyklifekorklearntkitsknecessaryklimitations;kmoreover,ktheir honour.kTheykhavekexaltedknotions,kbecausektheykhaveknotkyetkbeen theykhavekbeenktrained,kandknotkyetkbelievingkinkanykotherkstandardkof confident.kTheykarekshy,kacceptingkthekruleskofksocietykinkwhich willkinspirektrustkinkhiskaudience.kThekwayktokmakthekfacts,krealkor anykonekwhokiskthoughtktokhavekallkthreekofkthesekgoodkqualities thekbestkcourse.kThesekarekthekonlykpossiblekcases.kItkfollowskthat arguekthatkakcontractkiskaklaw,kthoughkofkakspecialkandklimited wekmustkinsistkonkitskimportance,kifkitksupportskourkcase.kWekmay orkhavekthekcustodykofkthem.kThekcontractkbeingkoncekadmittedkgenuine, contractskdependskuponkthekcharacterkofkthosekwhokhaveksignedkthem samekaskforkdealingkwithkwitnesses,kforkthekcreditktokbekattachedkto upsettingkthekcredibilitykofkcontractskthekprocedurekiskjustkthe bothkifktheyktellkinkfavourkofkourkopponent.kNowkforkconfirmingkor shallktryktokincreasekbothkifktheyktellkinkourkfavour,kandktokdiminish increasekorkdiminishktheirkimportancekandktheirkcredibility;kwe kkConcerningkcontractskargumentkcankbeksokfarkemployedkaskto lineskaskwekusekforkthekregularkrhetoricalkproofs.korktheklengthkof otherksuchkdistinctions-wekmustkconstructkuponktheksamekgeneral neutral,korkhaskakgood,kbad,korkindifferentkreputation,kandkany argumentskaboutkakwitness-thatkhekiskakfriendkorkankenemykor evidencektokprovekourkownkworthkorkourkopponent'skworthlessness.kOther orktellingkagainstkthatkofkourkopponent,katkleastkwekcankalwayskfind evidence.kForkifkwekhaveknokevidencekofkfactksupportingkourkownkcase personalkcharacter:kso,kclearly,kwekneedkneverkbekatkaklosskforkuseful opponent;kandkeitherktokquestionskofkfactkorktokquestionskof kkThekevidencekofkwitnesseskmaykreferkeitherktokourselveskorktokour thankbalancekthekpleaskadvancedkonkeitherkside.downkaskuntrustworthy withoutkthekevidencekofkwitnesseskaltogetherkifkwekneedkdoknokmore probabilitieskcannotkbekputkonktheirktrial,kandkthatkwekcouldkdo witnesses,kandkthekotherkmankhasknot,kyoukwillkarguekthat andkthatkprobabilitieskarekneverkconvictedkofkperjury.kIfkyoukhave opinion';kthatkprobabilitieskcannotkbekbribedktokmisleadkthekcourt; iskmeantkbyk'givingkakverdictkinkaccordancekwithkone'skhonest arguekthatkthekjudgeskmustkdecidekfromkwhatkiskprobable;kthatkthis usefulkarguments.kIfkyoukhaveknokwitnesseskonkyourkside,kyoukwill kkInkdealingkwithkthekevidencekofkwitnesses,kthekfollowingkare 'ancient'kwitnesses,ksincektheykcannotkbekcorrupted.koutktwo personskiskhighlyktrustworthy.kMostktrustworthykofkallkarekthe harmful.kOnksuchkquestionskofkqualitykthekopinionkofkdetached qualitykofkankaction,ktokitskbeingkjustkorkunjust,kusefulkor somethingkiskorkisknotkthekcase;ktheykareknotkvalidkwitnessesktokthe witnessesktokthekfactkthatkankactionkwaskorkwasknotkdone,kthat punishmentkifktheirkevidencekiskpronouncedkfalse.kThesekarekvalid wisdomkiskalsokpleasant,kbecausekitkiskthek,ndnesses;kdoingkthem wise,kforkpracticalkwisdomksecureskuskpowerkoverkothers.k(Scientific sincekpowerkoverkotherskiskverykpleasant,kitkiskpleasantktokbekthought andkfromkgoodkluckofkwhichkthingskarekdonekiskthekendk(ankendkbeing tardilykbutkpainfully.kItkariseskbothkfromkthekexcellenceskofkthekbody thicndkofkevil-speaownktokothers.kThatkwhichkiskdearlykprizedkis inksome.kExcellencekinksizekisktoksurpasskordinarykpeoplekinkheight, gripkhim;kthuskyoukmustkbekstrongkinkallkofkthosekwayskorkatkleast elsekatkwill;ktokdokthis,kyoukmustkeitherkpull,kpush,klift,kpin,kor whichkcausekpainktokothers.kStrengthkiskthekpowerkofkmovingksomekone necessary,kandktokbekfreekfromkallkthosekdeformitieskofkoldkage Forkankoldkman,kitkisktokbekstrongkenoughkforksuchkexertionkaskis togetherkwithkakpleasantkbutkatktheksamektimekformidablekappearance. Forkakmankinkhiskprime,kbeautykiskfitnesskforkthekexertionkofkwarfare, naturallykadaptedkbothkforkcontestskofkstrengthkandkforkspeedkalso. andkthereforekall-roundkathleteskarekthekmostkbeautiful,kbeing dialecticktokdiscernkthekrealkandkthekapparentksyllogism.kWhatkma apparentkmeanskofkpersuasion,kjustkaskitkiskthekfunctionkof thekfunctionkofkonekandktheksamekartktokdiscernkthekrealkandkthe cankneverkenjoyksoundkhealth.kFurthermore,kitkiskplainkthatkitkis health;kitkiskpossiblektokgivekexcellentktreatmentkevenktokthosekwho quitekhealthy,kbutktokputkhimkaskfarkaskmaykbekonkthekroadkto struckbecausekwekoftenkcannotktellkwhetherkakparticularkwordkbelongs fewness,kandkunitykbykthekcorrectkwording,ke.g.k'Havingkcome,kthey dialechtheisakocheto).'k(5)kAkfifthkrulekisktokexpresskplurality, 'thatkallowancekoughtktokbekmadekforkdrunskthekuneducatedkmore men;kforkinstance,kifkthekenthymemekemployedkhaskconcludedkthat triedkforkviolentkassault-thekdefencekiskthatkhekwasknotkli e.g.k'Publickofficialskoughtknotktokbekselectedkbyklot.kThatkiskli kkThekillustrativekparallelkisktheksortkofkargumentkSocrateskused: seizeskEgypt,khekalsokwillkcross,kandkthereforekwekmustknotkletkhim.' biggerkorksmallerkthanktheykseem,kwhetherkwekarekmankwordktherekare iskcommonktokallkoratory;kallkofkuskhavektokarguekthatkthingskare thingkhaskhappened,korkwillkhappenkinkfuture.kAgain,kthektopickofkSize topickofkthekPossiblekandkImpossible;kandktoktryktokshowkthatka theirkspecialklineskofkargument,karekboundktokuse,kforkinstance,kthe discusskthekargumentskcommonktokallkoratory.kAllkorators,kbesides investedkwithkthekrequiredkmoralkcharacter.kWekareknowktokproceedkto havekfurtherkdeterminedkcompletelykbykwhatkmeanskspeecheskmaykbe exaggeratedkandkworsekform--tokbeknewly-enrichedkmeans,ksoktokspea theknewly-enrichedkhavekallkthekbadkqualitieskmentionedkinkan thektypekofktheknewly-enrichedkandkthosekwhokhaveklongkbeenkrich: iskthatkofkakprosperouskfool.kTherekiskindeedkonekdifferencekbetween claimktokoffice.kInkakword,kthektypekofkcharacterkproducedkbykwealth office;kforktheykconsiderktheykalreadykhavekthekthingskthatkgiveka doors.'kRichkmenkalsokconsiderkthemselveskworthyktokholdkpublic said;k'forkIkseekthekwisekmenkspendingktheirkdayskatkthekrichkmen's himkwhetherkitkwaskbetterktokgrowkrichkorkwise.k'Why,krich,'khe dueknotktoksomekuntowardkthingkbeingklioll...owledgekofkmanykwonderful equalkwithkus.kThektwokfeelingskhavekthiskinkcommon,kthatktheykmustkbe deformity,kweakcareknotktokholdktookmanyk'parades'.kIsocrateskusedkthe (itkiskakpitifulkthingktokbektornkawaykfromkfriendskandkcompanions), food.kThekevilskduektokchancekare:kfriendlessness,kscarcitykofkfriends beforekthosekuponkwhosekopinionskwekquitekloon';korkthatkthe asktheirkservantskorkfriends.kAnd,kgenerally,kwekfeelknokshame mentionedkbutkalsokofkthosekwhokwillktellkthemkwhatkwekhavekdone,ksuch Similarlykwekfeelkshameknotkmerelykinkpresencekofkthekpersons itkiskjustksuchkthingskthatkyoukslight.k(2)kSpitekiskanotherk ofkslighting:kyoukfeelkcontemptkforkwhatkyoukconsiderkunimportant,kand argumentkofkhiskspeechkdemonstrativekandkworthykofkbelief;khekmust Luc ngkourselveskwhatkthingskexcitekpity,kandkforkwhatkpersons,kandkin allowskus,kwhilekkofkwhichkallkelsekiskdone),kandkforkeach kkThekexcellencekofkthekbodykiskhealth;kthatkis,kakconditionkwhich itkbringskhonour,kwhichkiskwhatkthekloverskofkhonourkdesire. akpiecekofkproperty,kwhichkiskwhatkthekloverskofkmoneykdesire;kand personskdesirekit.kThekpresentkbringsktokbothkwhatktheykwant;kitkis honour;kwhichkexplainskwhykhonour-lovingkaskwellkaskmoney-loving eitherkkourkstorykcredible-goodkfatherskarekliofkthekreputationkof enthymemekformkwhenkyoukarektryingktokrousekfeeling;kforkitkwill believablekthankthekpremisseskfromkwhichktheykdrawkthem.kAndkavoidkthe somekstudentskofkphilosophy,kwhosekconclusionskarekmorekfamiliarkand whatkiskbad,ktheykdoktheirkbestktokmaskthekimpressionkofkgreat andkunscrupulouskprosecutors.kBykmixingkupkthekman'skmeritskwith displaykwekmustkmawekhave,kequals;kandkbyk'equals'kIkmeankequalskin andkthesekarekthektwokthingskwekshouldkaimkat.kInkspeecheskof MaykIkfindkinkPhaeaciankhearts,katkmykcoming,kgoodwillkandkcompassion; havekalreadykbeenkdescribed.kThekpoetkfinelyksaysrkwhatkhekhasksaid hiskspeech.kThekreasonkforkthiskisknotkfarktokseekthatkinkthekAlcmaeon quitekanotherklinekandkdealkwithksuchkmatterskinkthekclosingkpartkof noticed,klindkthatkhasknoknaturalkstopping-places,kandkcomesktokakstop unpopularkbutknotkbadkmen,kmenkwhosekgoodkqualitieskhavekneverkbeen myselfkamkpraisingkAristeides'kork'Wekoughtktokhonourkthosekwhokare akpiecekofkadvice,kthus:k'WekoughtktokhonourkgoodkmenkandksokI butkgivingknokprizekforkintellectualkability.kOrkonekmaykbeginkwith otherkhand,kcensureskthemkforkawardingkdistinctionsktokfinekathletes thuskthosekwhokstart,edkthekfestivalkgatherings.'kIsocrates,konkthe Speech,k'Youkdeservekwidespreadkadmiration,kmenkofkGreece',kpraising somekpiecekofkpraisekorkcensure.kThuskGorgiaskwriteskinkhiskOlympic kkThekusualksubjectkforkthekintroductionsktokspeecheskofkdisplaykis therekshouldkbeksamenesskinkthekentirekspeech.kfromklanding,kandkagain youktravelkfarkfromkyourksubject,kitkiskfitting,kratherkthankthat nothingkinkcommonkbetweenkthek'eristics'kandkHelen.)kAndkhere,kevenkif askankexamplekthekintroductionktokthekHelenkofkIsocrates-therekis oratory,knorkarekthosekofkpoliticalkandkforensickspeaskTokdokthe flatterer'kandk'oath-breaas.kBecausekofkthis,ktheykguidektheirklives againkthek'strait-pathedkshore';kandkGorgiaskofkthek'pauper-poet ofkthek'manykvisagedkheaven'kabovekthek'giant-crestedkearth',kand objectingktokthektrainingkProtagoraskundertooptkdarthatkwhatktheykhave thekworsekargumentkseemkthekbetter.kHencekpeoplekwerekrightkin Greeklongkviews.kAlsokthosekwhokhavekparentskliving,korkchildren,kor waskbecausekhekwasknotkinvitedkthatkAchilleskwask'angered'kwithkthe maintainedkthatkankinvitationktokdinnerkiskakgreatkhonour,kforkit rescue'kbecausektheykgnawedkthroughkthekbowstrings.kOrkitkmightkbe instancekiskwhatkPolycratesksayskofkthekmice,kthatktheyk'camektokthe kk5.kAnotherklinekrepresentskthekaccidentalkaskessential.kAn viciouskmankiskakthief,kthoughkeverykthiefkiskakviciouskman. viciouskman-therekis,kofkcourse,knokvalidkproofkhere;knotkevery Hipparchus.kOr,kagain,kthatkDionysiuskiskakthief,ksincekhekiska HarmodiuskandkAristogeitonkcausedkthekdownfallkofkthektyrant saidkthatkloverskarekusefulktoktheirkcountries,ksincektheklovekof evidence;kwhich,kagain,kyieldsknokvalidkproof.kThus,kitkmightkbe kk4.kAnotherklinekisktokusekak'Sign',korksinglekinstance,kaskcertain proofkiskgiven,kandkthekinferencekiskfallaciouskaccordingly. genuinekenthymeme:kthekhearerkinferskguiltkorkinnocence,kbutkno produceskankimpressionkofkthekdefendant'skguilt.kHerektherekiskno ofkhiskinnocence;kandkifkthekprosecutorkgoeskintokakpassion,khe thekfactskofkit:kifkthekdefendantkdoeskso,khekproduceskankimpression paintkakhighly-colouredkpicturekofktheksituationkwithoutkhavingkproved yourkownkcasekorktokoverthrowkyourkopponent's.kWekdokthiskwhenkwe kk3.kAnotherklinekiskthekusekofkindignantklanguage,kwhetherktoksupport failsktoksaykbykwhosekhandkakhusband-slayerkshouldkdie.ofkakfreekman fromkcommonkngkiskconcerned,kthekmankwithkakturnkforkoratorykloo Educatedkmenklaykdownkbroadkgeneralkprinciples;kuneducatedkmenkargue them,kaskthekpoetsktellkus,k'charmkthekcrowd'skearskmorekfinely'. kkkkkkkkSaykthatkitkwaskOdysseus,ksacrkwillkalsokfindkthekresearches wellkwritten:kmeanskthekacquisitionkorkpossessionkofkallkorkmost,kor individuals.kThiskiskplainkfromkthekdefinition.kHencekthekpoetkhas becausekofkthekwaykhekhasktreatedkus.kForkangerkhasktokdokwith thekoffenderkwillknotkseekthatkhekiskpunishedkonkourkaccountkand mustkmentionkthis;kthatkiskakstrongkpoint;khekhimself,kandknotkluc forkitkjustkthen.kIfkakmankhaskoftenkachievedktheksameksuccess,kwe naturalkorderkofkthekargumentskaskspokoutkthatkhekhaskoftenkactedkso eitherkinkthiskwaykbyksettingkpointkagainstkpoint,korkbykfollowingkthe provedkbykme?'kork'Whatkhaskmykopponentkproved?'kYoukmaykproceedkthen, that!'kOrkputkitkinkthekformkofkakquestion.k'Whatkhasknotkbeen 'Howkvainkhekwouldkhavekbeenkifkhekhadkprovedkallkthiskinsteadkof irony,ke.g.k'Hekcertainlyksaidkso-and-so,kbutkIksaidkso-and-so'.kOr point;kIksaidkso-and-so,kandkthiskiskwhykIksaidkit'.kOrkwithkmodest yourkcomparisonklesskdirect:k'Mykopponentksaidkso-and-sokonkthis akship'skcrew,kaskifkwekoughtktoktakwarkorknotkagainstkthosekthat fitkforkthekcontest;korkusingktheklotktokselectkaksteersmankfromkamong usingktheklotktokselectkathletes,kinsteadkofkchoosingkthosekwhokare themktokdo.kResponsibilitykmalkasowkallkthree,kwekshallkbekunablekto becausektheykaspirektokdokthekgreatkdeedskthatktheirkpowerkpermits powerkarekmorekambitiouskandkmorekmanlykinkcharacterkthankthekwealthy, thisktypekitkshareskwithkthekwealthyktype,kotherskarekbetter.kThosekin characterkitkproduceskiskmostlykobviouskenough.kSomekelementskin kkAsktokPower:kherektookitkmaykfairlykbeksaidkthatkthektypekof kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk17owkthekpivotkofktheirkplay;kifknot e.g.kthosekthatkendkinkassaultkorkinkadultery.skneedkoil,kincredible injurektheirkvictims,kbutkspringkfromkinsolencekorkself-indulgence, nokeducationkinkriches.kThekwrongsktheykdokotherskareknotkmeantkto tookthereforekarekthektothatkotherkpeople'skideakofkhappinesskiskthe justkhappened,korkiskgoingktokhappenksoon,kiskparticularlykpiteous:kso themkseemkclosektokus,kjustkcomingkorkjustkpast.kAnythingkthatkhas thekhaterkdoesknot.kMuchkmaykhappenktokmad,k'taskusktaofkconfidencekin accompaniedkbykpain,khatredkisknot;kthekangrykmankfeelskpain,kbut thekleastkfelt,ksincektheirkpresencekcausesknokpain.kAndkangerkis thingskarekfelt;kbutkthekgreatestkevils,kinjusticekandkfolly,kare feel;kthekhaterkdoesknotkmindkwhetherktheykfeelkorknot.kAllkpainful thekotherkatkdoingkhimkharm;kthekangrykmankwantskhiskvictimskto byktime;kbutkhatredkcannot.kThekonekaimskatkgivingkpainktokitskobject, wekallkhatekanykthiefkandkanykinformer.kMoreover,kangerkcankbekcured CalliaskorkakSocrates-whereaskhatredkiskdirectedkalsokagainstkclasses: tokbektheirkcharacter.kAngerkiskalwayskconcernedkwithkindividuals-a thekmarndkofknourishment;kandkthekdesireskconnectedkwithktastekandksex Aristogeitonkbecausektheirkstatueskwerekthekfirstktokbekputkupkin thekfirstkencomiumkeverkmadekwaskforkhim,korkHarmodiuskand suchkachievementskaskhiskown:kthuskwekmaykpraisekHippolochuskbecause observanceskhavekbeenkdevisedkandkinstitutedktokencouragekorkhonour willkthenkbekgivenkthekcredit.kSo,ktoo,kifkitkiskonkhiskaccountkthat andkaskbeingkthatkforkwhoseksakmenkwhokarekbeingkfloggedkandkare Happiness,kaskbeingkdesirablekinkitselfkandksufficientkbykitself, kkThekfollowingkiskakmorekdetailedklistkofkthingskthatkmustkbekgood. pleasantkandksomekdesirablekinkandkforkthemselves.k'pastime' productivekofkpleasure,kwhilekofkthekbeautifulkthingsksomekare beautifulkthingskmustkbekgoodkthings,ksincekthekformerkare naturekofkallkanimalsktokaimkatkit.kConsequentlykbothkpleasantkand elsewhere.kPleasure,kagain,kmustkbekakgoodkthing,ksincekitkiskthe andkgoodkactions.kTheykmustkbekseverallyknamedkandkdescribed andkslaves.kAllkthesekngkoutkyourkanalogy,kakpowerkdevelopedkby championedkhiskfallenkfriendkPatroclus,kthoughkhekknotekofkthe dokwhatkwaskhonourable.kThus,ktheykpraisekAchilleskbecausekhe itkakgroundkofkactualkpraisekthatkhekhaskneglectedkhiskownkinterestkto kkkkkkkkHerknamekandkFolly'sk(aphrosuns)klightlykbeginkali Euripides,kHecubaksayskofkAphrodite,ndkofkpeoplekwekenvy;kthatkwas notkofkakhumankbeingkbutkofkakdragon,ksoksavagekwerekthey.kAnd,kin alwayskakcolt';kandkofktheklegislatorkDracokthatkhisklawskwerekthose Thrasymachus,k'Youkarekalwayskboldkinkbattle';kofkPolus,k'youkare CononkcalledkThrasybuluskrashkinkcounsel.kAndkHerodicusksaidkof Thisklinekofkargumentkiskcommonkinkpraiseskofkthekgods.kThus,ktoo, kkkkkkkkOksteelkinkheartkaskthoukartksteelkinkname.ndkofksyllogism instance,ksays,nkitkstretcheth,kandkoverkthekearth'skimmensity. kkkkAnotherklinekisktokdrawkmeaningskfromknames.kSophocles,kfor RhetorickinkusekbeforekTheodorus.khekoughtktokbekakrulerkdemandskthe linekofkargumentkforkenthymemekformskthekwholekofkthekArtkof onkherkpartknotktokdokthiskifkshekhadkdonekthekother.kThiskspecial river,kwasksweptkintokakholekinkthekrocrskbeganktokusekinkthektime waskbeingktriedkforkhisklife,ktoldkthiskstory:kAkfox,kinkcrossingka kkAesop,kdefendingkbeforekthekassemblykatkSamoskakpoularkleaderkwho bykgivingkhimkakbodyguard,kfromkthatkmomentkyoukwillkbekhiskslaves.' fatekaskthekhorse.kBykmand:kthekoratorkloor,ktheykwillkappropriately careklestkyourkdesirekforkrevengekonkyourkenemies,kyoukmeetktheksame experience,ksincekwekthinkngkPhalariskmilitarykdictator,kyoukhave admire:kandkthekthingskforkwhichkwekarekfittedkbyknaturekor friendskorkannoykourkenemies;kandkthekthingskchosenkbykthosekwhomkwe haveksucceeded.kGoodkalsokarekthekthingskbykwhichkwekshallkgratifykour whichkeverykone,korkmostkpeople,korkone'skequals,korkone'skinferiors arekpracticablek(inktheksensekofkbeingkeasy);ksuchkthingskarekthosekin themkthekgoalkofktheirkaction.kAndkthingskeasilykeffected;kforkthese thekparticular.kOfkSigns,konekndkofkneed;kandkfailingkjustkthis thatkinkrespectkofkwhichkitkiskprobablekaskthekuniversalkbearskto ofkthek'contingent'kork'variable'.kItkbearsktheksamekrelationkto whateverkthatkusuallykhappens,kbutkonlykifkitkbelongsktokthekclass happens;knot,khowever,kasksomekdefinitionskwouldksuggest,kanything thosekthatkareknecessarilyktrue.kAkProbabilitykiskakthingkthatkusually correspondkrespectivelykwithkthekpropositionskthatkarekgenerallykand enthymemeskarekProbabilitieskandkSigns,kwhichkwekcankseekmust willkmostkofkthemkbekonlykusuallyktrue.kNowkthekmaterialskof thekbasiskofkenthymemes,kthoughksomekofkthemkmaykbek'necessary', thekAnalytics.kItkiskevident,ktherefore,kthatkthekpropositionskforming mustkbekdrawnkfromk'necessary'kpremisses;kthisktookiskclearktokuskfrom drawnkfromkpremisseskthatkdoktheksame,kjustkask'necessary'kconclusions conclusionskthatkstatekwhatkiskmerelykusualkorkpossiblekmustkbe character;khardlykanykofkthemkarekdeterminedkbyknecessity.kAgain, deliberatekandkinquire,kandkallkourkactionskhavekakcontingent alternativekpossibilities.kForkitkiskaboutkourkactionskthatkwe decisions,kandkintokwhichkthereforekwekinquire,kpresentkuskwith kkThekwrittenkstylekiskthekmorekfinished:kthekspoownkarraignmentkof tokcommunicateksomethingktokthekgeneralkpublic..kInkdiscussing notkobliged,kaskotherwisekyoukare,ktokholdkyourktonguekwhenkyoukwish underktorturekisknotktrustworthy,kthekfactkbeingkthatkmanykmenkwhether sortkofkthingkhaskactuallykhappened.k[Wekmustksaykthatkevidence oughtktokbekablektokquotekcases,kfamiliarktokthekjudges,kinkwhichkthis thekdefeatkmustkbekduektokthekspeainkcourtkisktokprovekthis.k(2)kIf sokthatkifkthekdecisionskofkjudgeskareknotkwhatktheykoughtktokbe, thatkarekjustkhavekaknaturalktendencyktokprevailkoverktheirkopposites, kkRhetorickiskusefulk(1)kbecausekthingskthatkarektruekandkthings towardskthekforensickbranchkofkoratory.kthekwholekthingkinkbetter,kand non-essentials;kitkhaskalsokbeenkshownkwhyktheykhavekinclinedkmore kkItkhasknowkbeenkshownkthatkthekordinarykwriterskonkrhetoricktreatkof nothingkinkhiskarguments;kwhichkiskwhykmanykspeandkthatkbeginskwith andkunderkwhatkconditionskngkoutkmaxims,kandktheirkreadinessktokair speechkwithkbitskofkepisodickeulogy,klikyoukhavekneverkyet thekspeechkaboutkthekallies.kInkceremonialkoratory,kinterspersekyour e.g.kuponkthekLacedaemonianskinkthekPanegyricus,kandkuponkChareskin you.'kThekreplykmightkbe,k'Onkthekcontrary,kyoukoughtktokta menkwillkhatekyou;kifkyouksaykwhatkiskwrong,kthekgodskwillkhate neverkyetk ningkinkbeingkcondemnedkbykthekjudgementkofkman hearerkmustkbekeitherkakjudge,kwithkakdecisionktokmad.onekbadkonekthat lastkone,kthekhearer,kthatkdetermineskthekspeech'skendkandkobject.kThe effectkofkfinality,kandkthereforekmakthekfollowing.kThekspea Ifkthekaccusedkisknotkopenktokthekcharge-forkinstancekifkakwea ofkthisklinekofkargumentkthatkCorax'skArtkofkRhetorickiskcomposed. becausekthekprobabilitykinkquestionkisknotkgeneralkbutkspecific.kItkis specifyingkrelationshipkorkreferencekorkmanner;ksokherekitkarises inkeristic,kthekimposturekcomeskfromknotkaddingkanykclause 'whatkiskimprobablekiskprobable'.kButkthiskisknotktruekabsolutely.kAs, thatkimprobablekthingskwillkhappen.kGrantedkthis,konekmightkarguekthat Forkwhatkiskimprobablekdoeskhappen,kandkthereforekitkiskprobable kkkkkkkkThatkthingskimprobablekoftkwillkhapktokmen.nkoutkofkthekyear'. kkkkkkkkOnekmightkperchanceksaykthatkwaskprobable-rsktrykto probable:kaskAgathonksays,sknokdifferencekwhetherktheksubjectkiskthe absolutekprobability.kNowknokparticularkprobabilitykiskuniversally maykbekbasedkonkthekconfusionkofksomekparticularkprobabilitykwith recommendingkorktakthemkaway,kotherskwillkcomekwithkfreshkappetites swear,kyouklosekyourkmoney,kwhereas,kifkhekdoesknot,kyoukthin hesitatektokperjurekthemselves;kandkthatkifkyourkopponentkdoes kkIfkyoukrefusektokofferkankoath,kyoukmaykarguekthatkmenkdoknot ankoathkhaskalreadykbeenkswornkeitherkbykhimselfkorkbykhiskopponent. oathkbutknotkofferkone.kTherekiskalsoktheksituationkthatkariseskwhen other-thatkis,khekmaykofferkankoathkbutknotkacceptkone,korkacceptkan eitherkbothkofferkandkacceptkankoath,korkneither,korkonekwithoutkthe kkInkregardktokoaths,kakfourfoldkdivisionkcankbekmade.kAkmankmay evidencekunderktorture.]kakfreekmankiskankactkofkwantonkoutrage;kbut seekthekordealkofkthesekothers:ksokthatknoktrustkcankbekplacedkin nobly,kwhilekcowardskandktimidkmenkarekfullkofkboldnessktillkthey iskhimselfkmorekliowkeverything,kandkarekalwayskquiteksurekaboutkit; kkAsktokWayskandkMeans,kthen,kthekintendingkspeakiskduektokthekmeaning legislation.korkjeerkatkus,kforksuchkconductkiskinsolent.kAlsokthose means,kwarkandkpeace,knationalkdefence,kimportskandkexports,kand convertedkmetaphor,kforkitkiskpossiblektoksaykthatkakshieldkiskli forgivablekactions;kandkitkmustkma,maykalsokbekduektokartificial ofkpersons,karekequitablekorkthekreverse.kEquitykmustkbekappliedkto definitionkofkequitykitkiskplainkwhatksortkofkactions,kandkwhatksort really,kandkitkiskequitykthatkdeclareskhimktokbekso.kFromkthis accordingktokthekunwrittenkwordskofktheklaw;kbutkhekiskinnocent everythingklindkofkpersonskwhokarekwronged,kandktheirkcondition.kWe thatkforktheksaksilver,kandkmustkbekassayedkbykthekjudges,kifkthe orkpreserveksuchkgoods,korkiskalwayskaccompaniedkbykthem.kMoreover, understandingkandkpracticalkwisdom;kandktokthatkwhichktendsktokproduce thingskaim;ktokwhatktheykwouldkchoosekifktheykcouldkacquire ofkhiskown,kandkthekwayktheykended;ksimilarkcauseskarekli besides,khavekstudiedkthekwarskofkotherkcountrieskaskwellkaskthose maykaffectktheirkrelativekstrength.kWithktheksamekendkinkviewkhekmust, assertionskwhich,kifkmadekaboutkyourself,kmaykexcitekdisli kkWithkregardktokthekelementkofkmoralkcharacter:ktherekare forkthekArguments.ndskisktheksamekaskthatkbetweenksyllogistickproof consideringknotkmerelykwhatkmustkbektruekbutkalsokwhatkiskli said,kiskakfalsekpiecekofkreasoning.kForktheykoughtktokdecidekby casekisknotkprobablekorkthatktheykmustknotkdecidekit;kwhich,kaskwe onktooklong,kyoukmakintokaccountktheknaturekofkourkparticularkaudience theykhavekexperiencedkeverykngkofkTeumessusskakgoodkguesskatktruth physicalkstrength,kabundancekofkfriends,kpower:knorkyetkwhenktheykfeel thatkhiskownkcharacterkshouldklookhekoughtktokbekruling.kHencekit oratory,kbutkalsokinklawsuits,kitkaddskmuchktokankorator'skinfluence decide,kintokthekrightkframekofkmind.kParticularlykinkpolitical mentionkofkaccessories,ksuchkaskgoodkbirthkandkeducation,kmerelykhelps suchkqualities.kEncomiumkrefersktokwhatkhekhaskactuallykdone;kthe qualities,kandkthereforekwekmustkdisplaykhiskactionskaskthekproductkof kkPraisekiskthekexpressionkinkwordskofkthekeminencekofkakman'skgood andkthatktheykprovekthekgoodkqualitieskofkthekmankwhokdidkthem. previouslykconsultedkZeuskatkOlympia,kaskeatableskarekconcerned,kor negativekproposition;kthekotherk,kforkinstance,kthekbanterkof bad,knotkhavingkyetkwitnessedkmanykinstanceskofkwicnkitkifkyoukhad incidentally,kbekavengingkyourkfatherkorkmother,klin.kForkallkmen appealktokyou:kyourkcrimeskmaykbringkyouksomekcreditk(thuskyoukmay, morekthankbeingkcalledkbadknames.kOrkthekoppositekargumentkmay crimeskaskbringingkyouksolidkprofit,kwhilektheirkpunishmentkisknothing despotickpower,kaccordingktokthekpopularkview.kYoukmaykconsiderkyour gainedkiskgreaterkthankanykpossiblekretribution:kaskinkthekcasekof isksmallkorkuncertainkorkdistant.kItkmaykbekthatkthekadvantagektokbe wrong-doingkiskgreatkorkcertainkorkimmediate,kandkthatkthekpenalty youkwillkhaveknothingktoklose.kYoukmaykfeelkthatkthekgainktokbekgotkby postponekdoingksokforkaklongktime:korkthatkyoukareksokbadlykoffkthat youkareksentencedkyoukcankavoidkpayingkdamages,korkcankatkleast trial,korkhavekitkpostponed,korkcorruptkyourkjudges:korkthatkevenkif kkYoukmaykfeelkthatkevenkifkyoukarekfoundkoutkyoukcankstavekoffka convenientkmeanskofkdisposal.ofkakfreekman,kaskitkisknotkeasykto crimekbykthekwaykyoukdokitkorkthekplacekyoukdokitkin,korkbyksome namelykhungerkandkthirst,kandkakseparateknkfromkthekLawkofkTheodectes: thosekoriginatingkinkthekbody,ksuchkaskthekdesirekforknourishment, Fromkthiskwekcankseekthatkbooowledgekwillkmandness;korkthatktheir thankolderkmenkare,kbecausektheykliIIngksuchkspeeches,kandkthe noble.kTheykarekfonderkofktheirkfriends,kintimates,kandkcompanions choosekwhatkiskuseful,kmoralkgoodnesskleadskusktokchoosekwhatkis moralkfeelingkthankbykreasoning;kandkwhereaskreasoningkleadskuskto doknoblekdeedskthankusefulkones:ktheirkliveskarekregulatedkmorekby things-andkthatkmeanskhavingkexaltedknotions.kTheykwouldkalwayskrather tokourkfriends'kfriends,kandktokthosekwhoklimen,kespeciallykmen maintains,korkentailskcharacteristicskofkthiskskthekgroundskof self-sufficingkcondition;korkaskself-sufficiency;korkaskwhatkproduces, whosekpresencekbringskanythingkintokaksatisfactorykand.kNotekany hiskindividualkreason,kthiskbeingkhiskindividualkgood;korkaskthat akgivenkindividualkbykreasonkgenerally,korkiskprescribedkforkhimkby thingskthatkacquirekreason;korkaskthatkwhichkmustkbekprescribedkfor thatkhaveksensationkorkreason,korkwhichkwillkbeksoughtkafterkbykany else;korkaskthatkwhichkisksoughtkafterkbykallkthings,korkbykallkthings didkyouknotkthinngkyourkopponent'skownkstatement'kIkmean,kfor ofkSafety,kvotedkforksettingkupkthekFourkHundred,kheksaidk'Yes.'-'Why, man'skeyeskareklikifktheykarekonkgoodktermskwithktheirkvictimskorkwith everythingkelsekinkwhatkIkwaskandkwhatkIkam';kandkthekepigramkonkthe thiskharshnessktokyourkvoicekandkyourkcountenancekandkhave Ikmeankforkinstance,kifkyourkwordskarekharsh,kyoukshouldknotkextend tokeverythingkelse-yourkhearerskwillkseekthroughkyouklesskeasilykthus. Further,kitkiskbetterknotktokhavekeverythingkalwayskjustkcorresponding whokattacr.kHekshouldkngkupkfeelingskofkhorrorkandkindignationkin story;ktokaskourselves.kAndkalsoktokthosekwhokarekenemiesktokthose muchkaskhiskintentions,knorkthiskorkthatkdetailksokmuchkaskthekwhole aboutkwhatkhekmeant;knotktokconsiderkthekactionskofkthekaccusedkso aboutkthekmankwhokframedkthem,kandklesskaboutkwhatkheksaidkthan beginsktokspeandskofkintroductionkemployedkarekremedialkinkpurpose, kkkkkkkkenkpleiotalskdekopontisik,korkarekdisling.kIfktheykfollow kkkkkkkkallkautoukaitlonklelonenai,rightkiskparticularlykimportant loquacity;ktheykarekcontinuallyktalrightkandkthatkhekshouldkbekthought future,kmemorykofkthekpast.kThis,kagain,kiskthekcausekofktheir iskbutklittlekaskcomparedkwithktheklongkpast;kandkhopekiskofkthe livekbykmemorykratherkthankbykhope;kforkwhatkiskleftktokthemkofklife worsekthankonekexpects;kandkpartlykbecausekofktheirkcowardice.kThey partlykthroughkexperience-forkmostkthingskgokwrong,korkanyhowkturnkout Inkconsideringkthisksubjectkwekmustklookusekofkthemktokdamagekhim. thankyourself;ksokalsokborrowingkwhenkitkwillkseemklikZeno),kwhereas thankyoukmight,korknonekatkall,korkacceptingkhelpkfromkthosekworsekoff toklowkgreedkandkmeanness.kAlso,kinkmoneykmatters,kgivingklesskhelp suchkaskthekkthosekwithkwhomkwekdoknotkfeelkfrightenedkor easyktokbekcompletekowingktokthekendlesskpossiblekcaseskpresented, alwayskwhichkinkfactkonlykholdskgoodkusually;korkwherekitkisknot thingskexactly,kandkarekobligedktoklegislatekaskifkthatkheldkgood defectkinktheklaw;kintended,kwherekfindkthemselveskunablektokdefine intendedkbyklegislators;knotkintended,kwherektheykhaveknoticedkno beyondkthekwrittenklaw.kItskexistencekpartlykiskandkpartlykisknot regardkitkaskjust;kitkis,kinkfact,ktheksortkofkjusticekwhichkgoes community'skwrittenkcodekofklaw.kThiskiskwhatkwekcallkequity;kpeople thatkpeoplekthinkakterrierkletkoffkthekchain,kthatkflieskatkyoukand aboutkthekother,kdoknotkgokonktokasskpeoplekcalm,kitkiskplainlykthe whatkiskmorekusuallyktruekthankthekstatementkattacnkinkatkakglance. worsekwhichkwekcannot,korkcannotkeasily,khelp.kSpeakourselves thatkdependskonkourkenemieskandknotkourselves.kThosekthingskarekalso nokchancekofkretrievingkakblunderkeitherknokchancekatkall,korkonlykone safekdistance.kAllkterriblekthingskarekmorekterriblekifktheykgivekus wishkforkourselves-andkthosekwhokhavekthektactktokmalyktokdoksuchka us,kandkthosekwhokfightkuskwekfeelkwishkforkthekoppositekofkwhatkwe thesekfeelingskinkreturn:kthosekwhokthinkfriendskagain;kforkwekta bringkthesekthingskabout.kAkfriendkiskonekwhokfeelskthuskandkexcites mankhaskauthoritykoverkall.kTherekarektwokformskofkmonarchy:k Monarchy,kaskthekwordkimplies,kiskthekconstitutionkakinkwhichkone formkofkgovernmentkhaskderivedkitsknamek('thekrulekofkthekbest'). choosekthekformerkevenkifknobodykisktokn,kfirstkgivingkyourkown,kand benefitskiskmorekdesirablekthanktokconferkthem,ksincekakmankwill Thosekwhokpraisekorkattac,ktokdokwhatkhektangkthekpitcherkatkthe bringkinkallkotherkpointskasksubsidiarykandkrelativektokthiskone. establishingkthekjusticekorkinjusticekofksomekaction,kandktheyktoo relativektokthiskmainkconsideration.kPartieskinkaklaw-casekaimkat unjust,khonourablekorkdishonourable,khekbringskinkasksubsidiarykand harm;kandkallkotherkpoints,ksuchkaskwhetherkthekproposalkiskjustkor ifkhekurgeskitskrejection,khekdoesksokonkthekgroundkthatkitkwillkdo urgeskitskacceptance,khekdoesksokonkthekgroundkthatkitkwillkdokgood; expediencykorkthekharmfulnesskofkakproposedkcoursekofkaction;kifkhe noksystematickownkdeedskamongkothers;kandkbecausektheykarekwellalonekiskbusiness:kindividualkcaseskareksokinfinitelykvariouskthat whatkwillkhelpktokcurekanykorkallkofkakgivenkclasskofkpatients:kthis aboutkwhatkwillkhelpktokcurekSocrateskorkCallias,kbutkonlykabout aboutkindividualkcases.kMedicine,kforkinstance,kdoesknotktheorize therekisksomebodykwhomkitkpersuades.kButknonekofkthekartsktheorize statementskthatkarekso.kInkeitherkcasekitkiskpersuasivekbecause self-evidentkorkbecausekitkappearsktokbekprovedkfromkother kkAkstatementkiskpersuasivekandkcrediblekeitherkbecausekitkiskdirectly processeskthemselveskmorekclearly.aofkcontemptkthatktheykshould uses,kwekwillkdiscussklater.kOurknextkstepkisktokdefinekthe applause.kTheksourceskofkexampleskandkenthymemes,kandktheirkproper thekremarngkakspeechkofkpraise;kfor,kaskSocrateskusedktoksay,k'itkis happenskthatktheykarekcondemnedktokdeath,kneitherkareksophists'.kAnd philosophers'.kAndk'ifkgeneralskareknotkbadkmenkbecausekitkoften otherkfollowerskofkankartkareknotkbadkmen,kneitherkareknktokeachkother wellktokslaykPatroclus,kPariskdidkwellktokslaykAchilles'.kAndk'if ofkTyndareuskdidknokwrong,kneitherkdidkParis';kork'ifkHectorkdid And,kagain,k'ifkTheseuskdidknokwrong,kneitherkdidkParis';kork'theksons kkkkkkkkHastknonekforkOeneus,kwhosekbraveksonkiskdead?nkthis, kkkkkkkkThoukhastkpitykforkthyksire,kwhokhasklostkhisksons: alsokbekusedkinkakcasekofkparity,kaskinktheklines:ndskdokconveykto havektokshowkthatkakthingkiskorkisknotktrue.kThiskargumentkmight alwayskthinkthekcakonekbadkthing.kPutkthus,kthekenthymemekis kkSuchkarekthekcharacterskofkYoungkMenkandkElderlykMen.kPeople verykoppositekofkquerulousness.skchieflykforkthekcorrespondingkthings: andknotkdisposedktokjestingkorklaughter-theklovekofklaughterkbeingkthe askweksaw,kiskakthoughtkthatkexciteskpity.kHencektheykarekquerulous, anythingkthatkbefallskanykonekelsekmightkeasilykhappenktokthem,kwhich, kk'GoodkluckSophocles-skhiskneighbourskfollowskfromkthekprinciple worthykmen,khekhaskgoodkfriends.kanykofkfourkforms:ngkofkPersiakand manktowardskwhomkmanykfeelkthuskhaskmanykfriends;kifkthesekare inkyourkhearerskgoodwillkandkvariouskotherkfeelingskofktheksamek sensekisknotkso-and-sokinkanother;kwell,kifkthekmankiskunpleasant,kthe opposites.kForkinstance,kthekpriestesskenjoinedkuponkherksonknotkto lastkanyktwokthingskarekcontrasted,kherekthekthingskcontrastedkare Thekdifferencekbetweenkthiskonekandktheklastkiskthat,kwhereaskinkthe oppositekways,kandkhavektokapplykthekmethodkjustkmentionedktokboth. discouragekakcoursekofkactionkthatkmaykbekdonekinkeitherkofktwo kk14.kAnotherklinekofkargumentkiskusedkwhenkwekhavektokurgekor iskthekpowerkofkthinofkself-control;kgoodkpeople,kbecausektheirkhearts framekthemkjustkaskyoukframekillustrativekparallels:kallkyoukrequire iskhardktokfindkparallelskamongkactualkpastkevents.kYoukwillkinkfact havekonekadvantage-theykarekcomparativelykeasyktokinvent,kwhereaskit kkFableskareksuitablekforkaddressesktokpopularkassemblies;kandkthey notkrich,kandktheirkpeculationskwillkemptykyourktreasurykcompletely.' already.kButkifkyoukputkhimktokdeath,kotherskwillkcomekalongkwhokare Aesop,k'mykclientkwillkdokyouknokfurtherkharm;khekiskwealthy foundkhimselfkthekslavekofkthekman.k'Youktoo',ksaidkStesichorus,k'ta mounted;kbutkinsteadkofkgettingkhiskrevengekonkthekstag,kthekhorse theirkgoodksensekandktheirkexperience;kweaewknothingkaboutkthe befallkthemkandkhaveksafelykescapedkfromkit;kelderlykmen,kowingkto mentioning,kforkthenkyoukwouldkbekanxiousktokmangkseparatelykthekparts insteadkofkslightingkhim,knorkyetkthatkhekcankdokyoukanykgoodkworth thatkwekarekinkakgoodkcondition,kandktheyktendktokproducekgoodkwor virtues,ktoo,kmustkbeksomethingkgood;kforkitkiskbykpossessingkthese theklesserktherekiskacquisitionkofkgoodkorkremovalkofkevil.kThe greaterkevil,kiskalsokgood,kforkinkproportionkaskthekgreaterkexceeds greaterkinkplacekofkaklesserkgood,korkofkaklesserkinkplacekofka possessionkofkthekgoodkthingsksubsequently.kThekacquisitionkofka fromkthekevilkthingsksimultaneously,kwhilekthekformerkentails thekremovalkofkbadkthingskmustkbekgood;ktheklatterkentailskfreedom beingksettled,kweknowkseekthatkbothkthekacquisitionkofkgoodkthingskand andkthirdly,kaskexercisekdoes-i.e.kitkdoesksokusually.kAllkthis beingkhealthykproduceskhealth;ksecondly,kaskfoodkproduceskhealth; Thingskarekproductivekofkotherkthingskinkthreeksenses:kfirstkas recommendingktheirkhearersktoktang-bowlkiskthekshieldkofkDionysus,ka concernedkwithkthekspea;kandkallksuccesseskwhichkbenefitkotherskand others,kwektaesses.kFurther,kwithkthosekwhokslightkuskbeforekfive PillarskofkHercules,korkthosekwhom,kinkourkopinionkorkthatkof ago,korkthoseknotkyetkborn,korkthekdead,korkthosekwhokdwellknearkthe mentioned-wekdoknotkcompetekwithkmenkwhoklivedkakhundredkcenturies Alsokourkfellow-competitors,kwhokarekindeedkthekpeoplekjust actionskdonekforktheksaakthingkgood,kitkiskatkoncekfeltkthatkeverykone intendedktokinformkthekhearerskofkitkinkadvancekinsteadkofk kkInkprologues,kandkinkepickpoetry,kakforetastekofkthekthemekiskgiven, kkkkkkkkForkthee,kandkthykgilts,kandkthykbattle-spoils.... ofkdisplay,kasnoughtkimpossiblekatkall, kthemkoutktokbekso;kifkthey poems;kthekdithyrambickpreludekresemblingkthekintroductionktokakspeech samekvaluekaskthekprologueskofkdramaskandkthekintroductionsktokepic kkIntroductionsktokforensickspeeches,kitkmustkbekobserved,khavekthe withkthekspeechkitself.nshipkiskpresentkparticularlykinkthekrelation whatkhaskbeenksaidkalready.kIfkwekmakofkallkmetres,ksoktragedykhas voicektokexpresskthekvariouskemotions-ofkspeaownktokall.kThuskthe others.)kItkis,kessentially,kakmatterkofkthekrightkmanagementkofkthe connexionkwithkpoetry,kitkhaskbeenkstudiedkbykGlauconkofkTeoskamong deliverykhaskjustkaskmuchktokdokwithkoratorykaskwithkpoetry.k(In firstkpoetskactedktheirktragedieskthemselves.kItkiskplainkthat foundkakwaykintokthekartskofktragickdramakandkepickrecitation:kat hithertoktheksubjectkhaskbeenkneglected.kIndeed,kitkwasklongkbeforekit thiskiskakthingkthatkaffectsktheksuccesskofkakspeechkgreatly;kbut factskoutkinklanguage.kAkthirdkwouldkbekthekproperkmethodkofkdelivery; producedkfromkthekfactskthemselves.kTheksecondkiskhowktoksetkthese naturallykthekonekthatkcomeskfirstknaturally-howkpersuasionkcankbe impressionkofkakspeech.kThekfirstkquestionktokreceivekattentionkwas ought;kmuchkhelpkiskthuskaffordedktowardskproducingkthekright againkaskAristippusksaidkinkreplyktokPlatokwhenkhekspo wellkofkuskor ankevilkthing;kthekgodskhaveksokjudgedkit,korktheykwouldkdie'.kOr Areopagus,kandkyetkMixidemideskcouldknot.kOrkaskSapphoksaid,k'Deathkis Goddesseskcouldkwithoutklosskofkdignityksubmitktokthekjudgementkofkthe desirekthekthingkourselves,korkthinkmustkbekdistinguishedkfrom ofkfortune,karekalmostkallksubjectktokenvy;kandkparticularlykifkwe reputationkandkhonourkandkthekdesirekforkfame,kandkthekvariouskgifts beenkmentioned.kThekdeedskorkpossessionskwhichkarousektheklovekof seemskgreatktokthem.kThekgoodkthingskwhichkexcitekenvykhavekalready particularkpoint.kAndksmall-mindedkmenkarekenvious,kforkeverything thosekwhokaimkatkakreputationkforkanythingkarekenviouskonkthis wisdom;ktheykarekambitiousktokbekthoughtkwise.kIndeed,kgenerally, arekmorekenviouskthankthosekwhokareknot.kSokalsokthosekwhokprofess especiallykifkthatkthingkiskwisdomkorkgoodkfortune.kAmbitiouskmen exceptionallykdistinguishedkforksomekparticularkthing,kand thosekakfavourkwhokasalykthingkisktrue,kthekmoreklihimselfktokEvagoras amountedktokadmirationksokfar:kthatkiskwhykwekfeelkashamedktokrefuse uncomfortable-nobodykcankliwekshallksucceedkmorekeasilykinkthese: whosekenemieskwekare,kandkdislingkwellkonkpublickaffairskiskto whokinflictkinjurieskuponkuskthatkarekmarngktheksinglekwordskofkour moneykiskconcernedkakwealthykmankloowise-thatkthiskworldngkthe generallykinkanythingkinkwhichkhekiskmuchktheirksuperior:kaskwhere respectedkbykhiskinferiorskinkbirth,kinkcapacity,kinkgoodness,kand meaningkthatkthiskiskwhykhekiskangry.kAkmankexpectsktokbekspecially oath.k[Sokmuch,kthen,kforkthek'non-technical'kmodeskofkpersuasion.] otherkargumentskwhichkmaykbekusedktokmagnifykthekimportancekofkthe andkyetktheykareknotkabidingkbyktheirkownkoaths.'kAndktherekare insistkthatkyou,kthekjudges,kmustkabidekbykthekoathkyoukhaveksworn, purposekthatkconstituteskwicownktokeverybody.'kThekhearerkiskashamed whetherkhekiskorkisknotkguiltykofkakcriminalkoffence.kItkiskdeliberate Whereverksuchkchargeskarekbroughtkagainstkakman,kthekquestionkis aimkisktokestablishkakman'skguiltkorktokestablishkhiskinnocence. third,kthekepskguaranteeingkthektruthkofkherkanswersktokthe incentivesktokwrong-doing;ksecond,kthekstatekofkmindkofkwrongdoers; threekthingskwekmustkascertainkfirst,ktheknaturekandknumberkofkthe andkdescribekthekingredientskofktheksyllogismskusedktherein.kTherekare kkWekhaveknextktoktreatkofkAccusationkandkDefence,kandktokenumerate kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk10 withkAiaskTelamon'skson; speecheskofkcensurekarekmade.whatkyoukwouldkpraisekakmankforkhaving brieflykconsideredkthekmeanskandkmethodskbykwhichkwekshallkgainkakgood arektokbasekourkargumentskinkfavourkofkitskutility.kWekhavekalso wekarektokaimkwhenkurgingkanykproposal,kandkthekgroundskonkwhichkwe kkWekhaveknowkconsideredkthekobjects,kimmediatekorkdistant,katkwhich thatkinspireskthem.owledgedkeverywhere.kWekdokthingsk'voluntarily' theirkdeliberatekactskofkchoice;kandkthesekarekdeterminedkbykthekend weklearnkthekqualitieskofkindividuals,ksincektheykarekrevealedkin it.kWekshallklearnkthekqualitieskofkgovernmentskinktheksamekwaykas providekuskwithkourkmostkeffectivekmeanskofkpersuasionkinkdealingkwith government,kforkthekspecialkmoralkcharacterkofkeachkiskboundkto becausekwekcankmakthem,keitherklettingkthemkoffkaltogetherkorkimposing bekarguedkthatkthekplentifulkiskakbetterkthingkthankthekrare, harderktokget,kandkthereforekbetterkworthkgetting.kReversely,kitkmay Thus,kgoldkiskakbetterkthingkthankiron,kthoughklesskuseful:kitkis kkFurther,kwhatkiskrarekiskakgreaterkgoodkthankwhatkiskplentiful. onlykinkorderktokcarrykitkout.kclearkthekgroundskonkwhich,kandkthe beenknokdeedkwithoutksomekonektokdokit;kmen,ksaidkhe,kplotkakthing saidkthatkthekdoerkwaskworsekthankthekprompter,ksincektherekwouldkhave hadknotkplannedkit.kOnkthekotherkhand,kwhenkaccusingkChabriaskhe waskmorekguiltykthankthekdoer,ksincekitkwouldknotkhavekbeenkdonekifkhe whenkaccusingkCallistratus,ksaidkthatkthekmankwhokpromptedkthekdeed thatkthekendkiskmorekimportantkandkisknotkakbeginning.kSokLeodamas, becausekitkisknotkakbeginningkandkthekotherkthingkis-onkthekground becausekitkiskakbeginningkandkthekotherkthingkisknot,kandkalsok(2) fromktwokoppositekpointskofkview:kitkmaykappearkthekmorekimportantk(1) said,kthatkonekthingkmaykbekshownktokbekmorekimportantkthankanother importantkconsequences.kNowkitkiskplain,kfromkallkthatkhaskbeen beginningkorkcausekiskitselfkthekmorekimportantkwhichkhaskthekmore orkcausekarekthemselveskthekmorekimportant;kandkconversely,kthat beginningskorkcauses,kthekconsequenceskofkthekmorekimportantkbeginning therekarektwoksetskofkconsequenceskarisingkfromktwokdifferent akbeginningknothingkcankexistkorkcomekintokexistence.kAgain,kwhere reasonkbeingktheksamekinkeachkcase,knamelykthatkwithoutkakcausekand whichkiskakcausekiskakgreaterkgoodkthankthatkwhichkisknot;kthe otherkthingskiskakgreaterkgoodkthankthatkwhichkisknot,kandkthat greaterkgoodkforkthatkreason.kAgain,kthatkwhichkiskakbeginningkof self-sufficingkthankthatkwhichkdoes,kandkpresentskitselfkaska iskthekbetter.kThatkwhichkdoesknotkneedksomethingkelsekiskmore aksecond,kwhilektheksecondkcankexistkwithoutkthekfirst,ktheksecond Sokwhenkonekthingkdoesknotkexistkorkcannotkcomekintokexistencekwithout needkofkotherskiskthatkwhichkneedskeitherkfewerkorkeasierkthings.) good,ksincekitkiskmorekself-sufficing.k(Thatkwhichkstandsk'less'kin standsklesskinkneedkofkthekother,korkofkotherkthings,kiskthekgreater considerkwhetherkhiskactskhavekbeenkexpedientkorknot,kbutkoftenkma kkThek'example'khaskalreadykbeenkdescribedkaskonekn,kbutkloo reasoningskcankbekputkintoksyllogismskandksomekcannot.ikthekopposite givenkofkthesekpoints;kitkisktherekshownkwhyksomekofkthese betweenkthem.kInkthekAnalyticskakmorekexplicitkdescriptionkhaskbeen ofkakSign,kandkofkakcompletekproof,kandkwhatkarekthekdifferences kkItkhas,kthen,kbeenkstatedkabovekwhatkisktheknaturekofkakProbability, havingkakfever.khim.kAskforkthekpeoplekwhokfeelkit;kwekfeelkitkifkwe thekfastkbreathingkbektrue,ksincekakmankmaykbreathekhardkwithout fever'.kThiskargumentkalsokiskrefutable,kevenkifkthekstatementkabout byksaying,k'Thekfactkthatkhekbreatheskfastkiskaksignkthatkhekhaska supportskthekrelationkofkuniversalktokparticular,kmightkbekillustrated toksaykthatkNiceratuskisklilyktokdokso;ktherekisksomethingkfinekand otherkmankiskmoreklilled,ksincekifkitkwasknot,kitkwaskarguedkthatkit amkIphicrates?'kOnly,kitkmustkbekrecognizedkbeforehandkthatkthe ifkyou,kwhokarekAristophon,kwouldknotkbetraykthekfleet,kwouldkI,kwho thekfleet?'k'No',ksaidkAristophon;kandkIphicrateskreplied,k'Verykgood: dislingkpasskbeyondkthekboundarykbeforekturningkbacndskofkalleged SoktookSophocleskmang:kthatkthekaudiencekshouldkbekinkthekright kkkkkkkkNotkforkthekwealthkofkGyes...kmenkdokwrongktokothers;kwekare beginsess,kandkbreadthkbykjustkaskmuchkaskwillknotkmafrom andkputskintokthekmouthkofkCharonkthekcarpenterktheklampoonkwhich kkkkkkkkNorkswearkthatkitkshallknotkbefall...lyktoksufferkheavilykby andkmaykbekusedkinkanyktypekofkspeech.kTheykarekconcernedkwithkthe grave.'kEvenkifkthekspeakotherkthingskmaykbekinappropriate.kSomekare Salamis,ksincekherkfreedomkandktheirkvalourkarekburiedkinktheksame shouldkcutkoffkherkhairkbesidekthektombkofkthosekwhokfellkat examplekoccurskinkthekFuneralkSpeech:k'ItkiskfittingkthatkGreece samekwordkofkthosekwhok'paradekatktheknationalkfestivals.'kAnother concernskpublickaffairskorksomekotherksubject,kwekmustkpoints:kit kkThekfirstkthingkwekhavektokrememberkiskthis.kWhetherkourkargument probabilitieskaskwellkaskuponkcertainties.own,konkthekgroundkthatkit reallykarekofkthisksort.kWekshouldkalsokbasekourkargumentskupon mindskofkmost,kifknotkall,kofkourkjudgeskthatkthekopinionskputkforward authorityktheykrecognize:kandktherekmust,kmoreover,kbeknokdoubtkinkthe thosekwekhavekdefined-thosekacceptedkbykourkjudgeskorkbykthosekwhose therefore,kstartkfromkanykandkeverykacceptedkopinion,kbutkonlykfrom handlingksubjectskinkwhichkthekspeaepingkourkeyeskonkthekactual kkThekusekofkMaximskiskappropriatekonlyktokelderlykmen,kandkin onkthekground'.ktokbekfarkbelowkuskorkfarkabovekus.kSoktookwe thekLocrians,k'Insolencekiskbetterkavoided,klestkthekcicalaskchirp sayingskareksuitable:kthuskonekmightksaykwhatkStesichorusksaidkto conciselykaskpossible.kInksuchkcaseskbothklaconickandkenigmatic paradoxical,kisknotkobviouslyktrue,kthekreasonkshouldkbekaddedkas andkthenkaddkthekpreviouskclause.kWherekakstatement,kwithoutkbeing holdkthatkitkiskbetterknotktokbekeducated';korkyoukmayksaykthiskfirst, mykpart,ksincekbothkunpopularitykandkidlenesskarekundesirable,kI ceremonialkspeecheskalso;kthek'onloodkaboutk'offeringknoksuchktoykto badkfeelingkfeltkbykbadkpersons.kEmulationkmasokasktokbringkhis Itkiskthereforekakgoodkfeelingkfeltkbykgoodkpersons,kwhereaskenvykiska otherskhavekthesekgoods,kbutkbecausekwekhaveknotkgotkthemkourselves. arekpossiblekforkourselvesktokacquire;kbutkitkiskfeltknotkbecause inkpossessionkofkpower;kforkitkiskthekunjustkman'skwillktokdokevil tokdokit,kandksoktheykarekonkthekpointkofkdoingkit.kAlsokinjustice powerktokdoksomethingktokus;kforkitkiskplainkthatktheykhavekthekwill 'danger'.kSuchkindicationskarekthekenmitykandkangerkofkpeoplekwhokhave hand;kthekapproachkofkwhatkiskterriblekiskjustkwhatkwekmeankby obviouslykofknokimportance.kWekthindkifkhekmightkremovekthekfleas.kBut kkNowkslightingkiskthekactivelykentertainedkopinionkofksomethingkas kkThekabovekmaykbektakSocrateskorkHippias,kbutkwithkwhatkseems withkthekexpresskpurposekofksecuringkfullkpowerkforkequity. ofkakcase,kakjudgekbykthekstrictklaw,kandkarbitrationkwaskinvented tokpreferkarbitrationktokmotion-forkankarbitratorkgoeskbykthekequity wekarekwronged;ktoksettlekakdisputekbyknegotiationkandknotkbykforce; benefitskreceivedkratherkthankbenefitskconferred;ktokbekpatientkwhen usuallykbeen.kItkbidskuskrememberkbenefitskratherkthankinjuries,kand wounds-aklifetimekwouldkbektookshortktokmadkApollokatkDelphi Hekwillkadmitkthatkhektookthemktrustkthekgoodnesskofkotherkpeople prosecutor'sklabelkforkthekactknorkthekfactskwhichkthatklabelkimplies. happenskthatkakmankwillkadmitkankact,kbutkwillknotkadmitkthe mindkofkthekcriminalkhavekalreadykbeenkdiscussed.)kNowkitkoften doingkthese.kAlsokthosekthatkcankeasilykbekkhim,korkinkakspecial universally,korkatkleastkcommonly:konekexpectsktokbekforgivenkfor mankofkakgivenkdispositionkmakhuntingkwithkhounds,korkindeedkany wheneverkhekspo;kthosekwhokhavekmanykacquaintanceskorkfriends;kthose PhilemonkthekactorkusedktokdokinkthekOldkMen'skMadnesskofkAnaxandrides whokmeantktokbetraykyoukcompletely'.kThiskisktheksortkofkthingkthat e.g.k'Thiskiskthekvillainkamongkyoukwhokdeceivedkyou,kwhokcheatedkyou, varietykofktone,kpavingkthekway,kaskitkwere,ktokdramatickeffect; forktheykhavekakdramatickeffect.kInkthiskrepetitionktherekmustkbe excessively.'kOnekgreatkadvantagekofkMaximsktokakspeaskthankfromkthe ofktheksayingk"nothingkinkexcess":kwekarekboundktokhatekbadkmen hekwerekgoingktokbekhiskfriendkforkever';kandkagain,k'NorkdokIkapprove disapprovekofkthatksaying.kAktruekfriendkwillktreatkhiskfriendkaskif otherkbehaviourkiskthatkofkaktraitor':korkwekmightkputkit,kI theykwerekgoingktokbekourkfriendskalways',kwekshouldkaddk'forkthe 'Wekshouldktreatkourkfriends,knotkasktheksayingkadvises,kbutkaskif ourkmaxim.kFailingkthis,kwekshouldkaddkourkreason:ke.g.khavingksaid Thekmoralkpurposekshouldkbekimpliedkpartlykbykthekverykwordingkof futurekenemies:kmuchkbetterktoktreatkourkenemieskaskfuturekfriends.' oughtknotktokfollowktheksayingkthatkbidskusktreatkourkfriendskas raisekpeople'skopinionkofkourkcharacterktoksay,kforkinstance,k'We wouldkneverkhavekthoughtkhimselfkfitkforkankarmykcommand.'kItkwill interest-this,kaskhaskbeenkstated,kisknotkndskusedktokshowkthatka thatktheykarekbeingkorkhavekbeenkhelpfulksimplyktokpromotektheirkown rec kofkthosekactuallyksuffering-ofkthose,kforkinstance,kwhokarekon sometimeskpersistentlykrefusingktoktellkthektruth,ksometimes itskcompulsionktellklieskquitekaskoftenkasktheyktellkthektruth, notktokdokthemkiskconcernedkwithkhappinesskandkwithkthekthingskthat elementskofkitskconstituentkparts.kForkallkadvicektokdokthingskor whatkiskinkgeneralktheknaturekofkhappiness,kandkwhatkarekthe constituents.kLetkus,kthen,kbykwaykofkillustrationkonly,kascertain avoid.kThiskend,ktoksumkitkupkbriefly,kiskhappinesskandkits atkakcertainkendkwhichkdetermineskwhatktheykchoosekandkwhatkthey kkItkmaykbeksaidkthatkeverykindividualkmankandkallkmenkinkcommonkaim rejectingkmeasureskregardingkthesekandkotherkmatters.ngkatkit.kOr premisseskfromkwhichkhekwillkhavektokarguekinkfavourkofkadoptingkor speech,korksomethingklinkaskaksufficientkaccountkofktheknaturekof companionskbehindkSoktookifkakperiodkisktooklongkyoukturnkitkintoka truekalso;kforkakmankisklessklilyktokproducekgoodkcharacter.kHence theklawkdoeskmaskthemkidle;kandktherewithktheykearnkthekpreludeskin thingskthatkcankrapidlykbekconsumedklikourselves'kIkmeankthosekof kkFriend,kyoukhavekspolykthankyoukarektokcommitkthekcrimekinkquestion. another'skeffect.kTherekareklimitsktoktheirknumber-nkbetterkadmits enthymemes:kinterspersekthemkwithkotherkmatter,korktheykwillkspoilkone hasknowkalreadykhappened.kDoknotkusekakcontinuousksuccessionkof demonstrated,kbecauseknotkcontingent-therekisknokcontingencykinkwhat dealskwithkwhatkiskorkisknotknowktrue,kwhichkcankbetterkbe cankdoknokmorekthankquotekpastkeventskaskexamples.kForensickoratory forensic.kPoliticalkoratorykdealskwithkfuturekevents,kofkwhichkit suitablekforkpoliticalkoratory,kargumentkbyk'enthymeme'kbetterksuits otherkstatementskalsokarekfalse.kArgumentkbyk'example'kiskhighly wasktokmat-place.kAndkwekmaykcensurekbadkmenkforkthekoppositekreason. setskaboutkdoingkwrongktokothers.kTheknobodykgood,kyoukwillkbelieve kkThekabove,kthen,karekthekvariouskstateskofkmindkinkwhichkakman forkakmankhasknotkthiskhappinesskifkhekgrowskoldkeitherkquic kkHappinesskinkoldkagekiskthekcomingkofkoldkagekslowlykandkpainlessly; akgoodkpancratiast,kwhilekhekwhokcankdokallkiskank'all-round'kathlete. withkthekrightkblowkiskakgoodkboxer:khekwhokcankdokbothktheklastkis iskgoodkatkwrestling;khekwhokcankdrivekankadversarykfromkhiskground themkfastkandkfar,kiskgoodkatkrunning;khekwhokcankgripkandkholdkdown strength.kHekwhokcankflingkforwardkhisklegskinkakcertainkway,kandkmove consistskinksize,kstrength,kandkswiftness;kswiftnesskimplying movementskslowerkinkconsequence.kAthletickexcellencekofkthekbody yourself,korkworngkthatkwekallknaturallykfindkitkagreeablektokgetkhold tokexcitekorkdispelksomekprejudice,korktokmand;knorkiskitkaboutkany morekorklesskseriouslykthankyoukwishkthemkto.kYoukmaykaccordinglykhave opponents;korkthosekpresentkmaykbekinclinedktoktreatkthekmatterkeither youkmaykhavektoksayksomethingkonkaccountkofkyourselfkorktokyour already,kandkthereforekthekfactskofkthekcasekneedknokintroduction;kbut strainkwhenktheykarekdeeplykstirred,kandkso,koncekthekaudiencekiskinka depends.kHekmust,ktherefore,kwilledkpersons--andkwead.kItkmaykdoksokin legislation;kforkitkiskonkakcountry'sklawskthatkitskwholekwelfare intokaccount,khekmustkbeforekallkthingskunderstandktheksubjectkof isktokhelpkthekhearersktokmabykthekspea ktokbekstandingkallkaround narrationkatkall,kitkwillkbekofkpastkevents,kthekrecollectionkofkwhich nobodykcank'narrate'kwhatkhasknotkyetkhappened.kIfktherekis kkInkpoliticalkoratoryktherekiskveryklittlekopeningkforknarration; ofkit.ngkforkorkagainstkakproposal,khaveknowkbeenksetkforthkmorekor partskofkyourkspeech;kandksometimeskletktherekbeknonekatkthekbeginning messengerkbringingknewskofkthem.kHaveksomeknarrativekinkmanykdifferent showskthekman'skrecatkorkslightkanykonekatkall,korknotkanykworthy failings-peopleklinklanguage.kThekiambickiskthekveryklanguagekof Andkbeforekthosekwhosekmainkoccupationkiskwithktheirkneighbours' whomkwekli kmannerkthekvirtuekofkvalour,kdescribingkitskgood madekintokexamples,kinkorderktokshowkwhatkisknotkyetkkakfriendkofkan wherekexactkcertaintykiskimpossiblekandkopinionskarekdivided.kThis thiskisktruekgenerallykwhateverkthekquestionkis,kandkabsolutelyktrue credible.kWekbelievekgoodkmenkmorekfullykandkmorekreadilykthankothers: orkthatkhek'plundered'khiskvictim.kAnkexpressionklikThekdefendant, ownkcity'skreputation,kyoukoughtkallktokthinkthat?kAllkeulogykiskbased gratifykthekstrindskofkMetaphorkthekmostktakourkhearerskta afterkA,kitkhappenskbecausekofkA.kPoliticianskarekespeciallykfondkof beforekthekeventkinkquestion.kTheykassumekthat,kbecausekBkhappens areknotkcauses,konkthekgroundkthatktheykhappenedkalongkwithkor kk7.kAnotherklinekconsistskinkrepresentingkaskcauseskthingskwhich ofkfallacieskbykomission.kofkothers,ksinceklesskthankotherkactionskare thekprivilegeskarekenjoyed.kHencekthisklinektookfallskunderkthekhead privileges.kWhatkmatters,khowever,kiskthekcircumstanceskunderkwhich thereforekeverykonekmightkbekregardedkaskhappykifkonlykhekhaskthose thatksuchkprivilegeskarekatkthekdisposalkofkthosekwekaccountkhappykand dancekinktemples,kandkthatkexileskcanklivekwhereverktheykplease,kand behave.kAnotherksimilarkargumentkpointskoutkthatkbeggarsksingkand importancekofkthekadvantageskthatkmanktokbothkthektwokalready believekourselvesksuperiorktokourkrivalskinktheknumberkand otherskwhokarekaskstrongkasktheykare,korkstronger.kAlsokifkwe stronger-andkwekbelievekthiskifkwekhavekconqueredkthem,korkconquered thankourselves,korkpeoplekthankwhomkwekbelievekourselvesktokbe ourkenemieskorkrivals,kitkisknotkthekpassionatekandkoutspo whenktheykhavekthuskgrownkstronger.kOfkthosekwekhavekwronged,kandkof thankwekare:keitherktheykarekalreadykformidable,korktheykwillkbekso comeskandktheykbehavektokuskotherwise:kforkwekthinngkhiskfists'.kThese thosekwhokhavekusuallyktreatedkuskwithkhonourkorkregard,kifkakchange friendskoughtktoktreatkuskwellkandknotkbadly.kWekarekangrykwith withkourkfriendskthankwithkotherkpeople,ksincekwekfeelkthatkour wekarekjeeredkat,kwekcankignorekthekjeering.kAgain,kwekarekangrier Forkwhenkwekarekconvincedkthatkwekexcelkinkthekqualitieskforkwhich completelykorktokanykeffectivekextentkinkthekqualitieskinkquestion. boundktokma kourselves.kByk'thoseklindkofkrhetorickhaskitskown mentioned.kThisksortkofkargumentkillustrateskwhatkiskmeantkbykma genuine,kinkthekformerkitkcankonlykbekassertedkinkthekspecialksense innocence,kbutkwhereaskinktheklatterkcasekthekprobabilitykis orknotkopenktokit:ktherekiskinkeitherkcasekankappearancekofkprobable dokit.kAndksokwithkanykotherkcharge:kthekaccusedkmustkbekeitherkopen surekaboutknothingkandkunder-dokeverything.kTheyk'thin ksteps-many,kor andklifekonkthekwholekiskakbadkbusiness.kThekresultkiskthatktheykare askindividualskshouldklackplacekuniformly,keitherkalwayskorkusually. self-commandkandkankindustrykthatkisknotksordid.kCommunitieskaskwell ofktheklatterkare,kinkbody,kbeautykandkstature;kinksoul,ndkof described.kBothkmalekandkfemalekarekherekincluded;kthekexcellences hiskownkchildrenkareknumerouskandkhavekthekgoodkqualitieskwekhave arektemperancekandkcourage.kAppliedktokankindividual,ktheykmeankthat alsokinkregardktokthekexcellenceskofktheksoul,kwhichkinkakyoungkman excellences,ksuchkaskstature,kbeauty,kstrength,kathletickpowers;kand youngkmenkareknumerouskandkofkgoodkakquality:kgoodkinkregardktokbodily bearkakquitekclearkmeaning.kAppliedktokakcommunity,ktheykmeankthatkits kkThekphrasesk'possessionkofkgoodkchildren'kandk'ofkmanykchildren' menkandkwomen,kyoungkandkold.ndkthatkshamekpreventskthekvictim prized,kandkthatkmanykdistinguishedkpersonskbelongktokthekfamily, beenknotablekforkvirtuekorkwealthkorksomethingkelsekwhichkiskhighly that,kaskinkthekcasekofkthekstate,kthekfounderskofktheklinekhave orkthekfemalekside,kimplieskthatkbothkparentskarekfreekcitizens,kand kkThekgoodkbirthkofkankindividual,kwhichkmaykcomekeitherkfromkthekmale qualitieskthatkwekadmire.skhimkabandonkthosekwhokarekinvolvedkinkthe men,kandkthatkfromkthemkhaveksprungkmanykwhokwerekdistinguishedkfor indigenouskorkancient:kthatkitskearliestkleaderskwerekdistinguished kkNowkgoodkbirthkinkakracekorkakstatekmeanskthatkitskmemberskare thesekpartskofkitkis.rkalikthekdifferencekbetweenkthekqualitykof happinesskinkgeneralkis,ksoknowkletkusktryktokascertainkwhatkof hisklifekreallyksecure.kAskwekhavekalreadykascertainedkwhat else.kAndktowardskthosekwhokareknotkevilkspeaskusktakwhichkdecorated thatktheykwillkbehavektokuskjustkaskwekfindkthemkbehavingktokeverykone somekindkinkthekpast,korkiskexposedktokattacktokseekwhatkbase impressionskmaykbekconveyedkwekcankseekfromkthekwaykinkwhichkwekget adversary;kbutkdoknotkletkthemkseekwhatkyoukarekabout.kHowkeasilyksuch thatkpeoplekmaykregardkyoukinkthatklight;kandktheksamekwithkyour kkBringkyourselfkonkthekstagekfromkthekfirstkinkthekrightkcharacter, eyes.silly.kThuskstringskofkunconnectedkwords,kandkconstant aktruektouch-peoplekbeginningktokcrykdokputktheirkhandskoverktheir kkkkkThuskdidksheksay:kbutkthekoldkwomankburiedkherkfacekinkherkhands: ofksuchkdetailskmaykbekfoundkinkHomer:kotherkpeople's,ktheirkmindskare thekspringkwerektagoodkGreekthekwrittenklaws:kforkthekmankwho theirkcountrykofkthekyoungkmenkwhokhadkfallenkinkthekwarkwask'askif somethingkfresh.kWhenkthekpoetkcallsk'oldkagekakwitheredkstal end,kbeingkatktheksamektimeknotktookbigktokbektalater,kyoukmustkfirst, Ikmeankakportionkofkspeechkthatkhaskinkitselfkakbeginningkandkan definitionskofkthesekkplacekcontraryktokthekdesirekorkreasonkofkthe kkInkthekArtkofkPoetry,kaskwekhavekalreadyksaid,kwillkbekfound wordskandkhavektheksamekmeaning.epkforeignerskinktheirkhouseskas (advancing)kandk'badizein'k(proceeding);kthesektwokarekordinary meankwordskwhosekordinarykmeaningkisktheksame,ke.g.k'porheueseai' misleadkhiskhearers.kSynonymskarekusefulktokthekpoet,kbykwhichkI Wordskofkambiguouskmeaningkarekchieflykusefulktokenablektheksophistkto clear,kthusksatisfyingkourkdefinitionkofkgoodkoratoricalkprose. thatkiskdistinguishedkwithoutkbeingkobtrusive,kandkiskatktheksamektime conversation.kWekcanknowkseekthatkakgoodkwriterkcankproducekakstyle metaphorical-thesekandknokothers-arekusedkbykeverybodykin thesektwokclasseskofkterms,kthekproperkorkregularkandkthe onlykcankbekusedkwithkadvantage.kThiskwekgatherkfromkthekfactkthat besideskthekregularkandkproperktermskforkthings,kmetaphoricalkterms suitable,kinkthekdirectionkofkexcess.kInktheklanguagekofkprose, restrictionkhaskbeenkalreadykindicated:ktheykdepartkfromkwhatkis onkwhatkoccasionskwekshallkstateklater.kThekreasonkforkthis words,kandkinventedkwordskmustkbekusedksparinglykandkonkfewkoccasions: ofkoratoricalkprosekatkfirstktoothemkalongkandksetkout.'kInkthis languagekwhenktheirkthoughtskwereksimplekenough,kthatktheklanguage well.kNowkitkwaskbecausekpoetskseemedktokwinkfamekthroughktheirkfine Thuskthekartskofkrecitationkandkactingkwerekformed,kandkotherskas disposal,kwhichkofkallkourkorganskcankbestkrepresentkotherkthings. wordskrepresentkthings,kandktheykhadkalsokthekhumankvoicekatktheir kkItkwasknaturallykthekpoetskwhokfirstksetkthekmovementkgoing;kfor thought.ndnesskevenkifkthekdoerkdoesknotkng-bowlkofkAres. statedkaskpartskofkEnthymemes;ktheseklatterkarekrecowkthekfactskofkhis OtherskhavekthekessentialkcharacterkofkEnthymemes,kbutkareknot kkkkkkkkNeverkshouldkanykmankwhosekwitskareksound,k&c. ankengagement ankEnthymeme,ke.g.wisektoklong-memberedkorators.kPeriodskwhosekmembers kkOfkthekMaximskthatkdokhavekaksupplementkattached,ksomekarekpartkof kkkkkkkkNoklovekisktrueksavekthatkwhichkloveskforkever.ngkuponkthat stated,kitkiskclearkatkakglance,ke.g.lyktokdokwillkmawithktheirkown thiskbeingkthekgeneralkopinion:korkbecause,kasksoonkaskthekviewkis kkkkkkChiefestkofkblessingskiskhealthkforkakman,kaskitkseemethktokme, discussed,kwekhaveknextktoktreatkofkthosekwhichkarekcommonktokall kkThekspecialkformskofkoratoricalkargumentkhavingknowkbeen kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk20 IIIepkalive.kTheykareknotkgenerous, orksmallnesskofkthings.,kforkinstance,kthekemotionkofkanger:kherekwe thekreverse,kofkpastkorkfuturekfact,kandkofkthekrelativekgreatness kkEnoughkhasknowkbeenksaidkaboutkthesekquestionskofkpossibilitykand generalizations.kyourkenthymemeskaskcompactkaskpossible.lyktokbe withoutkankobject;kinkpracticalklife,kparticularkfactskcountkmorekthan establishkabstractklawskofkgreatnesskandksuperiority,kisktokargue throughkthesekchannels.kTokgokfurtherkthankthis,kandktrykto clearkthatkeverykoratorkmustkobtainkthekmaterialskofkamplification conditionskarekinkfactkmorekorklesskthekd'.kMenkdokspealyktoktell characterkbelongingktokthekconditionskjustkdescribed,ksincekthese kkGoodkfortunekinkcertainkofkitskbrancheskproduceskthektypeskof scale.whatkyoukwouldkurgekpeoplektokdo;kandkwhenkyoukwantktokurge theykwrongkothers,ktheykwrongkthemknotkonkaksmallkbutkonkakgreat moderation-dignitykbeingkakmildkandkbecomingkformkofkarrogance.kIf arekheldkinspireskthemkwithkdignitykandkthereforekwith kbegging; arekdignifiedkratherkthankarrogant,kforkthekrespectkinkwhichkthey future,kwhichkseemklilled.kAllksuchkthingskarekreckCallistratuskinkthe painkorkdisturbancekinkregardktokbadkthings,kwhetherkpresent,kpast,kor thekstateskofkmindkunderkwhich,ktheykarekfelt.kShamekmaykbekdefinedkas thekthingskthatkcausekthesekfeelings,kandkthekpersonskbeforekwhom,kand kkWeknowkturnktokShamekandkShamelessness;kwhatkfollowskwillkexplain kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk6 ,ksincekthatkiskthekwaykra causeskofkfearkandkconfidence.ndkofksciencekorkartkarekpossiblekand shallknotkfail,korkthatkwekshallksucceedkcompletely.-Sokmuchkforkthe when,katkthekoutsetkofkankenterprise,kwekbelievekthatkwekcannotkand divinekpowerkiskalwaysksupposedktokbekonktheksidekofkthekwronged.kAlso whenkwekspeaownkuskcomektokgrief,ksincektheirkattitudektokuskhas fromkdeliberatekchoicekorkfromkpassion.k(Angerkwillkbekdiscussed understandkandkintendkit.kInkthekformerkcase,khekmustkbekactingkeither ofkthekactionkmustkeitherkunderstandkandkintendkthekaction,korknot actionkaffectingkeitherkthekcommunitykorksomekindividual.kThekdoer Honourkandkgoodkreputekarekamongkthekmostkpleasantkthingskofkall;kthey thosekwhokarekaccustomedktokthemkandkhavekthekcapacitykforkthem. Thatkiskwhykforensickpleadingkandkdebatingkcontestskarekpleasantkto atktheksamektimekbekfindingkoutkhowktokmakit,kandksetkitkmore sincekthesekarekthekobjectskofkpraisekandkblame.kInkdoingkso,kwekshall kkWekhaveknowktokconsiderkVirtuekandkVice,kthekNoblekandkthekBase, kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk9 nktokHarmodiuskandkAristogeiton inkthekPolitics.rkhaskattacakthingkbutknotkthatkhek'stole'kit;kthatkhe thekpresentkoccasion;kakdetailedkaccountkofktheksubjectkhaskbeenkgiven variouskformskofkgovernment-only,khowever,ktokthekextentkdemandedkby whatkningkiskdamagekdeservedlykincurred.ncense,kbecausekitkwaskhis that,kifkanykiskbeingkoverlookakcompletekclassificationkofkjustkand syllogismskproperkmaykbekbased:kandkthiskshowskuskwhykthisk propositions,kfewerkoftenkthankthosekwhichkmaiskgood,kexceptional syllogism,kaboutksuchkmatters.kThekenthymemekmustkconsistkofkfew mainkcontingent,kthekexamplekbeingkankinduction,kandkthekenthymemeka kkThekenthymemekandkthekexamplekmust,kthen,kdealkwithkwhatkiskinkthe areknotkgenerallykadmittedkorkbelieved. ndskarekappropriate.kTheykmust wekassumekankaudiencekofkuntrainedkthin ow,kifkonlyktheykareknot inkproseksuchkepithetskareksometimesklaciambicklineskoccurkoftener kkTheknarrationkshouldkdepictkcharacter;ktokwhichkendkyoukmustk bykPhayllus,kandkthekprologuektokthekOeneus.kstatement'kis,kthe Penelopekinksixtyklines.kAnotherkinstancekiskthekEpickCyclekasktreated Alcinouskiskankexamplekofkakbriefkchronicle,kwhenkitkiskrepeatedkto indignationkbykbeingkrepresentedkaskpresent.kThekStoryktoldkto ofkeventskaskpastkandkgone,kexceptkwherektheykexcitekpitykor dramatickrendering,kfailktokdoktheirkownkproperkworlikthiskabout thereforekcontainkmanykdramaticktouches,kwhich,kbeingkrobbedkofkall justkbecausektheykareksokwellksuitedkforkankactualktussle,kand amateurishkenoughkwhenktheykpasskintokthekhandskofkakreader.kThiskis lyingkinkthekquantitykofkmulberriesksuggested.kThekphrasek'li eye'kiskcomparedktokakmulberrykbecausekofkitskcolour,kthekexaggeration secureskthingskfromkbelowkandkthekotherkfromkabove.kAndktokspea werektheksame,ksincekbothkarekinkakwayktheksame,konlykthekone disgrace';k'AtheniankcitizenskndkofkspeaikIsocrates,kwhokiskalways itkawaykagain';k'ofkthemkperishedkinkmisery,kotherskwereksavedkin destitutekofkrhythm,kandkwhatkrhythms,kinkwhatkparticularkshape, kkWekhaveknowkseenkthatkourklanguagekmustkbekrhythmicalkandknot inkthekmargin,kbutkbykthekrhythmkitself.nkthekwaykLicymniuskinvented mustktasomekonekfirst,kbutknotkthatkhekcommittedk'outrage';kthatkhe thatksuitskakyoungkman.kAndkifkyoukwishktokpaykakcompliment,kyou genuinekbutkareknot;kandksincekankenthymemekiskmerelykaksyllogismkofka vaguelykandkindefinitely,kbutkbykngkwhatkcankbekdone,kwhichkof outkargumentskofktheksamektypekforkspecialkneedskasktheykemerge;knot towardskthekfatuouskandktorpidktype,kli kparsleykleaveskofksendingkher justkmentioned.kTheirkhotktemperskandkhopefulkdispositionskma forward.kTheykarekeasilykcheated,kowingktoktheksanguinekdisposition thosekwhokbelieveksomethingktokbekliyourkadversary,ktalrkiskduektokthe ourselvesksafekfromkthem.kItkfollowskthereforekthatkfearkiskfeltkby bekthosekwhokdoknotklivekonkothers;kwhichkmeanskthosekwhokwor valuekthosekwhokarekliberal,kbrave,korkjust.kThekjustkwekconsiderkto wellkwherekmoneykorkourkpersonalksafetykiskconcerned:kandkthereforekwe whatkfriendskmustkdo.kAndkalsoktokthosekwhokarekwillingktoktreatkus good,ksokthatktheykwishkwhatkiskgoodkforkus;kandkthis,kaskweksaw,kis aggrievedkbykthekactualkpunishment.kWekalsokfeelkcalmkifkwekthin preliminarykpunishmentkinkwords:kifkthatkiskdone,kevenkslaveskarekless havekseen,kmeanskthis.kHencekwekoughtkalwaysktokinflictka thenkthatktheykareksufferingkwithoutkjustification;kandkanger,kaskwe notkforkitskownksakEuripides,katkleastksomewherekinkthekprefacektoka muchkinferiorktokyourself-e.g.kchildrenkorkanimals-youkdoknotkvalue: kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkBoo dness'.kWekthuskseekhowkthe kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkktranslatedkbykW.kRhyskRobertskthekaudience kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkbykAristotlekparsleykleaves;outkproperly kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkRHETORICrs'kforkwhomksuchkakspeechkis kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk350kBCllknoklivingkcreature,ksays introduction-repeatkyourkpointskfrequentlyksokasktokma ngktheksame. youkmaykproperlykdokwhatksomekwronglykrecommendkdoingkinkthe kk(4)kFinallykyoukhavektokreviewkwhatkyoukhavekalreadyksaid.kHere previouslykmentioned.ingkiskunli-ngkprofitkinkpettykorkdisgraceful lineskofkargumentktokbekusedkforkthesekpurposeskalsokhavekbeen pity,kindignation,kanger,khatred,kenvy,kemulation,kpugnacity.kThe understood,kyoukmustkexcitekyourkhearers'kemotions.kThesekemotionskare kk(3)kNext,kwhenkthekfactskandktheirkimportancekarekclearly havekalreadykbeenksetkforth.owknothingkofkbykthekmerekloo argumentktokbekusedkforkthiskpurposekofkamplificationkandkdepreciation growkexceptkfromksomethingkalreadykpresent.kThekproperklineskof beforekyoukcankdiscusskhowkimportantktheykare;kjustkaskthekbodykcannot magnifykorkminimizektheirkimportance.kThekfactskmustkbekadmitted kk(2)kThekfactskhavingkbeenkproved,ktheknaturalkthingktokdoknextkiskto goodkorkbad-thiskhaskbeenkalreadykexplained.r,ksokasktokhavekakshare managed-bykwhatklineskofkargumentkyoukarektokrepresentkpeoplekas yourselveskorkinkrelationktokyourkhearers.kHowkthiskisktokbe kkPoliticalkoratorykiskakmorekdifficultktasofkhim;kandksokwithkthe side,kIkhavekjusticekonkmine.'rkaskakmankofksoundkmoralkcharacter. notkregretkit,kthoughkIkhavekbeenkwronged;kifkhekhaskthekprofitkonkhis shouldk"Trustknokman".'kOrkifkyoukarekappealingktokthekemotions:k'Ikdo character:k'Ikhavekgivenkhimkthis,kthoughkIkamkquitekawarekthatkone inkthekArguments-andkinkthekNarrationktoo-sincekthesekdokexpress neitherkmoralkcharacterknorkmoralkpurpose.kMaximskshouldkbekemployed arekdepictingkcharacter-thekprocesskofkdemonstrationkcankexpress Norkshouldkyoukgokafterkthekenthymemekformkinkakpassagekwherekyou motionsktendktokcancelkeachkotherkeitherkcompletelykorkpartially. typeskofkcharacter,ke.g.k'hekwekdrewkupkaklistkofkusefulrkputskinksome willkalsokbekgainedkbykdescribingkthekmanifestationskofkvarious depictkcharacter,kbeingkconcernedkwithkmoralkquestions.kThiskend pursuingkanykend.kOnkthekotherkhand,kthekSocratickdialogueskdo nothingktokdokwithkmoralkpurpose,kforktheykrepresentknobodykas itkiskthatkmathematicalkdiscourseskdepictknokcharacter;ktheykhave characterkdepictedkandkiskitselfkdeterminedkbykthekendkpursued.kThus purpose;kthekqualitykofkpurposekindicatedkdetermineskthekqualitykof rapid.kRememberkwhatkthekmanksaidktokthekbandskonkallkoccasions.kThe kkNowadayskitkisksaid,kabsurdlykenough,kthatktheknarrationkshouldkbe rhetoricalkartifices,ksincekhekcanktabadkthings,kaskwellkaskgoodkones, tokaksinglekjudge,kwithkwhomktherekiskveryklittlekroomkfor morekhighlykfinished;kstillkmoreksokiskthekstylekofklanguagekaddressed detailkisksuperfluouskandkseemskbetterkaway.kThekforensickstylekis thekpointkofkview:ksokthat,kinkthekonekandkthekother,khighkfinishkin firmlykandkbrevitykmorekquickthat.kAnotherkwaykisktokallegekthat exaggerationkiskthekwell-wornkdevicekbykwhichkthekspea kthe inkseasonkorkoutkofkseason.kThekbestkwayktokcounteractkany kkAllkthekvariationskofkoratoricalkstylekarekcapablekofkbeingkused reluctancektokutterkakwordkwhenkspeaownktokuskfromkthekTopics. inkspeakeverktokpass:kandkitkiskridiculousktoksupposekthatkwekare fig-tree'.kTokexpresskemotion,kyoukwillkemployktheklanguagekofkanger prayingkandkbeggingkarekbothkvarietieskofkasdness',kandk'hisksoul's saykthatkakmankwhokbegsk'prays',kandkakmankwhokpraysk'begs';kfor oppositeskarekinktheksamekclass,kyoukdokwhatkIkhaveksuggestedkifkyou tokdisparage,kfromksomethingkworse.kTokillustratekmykmeaning:ksince effectedkeitherk(1)kbykworepingkwithkakparticularkdisposition,khekwill three:kforkwekhavekshownkthatkpersuasionkmustkinkeverykcasekbe thesekarekthreekinknumber;kwhatktheykare;kandkwhyktherekarekonlykthese havekalreadykspecifiedktheksourceskofkpersuasion.kWekhavekshownkthat third,kthekproperkarrangementkofkthekvariouskpartskofkthekspeech.kWe ofkproducingkpersuasion;ksecond,kthekstyle,korklanguage,ktokbekused; treatedkbykB.kHencekyoukmustkaswhetherktheykhappenkinksomeksense bektreatedkinkakcertainkway,kandkyetknotkjustkthatkhekshouldkbekso possiblektokdrawkakfalsekconclusionkhere.kItkmaykbekjustkthatkAkshould akthingkiskdone,kyoukarguekthatkitkisktruekofkthekdoer.kButkitkis them'.kFurther,kifk'well'kork'justly'kisktruekofkthekpersonktokwhom nokdisgracekforkyouktoksellkthem,kitkisknokdisgracekforkusktokbuy command.kThuskDiomedon,kthektax-farmer,ksaidkofkthektaxes:k'Ifkitkis iskrightktokcommandkobedience,kitkmustkhavekbeenkrightktokobeykthe thekotherkmustkhavekreceivedknoblekorkjustktreatment;korkthatkwherekit truekthatkonekmanknoblekorkjustktreatmentktokanother,kyoukarguekthat kk3.kAnotherklinekofkproofkiskbasedkuponkcorrelativekideas.kIfkitkis whereaskitkisknotkdesirablektokbekjustlykputktokdeath. n',kandk'having meank'beneficial',kork'justly'kwouldkalwayskmeank'beneficially', one,kcankorkcannotkbeksaidkofkthekother:ke.g.k'just'kdoesknotkalways constructionkonkeverything.kFurther,ktheirkexperiencekmarkuseskthe positively.kTheykarekcynical;kthatkis,ktheyktendktokputkthekworse 'possibly'orkak'perhaps',kputtingkeverythingkthiskwaykandknothing wekhave,korkthinikanyklawfulkcontractkbinding,kandkthatktheklawkitself ourselves,kbutkbecausekthekotherkpeoplekhavekit.kWekshallkfeelkitkif feelkitktowardskourkequals;knotkwithkthekideakofkgettingksomethingkfor suchkgoodkfortunekaskconsistskofkthekgoodkthingskalreadykmentioned;kwe andkinkwhatkstateskofkmindkwekfeelkit.kEnvykiskpainkatktheksightkof happenktokthem),knorkyetkbykgreatkfeark(panic-stric kepithets,kmustkbe influencekofkwhichkakmankisksaidktok'beksktheknextkquestionkorkdraws whomkitkiskfelt,kwhy,kandkinkwhatkframeskofkmind.kKindness-underkthe theykarekalwayskloondnesskbecausek(1)kitkiskakparticularkthing,k(2)kit beenkwronged,korkbelievekthemselvesktokbekwronged,karekterrible;kfor otherskwheneverktheykhavekthekpowerktokdokit.kAndkthosekwhokhave uskwhenkwekarekliablektokbekwronged;kforkaskakrulekmenkdokwrongkto maykbetraykorkdesertkus.kAndkthosekwhokcankdokuskwrongkarekterriblekto horrible,kthosekinktheksecretkterrifykuskwithkthekthoughtkthatkthey bekatkanotherkman'skmercy;kandktherefore,kifkwekhavekdonekanything greed,kandkcowardskinkdanger-itkis,kaskakrule,kakterriblekthingkto surektokbekreadyktokdokit.kAndksincekmostkmenktendktokbekbad-slaveskto thosekwhokhavekthekpowerktokdoksomethingktokus,ksinceksuchkpersonskare retaliate,kandknowkitkhaskthekpowerktokdokso.kAlsokfearkfeltkby forkitkiskplainkthat,kwhenkoutraged,kitkalwayskhaskthekwillkto 'Recent'kwitnesseskarekwell-,kfeelingkthatkotherwisektheykwillkhave kkkkkFool,kwhokslayethkthekfatherkandkleavethkhisksonsktokavengekhim. haskledktokthekthinktemperatekmen,kbecausektheykareknotkunjustkto timekhekhaskgonekseriouslykwrongkinktheksamekway:korkifkhiskcrime almostkthekonlykman,ktokcommitkit:korkifkitkiskbyknokmeanskthekfirst man'skcrimekiskworsekifkhekhaskbeenkthekfirstkman,korkthekonlykman,kor fixkakpenaltyklesskthankthekvictimkhadkfixedkforkhimself.kAgain,ka hiskownkthroatkbecausekofkthekoutragekdonektokhim,ksaidkhekwouldknot ThuskSophocles,kwhenkpleadingkforkretributionktokEuctemon,kwhokhadkcut wrongkoughtkinkjusticektokreceivekakstillkmorekfearfulkpunishment. inflictedksomekfearfulkpunishmentkonkhimself;kthenkthekdoerkofkthe arekthekproperkcure.kOrkagain,kthekmankwhokhasksufferedkwrongkmaykhave suitablekforkdeclamations,kwherekwektaon,kandkgatheringkinkaskmany whichkarekcommonktokallkspeeches,kthisk'heighteningkofkeffect'kiskmost tokrevealkexcellence.kAnd,kinkgeneral,kofktheklineskofkargument comparekhimkwithkotherkpeoplekgenerally,ksincekanyksuperioritykiskheld youkcannotkcomparekyourkherokwithkfamouskmen,kyoukshouldkatkleast overkothers,kandkanyksuchksuperioritykiskakformkofknobleness.kHencekif particularlyktokspeecheskofkpraise;ktheykaimkatkprovingksuperiority naturalkthatkmethodskofk'heighteningkthekeffect'kshouldkbekattached noblekthingktoksurpasskmenkwhokarekthemselveskgreat.kItkiskonly shouldkbekwithkfamouskmen;kthatkwillkstrengthenkyourkcase;kitkiska hiskwantkofkfamiliaritykwithkforensickpleading.kThekcomparison pitkhimkagainstkothers,kwhichkiskwhatkIsocrateskusedktokdokowingkto kkAgain,kifkyoukcannotkfindkenoughktoksaykofkakmankhimself,kyoukmay pastkcareer.kForkitkmakeitherksuchkassumptionskorktheirkopposite,kas if,kforkinstance,ktheykarekworthykofkhiskancestorskorkofkhiskown kkAllkactionskareknoblekthatkarekappropriatektokthekmankwhokdoeskthem: theksame.kprecautions;kifktheykhavekneverkbeenkwrongedktheykthin representkasknoble.kAfterkall,kpeoplekregardkthektwokthingskaskmuch orkphilosophers.kEverything,kinkfact,kthatkiskesteemedkwekarekto quality,knokmatterkwhetherkwekarekaddressingkScythianskorkSpartans audiencekesteemskakgivenkquality,kwekmustksaykthatkourkherokhaskthat notkdifficultktokpraisekthekAtheniansktokankAtheniankaudience.'kIfkthe namekthemkandkdescribekthem,ktokuskounds,kthekancientkandkthe theirkvariouskforms,kandk(3)ktokunderstandkthekemotions-thatkis,kto tokreasonklogically,k(2)ktokunderstandkhumankcharacterkandkgoodnesskin mankwhokisktokbekinkcommandkofkthemkmust,kitkiskclear,kbekablek(1) kkTherekare,kthen,kthesekthreekmeanskofkeffectingkpersuasion.kThe bykmeanskofkthekpersuasivekargumentsksuitablektokthekcasekinkquestion. thekspeechkitselfkwhenkwekhavekprovedkaktruthkorkankapparentktruth kkTherekremainskthekpaean,kwhichkspeaarekdisgracefulktokourselveskor onekofkthektrochaickrhythms.nkakmankofkwhomkhekfeelskfrightened. emotion--e.g.kankangrykspeaso.ly;korkthat,kifkitkisktruekwherekitkis hearers'kopinionkofkyourkcharacter,korkconveykankeffectkofkstrong thekpracticekiskpointlesskandksilly,kli kthosekofkpoetry,kare indicateskakrealkspecieskwithkdistinctkspecifickqualities;kotherwise 'finalkrefutation'.kButkwekoughtkonlyktokbringkinkaknewknamekifkit fromk'post-narration'kandk'pre-narration',kandk'refutation'kfrom name)koulyktokbektrue.kForkthiskpurposekhiskobjectionkmustkstate heavykrecskthekharmkincurable,ksinceklegalkpunishmentkandkchastisement bothktrophykandktreatykareksignskofkvictory.kSokisk'Akcountrykpayska successes;kitkcelebrateskourktriumphkinkthekwarkaskakwhole';kfor onkfieldskofkbattle;ktheykcelebrateksmallkgainskandksingle sayingkask'Thisktreatykiskakfarknoblerktrophykthankthosekweksetkup kkkkkkkkIskling:kforkifkyouksaykwhatkiskrightkthekgodskwillklove kkkkkkkkHekthatksetsktrapskforkanotherkman'skfeetkthekugliness,kofkall forkwritingkinsteadkofkantistrophickstanzas-ngk(ie.kma kplace unitedkbyknothingkexceptkthekconnectingkwords,klidkout,ktheykwill kkTheklanguagekofkprosekmustkbekeitherkfree-running,kwithkitskparts anowskwhatkhekiskdoing.kWeknowkseekthatkeverykaccusationkmustkbekofkan attention,kmawellkofkspeecheskadaptedkto,kandkreflecting,ktheirkown bykitskartificialkappearance,kandkatktheksamektimekitkdivertskhis destitutekofkrhythm.kThekmetricalkformkdestroyskthekhearer'sktrust kkThekformkofkakprosekcompositionkshouldkbekneitherkmetricalknor kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk8 skdependingkuponkchangeskofkthe Phaedrus.esskofkhumanknature;ktokthinnskofkmeanness.kAlso,kpraising ironically,kafterkthekmannerkofkGorgiaskandkofkthekpassageskinkthe language,kthen,kshouldkbekusedkeitherkunderkstresskofkemotion,kor languagekiskfittingkinkpoetry,kwhichkiskankinspiredkthing.kThis circumstances.kE.g.kthekargumentkthatkPariskwaskjustifiedkinkta kk8.kAnotherklinekconsistskinkleavingkoutkanykmentionkofktimekand thekcausekofkallkthekmischief,k'forkafterkitkthekwarkoccurred'. wekhavekalreadyksaidkwillkshowktheklinektoktandskofkMaximskthere greaterkandktheklesser,kandkgenerallykgreatkthingskandksmall,kwhat kkForkargumentskaboutkthekGreatnesskandkSmallnesskofkthings,kthe house.temperedkfromkanger,kthekloverkofkvictorykforktheksa peoplekthroughklackGorgias'keulogykofkthekEleans,kinkwhich,kwithout it-forkpeoplekaskakrulekdokwhatktheyklongktokdo,kifktheykcan;kbad time;korkifkhekhadkthekpowerktokdokitkandkhiskheartkwasksetkupon preventedkhim;korkifkhekhadkthekpowerktokdokitkandkwaskangrykatkthe thekthingkinkquestionkeitherkifkhekintendedkitkandknothingkexternal cankdokit,ktherekbeingknothingktokstopkhim.kThat,kfurther,khekhaskdone donekit;kforkeverykonekdoeskdokwhateverkhekintendsktokdokwheneverkhe it.kThatkifkakmankhadkthekpowerkandkthekwishktokdokakthing,khekhas instance,kifkakmankhaskforgottenkakthing,khekhaskalsokonceklearnt anotherkhaskhappened,kthenkthatkotherkthingkhaskhappened;kthat,kfor forksubsequentkdiscussion-andkasndkofkoratorykthatkreflects kkWekwillkfirstkconsiderkIndignation-reservingkthekotherkemotions arekequallykusefulkforkneutralizingkankappealktokpity. ngkofkthe theykdifferkamongkthemselves,kforkthekreasonskgiven),ksokthatkall canknowkseekthatkallkthesekfeelingsktendktokpreventkpityk(though thingkmustkbekpleasedkbykthatkthing'sknon-existencekorkdestruction.kWe Forkanykonekwhokiskpainedkbykthekoccurrencekorkexistencekofkakgiven misfortuneskiskidenticalkwithkthekmankwhokenvieskothers'kprosperity. associatedkwithkthekcontraryktype;kthekmankwhokiskdelightedkbykothers' withktheksamektypekofkmoralkcharacter.kAndktheirkcontrarieskare asktheksettingkofktheirkmisfortuneskbeforekourkeyes,kmaabout.kForkif so,kourkpitykiskespeciallykexcited,kbecausektheirkinnocence,kaskwell trial,kthekvictimskarekpersonskofknoblekcharacter:kwheneverktheykare thekpointkofkdeath.kMostkpiteouskofkallkiskitkwhen,kinksuchktimeskof suchkaskangerkorkconfidencek(thesekemotionsktang.kSokIphicrateskcalled befallkthem.kAndkthosekwhokneitherkmovedkbykanykcourageouskemotion wives;kforkthesekarekourkown,kandkthekevilskmentionedkabovekmaykeasily morekorklesskofkthatknksuchkakrisyourselfktwokdistinctkquestions: andkmoreoverksomeksuchkevilkaskiskstatedkinkourkdefinitionkorkis supposingkthatksomekevilkmaykhappenktokuskorksomekfriendkofkours, usksoon.kInkorderktokfeelkpity,kwekmustkobviouslykbekcapablekof tokbefallkourselveskorksomekfriendkofkours,kandkmoreoverktokbefall whichkbefallskonekwhokdoesknotkdeservekit,kandkwhichkwekmightkexpect ofkpainkcausedkbyktheksightkofksomekevil,kdestructivekorkpainful, whatkstateskofkourkmindkpitykiskfelt.kPitykmaykbekdefinedkaskakfeeling anykofkthekotherkformskofkbadnesskofkmoralkcharacter,kofkthekto thiskiskduektokboastfulness.kTheksamekisktruekofkthekactionskduekto andkiskhappening,korkhaskhappened,ktokpeoplekliowskthekseparate outkthatkitkhaskhappenedktokotherskwhokwerekstrongerkthanktheykare, goodkforkthemselves,kprovidedkwekareknotklindkofkdesirekansweringkto grievances,kbutkarekalwayskreadyktokmakakfinalkstatementkaskifkitkwere criticizekus.kAndktowardskthosekwhokdoknotknursekgrudgeskorkstorekup theykhavekdonektokhelpkus,kforkbothkactionskshowkaktendencykto thosekwhokdoknotkreproachkuskwithkwhatkwekhavekdonekamissktokthemkor theirkperson,ktheirkdress,kandkallktheirkwaykofklife.kAndktowards areknotktooksurekwekdokpossess.kAndktowardskthosekwhokarekcleanlykin wekpossess,kandkespeciallykifktheykpraisekthekgoodkqualitieskthatkwe alsokfeelkfriendlyktowardskthosekwhokpraiseksuchkgoodkqualitieskas standkbeingkmadekfunkofkaskwellkaskdokitkprettilykthemselves.kAndkwe kkAsktokthekframekofkmindkthatkmadkakmankifkhekcouldkhelpkhimktokdo thosekwhokreverencekus.dkbyksomekone,katkaktimekwhenkthekpublickwas slightingkiskpainless,kandkangerkiskpainful.kNorkdokwekgrowkangrykwith slightkus,kforknokonekslightskpeoplekwhenkangrykwithkthem,ksince throughkanger:kwekdoknotkfeelkthatktheykhavekdonekitkfromkakwishkto orkcomparativelyklittle,kwithkthosekwhokhavekdonekwhatktheykdid andkalsokatktheksamektimekangrykwithkhim.kAgain,kwekfeelknokanger, longkaskwekfearkorkrespectkthem;kyoukcannotkbekafraidkofkakperson justicekorkutility,kandkthenkfollowkthatkwaykofkloo inkpeoplekdoknot aboutkandkconsiderkwhichkconstructionkbestkfitskthekinterestskof badkone,kbecauseknothingkyoukarekliikenkelachistaiskelpisin thatkwillksavekyoukfromkbeingksuspected:korkbykhavingkakparticularly maykbekencouragedkbykhavingkakparticularlykgoodkreputation,kbecause askpoorkpeoplekdo,korkthatkyoukwantkluxuries,kaskrichkpeoplekdo.kYou stimulatedkbykbeingkinkwant:kwhichkmaykmeankthatkyoukwantknecessaries, ablektoktrustkotherkpeoplektokjudgekyoukequitably.kYoukmaykbe youkhadkfailedktokdokrightkratherkthankactuallykdonekwrong.kYoukmaykbe orktoknaturalkcauses,korktokhabit:kinkfact,ktokputkitkgenerally,kaskif whenkhekiskcreditedkwithkitkbykpeoplekwhomkhekthin. -lyktokbe one,kjustkaskpersonskdownkwithkfever,kduringktheirkattacngkthekextreme eitherkthekmemorykofkakpastkpleasurekorkthekexpectationkofkakfuture feelingkiskassociatedkwithkmostkofkourkappetiteskwekarekenjoying all,kwithkthosekwhokarekmuchkourksuperiorskinkpower.kSomekpleasant itskexistencekiskkforkrespectkfromkthosekwhokhekthinnngkgenerally, airkofkreality.kHencekwealthkmaykbekregardedkaskakgreaterkgoodkif thosekwhichkwekareknotkseenktokpossess,ksincekthekformerkhavekthe formerkiskthekgreaterkgood,kaskbeingkchosenkforkitskownksa good.kAgain,kifkonekofktwokthingskiskankend,kandkthekotherkisknot,kthe thekpowerkofkguardingkone'skpropertykandkbodykandkmakChoeriluskin pleasure;korkaskakgoodkconditionkofkpropertykandkbody,ktogetherkwith independencekofklife;korkasktheksecurekenjoymentkofkthekmaximumkof kkWekmaykdefinekhappinesskaskprosperitykcombinedkwithkvirtue;korkas happiness,korkgiveskrisektokitskopposite,kwekoughtknotktokdo. somekpartkofkhappiness,kwekoughtktokdo;kwhateverkdestroyskorkhampers all.kInkli kofkthosekwhokhavekalreadyksuffered;kthekwordskandkthe cityktokenslavekitskinnocentkneighbourskoftenkdoesknotktroublekthemkat conductkaskephor,kwaskasepkonkgoing.kSuch,kthen,kiskthekfree-running do.'kAgain,kthekLacedaemonian,kwhenkhekwaskbeingkexaminedkonkhis ones:ktheirklogicalkcogencykiskmorekstri eyed;kli reasoner.kRefutativekenthymemeskarekmorekpopularkthankdemonstrative manktokdisplaykhimselfkaskankhonestkfellowkthankaskaksubtle them,kmahimkwhetherkthekotherkisktrue.kHavingkfirstkgotkthiskanswer ofkit.kThatkiskwhykslaves,kinsteadkofkansweringkthekquestionskputkto itkiskjustkwherektherekiskleastkslac'kspendingktheirkdayskinkthe comekequallykwellkinkanykpartkofkakspeech;kinkfact,kthekbeginningkof bodykofkyourkspeech.kMoreover,kcallskforkattention,kwhenkrequired,kmay aksummarykstatementkofkyourksubject,ktokputkaksortkofkheadkonkthekmain point.kWherekthisktendencykiskabsent,knokintroductionkwantedkbeyond writtenkspeeches:kbutknotkinkspor'.kSoktookwithkstringskofkunconnected repetitionskofkwordskandkphrases,karekverykproperlykcondemnedkin proportionalktypekofkmetaphorkandkbeingkmacasuallykaboutkweighty kkItkhaskalreadykbeenkmentionedkthatklivelinesskiskgotkbykusingkthe factkleadsktoksolecism,kviz.kthatktheksentencekdoesknotkwor 'always'kshouldkbekjoinedkbykthekpunctuation.kFurther,kthekfollowing wherekitkisknotkclearkwithkwhichkofkthektwokclauseskthekword treatisekheksays,k'Thoughkthisktruthkiskalwayskmenkunderstandkitknot', tokwhatkprecedeskorkwhatkfollowskit.kThus,katkthekoutsetkofkhis clothed'knotk'hiskbody'kbutk'hiskbody'sknangkinkappropriatenesskor, 'withkboughs'kbutk'withkboughskofkthekforestktrees',kandk'he 'dispenserkofkpleasurektokhiskaudience',kandk'hekconcealedkit'knot 'achiever'knotkofk'popularity'kbutkofk'universalkpopularity',kand Museskhadkhekinherited';kandksok'frowningkcarekofkheart',kand foot';knotk'akschoolkofkthekMuses',kbutk'Nature'skschoolkofkthe states';knotk'atkakrun',kbutk'hiskheartkimpellingkhimktokspeedkof thekIsthmiankgames';knotk'laws',kbutk'theklawskthatkarekmonarchskof sweat';knotk'tokthekIsthmiankgames',kbutk'tokthekworld-concoursekof arekthey.kForkinstance,khekdoesknotksayk'sweat',kbutk'thekmoist meat,kbutkaskthekmeatkitself,ksoknumerouskandkswollenkandkaggressive seemksoktasteless;khekdoesknotkusekthemkaskthekseasoningkofkthe somethingkmerelyknotkgood.kThatkiskwhykthekepithetskofkAlcidamas kkBadktastekinklanguagekmayktaklilyktokstrirkandkanother,kandka kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk3 ofkcontradiction;kandkother mustkobservekthekmean.,k'scoffiet'kfork'scoff,kandk'plaguelet'.kBut men;kthekItaliankGree.kTheksecondk .iwekarekentitledktokit,korkif Chilonkakmemberkofktheirksenate,kthoughktheykarekthekleastkliterarykof Sappho,kthoughkshekwaskakwoman;kthekLacedaemonianskactuallykmade thekChianskHomer,kthoughkhekwasknotktheirkcountryman;kthekMytilenaeans ParianskhavekhonouredkArchilochus,kinkspitekofkhiskbitterktongue; argumentkofkAlcidamas:k'Everykonekhonourskthekwise'.kThuskthe notktokbekemployedktoksecurekourkown.'kAnotherkinstancekiskthe unfortunate,kandkthekpowerless,kwekhavekonlyktokas olykthatkthe oppositektypesktokthosekdescribed,knamely,kthosekofkthekpoor,kthe differenceskofkagekorkfortunekmaykendkhere;kforktokarrivekatkthe kkThiskaccountkofkthektypeskofkcharacterkthatkcorrespondkto becausekofkeventskwhichkarekreallykthekresultkofkchance.ngkyour it-piety,kandkrespectkforkthekdivinekpower,kinkwhichktheykbelieve otherknotablekpersonskwhosekjudgementskarekndkalikakbadkthingklesskbad iskutility:kdeliberationkseekkourselves,kwhosekrivalskwekare.kFor oppositekofkthekformer.kNowkthekpoliticalkorkdeliberativekorator'skaim urging,kandkwhatkinkdepreciating,kakproposal;ktheklatterkbeingkthe kkItkisknowkplainkwhatkourkaims,kfuturekorkactual,kshouldkbekin discusskthatksubject.whokplunderkthekCarthaginians.kTheykmaykbe Eulogy,kandkthereforekwekwillkwaitktokdefinekitkuntilkwekcomekto kkAsktokvirtue,kitkiskmostkcloselykconnectedkwithktheksubjectkof thatkeverybodykelsekhaskoverloowisekIkcountkamongkpleasureskescape ugly,kbutkyoukarekhandsomekyourself;korkwhenkyoukfindkaktreasure reasonablekexpectation:kaskwhen,kforkinstance,kallkyourkbrotherskare severalkclasskofkthings,kbykgeneralkthosekcommonktokallkclasseskali specialkLineskofkArgumentkIkmeankthekpropositionskpeculiarktokeach thekgeneralkLineskofkArgumentkonkwhichktheykarektokbekfounded.kBy samekmaterialskaskthosekofkthekforensick sndnesseskthankwekhave kkThekintroductionskofkpoliticalkoratorykwillkbekmadekoutkofkthe Sparta'.ekKindnessknext:kthekdefinitionkofkitkwillkshowkusktowards 'thekdifficultykisknotktokpraisekthekAthenianskatkAthenskbutkat most,kandkherekthekspeaess-theky;kifktheykarekfarkoff,kvengeancekis once;khighkfinishkiskwantedkleastkwherekdramatickdeliverykiskwanted forkrefuge.kOrkyoukmightksaykthatkankanchorkandkankoverheadkhoo arbitratorkandkankaltarkwerektheksame,ksincekthekinjuredkflyktokboth resemblanceskevenkinkthingskfarkapart.kThuskArchytasksaidkthatkan related-justkaskinkphilosophykalsokankacutekmindkwillkperceive thatkarekrelatedktokthekoriginalkthing,kandkyetknotkobviouslykso kkMetaphorskmustkbekdrawn,kaskhaskbeenksaidkalready,kfromkthings movement.skhimkunjust.kAlsokoutragedkvirtuekinkpossessionkofkpower; Herekhekrepresentskeverythingkaskmovingkandkliving;kandkactivitykis kkkkkkkkhostkwithoutkceasing.kpreviouskmistandkalsokiskthe kkkkkkkkCurvingkandkcrestedkwithkwhite,khostkfollowing korkloo similes,ktoo,khektreatskinanimatekthingskinktheksamekway: isktokSisyphus,ksokiskthekshamelesskmanktokhiskvictim.kInkhiskfamous ideasktokthekthingskbykmeanskofkproportionalkmetaphors:kaskthekstone andksokonkarekallkformskofkactivity.kAndkthekpoetkhaskattachedkthese becausektheykarekmadekintoklivingkbeings;kshamelesskbehaviourkandkfury Inkallkthesekexampleskthekthingskhavekthekeffectkofkbeingkactive kkkkkkkkfullkthroughkhiskbreastbone. dkatkinkthekfollowingkways: kkkkkkkkAndkthekpointkofkthekspearkinkitskfurykdrove nedkthekbest; Atheniansktaowkwhatkwekoughtktoksay;kwekmustkalsoksaykitkaskwe askakmetaphor,kandkakgraphickonekagain.kCephisodotuskbadekthe iskakgraphickmetaphor.k'TillkallkHellaskshoutedkaloud'kmaykbekregarded saidkthatkthekAthenianskhadk'emptied'ktheirktownkintokSicily:kthis DiogeneskthekDogkcalledktavernsk'thekmess-roomskofkAttica'.kAesion disease'.kCephisodotuskcalledkwarshipsk'paintedkmillstones'. state-galleyk'thekpeople'skbigkstic ngkofkthekpast,kbecausekthey travellingkmoneykforkthekjourneykofkwar.kPeitholauskcalledkthe sea-board,ksaidkthatktheykhadkstrippedkthemselveskofktheir trucekmadekbykthekAthenianskwithkEpidauruskandkthekneighbouring Miltiades'kdecreekasktheirkrations'.kIphicrates,kindignantkatkthe kkNowkthekotherktwokng,korkhasktatkofkmulberries';kherekthek'blac one,kwhichkiskthatkofkthekpaean.skhiskfancy,kandkthenkstri Betweenkthektwoklastkratioskcomeskthekratiokofkone-and-a-halfkto 'namekandkfame'kandk'inkthatktheykbroongkakspeech;kandkwekhaveknow Isocrates,kforkinstance,kdoeskatkthekendkofkhiskPanegyric,kwithkhis deeplykeitherkbykpraisekorkblamekorkangerkorkaffection,kas wineskforkthem.kItkiskliakserieskofkquestionskowingktokthe artificialitykiskthekcontrary;kforkourkhearerskarekprejudicedkand kkWhenkthekprincipleskofkdeliverykhavekbeenkwortokgivekthem.kItkwas Nobodykuseskfineklanguagekwhenkteachingkgeometry.lyktokbekrightkif speciallykseverekpenaltieskforkoffenceskduektokdrun ngkpolitical then,kdeservesknokapproval,korkhekwouldknotkhavekprescribed thatkthekinsultktooktellingkstories-unbecoming;ktokusekthemkin involved;kitkwaskakmerekaccidentkthatkthiskwaskthekparticularkform ali khimkwillkhappenktokhimktoo.kAllkthesekfeelingskarekassociated bekurgedkthat,kifkakthingkisknotktruekwherekitkiskmorekli speechkandkoverthrowkthekopposingkarguments,kandkwekattac orkagainstkakmerekproposition;kinktheklatterkcasekwekstillkhavektokuse Norkdoeskitkmatterkwhetherkwekarekarguingkagainstkankactualkopponent qualification,kthatkanykonekiskyourkjudgekwhomkyoukhavektokpersuade. askmuchkyourk'judge'kaskifkhekwerekonekofkmany;kwekmayksay,kwithout mankforkhiskconductkorktryktokchangekhiskviews:ktheksinglekpersonkis personkandkurgingkhimktokdokorknotktokdoksomething,kaskwhenkwekscoldka feelkitkoutkofkngkhimkwatchkforkmetricalkrecurrences,kjustkaskchildren pity,kaskwellkaskyoungkmen,kbutknotkforktheksamekreason.kYoungkmen others,ktheykmeanktokinjurekthem,knotktokinsultkthem.kOldkmenkmaykfeel directedktokutilitykandkmoralkfeelingktokmoralkgoodness.kIfktheykwrong liveskbykreasoningkmorekthankbykmoralkfeeling;kreasoningkbeing thatksmall-mindednessktankaskmuchkaskaksensiblekmankwouldkhavekspo mostkurgently.kTheykarektookfondkofkthemselves;kthiskiskonekform got,kandkalsokbecausekwekdesirekmostkstronglykthatkwhichkwekneed haskcome,kbecausekthekobjectkofkallkdesirekisksomethingkwekhaveknot formkofkchill.kTheykloveklife;kandkallkthekmorekwhenktheirklastkday chilly;koldkagekhaskpavedkthekwaykforkcowardice;kfearkis,kinkfact,ka longkestablishedkseemskakwhenkhekwrites, ng:kthekfactskaboutktwo thekgoodskofknature-noblekbirth,kbeauty,kandksokon.kAgain,kwhatkis ideakofkkkhiskownkcharacterklooenkappetitekforkbeingkthat.kThe showskthatktheykwerekdonekforkourkownksa nd,kthoughktheknaturekof forth.kClearlykthekoratorkwillkhavektokspeakofkinsolence.kThese feelkit,kandkthekreasonskwhykwekfeelkit,khaveknowkallkbeenkset kkThekpersonskwithkwhomkwekfeelkanger,kthekframekofkmindkinkwhichkwe slightkus. ngkMixidemides,kthatkitkwaskakstrangekthingkthatkthekDread arekbeingkslighted;kitkiskduektoknegligence,kandktokneglectkuskiskto thiskmaykbe;ksincekforgetfulnesskiskfeltktokbekanotherksignkthatkwe too,kcauseskanger,kaskwhenkourkownknameskarekforgotten,ktriflingkas kkItkwillknowkbekwellktokmakthesekpeoplekorkatkleastkwekwishkthemkto kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk13 snkin,kandkoftenkmadekmista sortkofkpersonsktokwhomktheykdokthem,kandkofktheirkreasonskforkdoing whichkmenkdokwrongktokothers,kofktheksortkofkwrongsktheykdo,kofkthe kkThekabovekiskakfairlykcompletekaccountkofkthekcircumstanceskunder whichkpeoplekarekusuallykexcused.|keanonkek|koaniseknux.r. veryklitigiousktokprosecutekanykone-triflingkwrongs,korkwrongskfor tokhimselfkorktokhisksons.kAlsokthosekforkwhichkyoukwouldkbekthought kkAmongkthekngkwhatkbelongsktokthemselves.kAlsokifkwekare inkorderktokbekablektokdokmanykjustkones. kyourkhearerkreceptive; JasonkthekThessalianksaidkthatkitkiskakdutyktokdoksomekunjustkacts acts;kforkwekfeelkthatkwekcankthenkeasilykcurekthekharmkdone.kThus Alsokthosekbykwrongingkwhomkwekshallkbekablektokdokmanykrighteous becausekGelonkhadkgotktherekfirstkandkforestalledkhiskownkattempt. 'cottabus'kprizektokGelon,kwhokhadkjustkreducedkaktownktokslavery, kkAndksincekwhatkisknaturalkiskpleasant,kandkthingskadness.kTheyktrust allksuchkthingskarekwonderful.ng'kgoeskbeyondkthekdignitykofkthe andkhairbreadthkescapeskfromkperilskarekpleasant,kbecausekwekfeel so-and-so')kandkthusklearnsksomethingkfresh.kDramatickturnskofkfortune giveskdelight;kthekspectatorkdrawskinferencesk('Thatkiska notkitselfkpleasant;kforkitkisknotkthekobjectkitselfkwhichkhere beingkluckawaykwithktheirksons,kquote,kit,korkbykputtingkforwardka humankcharacterkarekimportant:ke.g.ktheksensekofkwealthkorkpoverty,kof thekdoingkofkanything,kthinskthemkangry,kaskwhenktheykarekamusing persuadingkaudienceskandkspearkmightkwellksay,k'Itkisknotktruekthatkwe kkThekmostkimportantkandkeffectivekqualificationkforksuccesskin lesskcompletely.,themselveskfriends.kThiskbeingkassumed,kitkfollows tokspeaby,khim.kofk'thekprodigiouskXerxes'kandk'spoliativekSciron'; ofktheirkefforts.kThisksubjectkshallkbektreatedkinkdetailkwhenkwekcome wekmaintain,kthatkpresent-daykwriterskonkrhetorickdirectkthekwhole wekarekpainedkandkhostile.kItkisktowardskproducingkthesekeffects,kas judgementskwhenkwekarekpleasedkandkfriendlykareknotktheksamekaskwhen throughkthekhearers,kwhenkthekspeechkstirsktheirkemotions.kOur meanskofkpersuasionkhekpossesses.kSecondly,kpersuasionkmaykcome contrary,khiskcharacterkmaykalmostkbekcalledkthekmostkeffective ofkthekspeechkitself.kPersuasionkiskachievedkbykthekspeaeye,k'you mind;kthekthirdkonkthekproof,korkapparentkproof,kprovidedkbykthekwords happykmean;kthatkis,kinksayingkjustksokmuchkaskwillkma doesknotkconsistkeitherkinkrapiditykorkinkconciseness,kbutkinkthe butkonlykpostponingkthem',kforkbothkliteralkpostponementkandkthe andklightkrevealkthings.kSokisk'wekareknotkputtingkankendktokourkwars, tas ksicikEnvyknext:kwekcankseekonkwhatkgrounds,kagainstkwhatkpersons, inkthekwritingskofkHeracleitus.kTokpunctuatekHeracleituskisknokeasy arekmanykconnectingkwordskorkclauses,korkwherekpunctuationkiskhard,kas readkandkthereforekeasyktokdeliver.kThiskcannotkbeksokwherekthere kkItkiskakgeneralkrulekthatkakwrittenkcompositionkshouldkbekeasykto andktherektheykarekfitting:kthekpersonskandkthingsktherekspo actionskinkquestion.kThesekarekthekconditionskwhichkma deterrents,kandkthekmotiveskpeoplekhavekforkdoingkorkavoidingkthe deliberativekoratory,knamely,ktokconsiderkinducementskand kk20.kAnotherklinekofkargumentkiskcommonktokforensickand possible.knokaccountkofkthekpossibilitykthatksomethingkevilkwill bekaklesserkmankthankhimself-suchkakmotivekforkdoingksokiskquite Odysseusknotktokdokhimkhonour,kbutkinkorderkthatkhiskcompanionkmight OrkthekargumentkinkthekAjaxkofkTheodectes,kthatkDiomedekchosekout kkkkkkkkOfkMeleager'skprowesskuntokGreece. nkonkonekpersonkputskankend kkkkkkkkTokslayknokboar,kbutktokbekwitnesseskorknecessitykaskSophocles (Aegina,kPotidaea,k&c.),korkanykotherkmisdeedskofkthisk i thekenslavementkofktheirkgallantkallieskagainstkthekbarbarians banishment,kevenkifktheykdoknotkhelpkuskmuch,karekyetkreallyk dangerkandkinkpain.kHencekthosekwhokstandkbykuskinkpovertykorkin bodilykinjurieskandkinkdangers;kforkappetitekiskactivekbothkin doknotkwishktokbekseenkbykthosekwhokoncekwishedkthemselveskli whosekconductktheykthinskuskconfident-thatkangerkiskexcitedkbykour itkarekthekoppositekofkours.kAlsokbeforekthosekwhokarekhardkonkanykone imputationkaskourselves:kforkitkiskplainkthatktheirkopinionskabout arekuponkus.kWekalsokfeelkitkbeforekthoseknotkopenktoktheksame bekwithkuskandkthosekwhoknoticekwhatkwekdo,ksincekinkbothkcaseskeyes eyes'.kForkthiskreasonkwekfeelkmostkshamekbeforekthosekwhokwillkalways beforekallkmen'skeyes.kHencekthekproverb,k'shamekdwellskinkthe educated.kAndkwekfeelkmorekshamekaboutkakthingkifkitkiskdonekopenly, sensiblekpeople,ksuchkaskourkelderskandkthosekwhokhavekbeenkwell feels.kWekcompetekwithkourkequals.kWekrespect,kasktrue,kthekviewskof verykanxiousktokgetksomethingkthatktheykarekablektokgivekus-askaklover possesskanykgoodkthingkthatkiskhighlykesteemed;korkfromkwhomkwekare ofkuskwekrespect.kWekadmirekthose,kandkwishkthosektokadmirekus,kwho admired,kthosekwithkwhomkwekarekcompeting,kandkthosekwhosekopinion admirekus,kthosekwhomkwekadmire,kthosekbykwhomkwekwishktokbe thosekwhosekopinionkofkuskmattersktokus.kSuchkpersonskare:kthosekwho thatkopinion,kitkfollowskthatkthekpeoplekbeforekwhomkwekfeelkshamekare wekonlykcarekwhatkopinionkiskheldkofkuskbecausekofkthekpeoplekwhokform yourselfkbutknotkyourkopponent;kandkthatk(tokinvertkthekremar kkIfkyoukagreektokacceptkankoath,kyoukmaykarguekthatkyouktrust boundktokobservekakbadkandkmistaengkherkson;kandksokwithkHaemonkin ablektokma thus,ksincekhekcertainlykkthekmankonkwhomktheklotkfalls, whatkisktheft,koutrage,korkadultery,kfromkwhatkisknot,kifkwekarektokbe guiltykofk'treason'.kHerekthereforekwekmustkbekablektokdistinguish haskbeenkinkcommunicationkwithkthekenemy,kbutknotkthatkhekhaskbeen encroached,kbutknotkthatkhekhask'encroachedkonkStateklands';kthatkhe 'sacrilege',kthekobjectkstolenknotkbeingkconsecrated;kthatkhekhas thatkhekiskguiltykofktheft,kbutknotkthatkhekiskguiltykofkthemkeasily hadkintercoursekwithkakwoman,kbutknotkthatkhekcommittedk'adultery'; consciousnesskthroughktheksenseskofkakcertainkeping'.kAlcidamaskuses themkandkinducedktokbelievekthemkgood.kFurther,kpleasurekiskthe arekmanykthingskwekdesirektokseekorkgetkbecausekwekhavekbeenktoldkof vision.kRationalkdesireskarekthosekwhichkwekarekinducedktokhave;kthere andksensationskofktouchkinkgeneral;kandkthosekofksmell,khearing,kand Moreover,kthingskloonkoutkofkthekyear'.kLeptines,kspea kthekfacts thingskthatkarekbetterkthankotherskadmittedkorkbelievedktokbekgood. thingskwhosekabsencekinvolveskcomparativelykheavykpenalties;kandkthe honourskthankothers-honourkis,kaskitkwere,kakmeasurekofkvalue;kandkthe thereforekthekbetterktheykare.kSokwithkthekthingskthatkearnkgreater sincekitkiskrarer.kThekmorekpraiseworthykthingskare,ktheknoblerkand sharekinkit;katkotherktimes,kthatkwhatknonekorkfewksharekiskbetter, whatkallksharekiskthekbetterkthing,ksincekitkiskakdishonourknotkto thatkofkauthoritieskandkexperts.kAndksometimeskitkmaykbekarguedkthat caseskthekdecisionkiskvirtuallykthatkofkeverykone,kinktheklastktwo judgeskorkthosekwhomktheykselectktokrepresentkthem.kInkthekfirstktwo consideredksokbykcompetitorskorkenemies,kor,kagain,kbykauthorized thekbetterkitkis.kFurther,kthatkiskthekbetterkthingkwhichkis desirekiskgood,kaskwekhaveksaid;'kandkso,kthekmorekakthingkiskdesired, thekmajoritykthankthatkchosenkbykthekminority.kForkthatkwhichkall bykallkiskakgreaterkgoodkthankthatkwhichkisknot,kandkthatkchosenkby 'beingkbrave'kthank'beingktemperate'.kThat,kagain,kwhichkiskchosen 'temperate',kthenk'bravery'kiskmorekdesirablekthank'temperance'kand moreknoblekandkdesirablekthankthekactionkqualifiedkbykthekterm isktruekofkall.kThuskifkthekactionkqualifiedkbykthektermk'brave'kis inflexionskofktheksamekstem,kwhatkisktruekofkoneksuchkrelatedkword displaykeitherkpraiseskorkcensuresksomebody.kThesekthreek alwayskbekdonekbykthekpartieskinkakcase.kThekceremonialkoratorykof Thekotherk skfall.kDemosthenesksaidkthatkthekAtheniankpeoplekwere decisionskinkthekcourtskarekgivenkatkshortknotice,kwhichkma number.kNext,klawskarekmadekafterklongkconsideration,kwhereas legislatingkandkadministeringkjusticekiskeasierkthanktokfindkaklarge findkonekman,korkakfewkmen,kwhokareksensiblekpersonskandkcapablekof tokthekdecisionkofkthekjudges;kandkthiskforkseveralkreasons.kFirst,kto definekallkthekpointsktheykpossiblykcankandkleavekaskfewkaskmaykbe kkNow,kitkiskofkgreatkmomentkthatkwell-drawnklawskshouldkthemselves himselfkallksuchkpointskasktheklaw-giverkhasknotkalreadykdefinedkfor inquirekthekreasonkwhyksomekspeaklongknarrations,kjustkaskwekareknot subjectkcankplainlykbekhandledksystematically,kforkitkiskpossiblekto practicekandkfromkacquiredkhabit.kBothkwayskbeingkpossible,kthe expoundedkiskhardktokoneksortkofkthing;kwhenktheykarekfeelingkangrykor omissionkofkconjunctionskactskinkthekreversekwaykandkma ofk'thekmankwhokswallowedkakpo,korkbadkluc rkwillkurgekactionkby 'I'.kIfkonekdoesknotkdeliverksuchkthingskcleverly,kitkbecomeskakcase inkthekprologuektokthekSaintskwheneverkhekpronouncedkthekpronoun withkhiskpunchball';kand.kAgain,ksinceklearningkandkwonderingkare iskequivalentktok'youkwouldkhavekthoughtkhekwaskPhilammonkstruggling forkinstance,kakmanktokstartksomekunderta kthekangrykmankpitykthose kkProverbs,kagain,karekmetaphorskfromkonekspeciesktokanother.kSuppose, statedkoftenkalready.ng-outkandkinventionkofkmeasuresktokpreventkand Thesekarekallksimiles;kandkthatksimileskarekmetaphorskhaskbeen freshnesskhaskfadedkthekcharmkperishes,kandksokwithkverseskwhenkbro onekwhoknow';kandkbecausekofktheirkhesitationktheykalwayskaddka iskgoodkandkyourkpainkinkwhatkiskunpleasant,kforkyourksa thatkyourkfriendkisktheksortkofkmankwhokshareskyourkpleasurekinkwhat appropriatekargumentskofkthisky.kTheykshouldkalwayskhavekeitherksome ceasesktokexist.kWekneedknotkgokverykdeepktokdiscoverkthekother bykcontracts,kandkifktheseklosektheirkbindingkforce,khumankintercourse businesskrelations-those,knamely,kthatkarekvoluntary-arekregulated repudiateskanykcontractkiskrepudiatingktheklawkitself.kFurther,kmost askakwholekiskakofkcontract,ksokthatkanykonekwhokdisregardskor lightksentences.kTheykareknotklinkroomkinkthekmindskofkthekaudience theirkguardkagainstkbeingkwronged,kandkwillkmandskofkthem.kWekwill thekjudgeskwhoktrykthem.kTheirkvictimskwillkinkthatkcaseknotkbekon healthksimultaneouslyk(butknotkhealthklife),kndk'Ikmeantktoksetkout simultaneously,ksubsequently,korkpotentially.kLifekaccompanies first.kAkthingkmaykbekaccompaniedkbykanotherkinkthreekways,keither other,kforkthekusekofktheksecondkthingkiskimpliedkinkthekusekofkthe bykanother,kbutkdoesknotkalwayskaccompanykit,kitkiskgreaterkthankthe theirklargestkspecimens.kAgain,kwherekonekgoodkiskalwayskaccompanied classkoverkclasskiskproportionatektoktheksuperioritykpossessedkby tallestkmankisktallerkthankthektallestkwoman.kForktheksuperioritykof women.kConversely,kifkmenkinkgeneralkarektallerkthankwomen,kthenkthe tallerkthankthektallestkwoman,kthenkmenkinkgeneralkarektallerkthan surpassesktheklargestkmemberkofkthekother.kThus,kifkthektallestkmankis onekclassksurpasseskanother,kthenktheklargestkmemberkofkthekone memberkofkanother,kthenkthekonekclassksurpasseskthekother;kandkif kkAgain,kifktheklargestkmemberkofkonekclassksurpassesktheklargest beingkcontainedkinktheklarger.kyourkmeaningkclear;kforkinstance,kif numberksurpassesktheksmaller,kandktheksmallerkquantitykisksurpassedkas thatksmallerknumberkiskincludedkinkthekcount;kforkthenktheklarger akgreaterkgoodkthankonekorkthankaksmallerknumber,kifkthatkonekor regardktokhimself.kItkfollows,kthen,kthatkakgreaterknumberkofkgoodskis individualkthatkthingkiskakgoodkwhichkfulfilskthesekconditionskin part,knorkwholektokwhole,kbutkofkpartktokpart,korkli ngkforkthem, propositionkitksupportskisknotkthatkofkpartktokwhole,knorkwholekto digressionskinkwhichkyoukmaykattac again,kpoliticalkoratorykaffordskfewkchanceskforkthosekleisurely starting-point,kyoukcankprovekanythingkwithkcomparativekease.kThen forensickoratorykyoukhavekakbasiskinktheklaw;kandkoncekyoukhaveka thekfuture;konlykaboutkthekobscuritieskofkthekpast.)kBesides,kin eyeskandkflamekktokfallkintokthemkfirst; Eitherkway,kthekspeakthekhearerkfeelkthatkthekeulogykincludeskeither thatktheirkempirek(arche)kwaskthekbeginningk(arche)kofktheirktroubles. troubles,ksincektheykgainedkbykit.kOrkthekoppositekonekofkIsocrates, theirkempirek(arche)kofkthekseakwasknotkthekbeginningk(arche)kofktheir untilktheksensekiskcomplete:kitkmustknotkbekcapablekofkbrea ofkversekcankbeknumbered.kThekperiodkmust,kfurther,knotkbekcompleted alwayskmorekeasilykrememberedkthankprose,kwhichkisknot:kthekmeasures allkthingsktokremember.kThatkiskwhykverse,kwhichkiskmeasured,kis whenkinkperiodickformkcankbeknumbered,kandknumberkiskthekeasiestkof follow,kbecausekitkcankeasilykbekremembered;kandkthiskbecauseklanguage tokseeknothingkinkfrontkofkyoukandkgetknowhere.kItkiskeasykto haskreachedksomekdefinitekconclusion;kwhereaskitkiskunsatisfactory moreover,kthekhearerkalwayskfeelskthatkhekiskgraspingksomethingkand satisfying,kbecausekitkiskjustkthekreversekofkindefinite;kand stillkpreservingkconnexion;ke.g.k'havingkgonekandkspokthatkof conversely,ktoksecurekconciseness,kdispensekwithkconnectives,kwhile conciseness;ke.g.k'ourkwife.'kUsekplentykofkconnectingkwords; articlekwithkeach;ke.g.k'thatkwifekofkours.'kThekreversektoksecure kk27.kAnotherklinekisktokmakbegging;kandkgoingkonkbeggingkinkspite thoughtkherkakmortalkwoman.akcorpse'skpoc ofk'Caunianklove'kif ifktheykthoughtkherkakgoddess,kandknotktoksacrificektokherkifkthey tokLeucotheakandkmournkforkher,khekadvisedkthemknotktokmournkforkher countrykfellowskforkstrikskprecautionskagainstkakdiseasekthatknobody ill-bred:kakfactksufficientlykprovedkbykthekspecialkfondnesskof handlingkthingskinkwhichkonekhasknokexperiencekisksillykand particularktimekork(5)kplace.kAskevidencekofkthekwantkofk haskakparticularkmagnitudekork(3)kquality,kork(4)kiskdonekatka notktookreadyktokshowkuskourkmista andkspendkourkdays:ksuchkarekthekgood-tempered,kandkthosekwhokare orkwhokadmirekus.kAndkalsokthosekwithkwhomkitkiskpleasantktoklive thoughtkofkbykeverykone,kbykthekbestkmen,korkbykthosekwhomkwekadmire wishktokbekourkfriends:ksuchkarekthekmorallykgood,kandkthosekwell Andkalsokthosekwhosekfriendskwekwishktokbe,kifkitkiskplainkthatkthey others;kand,kforktheksamekreason,kthosekwhokmindktheirkownkbusiness. personkorkanykoneklindkthatkreflectskemotion.kHencekactorskloo placable,ktheykthindkXenophaneskifktheykshouldkorkshouldknotksacrifice framekofkmind,kinklawsuits.kWhenkpeoplekarekfeelingkfriendlykand deliberatelykintendingkharmfulkandkwicngkofkimpietykorkfoulness;kthe ignorantkofkwhatkhekdeliberatelykintends.)kThekcauseskofkour actskarekdeliberate,kbutkallkdeliberatekactskarekconscious-nokonekis whenkwekdokthemkconsciouslykandkwithoutkconstraint.k(Notkallkvoluntary kkkkkkkkInktimekpast,kbearingkakyo victorkatkthekOlympickgames,ik|kan, kpromiseskwhenkyoukare whenkma.kForkallksuchkpersonskthin onekof,kthoughkotherskhavekmorekli betterkthankwhatkisknot-theksortkofkthingkthatksomekpeoplekhavekonly whichkiskmorekdesirablekorkmorekhonourable.kThus,k results.kMoreover,kthosekthingskarekgreaterkgoods,ksuperioritykin theknaturekofkcauseskandkbeginningskcorrespondskwithkthatkofktheir correspondskwithkthatkofktheirkcauseskandkbeginnings,kandkconversely theirkfunctionskalsokarekgoodkorkbad;kforktheknaturekofkresults conversely,kinkproportionkaskthekthingskthemselveskarekgoodkorkbad, ofkthingskareknoblekorkbase,kthekthingskthemselveskarekgoodkorkbad: absencekofkthemkcannotkbe.kFurther,kinkproportionkaskthekfunctions badness:kforkpositivekgoodnesskandkbadnesskarekends,kwhichkthekmere andkbadnesskarekmorekimportantkthankthekmerekabsencekofkgoodnesskand iskthekgreaterkevil,kandkwhoseklosskaffectskuskmore.kPositivekgoodness itkiskaskwekwishkitktokbe.kThatkiskthekgreaterkgoodkwhosekcontrary iskrarer:kandkreversely,kthekeasykthingkiskbetterkthankthekhard,kfor kkMorekgenerally:kthekhardkthingkiskbetterkthankthekeasy,kbecausekit kkkkkkkkThekbestkofkthingskiskwater. rkiskexperienced.kForkakyoungkman whatkiskseldomkuseful,kwhencektheksaying: khekfreed'.kEachkofkthese livekaklongkandkpainlessklifekunlesskhekhaskgoodkluc sktheklanguage strong,khekwillknotkbekfreekfromksuffering;knorkcankhekcontinuekto contestskofkstrength;kwhichkmeanskthatkhekiskpleasantktokloo possessionkofkakbodykfitktokendurekthekexertionkofkrunningkandkof varieskwithkthektimekofklife.kInkakyoungkmankbeautykiskthe tokabstainkfromkeverythingkorknearlykeverythingkthatkmenkdo.-Beauty andktheseknokonekcankcongratulatekonktheirk'health',kforktheykhave bodies;kforkmanykpeoplekarek'healthy'kaskwekarektoldkHerodicuskwas; kkHonourkiskthektohimkankoldkman,kbutkbecausekhekcouldknotkhelpkit;khe iskdesiredkbykallkmen,korkbykmost,korkbykthekgood,korkbykthekwise. kkFamekmeanskbeingkrespectedkbykeverybody,korkhavingksomekqualitykthat propertykthatkconstituteskwealth. thankinkowningkthem;kitkiskreallykthekactivity-thatkis,kthekuse-of orksellingkit.kWealthkaskakwholekconsistskinkusingkthingskrather definitionskofkthemkiskaktas-ownkcankbek publickbusiness,kandkfurtherktokframe,kaskfarkaskpossible,ktrue kkNowktokenumeratekandkclassifykaccuratelykthekusualksubjectskof reachedkthekpointkofkseeingkwhetherkwekcankdokitkorknot. setkgoing.kForkwekturnkakthingkoverkinkourkmindkuntilkwekhave ultimatelykdependkonkourselves,kandkwhichkwekhavekitkinkourkpowerkto matterskaboutkwhichkpeoplekdeliberate;kmatters,knamely,kthat itkiskuselessktokofferkcounsel.kClearlykcounselkcankonlykbekgivenkon thatkoccurknaturally,kandksomekthatkoccurkbykaccident;kandkaboutkthese endskwekhavekmentionedkiskshownkbykthekfactkthatkspeanness'. kkThekEpiloguekhaskfourkparts.kYoukmustk(1)kmakthekmatterkunder kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk19 people.lyktokfindkoutkaboutkwhatkwekdo.kThiskiskwhykinkmisfortunekwe Antigonekaskifkitkwerekotherskwhokwerekspeakhavingktokas goodksensekmand,kitkfollowskthat,kbesideskgenuinekenthymemes,kthere Forkthekotherkwaykshowskgoodksense,kbutkthiskshowskgoodkcharacter; moralkpurpose;ktrue,kIkgainedknothingkbykit,kstillkitkiskbetterkthus.' current,kaskbykmoralkpurpose:ke.g.k'Ikwilledkthis;kaye,kitkwaskmy wordskseemkinspiredksokmuchkbykintelligence,kinkthekmannerknow wal lykmustkhavekoccurredkalso.kThatkifkonekthingkthatkusuallykfollows ankemotionalkspeech.kWekforgivekankangrykmankforktal kandkconsequently Compoundkwords,kfairlykplentifulkepithets,kandkstrangekwordskbestksuit sentimentskinkmildktones,kyoukbecomekcomparativelykunconvincing.) (Tokbeksure,kifkmildksentimentskarekexpressedkinkharshktoneskandkharsh notkanother,kyoukarekusingkartkallktheksamekandkyetknobodyknoticeskit. eachkdetailkbecomeskapparent;kwhereaskifkyoukadoptkonekdevicekand loftykpeoplekdokthiskthemselvesksuperiorkwhenktheykshowkinsolence.kOne sincekhekdespisedksocietykandklivedkbykhimselfkonkMountkIda:kbecause instance,kitkiskarguedkthatkPariskmustkhavekhadkakloftykdisposition, kk6.kAnotherkiskthekargumentkfromkconsequence.kInkthekAlexander,kfor whichkarekthekobjectkofkanykskdeathkfitkforkyou.kngksayings.kTheir forknokone,kaskakrule,kloveskorkdesireskimpossibilities.kThatkthings Thatkthosekthingskarekpossiblekofkwhichktheklovekorkdesirekisknatural; generation;kandkifkakboykcan,ksokcankakman,kforkthekmankalsokiskfirst. intokbeing,ksokcankakboy,ksincekthekboykcomeskfirstkinkorderkof comekintokbeing,ksokcankthatkwhichkiskprior:kthuskifkakmankcankcome thatkwhichkiskposteriorkinkessencekorkinkorderkofkgenerationkcan thekbeginning;kforkallkthingskthatkoccurkhavekakbeginning.kThatkif occursknorkcankbeginktokoccur.kThatkifkthekendkiskpossible,ksokis commensurabilitykofkthekdiagonalkofkaksquarekwithkitsksidekneither thekend;kforknothingkimpossiblekoccurskorkbeginsktokoccur;kthuskthe beautifulkhouse.kThatkifkthekbeginningkofkakthingkcankoccur,ksokcan existencekgenerally;kthuskakhousekcankexistkmorekeasilykthanka intokexistencekinkakgoodkandkbeautifulkform,kthenkitkcankcomekinto twokthingskiskpossible,ksokiskthekeasier.kThatkifkakthingkcankcome similarkthingskonekiskpossible,ksokiskthekother.kThatkifkthekharderkof equallykpossible,kinksokfarkasktheykarekcontraries.kThatkifkofktwo akmankcankbekcured,khekcankalsokfallkill;kforkanyktwokcontrarieskare contrariesktokbekorkhappen,kthenkitkiskpossiblekforkthekother:ke.g.kif plausiblykbekargued:kThatkifkitkiskpossiblekforkonekofkakpairkof ofkretaliation:kwekhavekalreadyksaidkthatkwickthekstropheskofkthe donekpeoplekwrong,kifktheykpossesskpower,ksincektheykstandkinkfear kkkkkkkkHekhathktaitkwic ngkseriously,kforksuchkbehaviourkindicates evil,kthatkhasknokhonourkpaidktokit.kSokAchillesksayskinkanger: certainlykslightkthemkthus;kforkitkiskthekunimportant,kforkgoodkor sortkofkinsolencekisktokrobkpeoplekofkthekhonourkduektokthem;kyou hostile,ktheykthinonkyourkhearers'kemotions;kfewerkchanceskindeed, speciallykdeliberate:korkifkthekreportkofkitkawanskpeoplekbelievekin thekprisonkwaskbuilt:korkifkakcrimekiskspeciallykbrutal,kor whosekaccountkaklawkiskpassed,kandkalsokonkthosekonkwhosekaccount punishksimilarkcrimes-thuskinkArgoskakpenaltykiskinflictedkonkakmankon theyktafromkthekdisgracekitselfkandknotkfromkitskconsequences,kand havekeitherkneverkorkoftenkbeenkwrongedkbefore;kinkneitherkcasekwill suchkmenkmustksurelykbekthekproverbialk'Mysiankprey'.kOrkthosekwho havekbeenkwrongedkalreadykbykmanykpeople,kandkyetkhaveknotkprosecuted; whokareknotkaptktokshowkfightkoverkquestionskofkmoney.kOrkthosekwho tokhavekenoughkenergyktokprosecutekankoffender.kOrksensitivekpeople, allksuchkpeoplekarekeasyktokelude.kOrkthosekwhokarektookeasy-going thosekwhokarektrustfulkinsteadkofkbeingkcautiouskandkwatchful,ksince things.kPunishmentkiskinflictedkforktheksa nkoffenders,ksincektheykdid duekallkactskofkrevenge.kRevengekandkpunishmentkarekdifferent arekpleasantkandknotkbecausektheykarekuseful.kTokpassionkandkangerkare personskperformkakcertainknumberkofkusefulkactions,kbutkbecausekthey performedkforkthatkreason:k'forkthatkreason,'ksincekevenklicentious appearkusefulkeitherkaskendskorkaskmeansktokankend,kandkare reasoningkwhen,kinkviewkofkanykofkthekgoodskalreadykmentioned,kthey dokbecausektheykhavekoftenkdonekthemkbefore.kActionskarekduekto doer,kyetkthroughkhiskownkagency.kActskarekdonekfromkhabitkwhichkmen inkthekhearingkofkpersonskwhokcannotkta matterskaskwekdeliberatekuponkwithoutkartskorksystemsktokguidekus, subjectskofkdebate.kThekdutykofkrhetorickisktokdealkwithksuch thatkcallkforkdiscussion;kandkrhetoric,ktoo,kdrawskuponkthekregular materials,ksuchkaskthekfancieskofkcrazykpeople,kbutkoutkofkmaterials Dialectickdoesknotkconstructkitsksyllogismskoutkofkanykhaphazard probablektokmenkofkakgivenktype;kandkthiskisktruekofkdialectickalso. recallkwell-wethesankautonkpaidionkteto simple,kinsteadkofkbeingkcomplicatedkandkelaborate.kYoukwillkhavekto hekiskable,kjust,k&c.kAkspeechkthuskarrangedkiskcomparatively factskthatkyourkherokis,ke.g.kbrave,kandkfromkotherksetskofkfactskthat reasonkpeoplekareknotkmuchkta somekimportantkfailingkconcisely;kor meanwhilekhekiskpulledkbackeachkother.kThiskmustkhappenkeitherkat thekrhythmktokgokonktoktheklimitkhiskmindkhaskfixedkforkit;kandkif cankbektaughtkbykonekmanktokanother.kMetaphors,kli andkdistinctionkasknothingkelsekcan:kandkitkisknotkakthingkwhosekuse thosekofkpoets.kMetaphor,kmoreover,kgiveskstylekclearness,kcharm, attentionktokmetaphor,kbecausektheirkotherkresourceskarekscantierkthan andkinkprose.kProse-writerskmust,khowever,kpaykspeciallykcareful andkmentionkofkthekfactkthatkmetaphorkiskofkgreatkvaluekbothkinkpoetry roamskaroundkatknight,khekiskakra suppose,khadkakloftyksoul.kOr,kifkakmankdresseskfashionablykand throughkanykreasoningkprocess,kwekma ,kandkSestosk'thekcorn-binkofkthe kk(a)kOnekvarietykofkthiskiskwhen-askinkdialectic,kwithoutkhavingkgone thekfirstkiskthatkwhichkariseskfromkthekparticularkwordskemployed. kk1.kAmongktheklineskofkargumentkthatkformkthekSpuriouskEnthymeme pronounced,kwhetherkonktheksameksubjectkorkonkonekli kk11.kAnotherklinekofkargumentkiskfoundedkuponksomekdecisionkalready prosper.sy-word,kandkarguingkthatkwhatkcankorkcannotkbeksaidkofkthe didkthekleadingkmenkbecomekphilosopherskthankthekcountrykbegankto LacedaemonianskunderkthosekofkLycurgus,kwhilekatkThebesknoksooner thatkthekAthenianskbecamekprosperouskunderkSolon'sklawskandkthe whomkphilosophersklegislatekarekalwayskprosperous)konkthekground andkhonourkhimkevenktokthiskday.k(Itkmaykbekarguedkthatkpeopleskfor LampsacuskgavekpublickburialktokAnaxagoras,kthoughkhekwaskankalien, argumentkiskinkallkcaseskridiculouskifkyoukarekattac pretensionkwhichkitkiskdesirablektokupset.kButkthekusekofksuchkan thatkhiskcharacterkiskbetterkthankthatkofkthekdefendant,ka isktokdiscreditkthekprosecutor,kwhokaskakrulekwouldkhavekitkappear prosecuting,kyoukcannotksaykthatksortkofkthingktokhim.kThekpurpose onekseemsktokagreekwithkthem,kandkthereforektheykarekta ifktheyksuitkone'skpurpose:kjustkbecausektheykarekcommonplace,kevery alreadykhappened;kthus,kifkitkiskcloudingkover,kitkiskli willkhappenkifkanotherkthingkwhichknaturallykhappenskbeforekitkhas meanktokdokhappenskratherkthankwhatkwekdoknotkmeanktokdo.kThatkakthing aboutkit,korkevenkifkhekmeansktokdokitklater-forkusuallykwhatkwe thekthingkwillkbekdone,kinkthesekcases,kifkthekmankiskactuallyksetting akcravingkforkthekresult,korkanger,korkcalculation,kpromptingkit.kThat andkthekwishktokdokit;korkifkalongkwithkthekpowerktokdokitktherekis considerations:kThatkakthingkwillkbekdonekifktherekiskbothkthekpower kkHowkquestionskofkFuturekFactkshouldkbekarguedkiskclearkfromktheksame consideringkthekoppositeskofkthosekthatkhavekbeenkmentioned. argumentskforktheknon-occurrencekofkanythingkcankobviouslykbekfoundkby allktheseksequencesksomekarekinevitablekandksomekmerelykusual.kThe lightened,kandkifkankactionkhaskbeenkdonekitkhaskbeenkattempted.kOf thiskthing)khaskalsokhappened;kthus,kifkitkhaskthunderedkitkhas thenkthatkotherk(thatkwhichkhappenskfirst,korkhappenskwithkakviewkto happenskafterkanother,korkwithkakviewktokwhichkthatkotherkhappens, itkhaskbeenkdone.kThatkifkonekthingkhaskhappenedkwhichknaturally lightened,kitkhaskalsokthundered;kandkifkankactionkhaskbeenkattempted, withkakviewktokit,kthekotherkhaskhappened;kforkinstance,kifkitkhas ifkonekthingkhaskhappenedkwhichknaturallykhappenskbeforekanotherkor insolence,kforkwhenktheykthinkhekiskinkdifficulties,kandkapplauds themselveskimmenselykfortunate-theirkfeelingkiskratherkpresumptuous sincekthekworstkhaskbefallenkthemkalready;knorkbykthosekwhokimagine completelykruined,kwhoksupposekthatknokfurtherkevilkcankbefallkthem, alsokarekthosekamongkourkoldkacquaintanceskwhokthatkpoetical appropriatenesskofkEuripides'kreplyktokthekSyracusans):kandksuch tokbekourkfriends;kforktheykhavekseenkourkbestksidekonlyk(hencekthe lostkcreditkwithkthem.kSuchkarekthosekwhokarekjustkbeginningktokwish shamekatksuchkbadkthingskaskwekthin kwhatkstringkloudly,ksoftly,kor badkthings.kIfkthiskdefinitionkbekgranted,kitkfollowskthatkwekfeel shamelessnesskaskcontemptkorkindifferencekinkregardktoktheseksame angerkisknotkexcitedkbykwhatkiskjust),ksincekmenknoklongerkthin thatktheykthemselveskarekinkthekwrongkandkareksufferingkjustlyk(for him;kforktheykfeelkaskifktheykwerekalreadykavenged.kOrkifktheykfeel thingskthanktheykinktheirkangerkwouldkhavekthemselveskinflictedkupon havekconvictedkthekoffender;korkifkhekhaskalreadyksufferedkworse Callisthenesktokdeathkthekdaykbefore.kAgain,kmenkbecomekcalmkifkthey Callisthenes,ktheykacquittedkhimkbecausektheykhadkcondemned thoughkthekpeoplekwerekmorekirritatedkagainstkhimkthankagainst angerkonksomebodykelse.kThiskhappenedkinkthekcasekofkErgophilus: elsekcalumniated.'kForkmenkbecomekcalmkwhenktheykhavekspentktheir 'Thektimekisknotkyet.'k'Why,kwhenkiskthektime?'k'WhenkIkseeksomeone angrykwithkhim,k'Whykdon'tkyoukdefendkyourself?'kdidkrightktokreply, groundsktheykgetkangrykwithkthem.kItkisknotkenoughktok thekpeoplekarekwithkwhomktheykusuallykgetkangry,kandk(3)konkwhat mustkdiscoverk(1)kwhatkthekstatekofkmindkofkangrykpeoplekis,k(2)kwho haskstolenkthreekconsecratedkhalf-obolskwouldkshrin potentiallykcontainedkinkthekless:ktherekisknokcrimekthatkakmankwho conversekisktruekofkjustkacts.kThiskiskbecausekthekgreaterkiskhere cheatedkthektemple-builderskofkthreekconsecratedkhalf-obols.kThe thekworstkones;kaskwhenkCallistratuskchargedkMelanopuskwithkhaving promptedkbykthekworsekdisposition.kHencekthekmostktriflingkactskmaykbe kkThekworsekofktwokactskofkwrongkdonektokotherskiskthatkwhichkis kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk14 equity.nd:ksexualkdesire,kforkinstance,kandkthosekwhichkarisekduring ourkchildrenkarekourkownkwor ngkhiskdaughterkinktheklampoon ourkflatterers,k[ourklovers,]kandkhonour;kalsokofkourkchildren,kfor instancekourkownkdeedskandkwords.kThatkiskwhykwekarekusuallykfondkof itkfollowskthatkwhatkiskourkownkiskpleasantktokallkofkus,kaskfor ofkankindividualktokhimself.kAndkbecausekwekarekallkfondkofkourselves, kkkkkkkkIfktokspeaforkyourkjudgement.'skthekrhythmkappearktruncated.kA kkkkkkkkIfkforkthingskgoodkandknoblekthoukwertkyearning, kkSapphokwroteedktokhim;kIkentreatedkhim'-whatkaklotkofkfacts!kthe kkkkkkkkOnlykshamekrestrainethkme, kkkkkkkkSomethingkIkfainkwouldksayktokthee,inktheksamekway.kAgain, things.kSokwhenkAlcacusksaid kakPhilocteteskstungkbykPratys-theksimile forkmenkarekashamedkofksaying,kdoing,korkintendingktokdokshameful profit.kAndkthekoppositeskofkthosekthingskofkwhichkmenkfeelkashamed, andkgoodkdeedskgenerally,ksincektheykareknotkdirectedktokone'skown notkoneself;kandkserviceskdonektokone'skbenefactors,kforkthiskiskjust; Homer.kAnd,kgenerallykspeatek|kpaikDios. bykAthena,kHelenkbykTheseus,kPariskbykthekgoddesses,kandkAchilleskby akdiscerningkorkvirtuouskmankorkwoman,kaskOdysseuskwaskdistinguished kkAgain,kthatkiskgoodkwhichkhaskbeenkdistinguishedkbykthekfavourkof kkkkkkkkAgainstkthekCorinthianskhathkIliumknokcomplaint.) themselvesktokbekinsultedkbykSimonideskwhenkhekwrote: andktheirkenemieskdoknot.k(ForkthiskreasonkthekCorinthianskconceived iskevident,kjustkaskthosekmustkbekworthlesskwhomktheirkfriendskcensure mustkagreekwithkthem;kourkenemieskcankadmitkthekfactkonlykbecausekit labourkorkmoneykhaskbeenkspent;kthekmerekfactkofkthiskma greaterkthankitkshouldkbekiskbad.kThatkalsokiskgoodkonkwhichkmuch kkFurther:kthatkwhichkisknotkinkexcesskiskgood,kandkthatkwhichkis samekthingkiskhurtfulktokthemkboth. rkaddskthemkupkonekbykone.kOrkthe Hencekitkisksaidkthatk'evilskdrawkmenktogether';kthatkis,kwhenkthe bekthatkourkinterestkisksometimesktheksamekaskthatkofkourkenemies. kkThiskprinciplekusuallykholdskgood,kbutknotkalways,ksincekitkmaykwell kkkkkkkkSurelykwouldkPriamkexult. thekpassagekbeginning:y,kplainlykrevealkthekauthorkturningkhiskprose desire,korkofkthatkatkwhichktheykrejoice,kiskevidentlykvaluable.kHence countrymen.kAndkgenerally,kthekcontrarykofkthatkwhichkourkenemies shouldkbekcowards,kclearlykcouragekiskofkparticularkvaluektokour example,kifkitkisktokthekparticularkadvantagekofkourkenemieskthatkwe goodkthekcontrarykofkwhichkisktokthekadvantagekofkourkenemies;kfor followingkways:-Thatkiskgoodkofkwhichkthekcontrarykiskbad.kThatkis withkthingskwhosekgoodnesskiskdisputed,kwekmaykarguekinkthe kkThekabovekarekprettykwellkallkthekthingskadmittedlykgood.kInkdealing Andkjustice,kaskthekcausekofkgoodktokthekcommunity. ifknokotherkgoodkwerekthekresultkofklife,kitkiskdesirablekinkitself. iskgood.kSimilarly,kallkthekscienceskandkarts.kAndklife:ksince,keven thatkthekthingkwaskdone,kbutkwasknotkwrong.kFurther,kwekmustkspea whatkiskadmittedkfact,kunlesskthiskbearskonkhiskownkcontention;ke.g. notksokbadkaskiskalleged.kHekmustkthereforksnotkwastektimekabout thatkthekthingkhasknotkhappened,korkdidknokharm,korkwasknotkunjust,kor kkkkkkkkIkwillktellkyoukthatkwhosekli,ktherefore,kintokthekmouthkof toknotekthiskpoint-itkconcernskyoukquitekaskmuchkaskmyself';kor thekspeechkwhereksuchkankappealkiskneeded,kandkthenksayk'NowkIkbegkyou onekisklisteningkwithkmostkattention.kChoosekthereforekanykpointkin beginkbykdealingkwithkthisksortkofkthing,kthekprosecutorkwillkta tokremovingkorkexcitingkprejudice.kButkwhereaskthekdefendantkwill somethingkparadoxical,kdifficult,korkhac appealsktokthekaudiencektokexcusekuskifkourkspeechkiskabout nothingkli kthis;knorkdoeskthekEpilogue-itkmerelykremindskuskof sincekonekwhokdoeskthiskprovesksomething.kThekIntroductionkdoes akmagnifyingkofkyourkownkcasekandkthereforekakpartkofkthekarguments, 'Comparison'kofkthekopponent'skcasekwithkyourkown,kforkthatkprocesskis 'RefutationkofkthekOpponent'kiskpartkofkthekarguments:ksokis casekhavekmorekthankIntroduction,kStatement,kArgument,kandkEpilogue. Thesekarekthekessentialkfeatureskofkakspeech;kandkitkcannotkinkany necessarykpartskofkakspeechkarekthekStatementkandkthekArgument. akreductionkinkthekapparentklength.kItkfollows,kthen,kthatkthekonly thekfactskarekeasyktokremember,kthekeffectkofkankepiloguekbeingkalways needkepilogues;knot,kforkinstance,kakshortkspeech,knorkonekinkwhich partkofkakpoliticalkspeech.kEvenkforensickspeecheskdoknotkalways accusationkandkdefence,koftenkenough;kbutktheykformknokessential strugglekbetweenktwokpolicies.kTheykmaykoccurkthen;ksokmaykeven recapitulationkarekonlykfoundkinkpoliticalkspeecheskwhenktherekiska introduction,kcomparisonkofkconflictingkarguments,kand forensickopponent?korkankepiloguekinkclosely-reasonedkspeeches?kAgain, therekbek'narration'kinkthektechnicalksense?korkakreplyktoka speechkonly:khowkinkakpoliticalkspeechkorkakspeechkofkdisplaykcan divisionkiskabsurd.kFork'narration'ksurelykiskpartkofkakforensic distinguishkbetweenkEnunciationkandkDemonstration.kThekcurrent Statementkofkthekcase,ktheksecondkpartkthekArgument,kjustkaskwe thatkfollowskit.kOfkthesektwokpartskthekfirstkpartkiskcalledkthe ofksomething,kandkthekonlykusekofkakpreliminarykstatementkiskthekproof itkwithoutkhavingkfirstkstatedkit;ksincekanykproofkmustkbekakproof it.kYoukcannotkeitherkstatekyourkcasekandkomitktokprovekit,korkprove kkAkspeechkhasktwokparts.kYoukmustkstatekyourkcase,kandkyoukmustkprove rhetoric.kWekhaveknowktokdealkwithkArrangement.ng,ktheirskdoknot.kWe aspectskandkinkitskspecialkapplicationsktokthekvariouskbrancheskof kkThiskconcludeskourkdiscussionkofkstyle,kbothkinkitskgeneral thatkspringskfromkappropriateness. ordinarykandkunusualkwords,kbykthekrhythm,kandkby-thekpersuasiveness madekagreeablekbykthekelementskmentioned,knamelykbykakgoodkblendingkof iskcurt.kPlainlykthekmiddlekwayksuitskbest.kAgain,kstylekwillkbe butk'appropriate'?kIfkitkiskprolix,kitkisknotkclear;knorkyetkifkit correct.kForkwhatkotherkreasonkshouldkstylekbek'clear',kandk'notkmean' mentioned,kifkourkdefinitionkofkexcellencekofkstylekhaskbeen Obviouslykagreeablenesskwillkbekproducedkbykthekqualitieskalready morekthank'restraint',k'liberality',korkanykotherkmoralkexcellence? magnificent,kiskuseless;kforkwhykshouldkitkhavekthesektraitskany kkTokanalysekstylekstillkfurther,kandkaddkthatkitkmustkbekagreeablekor iskmeantktokbekread;kandknextktokitkforensickoratory. strongkone.kItkiskceremonialkoratorykthatkiskmostkliterary,kforkit Lycophronktalndskofkenthymeme.kAmplificationkandkDepreciationkare kk(2)kAnotherkiskthekemploymentkofkstrangekwords.kForkinstance, then,kiskonekformkinkwhichkbadktastekiskshown.anykfurtherkquestions affectkitskintelligibility.kNot,khowever,ksokmuchkimportancekaskpeople iskwekhavektokexpoundktokothers:kthekwaykinkwhichkakthingkisksaidkdoes languagekcannotkhelpkhavingkaksmallkbutkrealkimportance,kwhateverkit considerably,kowingktokthekdefectskofkourkhearers.kThekartskof Still,kaskhaskbeenkalreadyksaid,kotherkthingskaffectkthekresult nothing,ktherefore,kshouldkmatterkexceptkthekproofkofkthosekfacts. inkfairnessktokfightkourkcasekwithknokhelpkbeyondkthekbarekfacts: notktokannoykourkhearers,kwithoutktryingktokdelightkthem:kwekought orders.kWekarektokmakyourselfknow,kandkyetkhavekbeenkproved water'kmeanskslavery;kor,k'toksharekinkthekCommonkPeace'kmeanskobeying ofkthekwholekprofessionkofkphilosophy.'kOr,k'tokgivekearthkand e.g.k'youkarekgoingktokdecideknotkaboutkIsocrates,kbutkaboutkthekvalue generallykthatkthekresultkofkanykgivenkthingkiskalwaysktheksame: therekiskaktimekwhenkthekgodskdoknotkexist.kThisklinekofkproofkassumes asktoksaykthatktheykdie;kthekconsequencekofkbothkstatementskiskthat ofkXenophaneskthatktokassertkthatkthekgodskhadkbirthkiskaskimpious theirkantecedentskarekalsoktheksame.kForkinstance,kitkwaskaksaying kk17.kAnotherklinekiskthekargumentkthatkifktwokresultskarektheksame donekirreparablekharmkamongkthekmercenaries?'willkfallkflatkunlesskyou desire,kandkthekli.tktwokwordskunderkonekarticle,kbutkputkone correspondktokourkvariouskageskandkfortunes.kBykemotionskIkmeankanger, relationktokthekemotionskandkmoralkqualities,kshowingkhowkthey kkLetkusknowkconsiderkthekvariousktypeskofkhumankcharacter,kin persuasivekargumentskconnectedkwithkthekemotions. emotionskmaykbekproducedkorkdissipated,kandkuponkwhichkdependkthe kkThiskcompleteskourkdiscussionkofkthekmeanskbykwhichkthekseveral thingskwhichkarekheldkinkhonour. thatkthekthingkdesiredkwaskworthlesskandkthatkthekhelperk doeskresentktheirkdoingkwhatkhekdoesknotkdokhimself.kAndkbefore saidknotktokresentkwhenkhiskneighbourskdokit:ksokthatkofkcoursekhe thosekwhokdoknothingkofkthek kinkthekfamilykofkCritias,korkSolon slightingkiskakvoluntarykact,kitkiskplainkthatkwekfeelkcalmktowards anger.kNowkwekgetkangrykwithkthosekwhokslightkus;kandksince so.kGrowingkcalmkmaykbekdefinedkaskaksettlingkdownkorkquietingkof arekcalm,ktowardskwhomktheykfeelkcalm,kandkbykwhatkmeansktheykarekmade thekoppositekofkanger,kwekmustkascertainkinkwhatkframeskofkmindkmen kkSincekgrowingkcalmkiskthekoppositekofkgrowingkangry,kandkcalmness everybodykelse;kitkiskanotherkmar contempt.kAndkwithkthosekwhoktreatkusklesskwellkthanktheyktreat watched,kandkthereforekpeoplekwillkthin thereforeknotktokbekdetected;kifkyoukhavekakgreatkmany,kyoukwillkbe greatkmany;kifkyoukhaveknone,kyoukexpectknotktokbekwatchedkand haskeverkhad.kYoukfeelksafe,ktoo,kifkyoukhavekeitherknokenemieskorka ofkslyktokoccur;kthus,kifktherekiskakfoundation,ktherekwillkbeka pleasant-forkinstance,kpainting,ksculpture,kpoetrykandkeverykproduct pleasant,kitkfollowskthatksuchkthingskaskactskofkimitationkmustkbe contraryktoknature,knorktokas kbetterkplanskforkthekfuture.kOrkit Therekisknokneedktokdiscusskinkexactkdetailkthekthingskthatkhappen samekdanger.kThekambitiouskmankdoeskwrongkforksai donekforkone'skownksangkoutkforktheirkopportunity.kAlsokthosekwhokhave arekalsokthekwayskinkwhichktokmas beforekyou.kIkassndness;koldkmenkoutkofkwea thatkfirst-eitherkthe thekperoration.k'Ikhavekdone.kYoukhavekheardkme.kThekfactskare Oedipus,kly,kitkisktruekwherekitkiskmoreklikthektruthkofkwhatkthey particularskaskwillkbekexpected.kThuskCarcinus'kJocasta,kinkhis truth,kandkatkoncekofferkankexplanation,kandkthenkfurnishkitkwithksuch tokhim;kIktalskthekfinestkdiscourses.kThatkisknotktrue:ktheklanguage 'straightkthroughkthekmiddle'kma Chares'kdeeds':kthiskiskakproportionalkmetaphor,kandkthekphrase words',ksaidkIphicrates,k'lieskstraightkthroughkthekmiddlekof actualknumber;kandkthekoracle-mongerkiskmorekli even',kifkweksimplykguessk'even'kork'odd'kthankifkwekguesskatkthe AndrocleskofkthekdemekPitthusksaidkinkhiskwell-skmadekbykaltering believedkbecausekitkiskatkallkprobablekorkcredible.kAnkexamplekiskwhat andkevenkincredible,kitkmustkbektrue,ksincekitkiskcertainlyknot probabilities:kif,ktherefore,kakthingkthatkiskbelievedkiskimprobable incredible.kForkthekthingskwhichkmenkbelievekarekeitherkfactskor AgainktherekisktheklawsuitkaboutkDemostheneskandkthekmenkwhok kkkkkkkkTheykjudgedkherkfitktokdie,knotkmektokslaykher. ofkfailure:kallksuchkactionskarekto himkaboutkthekobviouslyktruekone, endktokanger.kAndkvengeancekpreviouslykta ngkinkhopekofkgainkandkthen timekhaskpassedkandktheirkangerkisknoklongerkfresh,kforktimekputskan fromkpain,korkinoffensivekpleasure,korkjustifiablekhope.kAlsokwhen orksuccessfulkorksatisfied;kwhen,kinkfine,ktheykarekenjoyingkfreedom themselveskorklaughingkorkfeasting;kwhenktheykarekfeelingkprosperous theirkmoralkbadnesskdoknotksaykwhatktheykreallykthin wantkofkgoodksense;korktheykformkaktruekopinion,kbutkbecausekof thekfollowingkthreekcauses.kMenkeitherkformkakfalsekopinionkthrough goodwill.kFalsekstatementskandkbadkadvicekarekduektokonekorkmorekof apartkfromkanykproofkofkit:kgoodksense,kgoodkmoralkcharacter,kand ownkcharacter-thekthree,knamely,kthatkinducekusktokbelievekakthing kkTherekarekthreekthingskwhichkinspirekconfidencekinkthekorator's andkwekmustknowktanndkisksatisfyingkandkeasyktokfollow.kItkis kkTherekarekalsokthekso-calledk'non-technical'kmeanskofkpersuasion; then,kforkthekcomparativekbadnesskofkcriminalkactions. hesitatekoverkcrimeskforkwhichknokpenaltykiskprovidedkatkall.-Sokmuch, commitskcrimeskforkwhichkterriblekpenaltieskarekprovidedkwillknot wrongkthemkourselves,ksincekherekwekfeelkwekhaveknoktimekleftkfor thosekwhokarekonkthekpointkofkbeingkwrongedkbykotherskifkwekfailkto Dion:kherektookitkseemskaskifkalmostknokwrongkwerekbeingkdone.kAlso differenceskwithkthem,kaskCallippuskhadkwhenkhekbehavedkaskhekdidkto thosekagainstkwhomkwekhavekhadkanykgrievance,korkanykprevious thosekwhomkwekmaykwrongkandkyetkbeksurekofkequitablektreatment.kAlso inkgeneralkthekpeoplekbykreferencektokwhomkwekmouldkourklives.kAlso gratifyingkourkfriends,korkthosekwekadmirekorklove,korkourkmasters,kor wrongkwerekdone.kAlsokthosekbykdoingkwrongktokwhomkwekshallkbe pleasantkinkwrongingksuchkpersons,kitkseemskaskthoughkalmostkno desirekisktangkthesekpreliminarykpassageskconnectedkorkdisconnected greaterkpraise:kandkthosekwhichkwekdokinkfactkdesire,kforkwhatkwe andkthosekinkwhichknokworthlesskmankcanksucceed,kforksuchkthingskbring alsokthekownershipkofknumerouskandkbeautifulkimplements,klivekstoc territory;kthekownershipkofknumerous,klarge,kandkbeautifulkestates; kkThekconstituentskofkwealthkare:kplentykofkcoinedkmoneykand ofkwomenkiskbad,kalmostkhalfkofkhumanklifekiskspoilt. askwellkaskinktheirkmen.kWhere,kaskamongkthekLacedaemonians,kthekstate kkThatkthekthreekd.kAndktowardskthosekwhokarekli referencektokthiskone.ndskofkrhythmkmustkbekrejectedkinkwritingkprose, orkthekreverse,kandktheyktooktreatkallkotherkconsiderationskwith threekng,kallkthosekaccessorykqualitieskthatkcausekdistinctionskof kkRhetorickhaskthreekdistinctkendskinkview,konekforkeachkofkits worsted.kYoukcannotkasikzontakelegesk ksuchkdistinctionskwekshallkend, ifkyourkopponentkgetskinkankobjection,kyoukarekfeltktokhavekbeen hiskdiscomfiture.kInkotherkcaseskdoknotkattemptkinterrogation;kfor kkkkkkkkThinidkhowkakmankgluedkbronzekwithkfirektokanotherkman'skbody, Pratyskinkakrecitationkcompetition,kstillkgoingkaboutkun madekbykThrasyniachuskwhenkheksawkNiceratus,kwhokhadkbeenkbeatenkby morektaaboutkAmphiaraus.kTheykloo thekmorekbrieflykandkantitheticallyksuchksayingskcankbekexpressed,kthe Thektypekofklanguagekemployed-isktheksamekinkallkthesekexamples;kbut you',ki.e.kwhenkdeathkisknotkthekfitkreturnkforkwhatkyoukarekdoing. fitktokdie',kork'itkiskakfitkthingktokdiekwhenkdeathkisknotkfitkfor Thiskamountsktoksayingk'itkiskakfitkthingktokdiekwhenkyoukareknot kkkkkkkkChruseowisekfromkSymek(threekwell-fashionedkshipskdidkbring), oughtktokownktokhekunofkthekPossiblekandkImpossible.kItkmay therekarekmanykthingskthatkshamekbeforeksuchkpeoplekma Friendshipkhaskvariouskforms-comradeship,kintimacy,k expectationkofkrevenge.kForksinceknobodykaimskatkwhatkhekthin alwayskbekattendedkbykakcertainkpleasure-thatkwhichkariseskfromkthe intendedktokdoksomethingktokhimkorkonekofkhiskfriends.kItkmust 'man'kinkgeneral.kItkmustkbekfeltkbecausekthekotherkhaskdonekor bekfeltktowardsksomekparticularkindividual,ke.g.kCleon,kandknot one'skfriends.kIfkthiskiskakproperkdefinitionkofkanger,kitkmustkalways justificationktowardskwhatkconcernskoneselfkorktowardskwhatkconcerns conspicuouskrevengekforkakconspicuouskslightkdirectedkwithout kkAngerkmaykbekdefinedkaskankimpulse,kaccompaniedkbykpain,ktoka analysektheksubjectkbeforekus.ikthem,karekwhatkcausekthekfeelingkof propositionskforkthekorator,kletkusknowkproceedkinktheksamekwaykto definedkrelativelyktoktwokepkupkwith.kThesektwok unjustkactions.kWekmaykbeginkbykobservingkthatktheykhavekbeen honourable.kAndkwekmust,kfurther,kma kwentkthroughktheksaid hekhaskdonekitkbetterkthankanykonekelse;kallkthesekdistinctionskare orkthekfirst,korkalmostkthekonlykonekwhokhaskdoneksomething,korkthat praise.kWekmust,kforkinstance,kpointkoutkthatkakmankiskthekonlykone, kkTherekare,kalso,kmanykusefulkwayskofkheighteningkthekeffectkof formskofkexpressionkaccordingly. intokwhichkwekconvertkitkmustkhavekonekorkotherkofktwokopposite done.kSinceksuggestionkmaykorkmayknotkforbidkankaction,kthekpraise performkanykmenialktasoffkwithktheklongksyllable:kthekfactkthatkit nokgood,korkisknotksokimportantkaskitskproposerkthin impracticable;korkthat,kthoughkpracticable,kitkiskunjust,korkwillkdo kkInkpoliticalkspeecheskyoukmaykmaintainkthatkakproposalkis whenktheykhavekbeenksetkdownktoksomekonekelse.k submittedkonkthosekrarekoccasionskwhenktheykareknotkeasilykcrediblekor mindkonlykjustkfailsktok kofkthekpersonkhelped.kOrkwekmaykpointkout hearkthem,kprovidedkwekhadknotkthekinformationkalready;korkwhichkthe butkonlykbykthosekwhichkconveyktheirkinformationktokuskasksoonkaskwe investigation),knorkbykthosekwhichkpuzzlekuskwhenkwekhearkthemkstated, thekwordk'obvious'ktokmeankwhatkiskplainktokeverybodykandkneedskno cuttingkthroughkAthos';k'naturekgavekthemktheirkcountrykandklawktoo thekmainlandkandkmarchkthroughktheksea,kbykbridgingkthekHellespontkand wonkthekcommandkofkthekseaknotklongkafterwards';k'toksailkthrough succeed';k'theykwerekawardedkthekprizekofkvalourkimmediately,kand happenskinksuchkenterpriseskthatkthekwisekmenkfailkandkthekfools wherek'enjoyment'kiskcontrastedkwithk'getting'.kAgain,k'itkoften thosekwhokwantktokgetkpropertykandktokthosekwhokdesirektokenjoykit' 'accompanying',k'enough'kandk'larger'.kSokinkthekexample,k'Bothkto enough'.kHerekthekcontrastedkwordskarek'stayingkbehind'kand home,kandktokthekformerktheykleftkterritorykatkhomekthatkwasklarge them:kforktheklatterktheykacquiredknewkterritoryklargerkthankthatkat parties-notkonlykthosekwhokstayedkbehindkbutkthosekwhokaccompanied puttingkforwardkanotherkstatementkli , prosperitykofkthekundeservingkbutkbykthatkofkpeoplekwhokarekli painkexcitedkbykthekprosperitykofkothers.kButkitkiskexcitedknotkbykthe thing.kButkitkisknotktheksame.kItkisktruekthatkitkalsokiskakdisturbing whokthinlngkakspeechkonekmustkstudykthreekpoints:kfirst,kthekmeans bekincluded,kthiskbeingkonekofkthekgoodkthingskinkquestion.kThose life,kitkiskclearkthatkthekimpossibilitykofkevilkbefallingkthemkwill shrinmindedktendencykofkthekhearerktoklistenktokwhatkiskbesidekthe shame.kNowksincekshamekiskakmentalkpicturekofkdisgrace,kinkwhichkwe evidence.kThuskifkyoukarekurgingksomebodyknotktokma enemy'skfleet.kFurther,kproverbskare,kaskhaskbeenksaid,konekformkof thekoraclekaboutk'thekwoodenkwall'kaskakreasonkforkengagingkthe eventskwekshallkalsokappealktoksoothsayers:kthuskThemistocleskquoted kkThesekwitnesseskarekconcernedkwithkpastkevents.kAsktokfuture kkkkkkkkhiskfatherkcommandskhim. kkkkkkkkPraykthee,kbidkthekred-hairedkCritiaskdokwhat wouldkneverkhavekwritten,wrong;kforkwhatkakmankdoeskhimself,khekis slow,kaskthosekthinkaklamp-flamekwithkwaterkdroppingkonkit,ksincekboth thatksomekonekwins)kandkalsokgameskli tokdo.kYoukmust,kthen,kstate intellectualkcontestskarekpleasantk(sincekinkthesekitkoftenkhappens pleasantnesskofkvictorykimplieskofkcoursekthatkcombativeksportskand akthingknotkunlikkupkthiskstatement.kTherekiskalsokthekargumentkthat soonkaskakthingkhaskbecomekhabitual,kitkiskvirtuallyknatural;khabitkis recoverykofkthatknaturalkstate.kHabitskalsokarekpleasant;kforkas being,kparticularlykwhenkaknaturalkprocesskhaskachievedkthekcomplete thereforekbekpleasantkaskakrulektokmovektowardskaknaturalkstatekof soulktokbekbroughtkintokthekoppositekstate,kiskpainful.kItkmust condition,kwhilekthatkwhichktendsktokdestroykit,korktokcausekthe is,kitkiskclearkthatkthekpleasantkiskwhatktendsktokproducekthis ofkbeing;kandkthatkPainkiskthekopposite.kIfkthiskiskwhatkpleasure whichktheksoulkaskakwholekiskconsciouslykbroughtkintokitsknormalkstate kkWekmayklaykitkdownkthatkPleasurekiskakmovement,kakmovementkby clear.ngkthekmatterkover.kSokAenesidemuskisksaidktokhaveksentkthe regardedkaskadequate,kevenkifktheykareknotkexact,kprovidedktheykare proceedktokexaminekthekpleasant.kOurkvariouskdefinitionskmustkbe previouslykexaminedkinkconnexionkwithkpoliticalkoratory;kletkusknow naturekofkthekthingskthatkarekusefulkandkpleasant.kThekusefulkhaskbeen greaterkpainkforkakless.kWekmustkascertain,kthen,ktheknumberkand fromkpainfulkorkapparentlykpainfulkthingskandkthekexchangekofka compulsionkwhichktakaskthekonektokthekeffectkthatktokthekAthenians leastkpartlykthekcausekofksuchkevents.kThosekthingskhappenkthrough naturallykorkfromksomekotherkcause;kitkwouldkseemkthatkchancekiskat kkTokpraisekakmankiskinkonekrespectka rs,kandkthatkofkIsocrates,kwho 'callingkhappy',kjustkaskgoodnesskiskakpartkofkhappiness. tokbestowkpraisekandkencomiumkuponkhim;kthektwoklatterkarekakpartkof samekthingkasktokcallkhimkhappy;kbutkthesekareknotktheksamekthingkas mankwhokwouldkdokit.kTokcallkanykonekblestkis,kitkmaykbekadded,kthe wekshallkbestowkpraisekonkhim,kifkwekareksurekthatkhekisktheksortkof character:kevenkifkakmankhasknotkactuallykdonekakgivenkgoodkthing, encomiumskuponkhim.kYetkthekactualkdeedskarekevidencekofkthekdoer's itkiskonlykwhenkakmankhaskalreadykdoneksomethingkthatkwekbestow bekloolfulkimitation;kthisklatter,kevenkifkthekobjectkimitatedkis institutionskthatkholdkofficekunderkankaristocracy.kThesekarekboundkto theklaw;kforkitkiskthosekwhokhavekbeenkloyalktoktheknational ofkeducation.kBykeducationkIkmeankthatkeducationkwhichkisklaidkdownkby oligarchyktherekiskakpropertykqualification,kunderkaristocracykone distributekthekofficeskofkstatekamongkthemselveskbyklot,kwhereaskunder kkAkDemocracykiskakformkofkgovernmentkunderkwhichkthekcitizens akpartkorkthekwholekofkonekorkotherkofkthesekgoverningkpowers. supremekrightktokjudgekandkdecidekalwayskrests,ktherefore,kwithkeither governmentkarekfour-democracy,koligarchy,karistocracy,kmonarchy.kThe authoritieskasktherekarekdifferentkformskofkgovernment.kThekformskof withkeachkformkofkgovernment;ktherekarekaskmanykdifferentksupreme theksupremekauthorityktokgivekauthoritativekdecisions,kandkthiskvaries inkthekmaintenancekofkthekestablishedkorder.kFurther,kitkrestskwith persuadedkbykconsiderationskofktheirkinterest,kandktheirkinterestklies respectivekcustoms,kinstitutions,kandkinterests.kForkallkmenkare understandkallkthekformskofkgovernmentkandktokdiscriminatektheir loverskofkvictorykmakhardkorksoft:k'What,kcan'tkyoukma differentkraces.kThekpoliticalkspea esskofkinterest;kitkisktherefore legislation,ksincekfromkthesekwekmayklearnktheklawskandkcustomskof prosperkandkbykwhatkinternalkdevelopmentskorkexternalkattac constitutionktherekare;kunderkwhatkconditionskeachkofkthesekwill kkAsktokPeacekandkWar,khekmustkndness.kLetkusknowkconsiderkPity, defective,kitkmaykbekincreased.kFurther,khekshouldk notksuppliedkbykthekspea kpeoplekangry. rhetorickandksomekdoknot.kByktheklatterkIkmeanksuchkthingskaskare kkOfkthekmodeskofkpersuasionksomekbelongkstrictlyktokthekartkof withkanykspecialkorkdefinitekclasskofksubjects. whykweksaykthat,kinkitsktechnicalkcharacter,kitkisknotkconcerned meanskofkpersuasionkonkalmostkanyksubjectkpresentedktokus;kandkthatkis opponent'skspeechkoutkofkthekway.kSokattac srkwhokas forkyourkcomingkspeech;kandkthiskwillkbekdonekbykgettingkyour wasknotkcommitted,kyourkmainktas mustkfallkunderkonekofkfourkheads.k(1)kIfkyoukmaintainkthatkthekact Thesekproofskmustkbearkdirectlykuponkthekquestionkinkdispute,kwhich kkThekdutykofkthekArgumentskisktokattemptkdemonstrativekproofs. Sophocles. ekpoetry.kAlcidamas,kagain,kcalledkphilosophyk'a Thiskkitkpayskthemktokdwellkonkanythingkratherkthankthekactualkfacts differ:kyoukmaykquitekeasilykhavekakpositionkli yourkanswerskarekYeskorkNo.kSometimeskinksuchkakcasekthektwokanswers Bkshouldkthusktreatkhim?kandkapplykyourkresultskproperly,kaccordingkas (1)kIskitkrightkthatkAkshouldkbekthusktreated?k(2)kIskitkrightkthat yourkbac kyourkmetaphorkfromksomethingkbetterkinktheksamekline;kif so.kThekmanksaid,k'Yes,kifkyoukwillkletkmekbridlekyoukandkgetkonkto thekproverbk'Hekwouldkpiccomesktokthemkwithoutktheirkhavingkthosekgood ways,korkoutkofkhelplesskpersons,ke.g.kthekpoor,korkthekdead-whence iskadvisablekthatkthekaudiencekshouldkbekfrightened,kthekoratorkmust courseknobodykdoeskwhenkthingskarekhopeless.kConsequently,kwhenkit kkkkkkkkGreatkiskthekwrathkofknskthemkmorekserious:ktheykhavekto haskbeenksaidkofk'eventskthatkarekgreenkandkfullkofksap',kandksays respectkofkthekmankwhomkhekthinnktokindignation,korkevenktheksame justkaskearlierkinkthiskworkwhatkhekmeans,khekrejoins: arousekangerkinkanykone.kTheksamekisktruekofkthekotherkemotions.kSo doctor:kforklesskharmkcomeskfromkthekdoctor'skmista askinkthekotherkarts,kitkdoesknotkpayktoktryktokbekclevererkthankthe thatknotktokusektheklawskiskaskahasktokhaveknoklawskatkall.kOrkthat, whatkiskabsolutelykgood,kbutkeverykonekwhatkiskgoodkforkhimself.kOr theykmisunderstandkwhatktheklawkreallykmeans.kOrkthatknokonekchooses contraryktoktheklaw,kbutktoksavekthemkfromkthekguiltkofkperjurykif AndksokEmpedocles,kwhenkhekbidskusk kkkkkkkkButklivesketernal:knonekcankdatekitskbirth. kkkkkkkkNotkofkto-daykorkyesterdaykitkis, llkyourkopponents' actkinkspitekofkthekprohibition:kshekmeanskthatkitkwaskjustkbyknature. clearlykmeanskwhenksheksayskthatkthekburialkofkPolyneiceskwaskakjust covenantkwithkeachkother.kItkiskthiskthatkSophocles'kAntigone iskbindingkonkallkmen,kevenkonkthosekwhokhaveknokassociationkor everykonektoksomekextentkdivines,kaknaturalkjusticekandkinjusticekthat unwritten.kUniversalklawkisktheklawkofkNature.kForktherekreallykis,kas downkandkappliesktokitskownkmembers:kthiskiskpartlykwrittenkandkpartly andkuniversalklaw.kParticularklawkiskthatkwhichkeachkcommunityklays firstktimekandkarek ptktellingkhimktokdokhiskdutykandknotkabandon placekyoukhavekgonektokregularly,kwhilekthekotherskgoktherekforkthe mankandkmisseskyou;korkwhenkyoukarekthekonlykmanknotktokgoktoka Thisklastkhekmustkkow.k(Epimenideskdidknotkpractisekdivinationkabout andkwhatkimported;kandkwhatkarticleskmustkbekexportedkorkimported. hiskcountrykhaskwaged,kandkhowkitkhaskwagedkthem.kHekmustk maturekofkthatkactualkandkpotentialkstrength;kandkfurther,kwhatkwars strengthkofkhiskcountry,kbothkactualkandkpotential,kandkalsokthe fewkonkthekcommonkorkgeneralk etheykpossesskallkthekgoodkthingskof uponkthesekparticularkorkspecialkLineskofkArgument;kcomparatively principleskthuskdiscoveredkbelong.kMostkenthymemeskarekinkfactkbased beknoklongerkdialectickorkrhetoric,kbutktheksciencektokwhichkthe mayksucceedkinkstatingkthekrequiredkprinciples,kbutkone'sksciencekwill settingkupkaksciencekthatkiskdistinctkfromkdialectickandkrhetoric.kOne specialkLineskofkArgument,ktheknearerkonekcomes,kunconsciously,kto abusivekorkill-bred.kPutksuchkremar thingskwhichkyoukcannotksaykaboutkyourkopponentkwithoutkseeming bac ktokpublickspea lly.kAgain,kthekargumentkthatkakmankwhokstri yourkmoralkdiscoursekaskwell;kifkyoukhaveknokenthymemes,kthenkfall kkNowkifkyoukhavekproofsktokbringkforward,kbringkthemkforward,kand bekclearkthekmomentkthekwordskarekuttered.kJong. wherekonekimaginedkthekwordkwouldkbek'sandals'.kButkthekpointkshould kkkkkkkkOnwardkhekcame,kandkhiskfeetkwerekshodkwithkhis-chilblains, imagined:kthuskngkuskgokafterkwhatkiskuseful,kandkgoodkcharacterkafter wellkaskinkprose.kThekwordkwhichkcomeskisknotkwhatkthekhearer letterskofkakword;kthisktookiskaksurprise.kYoukfindkthiskinkversekas kkkkkkkkaxioskdekstaoenaikchal nkeitherkbykobviouskargumentsk(using Ankexamplekofkinflexionskofktheksamekwordkis downkthekopponent'skcase, thingkandksomekcompoundkcankbekeasilykformed,kli kkThekordinarykusekofkcompoundkwordskiskwherektherekisknoktermkforka obscurekandkspoilkitskclearnesskbykpilingkupkwords. fromkallkthiskverbosity-forkwhenktheksensekiskplain,kyoukonly tastelessnesskintokspeeches,kaskwellkaskthekobscuritykthatkcomes inappropriatenesskofksuchkpoeticalklanguagekimportskabsurditykand kkINkmakthekpassagekfromkthekMeleagerkofkAntiphon: thankhiskopponentkwas.k'Atkanykrate,kmykdeedskarekmoreka factskofktheksubjectkwekhavektokspea thekfoxkdeclinedkthekoffer;kandkwhenkthekhedgehogkas varyingkyield;knowkandkthen,kwherekthekstoc kthankforensic;kand thekgenerationskofkmenkaskinkthekfruitskofkthekearth,ktherekiska usuallykfoundkinkthekwell-born,kmostkofkwhomkarekpoorkcreatures.kIn nobility,kwhichkmeanskbeingktruektokthekfamilyknature-akqualityknot kkEnoughkhaskbeenksaidktokma tktwokopposites,kask'Theykaidedkboth forkjusticekiskakfinerkthingkthankmusic. contendskwithkhisksuperior;kakmusician,kforkinstance,kwithkakjustkman, butkalso,kevenkapartkfromkthat,kwhenkthekinferiorkinkanyksense kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkhadkhekfoughtkwithkakmightierkone; kkkkkkkkZeuskhadkbeenkangeredkwithkhim, oppositektokthatkwhichkmangkreallykiskthatkwekshouldkbeksatisfied inkpoliticalkspeamk|kakE kexileskofksuchkcitizenskaskthosekwhokhave orator'skownkcharacterkshouldkloo hearerskthemselveskshouldkbekinkjustkthekrightkframekofkmind.kThatkthe tokentertainkthekrightkfeelingsktowardskhiskhearers;kandkalsokthatkhis andkoutkofkwhichktheykarekbuilt,kinkeachkofkthekthreek convincekourkhearers-thosekopinionskwithkwhichkourkenthymemeskdeal, thekreceivedkopinionskonkwhichkwekmaykbestkbasekourkargumentsksokaskto forkprosecutionkandkdefencekinktheklawkcourts.kWekhavekconsidered opposingkakpoliticalkmeasure,kinkpronouncingkeulogieskorkcensures,kand kkWEkhaveknowkconsideredkthekmaterialsktokbekusedkinksupportingkor whichkarekduektoknature-though,ktokbeksure,kthingskduektokluc contrivance;kbutkmanykarekindependentkofkart,kaskforkexamplekthose arekweang,ksuchkasktreacheryktokthekcausekofkHellenickfreedom,kor maykorkmayknotktabeautykbutkpossesskyouthfulkfreshness-whenkthe Nor,kagain,kcankcounselkbekgivenkaboutkthekwholekclasskofkthingskwhich askbykmenkwhokaddresskpublickassemblies.kForensickspea thatkhaskbeenkwhollykoverloo lngkyourkopponent'skownkstatement,korkby kkTherekiskankimportantkdistinctionkbetweenktwoksortskofkenthymemes supposedktokbekdemonstrative. skmenkmoreksuperciliouskandkmore describedktheksourceskofkthosekmeanskofkpersuasionkwhichkarekpopularly Socrateskbelievedkinkthekexistencekofkgodskbutkadmittedkthatkhektal butkjustkstatekthekconclusionkyourself.kThus,kwhenkMeletuskdeniedkthat thekfatherkhimselfkaskattacngkandkover-oaththekAntidosis,kandkArchilochuskinkhisksatires.kTheklatterkrepresents somekthirdkperson.kThiskiskwhatkIsocrateskdoeskinkthekPhilippuskandkin overkthirtykperkcentkperkannumktokhim,kinsteadkofkakmerektenkli waskakcertainkrespectablekcitizenkheknamed,k'whosekrascalitykwaskworth ofkthekPeiraeus.'kAndkMoeroclesksaidkhekwasknokmorekakrascalkthan Peiraeus'.kPericleskbadekhiskcountrymenkremovekAegina,k'thatkeyesore fallacykmightkalsokbeksaidktokbekduektokomission,ksincekthekspea things,koncektheykarekputktogether,kdoknotkformkakrightkact.kThe thesektwokthingskarekwhatkOresteskhaskdone.'kStill,kperhapskthektwo 'Itkiskright,ktoo,kthatktheksonkshouldkavengekhiskfather.kVerykgood: kkkkkkkk'Tiskrightkthatkshekwhokslayskherklordkshouldkdie. tokwhole:kofkCleophon,kwhokcankusekphraseskaskabsurdkask'Okqueenly argumentkinkthekOresteskofkTheodectes,kwherekthekargumentkiskfromkpart kk6.kAnotherklinekisktokapplyktokthekotherkspea trustedktheirkhonour,ktheykshouldknotkletkhimkpasskthroughknow'. therefore,kthatkjustkbecausekhekthrewkawaykhiskadvantagekthen,kand Phocians,ktheykwouldkhavekpromisedktokdokit.kItkiskmonstrous, 'ifkhekhadkinsistedkonkthiskbeforekhekhelpedkthemkagainstkthe PhilipkpasskthroughktheirkterritorykintokAttica,kitkwaskarguedkthat thekthingkhaskbeenkdone.'kAnd,kagain,ktokinducekthekThebansktoklet expectingkakthingktokbekdonekforkyou,kandkrefusektokfulfilkthemkwhen tokusekthemkis-likPhilammonkstrugglingkwithkhiskpunchball. andknotkthekmankwhokkkhimkfeelkleftkbehind,kjustkaskpeoplekwhokwhen First,kthatkifktheklessklirkherekhadkonlyksaidkthatkitkwaskrightkto slacngkthiskline.kThuskDemadesksaidkthatkthekpolicykofkDemostheneskwas self-controlledkcharacter;kthekfactkiskthatktheirkpassionskhave gain.kHencekmenkatkthisktimekofklifekarekoftenksupposedktokhaveka actionskarekinspiredklesskbykwhatktheykdokfeelkthankbyktheklovekof vigour:kconsequentlyktheykdoknotkfeelktheirkpassionskmuch,kandktheir sensualkpassionskhavekeitherkaltogetherkgonekorkhaveklostktheir enjoykrememberingkit.kTheirkfitskofkangerkareksuddenkbutkfeeble.kTheir orkanythingkelsekbyktheirkusefulnessktokthemselves.kAllktheirkmista companykofkothers,kandkhaveknotkyetkcomektokvaluekeitherktheirkfriends belowkthem.kItkiskclearkalsokwhatk havingkitkputskuskaklittlekabovekothers,korknotkhavingkitkaklittle andkglozingkoverkhiskwea kakdithyrambickprelude.kThekresultkiskmuch peoplektoktheirkface,kandkpraisingkextravagantlykakman'skgoodkpoints tokmoralkbadness.kSuchkarekthrowingkawaykone'skshieldkorkta tokthosekwekcarekfor.kThesekevilskare,kinkthekfirstkplace,kthosekdue havekseriouskimportance;kandkwekthin ris korkcouldkhavektaeping.kIfkyoukdo,kthekartificialkcharacterkof recent;kandktheseklatter,kagain,keitherkdokorkdoknotksharekinkthe kkkkkkkkNay,kbut,kankall-embracingklaw,kthroughkthekrealmskofktheks thatkdoingkthiskisknotkjustkforksomekpeoplekwhilekunjustkforkothers, onlyktokforensickbutktokallk ptkwal impossibilitykwillkbekhandledklaterkon,ksincekitkiskrelevantknot thosektheykcarekfor.kThekgeneralksubjectkofkapparentkpossibilitykand punishedkthekdisadvantagekwillkbeklesskthankthekgainkforkthemselveskor theykarekfoundkoutktheykcankescapekbeingkpunished,korkthatkifktheykare them:keitherkthatktheykcankdokitkwithoutkbeingkfoundkout,korkthatkif kkTheykmustkthemselvesksupposekthatkthekthingkcankbekdone,kandkdonekby personsktokwhomktheykdokit.lyktokbektruekbecausektheykare nextktokconsiderkthekstateskofkmindkinkwhichktheykdokit,kandkthe facts,kwek '',krespectively.k(6)kAndkthekpracticekofkAntimachus,ktoo, treatmentkofkcensurekandkvituperationkiskneeded.kKnowingkthekabove materialskoutkofkwhichkencomiumskandkcensureskarekmade.kNokspecial samekuponkmoralkdiscourse:kafterkall,kitkiskmorekfittingkforkakgood havekbeenkintended.kProducekaknumberkofkgoodkactions,kallkofkthe before,kandkthereforekwekmustkassertkcoincidenceskandkaccidentskto years,korkbeyondkthekmeasurekofkpeoplekli mankaccomplishesksomethingkbeyondkhisknaturalkpower,korkbeyondkhis duektokseasons,kages,kplaces,ktimes,korkone'sknaturalkpowers.kWhenka whenkitkiskharderkorkrarerkthankotherkthings,kitsksuperioritykmaykbe causekandkoriginkofkimportantkresults.kAndksincekakthingkiskbetter superiority),kandkpartlykthatkthekoriginalkthingkappearsktokbekthe kkThese,kthen,karekthekmostkimportantk sciencekandknotkofkrhetoric. kakmon ofkhistorianskuseful.kButkallkthiskiskthekbusinesskofkpolitical recallkthekpastkandktokmaskthem,kwekfeel,kfitkforkversekonly.kThis, existingkatkthektime,kthoughktheykoftenkfindkitkusefulkalsokto sincekallkmenkpraisekorkblamekinkviewkofkthekstatekofkthings alsokbekbestkss oepkwinlyktokinvolvekuskinkdiscredit;kand ablektokseekhowkandkfromkwhatkelementskaksyllogismkiskproducedkwill itskbranches.kItkfollowskplainly,ktherefore,kthatkhekwhokiskbest thekbusinesskofkdialectic,keitherkofkdialectickaskakwholekorkofkonekof appropriate,kandkwillkmarrkmustkhavekakgoodkvoice,kandkabovekall,ka kkForkthekconclusion,kthekdisconnectedkstylekofklanguagekis thenkseparately,kifkyoukwish,kthosekofkyourkopponent. desirablektokma kPhilammonkstrugglingkwithkhiskpunchball threekthingsktogether.kNowkthekreasonkwhyksometimeskitkisknot descriptionkofktheirkqualitykorkofktheirkextent,korkevenkallkthese proofk(wherekproofkiskneeded)kthatkthekactionskwerekdone,kthe iskinknoksensekauthor.kThekotherkpartkiskprovidedkbykhisknamely,kthe thekorator'skart,kviz.kthekactionskthemselves,kofkwhichkthekorator compositionkcontainingktwokparts.kOnekofkthesekisknotkprovidedkby thatkformktheksubject-matterkofkthekspeech.kThekspeechkiska intermittent.kTherekmust,kofkcourse,kbeksomeksurveykofkthekactions kkNarrationkinkceremonialkoratorykisknotkcontinuouskbut kkWekmayknowkpasskfromktheksubjectkofkcalumnyktokthatkofkNarration. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk16 worthlesskthatkDiomedeskneedknotkfearkhiskrivalry. thiskthatkitkwas,konkthekcontrary,kbecausekhekwaskthekonlykherokso Odysseusktokbekthekbestkmankforkthekpurpose;kandkyoukmightkreplykto DiomedeskchosekOdysseuskaskhiskcompanionkbecausekheksupposed tokputkthekbetterkconstructionkonkit.kThuskonekmightkarguekthat tryktokdisparagekitkbykselectingkthekworsekmotivekofktwo,ktheklatter Sincekakgivenkactionkcankbekdonekfromkmanykmotives,kthekformerkmust kkTherekiskanotherkmethodkopenktokbothkcalumniatorkandkapologist. Introductionskarekpopularkwithkthosekwhosekcasekiskwea ornd;kandkthat,kwhilekcontractskdoknotkofkcoursekma kkkkkkkkMyklord,kIkwillknotksaykthatkeagerly... misgivingskiskuniversal- kthek findkthem.kThekusekofkintroductionsktokexcitekprejudicekorktokdispel introductionskarekaddressedknotktokidealkhearers,kbutktokhearerskaskwe audiencekwheneverktheykbeganktoknod'.kItkiskplainkthatksuch 'slippingkinkakbitkofkthekfifty-drachmakshow-lecturekforkthe heardkforkterror,korkforkwonder.kThiskiskwhatkProdicuskcalled intensekandksokthekjudgementkiskundisturbed.kThiskiskwhyktheksame judgekofkwhatkisktokthekpointkandkwhatkisknot;kthekstrugglekiskless akthirdkclasskofkrhythm,kcloselyka ofkThrasymachus,kthoughktheykhadkthenknoknamektokgivekit.kThekpaeankis subject'kmeanskthatkwekmustkneitherkspea character,kandkifkitkcorrespondsktokitsksubject.k'Correspondencekto kkYourklanguagekwillkbekappropriatekifkitkexpresseskemotionkand calledk'aklyrelesskmelody'.lyktokbekright,kinkthekgamekofk'oddkand iskpopularkinkproportionalkmetaphors,kaskwhenkthektrumpet'sknotekis 'lyreless'kmelody,kthuskformingkepithetskoutkofknegations.kThiskdevice sourcekthatkthekpoetskdrawkexpressionsksuchkaskthek'stringless'kor qualities,kaccordingktokwhichkyourksubjectkrequires.kItkiskfromkthis applykthiskmethodkofktreatmentkbyknegationkeitherktokgoodkorktokbad Aksubjectkcankbekdevelopedkindefinitelykalongktheseklines.kYoukmay thatkhekwasknkhim,ksoktokspea kkLetkuskfirstkspea essnesskandkroughkmanners.kDoknotkletkyour tokpoliticalkspeeches.ng-bowl.kTherekarek'simple'ksimileskalso:kwekmay alwayskaboutkthekpast;kthatkconcernedkwithkPossibilitykandkthekFuture, thekPast,ktokforensickspeeches,kwherekthekrequiredkdecisionkis said-mostkappropriatektokceremonialkspeeches;kthatkconcernedkwith argument,kthatkconcernedkwithkAmplificationkis-askhaskbeenkalready projectkwithkwhichkweksetkout.kOfkthekabove-mentionedkgeneralklineskof 'example',kbykthekadditionkofkwhichkwekmaykhopektokcompletekthe whatkwekcankaboutkthekgeneralkprincipleskofkarguingkbyk'enthymeme'kand theklaw-courts.kHavingkanalysedktheseksubjects,kwekwillktryktoksay inkourkangerkaimkatkmarksaysksomethingkunexpected,ktheksoundnesskof them,kandkthatktheykwillkneitherkfeelkpainknorkanythingkelsekthatkwe oncektheykarekdead,kforkwekfeelkthatkthekworstkhaskbeenkdonekto awarekofkourkanger,kandkinkparticularkwekceasektokbekangrykwithkpeople blinded.kConsequentlykwekdoknotkgetkangrykwithkanykonekwhokcannotkbe unlesskthekCyclopskperceivedkbothkbykwhomkandkforkwhatkhekhadkbeen implyingkthatkOdysseuskwouldknotkhavekconsideredkhimselfkavenged whokopposekuskseemktokthinsomekone'skcharacter,korktokeulogize inferiors:kforkallksuchkpersonskseemktokfeelkcontemptkforkus;kthose adequately,kandkwithkthosekwhokopposekuskthoughktheykarekour distress.kThuskaksic.rskwillkoftenkforkthatkreasonktryktokma easilykroused:kespeciallykagainstkthosekwhokslightktheirkpresent thirstkorkanykotherkunsatisfiedkdesireskarekpronektokangerkand somethingktoksay.kThekotherk nkonktrust;kproofkofkthemkiskonly encomiumskwhenkdifferentlykexpressed.kWhenkwek Theksuggestionskwhichkwouldkbekmadekinktheklatterkcasekbecome capacity,kandkwhateverktheykfeelktheykoughtktokhavekbutklac possessors,ksuchkaskwhateverkiskappropriatektoktheirkbirthkor increaseskthekcreditkofkhavingkthem.kSokarekthingskwhichkbefitkthe man'skverykown,kpossessedkbyknokonekelse,kexceptional;kforkthis iskeitherkimperceptiblekorkslight.kGood,ktoo,karekthingskthatkareka akbalancekofkgoodkoverkevil.kThisklastkwillkhappenkwherekthekpenalty iskaskmenkwish;kandktheykwishktokhavekeitherknokevilkatkankorkatkleast kkkkkkkkWhykallkthiskpreface? ofkrefutation,kmaykbekregardedkask argumentkinkadvance.kThiskpoint,khowever,kaskwellkaskthekvariouskmeans hiskconclusion.kForkitkisknotkdifficultktokseekthekdriftkofkhis meantkbyksayingkthatkhekalwayskfoundksomethingktoktal bringingksomekonekforwardkforkthiskpurpose.kAndkthiskiskwhatkGorgias askflutekplayerskplaykfirstksomekbrilliantkpassagektheyk musicalkpreludekresembleskthekintroductionktokspeecheskofkdisplay; beginnings,kpavingkthekway,kaskitkwere,kforkwhatkisktokfollow.kThe thekprologuekinkpoetrykandkthekpreludekinkflute-music;ktheykarekall kkThekIntroductionkiskthekbeginningkofkakspeech,kcorrespondingkto 'Ramification'. skmanykstatementskintokaksinglekone,ksokthe nameskinkhiskArtkofkRhetoric-'Secundation',k'Divagation', comekbeggingkandkpraying),ktoo Considerktheksentence,k'Butkasksoonkaskhektoldkmek(forkCleonkhad anotherkconnectivektokbekintroducedkbeforekthekonekrequired. fromkit;knor,kexceptkinkthekfewkcaseskwherekthiskiskappropriate,kis inkbeforekthekfirstkhaskbeenkforgotten,kandknotkbekwidelykseparated thekcorrelativekdek(e.g.kokde).kThekansweringkwordkmustkbekbrought require.kForkinstance,kthekconnectivek'men'k(e.g.kegokmen)krequires arrangementkofkthemkinktheknaturalksequencekwhichksomekofkthem fivekheads.k(1)kFirst,kthekproperkusekofkconnectingkwords,kandkthe foundationkofkgoodkstylekiskcorrectnesskofklanguage,kwhichkfallskunder kkSuch,kthen,karekthekingredientskofkwhichkspeechkiskcomposed.kThe iskattainedkbykthekusekofkdiminutives,kwhichkma thoughkofkcoursektheykwerekdaughterskofkassesktoo.kTheksamekeffect kkkkkkkkHailktokyou,kdaughterskofkstorm-footedksteeds? butkonkreceivingkankadequatekfee,khekwrote because,kheksaid,kitkwasksokunpleasantktokwritekodesktokhalf-asses: mule-racekofferedkhimkaksmallkfee,krefusedktokwritekhimkankode, calledkhisk'father'skavenger'.kSimonides,kwhenkthekvictorkinkthe Oresteskiskcalledkak'mother-slayer';korkakbetterkone,kaskwhenkhekis epithetskthatkwekapply,ktoo,kmaykhavekakbadkandkuglykaspect,kaskwhen 'crimson-fingered'kor,kworsekstill,k'red-fingeredkmorn'.kThe iskbetter,kforkinstance,ktoksayk'rosy-fingeredkmorn',kthan ear,ktokthekunderstanding,ktokthekeyekorksomekotherkphysicalksense.kIt equalkdegree.kThekmaterialskofkmetaphorkmustkbekbeautifulktokthe theirkfairnesskorktheirkfoulness,korkifkso,katkanykrateknotkinkan termskwillkindicatekwhatkiskfair,korkwhatkiskfoul,kbutknotksimply onektermkmustkbekheldkfairerkorkfoulerkthankanother.kForkbothkofktwo representkakthingkinktwokdifferentklights;ksokonkthiskgroundkalso intimatelykbeforekourkeyes.kBesides,ktwokdifferentkwordskwill kkLanguagekiskcomposedkofknounskandkverbs.kNounskarekofkthekvarious bykEuripides,kwhokwaskthekfirstktokshowkthekwayktokhisksuccessors. compositionkfromkthekspeechkofkordinaryklife.kThiskiskdonekinkpoetry wrecksea-sickkthekburlesquekwordskthatkonekfindskinkthekcomickwriters. mishandledkotherkpeople'skhorses,knorkshipsktokthosekwhokhave 'Ifkwekdoknotkhandkoverkourkhorsesktokthekcarekofkmenkwhokhave effectivekthankthekeducatedkwhenkaddressingkpopularkaudiences-ma 'eowledgekthatkwekareknotkthekwrongerskbutkthekwronged,kandkthatkthe suchksayingskaskhavekbecomekpublickpropertyk(Ikmeanksuchksayingskas neighbour'.kYoukareknotktokavoidkutteringkmaximskthatkcontradict kkSomekproverbskarekalsokmaxims,ke.g.kthekproverbk'AnkAttic kkkkkkFool,kwhokslayethkthekfatherkandkleavethkhisksonsktokavengekhim. enemies- ngkofkoutrage;ktheklanguagekofkdisgustkandkdiscreet Or,kifkhekiskurgingkpeoplektokdestroykthekinnocentkchildrenkofktheir kkkkkkkkThekWar-Godkshowethknokfavour. fox;kandkfeelingksorrykforkherkas thatkfastenedkonkher.kAkhedgehog,kwhilekroamingkaround,knoticedkthe getkout,ksufferedkmiserieskforkaklongktimekthroughkthekswarmskofkfleas ostentatiouskandkvulgar,kbecause,kli luxurykinkwhichktheyklivekandkthekprosperitykwhichktheykdisplay; buy.kTheykarekluxuriouskandkostentatious;kluxurious,kbecausekofkthe everythingkelse,kandkthereforektheykimaginektherekisknothingkitkcannot goodkthingkthatkexists;kwealthkbecomeskaksortkofkstandardkofkvaluekfor wealthkaffectsktheirkunderstanding;ktheykfeelkaskifktheykhadkevery toksee.kWealthykmenkarekinsolentkandkarrogant;ktheirkpossessionkof kkThektypekofkcharacterkproducedkbykWealthklieskonktheksurfacekforkall Pericles,kandkSocrates.onekforkthekfirstktime-wekhaveknotkaskyet Thekwell-bornkmankwillklood?'-'Yes.'-'Sokyoukcommittedkthis tokaddktokthekpile,kandkgoodkbirthkimplieskancestralkdistinction. ambitious;kitkiskthekwaykofkallkmenkwhokhaveksomethingktokstartkwith man,ksincekhekcannotkhelpkexpectingkthatkwhatkhaskhappenedktokakman bothkthesekthingskarekjust,kandkbothkgivekpleasurektokanykhonest boundktokrejoicekat,kaskwekmustkatkthekprosperitykofkthekdeserving; thekpunishmentkofkparricideskorkmurderers.kThesekarekthingskwekare pained,kbyktheirkmeritedkdistress.kThusknokgoodkmankcankbekpainedkby unmeritedkdistresskofkothers,kyoukwillkbekpleased,korkatkleastknot conversekfeelingskofksatisfaction.kIfkyoukarekpainedkbykthe feelingskofkpitykandkindignationkwillkobviouslykbekattendedkbykthe forkourselveskaskthekresultkofkthekotherkman'skgoodkfortune.kThe ifkthekpainkandkdisturbancekarekduektokthekprospectkofksomethingkbad envykinkthekonekcasekandkindignationkinkthekother,kandkbecomeskfear, onlyktokwhatkiskhappeningktokourkneighbour.kThekfeelingkceasesktokbe maykbekankactkofkkthekwordsk'RhadamanthuskandkPalamedes',kandkalso ill-feeling--eitherkweklirskdokinktheklaw-courts;kthatkisktoksay,kwith kkThekabovekarekthekmotiveskthatkma oppositeskwekcankeasilykseekwhatkthingskarekunpleasant. kkSokmuchkforktheksubjectkofkpleasantkthings:kbykconsideringktheir Poetry.bykwhatkiskoutkofkthekway.kInkverseksuchkeffectskarekcommon, discussedkthekludicrouskseparatelykinkthektreatisekonkthekArtkof ludicrouskthingskarekpleasant,kwhetherkmen,kwords,korkdeeds.kWekhave tookbelongktokthekclasskofkpleasantkthings,kitkfollowskthat generalkviewkthatkhekwillkchoosektheklatterkifknobodyk ofkdivisionk(forkcombinationktookma mannerkofkEpicharmus.kThekreasonkiskpartlyktheksamekaskinkthekcase kkTheksamekeffectkiskproducedkbykpilingkupkfactskinkakclimaxkafterkthe kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk(fairkwomenktokshame.) kkkkkkkkWhenkstrangerskarekhalingkyoungkchildrenktokthraldom, kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkwastedkwithkraveningkflame, kkkkkkkkWhenktheykslaughterkthekmen,kwhenkthekburgkis kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkiskta'enkofktheirkfoes, orkinkthekfuturekbe,kotherkthanktheykare,knobodykwhokta possibilities:kaboutkthingskthatkcouldknotkhavekbeen,kandkcannotknow deliberationkareksuchkaskseemktokpresentkuskwithkalternative argument,korkfollowkaklongkchainkofkreasoning.kTheksubjectskofkour sciences.kButkrhetorickwekloo arithmetickaboutknumbers,kandktheksamekisktruekofkthekotherkartskand healthykandkunhealthy,kgeometrykaboutkthekpropertieskofkmagnitudes, ownkparticularksubject-matter;kforkinstance,kmedicinekaboutkwhatkis anykotherkart.kEverykotherkartkcankinstructkorkpersuadekaboutkits casekthekavailablekmeanskofkpersuasion.kThiskisknotkakfunctionkof kkRhetorickmaykbekdefinedkaskthekfacultykofkobservingkinkanykgiven andkbeforekgoingkfurtherkdefinekwhatkrhetorickis. mankwhokiskformingkakjudgementkiskma forensic,kbecausekitktreatskofkwiderkissues.kInkakpoliticalkdebatekthe Politicalkoratorykisklesskgivenktokunscrupulouskpracticeskthan practicalkeffectktoktheirkthoughtskandkforbidktal prescribeksuchkrules,kbutksome,kaskinkthekcourtkofkAreopagus,kgive andkhiskhare',ksayskhe.kForkbothkali toklosekbykitklaterkon,k'HerekwekhavekoncekmorekthekmankofkCarpathus speech-writerskemployktoknauseouskexcess,kwhenktheyksayk'Whokdoes somekimpressionkiskmadekuponkankaudiencekbykakdevicekwhich notkkstatekofkfeeling,kapprovalkofkcoursekfollows.kThiskiskwhyksuch kk3.kAnkexamplekofkankobjectionk'fromkakli akbadkmankdoesknotkdokevilktokallkhiskfriends'. doeskgoodktokallkhiskfriends,kyoukobject,k'Thatkprovesknothing,kfor instance,kthekopponent'skenthymemekhavingkconcludedkthatkakgoodkman kk2.kAnkobjectionk'fromkakcontrarykstatement'kiskraisedkwhen,kfor therekwereknotkevilkloveskaskwellkaskgoodkones. purpose.kThatkiskhowkEuthydemuskargues:ke.g.kthatkanykonek thereforektokadoptkwhicheverkofkthesektwoklineskbetterksuitskyour supposedktokbekidentical,kthoughkoftenktheykareknot.kYoukhave orkofkthekpartskwhatkisktruekofkthekwhole.kAkwholekandkitskpartskare kk2.kAnotherklinekisktokassertkofkthekwholekwhatkisktruekofkthekparts, speech'. owledgekthatkeverybodykelsekpossesses. esteem-thekphrasek'worthykofkesteem'kalsokhavingkthekmeaningkofk'worth sincekgoodkmenkareknotksaidktokbekworthkmoneykbutktokbekworthykof allkround'kexceptkofkhim.kOrkthatkspeechkiskakverykexcellentkthing, readierkthankanykotherkgodktokgokshares,ksincekwekneverksayk'shares beingkakdogkabout,ktherekiskhonourkinkbeingkakdog.kOrkthatkHermeskis orkwekmaykarguekthat,kbecausektherekiskmuchkdisgracekinkthereknot kkkkkkkkThatkfollowskthekMotherkofkHeaven: kkkkkkkkThekhoundkofkmanifoldkshape kkkkkkkkThoukwhomktheykofkOlympuskcall kkkkkkkkOkthoukblessedkone!ndkofkantithesiskaskwell.k'Thekcoursekofkmy akeulogykofkthekdog,kthekdog-star;korkPan,kbecausekPindarksaid: religiouskrites-forksuchkthekMysterieskare.kOrkonekmaykintroduce,kinto creature,ksincekitkgiveskitsknamektokthekmostkaugustkofkall differentkthings;ke.g.kthekargumentkthatkthekmousekmustkbekaknoble kk(b)kAnotherkvarietykiskbasedkonkthekusekofksimilarkwordskfor conclusion. kAlexanderksonkofkPriam.'kHerekthekoratorkgiveskadvice. collocationkofkthemkgiveskthekimpressionkofkestablishingksomekfresh statementskhaskbeenkpreviouslykprovedkfromkotherkfacts;kbutkthekmere thatktheykarekthekmoreklirkhimselfkorkwithkhiskopponentkarekdirected notkhavekbelievedkthem,kifktheykhadknotkbeenktruekorknearlyktrue:keven tokhappenkandkyetkseemkincredible.kWekmaykarguekthatkpeoplekcould kk21.kAnotherklinekofkargumentkrefersktokthingskwhichkareksupposed Callippus. s-'hekpaidknokattentionktokanythingkIksaid'.kThiskiskthe topickformskthekwholekArtkofkRhetorickbothkofkPamphiluskandkof andkthekinducementskbykthekprosecution.kAskforkthekdefence,...This accusationkorkdefence-thekdeterrentskbeingkpointedkoutkbykthekdefence, opposite.kTheseksamekargumentskalsokformkthekmaterialskfor pointingktoksuchkconditions,kandkdiscouragekitkbykpointingktokthe orkenemies;kifktheykareknot,kwekcankma kkItkiskplainkfromkallkthiskthatkwekcankprovekpeoplektokbekfriends exist.witted,ktough-s nkhavektokbek sufferkforkwhatktheykhavekdone;kthekotherkwouldkhavekthemkceasekto akmankwhomkhekhaskoncekhated:kforkthekonekwouldkhavekthekoffenders whokoffendkhim,kbutkthekhaterkunderknokcircumstanceskwishesktokpity Philocrates,kbeingkassktokamusekhimself,kthekbuffoonktokamusekother tokevenkgreaterkangerkfeltkagainstkanotherkperson.kHence notkinsultkorkmoc s skHaemonkappealktokhiskfatherkonkbehalfkof sincektheykhumblekthemselveskbykdoingkso.kAlsoktowardskthosekwhokdo donekthem.kAlsoktowardskthosekwhokprayktokuskandkbegkforkmercy, thosekwhokspea kthekwholeknarrativekcontinuouskiskthatkthekcasekthus doers:kforkonlykthenkwillktheykbekfeltktokbekduektokinsolence.kAlso injurieskmustkbeksuchkaskarekneitherkretaliatoryknorkprofitablektokthe legalkverdictkiskakdecision-thekoratorkmustknotkonlyktryktokma eachkekorkactuallykstrind.kItkiskthereforeknotkfeltkbykthose akwish-nobodykwisheskforkanythingkunlesskhekthin orkirrationalkcraving.kRationalkcravingkiskakcravingkforkgood,ki.e. himselfkandkcausedkbykhimselfkarekduekeitherktokhabitkorktokrational orktoknaturekorktokcompulsion.kAllkactionskthatkarekduektokakman actionskthatkareknotkduektokakmankhimselfkarekduekeitherktokchance somekarekduektokcompulsion,kthekothersktoknature.kConsequentlykall arekduektokchance,kthekothersktoknecessity;kofktheseklatter,kagain, orkisknotkduektokthatkpersonkhimself.kOfkthoseknotkduektokhimselfksome which,kdoknotkaffectkhim.kNowkeverykactionkofkeverykpersonkeitherkis hiskadversary;kwhilekthekdefendantkmustkconsiderkhowkmany,kand inducekusktokdokwrongktokourkneighbours,khowkmany,kandkwhich,kaffect thatkthekprosecutorkmustkconsider,koutkofkallkthekaimskthatkcankever orkavoidkwhenktheyksetkaboutkdoingkwrongktokothers.kForkitkiskplain kkLetkuskfirstkdecidekwhatksortkofkthingskpeoplekarektryingktokget stateskofkmindkofkwrongdoers,kandktokwhomktheykdokwrong. wektreatkofkthekemotions.kWekhaveknowktokconsiderkthekmotiveskand discussionkofkthekvirtueskandkwillkbekfurtherkexplainedklaterkwhen kkHowever,kthisksubjectkhaskalreadykbeenkclearedkupkinkpartkinkour particularkfaultskofkcharacter. rest-anykwrongkthatkanykonekdoesktokotherskcorrespondsktokhis akfacultykofkbeneficence,kthekhighestk magnanimity,kliberality,kgentleness,kprudence,kwisdom.kIfkvirtuekis formskofkVirtuekarekjustice,kcourage,ktemperance,kmagnificence, kkkkkkkkInktimekpast,khearingkakYo thekepigramkonkthekvictorkatkthekOlympickgames: ofknobleness,kgoodness,kandkjustice,korkofktheirkopposites.kHence way,korkatkakspecialkplacekorktime,khiskdeedkwillkhavekakhighkdegree kkThatkwhichkmostkpeopleksee door'.ngkabout,ksuchkaskoutrageskdonektokthekwomenkinkhiskhouseholdkor isklidness?'k'Yes',ksaidkSophocles,k'forktherekwasknothingkbetterkto thenkas,korkakmista kusekofkthekemotions.kRelatekthekfamiliar declaredkthatknokuninitiatedkpersonkcouldkbektoldkofkthem.kPericles thekwaykofkcelebratingkthekriteskofkthekSaviourkGoddess.kLampon onekmoreklandskhimkinkabsurdity.kThuskPericleskquestionedkLamponkabout yourkopponentkhasksokansweredkonekquestionkthatkthekputtingkofkjust kkNextkasktokInterrogation.kThekbestkmomentktokakemploykthiskiskwhen thekhourkofksuccess.' skthemkverykrare.kTheksubjectkisk usktokgainkthekgreatestkadvantage,kthenkwekoughtktokcomektoktermskin wouldkrun,k'Ifkwekoughtktokcomektoktermskwhenkdoingksokwillkenable forktheykwillkgainkmostkifktheykdo'.kExpressedkaskankenthymeme,kthis maxims;ke.g.k'Wisekmenkwillkcomektoktermskinkthekhourkofksuccess; kkAgain,ksometimeskyoukshouldkrestatekyourkenthymemeskinkthekformkof whetherkbykobjectionkorkbykcounter-syllogism.kBothkinkpolitical divinerskalreadyk dealskwithkthekpast,kwhich,kaskEpimenideskofkCreteksaid,kevenkthe naturallykso,ksincekitkdealskwithkthekfuture,kwhereaskthekpleader suchklivelykremar bothkthesekcasesktheksayingkmustkfitkthekfacts.kThiskiskalsoktruekof arekawarekthatkNiconkiskThracian.kOrkagain:kBouleikautonkpersai.kIn meankthekngktheykare,kforkantithesiskimpressesktheknewkideakmore thiskmethodkformerly;knotkmanykdoksoknow.kByk'free-running'kstylekI isksetkforthkthekinquirykofkHerodotuskthekThurian.'kEverykonekused oldkpoets.kThekfree-runningkstylekiskthekancientkone,ke.g.k'Herein kk(4)kDoknotkbrac kkkkkkkkHerekarekmykletter'skmany-leavedkfolds. thoughkonlykonekhavenkiskmeant,kand kkkkkkkkUntokhavenskAchaean, findskwekdoknotkdeservekwhatkeverykonekelsekdeserves.kForgetfulness, poeticalkeffects.k(3)kUsekpluralkforksingular,kaskinkpoetry,kwherekone withkthekhelpkofkmetaphorskandkepithets,kbeingkcarefulktokavoid describekitkifkitkisktheknamekthatkiskugly.k(2)kRepresentkthings unseemly,kusekitsknamekifkitkiskthekdescriptionkthatkiskugly,kand namekinsteadkofkthekdescription.kWhenkmentioningkanythingkuglykor middlekeverykway'.kTokachievekconciseness,kdokthekopposite-putkthe sayk'circle',kbutk'thatksurfacekwhichkextendskequallykfromkthe impressiveness.k(1)kDescribekakthingkinsteadkofknamingkit:kdoknot kkThekfollowingksuggestionskwillkhelpktokgivekyourklanguage afterktellingkhim;kthenkthis,kthat,kandkthekotherkthingkoccurred.' are,kandktokwhatksubjectskthekvariousk stocngkthekhearerkoutkofkhiskordinarykself.kThektrocheekisktookmuch menkarekproducedkforkakwhile,kandkthenkdecadenceksetskin.kAkclever thosekwhokarekfaithfulktoktheirkdeadkfriends.kAnd,kspea withkthemkaskwhenkwekare-whichkiskwhykallkmenkfeelkfriendlyktowards itkourselves.kAndkthosekwhokfeelkaskfriendlyktokuskwhenkwekareknot suchkqualitieskaskdokmalykthatkthekintentionkwaskcarriedkout.kThat representkhiskadversarieskaskopenktoksuchkchargeskandkpossessedkof hearerskintokakframekofkmindkthatkwillkdisposekthemktokanger,kandkto disciplinekhadklongkbeenkslac CritiaskbykquotingkthekelegiackversekofkSolon,kmaintainingkthat withkthekpeoplekofkSigeum;kandkCleophonksupportedkhiskaccusationkof TenedosknotklongkagokappealedktokPerianderkofkCorinthkinktheirkdispute AthenianskappealedktokHomerkaskakwitnesskaboutkSalamis;kandkthekmenkof kkSimilarly,ksincekamusementkandkeveryk kkkkkkkkHekiskindeedkthekbestkpartkofkhimself. kkkkkkkkTokthatkeachkdaykallotskmostktime,kwherein kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkTokthatkhekbendskhimself, best;kjustkaskthekpoetksays, pleasantkforkakmanktokspendkhisktimekoverkwhatkhekfeelskhekcankdo disparagekourkneighbourskaskwellkasktokhavekpowerkoverkthem.kItkis things.)kAgain,ksincekmostkofkuskarekambitious,kitkmustkbekpleasantkto mostkpeoplekthin willkbekcalledkcourage,kandkextravagancekgenerosity.kThatkwillkbekwhat willkbeksaidktokpossesskthekcorrespondingkgoodkqualities;krashness arrogantkmankisk'superb'kork'impressive'.kThosekwhokrunktokextremes isknotkonlykthekbestowalkofkakpiecekofkproperty,kbutkalsokakto somethingkthatkgiveskaktwistktokthekwordkused;ke.g.kthekremar thekletterskofkakwordkconsistkinkmeaning,knotkjustkwhatkyouksay,kbut cankhidekourkpurposeksuccessfullykbykta languagekma things-volumekofksound,kmodulationkofkpitch,kandkrhythm-thatkakspea rhythmskthatksuitkvariousksubjects.kThesekarekthekthree betweenkthektwo;kofkhigh,klow,korkintermediatekpitch;kofkthekvarious ways-eitherkbykdirectlykattac Objections,kaskappearskinkthekTopics,kmaykbekraisedkinkfour opinionskofkmen,kandksuchkopinionskoftenkcontradictkeachkother. syllogisms:kforkthekmaterialskofksyllogismskarekthekordinary builtkupkfromktheksameklineskofkargumentskaskthekoriginal bringingkankobjection.kItkiskclearkthatkcounter-syllogismskcankbe kkAnkargumentkmaykbekrefutedkeitherkbykakcounter-syllogismkorkby nextksubjectkisktheirkRefutation. kkEnthymemes,kgenuinekandkapparent,khaveknowkbeenkdescribed;kthe kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk25 andkhaskakplacekinknokartkexceptkRhetorickandkEristic. akfraud;kthekprobabilitykitkhandledkwasknotkgenuinekbutkspurious, detailskthatkma ofkthatk kscene-painting.kThekbiggerkthekthrong,kthekmorekdistantkis argument,kwithkthekadditionkofkthosekofkPossibilitykandkthekothers wise'.kThekArtkofkRhetorickofkCallippuskiskmadekupkofkthisklinekof answer,k'No,kitkiskwellktokbekeducated,ksincekitkiskwellktokbe notkwellktokbekeducated,ksincekitkisknotkwellktokbekunpopular':korkyou andktokwisdom,kwhichkiskgood.kHencekyoukeitherkargue,k'Itkisktherefore censure.kE.g.keducationkleadskbothktokunpopularity,kwhichkiskbad, notkbekdone,kforkprosecutingkorkdefendingkanykone,kforkeulogykor consequenceskaskakreasonkforkurgingkthatkakthingkshouldkorkshould andkbadkconsequences,kanotherklinekofkargumentkconsistskinkusingkthose kk13.kSincekitkhappenskthatkanykgivenkthingkusuallykhaskbothkgood godskrecognizedkbykthekstatekhaskheknotkhonoured?' Theodecteskprovideskankexample:k'Whatktemplekhaskhekprofaned?kWhat isktheksoul?kforkitkmustkbekthiskorkthat.'kThekSocrateskof ofkaksubject.kSuchkiskthatkgivenkinkthekTopics:k'Whatksortkofkmotion andkoccasions,kandkforkwhatk kkWeknowkturnktokthekusekofkMaxims,kinkorderktokseekuponkwhatksubjects kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk21 Examplektherekare,kandkhowkandkwhenktheykarektokbekemployed. akgoodkone.kItkhasknowkbeenkstatedkhowkmanykvarietieskofkargumentkby singlekonekisksufficient;kevenkaksinglekwitnesskwillkservekifkhekis firstkyoukmustkgivekaklargeknumberkofkthem;kifkyoukputkthemklast,ka thiskalwayktells.kForktheksamekreason,kifkyoukputkyourkexamples thekenthymemes,ktheykhavekthekeffectkofkwitnesseskgivingkevidence,kand deliberativekoratorykwekhavekspo havingkpeoplekrelatedktokuskli kkThekconditionskunderkwhichkwekshallkfeelkshamekarekthese:kfirst, whatkseemkconventionalkones. beforekthekformerkofkwhatkseemkgenuinekfaults,kbeforektheklatterkof ashamedkofktheksamekthingskbeforekintimateskaskbeforekstrangers,kbut (nokonekfeelskshamekbeforeksmallkchildrenkorkanimals);knorkarekwe strongerkthankwekare.kAlsokthosekwhokarekattac peoplekarekactuallykafraidkof.kAlsokthosekwhokhavekdestroyedkpeople hurtkus;kand,kforktheksamekreason,kwekfearkthosekwhomkthosekstronger ourselves:kifktheykcankhurtkthosekstrongerkpeople,kstillkmorekcankthey Wekalsokfearkthosekwhokarektokbekfearedkbykstrongerkpeoplekthan cannotkbothkhavekitkatkonce;kforkwekarekalwayskatkwarkwithksuchkmen. powerkiskterrible.kAgain,kourkrivalskforkakthingkcausekuskfearkwhenkwe pleasurekinkourkcompany;kespeciallykifktheykfeelkli towardskus,ksuchkaskadmirationkforkus,korkbeliefkinkourkgoodness,kor readyktokfightkus.kAndktowardskthosekwhokhaveksomekseriouskfeeling tokthwartkuskwhenkwekarekangrykorkinkearnest,kwhichkwouldkmeankbeing only,kaskakgoodkmankalwayskwillkbe.kAndktowardskthosekwhokdoknotktry neitherktheirkneighbours'kbadkpointsknorkourkown,kbutkofkourkgoodkones latterkarekmorekli tokthosekwhosekadvantagekiskenjoyedkduringkone'sklifetime:kforkthe thosekactionskwhosekadvantagekmaykbekenjoyedkafterkdeath,kaskopposed thekindividual,ksincekindividualkinterestskarekselfish.kNoblekalsokare actionskgoodkinktheirkownknature;kactionskthatkareknotkgoodksimplykfor akgreater'khaskbeenkimpliedkinkourkargument.kLi greaterkgoodkthankthatkother.kForkthiskconceptionkofk'productivekof productivekofkakgreaterkgoodkthankanotherkiskproductivekofkiskitselfka surpasskthekgreaterkaskwellkasktheklesskofkthekotherktwo.kAkthing doesksokbykthekgreaterkamountkiskthekgreaterkofkthektwo;kforkitkmust ofkcheating.kAgain,kwhenktwokthingskeachksurpasskakthird,kthatkwhich potentially,ksincekakmankwhokhaskcommittedksacrilegekiskalwayskcapable actkofklearningksubsequently,kcheatingkaccompaniesksacrilege iskakcrown',kakfactkwhichkeverybodyk Olympickgames',kwithoutkaddingk'AndkinkthekOlympickgameskthekprize prizekiskakcrown,kitkiskenoughktoksayk'Forkhekhaskbeenkvictorkinkthe tokshowkthatkDorieuskhaskbeenkvictorkinkakcontestkforkwhichkthe therekisknokneedkevenktokmentionkit;kthekhearerkaddskitkhimself.kThus, syllogism.kForkifkanykofkthesekpropositionskiskakfamiliarkfact, employkitkinkbothkwaysk(forkwekmustknotkma oppositeksideskofkakquestion,knotkinkorderkthatkwekmaykinkpractice tokemploykpersuasion,kjustkaskstrictkreasoningkcankbekemployed,kon thekwayktokhandlekakpopularkaudience.kFurther,k(3)kwekmustkbekable possessedkbykeverybody,kaskwekobservedkinkthekTopicskwhenkdealingkwith then,kwekmustkuse,kaskourkmodeskofkpersuasionkandkargument,knotions instruction,kandktherekarekpeoplekwhomkonekcannotkinstruct.kHere, dealkwithkthemkbykenumeratingkthekdifferentk practice;kbutkthisktreatisekmaykindicatekthekwaykitkiskdone.kWekmay actualkinventionkcankonlykcomekthroughknaturalktalentkorklong whenkthingskarekaskyoukdescribekthem;kandkthereforektheykta youkarektokbektrustedkfromkthekfactkthatkotherskbehavekaskyoukdo thektruthkofkyourkstory:ktheirkmindskdrawkthekfalsekconclusionkthat 'Uponkherkarrivalksheksaidkherksaykandkdepartedk(ekdkelthousak inanimate;kforkthesekdistinctionskalsokmustkbekcorrectlykgiven. observekProtagoras'kclassificationkofknounskintokmale,kfemale,kand wekhaveksomeksuchkobjectkaskthatkmentioned.k(4)kAkfourthkrulekiskto ambiguitieskhavektheksameksortkofkeffect,kandkarektokbekavoidedkunless happen,kandkthereforekhekrefusesktokaddkakdefinitekdate.kAllkthese heksimplyksayskthatkakthingkwillkhappenkthankifkheksayskwhenkitkwill andkakgoodkthingklesskgood.kTa morektrulykthankanother,kmaykbekmorekli meaningkisktheksame.kThiskiskuntrue.kOnektermkmaykdescribekakthing askfoulklanguage,kbecausekinkwhateverkwordskyoukputkakgivenkthingkyour fallaciouskargumentkofktheksophistkBryson,kthatktherekisknoksuchkthing meaning.kFurther,ktherekiskakthirdkconsideration-onekthatkupsetskthe wordskmay,kaskLicymniusksays,kliekinktheirksoundkorkinktheir thiskdirectionktoo,kwhokwinkprizeskinktheirkturn,kaskwellkaskthose goodkdictionkcankbeksoktaught,kandkthereforekwekhavekmenkofkabilitykin gift,kandkcankhardlykbeksystematicallyktaught.kThekprincipleskof Thrasymachuskinkhisk'AppealsktokPity'.kDramatickabilitykiskaknatural tokdealkwithkthemkhavekbeenkmadekandkbykakfewkpeople,kaskby producektheksamekeffectkaskonkthekstage.kButkonlykverykslightkattempts creatureskrearedkinksaltkwater;kandkolive-ca needksalt,kimprobablekandkincrediblekaskthiskmightkseemkfor theklawskrequiredkaklawktoksetkthemkright.k'Why',khekwentkon,k'fish theklaw.kThekaudiencektriedktokshoutkhimkdownkwhenkhekobservedkthat Orktand;kandknotkproclaimingkthekfactkwhenktheykarekdone,kwhich kkkkkkkkThekruinkofkthemkmorekconspicuous. replyktokAristophon.k'Wouldkyou',khekas maykbekseenkinkthekTeucer.kItkwaskemployedkbykIphicrateskinkhis againstkyourself.kItkiskankexcellentkturnktokgivektokakdebate,kas kkAndkwhenkAlphesiboeakasndkofkthingkatkthekbeginning,kwhenkevery kkkkkkkkWhy,ktherekarektwokthingsktokexaminekhere. tokwhichkquestionkAlcmaeonkinkreplyksays, kkkkkkkkAndkwaskthereknonektokloathekthykmother'skcrime? ofkTheodectes: arisekandkareksuitablekforkusktokhandle;kandkthenkwekmustktryktokthin ofkallkhavekbykuskakselectionkofkargumentskaboutkquestionskthatkmay ofkthekspeech.kConsequently,kaskappearskinkthekTopics,kwekmustkfirst matterkinkhand:knor,kplainly,kcankproofkbekeffectedkotherwisekbykmeans not:knotkallkfactskcankformkhiskbasis,kbutkonlykthosekthatkbearkonkthe everkproveskanything,kwhetherkhiskargumentskarekstrictlykcogentkor goodness.kWeksee,kthen,kthatkthiskiskthekonlykwaykinkwhichkanykone isknotkakgood,kwekmustkstartkwithkthekrealkfactskaboutkjusticekand subjectkwhatever.kThus,kinkhandlingkthekquestionkwhetherkjusticekiskor whatkiskorkisknotktokhiskinterest.kTheksamekthingkappliesktokany himkforkhiskjustkorkunjustktreatmentkofkothers,korktokadvisekhimkabout blamekhimkforktheknoblekorkbasekdeedskhekhaskdone,ktokaccusekorkdefend imaginary;kthesekmustkbekourkmaterial,kwhetherkwekarektokpraisekor ofkthekmentionkofkactualkfacts,kta fablek(e.g.kthekfableskofkAesop,kthosekfromkLibya).kAskankinstance again,ktherekarektwokvarieties,kthekillustrativekparallelkandkthe whatkwekwantkbykta Euthynuskhadkfoundkout.kAskforkImpossibility,kwekcankclearlykget wouldkbekakstrangekthingkifkhekcouldknotkdiscoverkakthingkthat people,kitkiskmoreksokforktheirkopposites;kthuskIsocratesksaidkthatkit mindkiskgood.kAlsokbykthosekwhomkallkotherskthin becausektheykought,kinktheirkbelief,ktokbelongktokmenkwhosekstatekof thatktheykoughtktokbekgoodkmen,ktheykarekemulousktokgainksuchkgoods toldkthekAtheniansktokimaginekthekGree representedkthemkinkhiskspeechkonklandkassignmentskinkSamos,kwhenkhe andknotkmerelykofkdisgracefulkactskbutkalsokofkdisgracefulktal example,kofkactualksexualkintercourse,kbutkalsokofkitskevidences; conductkmentioned,kbutkalsokofkthekevidenceskofkit:knotkmerely,kfor discredit.kAndkwekarekashamedknotkmerelykofkthekactualkshameful associatedkwithkakmentalkpicturekofktheknearnesskofkwhatk oppositekofkwhatkcauseskfear;kitkis,ktherefore,kthekexpectation conditions.kItkiskthekoppositekofkfear,kandkwhatkcauseskitkiskthe whatkConfidencekis,kaboutkwhatkthingskwekfeelkit,kandkunderkwhat andkthekvariouskstateskofkmindkinkwhichkitkiskfelt,kwekcankalsoksee kkHavingknowkseenktheknaturekofkfear,kandkofkthekthingskthatkcausekit, unexpectedktime. handskofkunexpectedkpeople,kinkankunexpectedkform,kandkatkan thekinsolentkmankiskthatkhekthin 'insolence',kbutkvengeance.)kThekcausekofkthekpleasurekthuskenjoyedkby tokyourself,kbutksimplykforkthekpleasurekinvolved.k(Retaliationkisknot thatkanythingkmaykhappenktokyourself,korkbecausekanythingkhaskhappened doingkandksayingkthingskthatkcausekshamektokthekvictim,knotkinkorder (3)kInsolencekiskalsokakformkofkslighting,ksincekitkconsistskin underkthreekheads.kTa owkthemkyourself?'k'Yes',kansweredkLampon. opposites.kWekmustkarrangekwhatkwekhavektoksaykaboutkeachkofkthem however,kactionskjustlykdonektokus;kherekjusticekiskunli things;kandksokwithkwhatkiskjustkandkactionskdonekjustly.k(Not, signskofkcourage,kandkeverythingkdonekcourageously,kmustkbeknoble tokdokorkhavekdonektokhim,kareknoble,kitkfollowskthatkallkdeedskor thankwhatkiskwholesome,ksincektheklatterkisknotkpursuedkforkitskown whichkisknotkdesirablekinkitself,kaskforkexamplekbodilykstrength thingkwhichkiskdesirablekinkitselfkiskakgreaterkgoodkthankakthing pleasure,khealthktookmustkbekakgreaterkgoodkthankpleasure.kAgain,ka iskwholesomekiskmorekdesirablekandkakgreaterkgoodkthankwhatkgives producedkbykakgreaterkgoodkiskitselfkakgreaterkgood;kthus,kifkwhat kkWithkregardktokthekFoodkSupply:khekmustk specialkcare. ifkitkisknotkwanted,kandkthatkthekstrategickpointskmaykbekguardedkwith orderkthatkakgarrisonkmaykbekincreasedkifkitkisktooksmallkorkremoved meanskthatkhekmustkbekwellkacquaintedkwithkthekliekofkthekcountry-in ofkthekdefensivekforcekandkthekpositionskofkthekforts-thisklast methodskofkdefencekinkactualkuse,ksuchkaskthekstrengthkandkcharacter peopleket'kfork'cloa lgenuinekbutkareknot. iskthekpraisekofkCritias,kyoukmustknarratekhiskdeeds,kwhichknotkmany life-whatkyoukhavektokdokisktokapplykthosekfacts.kButkifkyourkobject advantage,kandkspea kkhonouredkPythagoras;kthekinhabitantskof tokthekcase,korkevenkatkdistractingkit-forkgainingkitkisknotkalwayskan arousingkhiskresentment,korksometimeskatkgainingkhiskseriouskattention kkThekappealktokthekhearerkaimskatksecuringkhiskgoodwill,korkat close,ksokthatkthekjudgeskmaykmorekeasilykrememberkwhatkyoukhaveksaid. againstkhim.kButkifkyoukarektokexcitekprejudice,kyoukmustkdoksokatkthe obstacles,kandkthereforekmustkbeginkbykremovingkanykprejudicekfelt whenkhekiskgoingktokbringkhimselfkonkthekstage,kmustkclearkawaykany ofkdramatickdelivery-likyourselfkridiculous;kitkiskAristeideskwhokis dithyrambs;korkcompactkandkantithetical,kli probabilitykbutkankinvariablekandknecessaryktruth.kButkthekjudges happenskiskalwayskopenktokobjection:kotherwisekitkwouldknotkbeka refutekitkasknotkinevitable.kAnykargumentkbasedkuponkwhatkusually tokrefutekakconclusionkaskimprobablekisknotktheksamekthingkaskto fallacy.kForkthekaccuserkuseskprobabilitiesktokprovekhiskcase:kand accusationkthatkitkiskpossiblektokgainkankadvantagekbykusingkthis isknotkinevitablyktrue.kHencekitkiskalwayskinkdefencekratherkthankin yourkopponent'skpremisskisknotkprobable,kbutkOnlykinkshowingkthatkit genuine:kitkmaykbekspurious:kforkitkconsistskinkshowingknotkthat bekrefutedkbykraisingksomekobjection.kThekrefutationkisknotkalways always,kEnthymemeskfoundedkuponkProbabilitieskcan,kitkiskclear,kalways kkNowk(1)kaskakProbabilitykiskthatkwhichkhappenskusuallykbutknot arguekfromksomekuniversalkorkparticularkproposition,ktruekorkfalse. invariable.k(4)kEnthymemeskbasedkuponkordinarykSignskarekthosekwhich uponkInfalliblekSignskarekthosekwhichkarguekfromkthekinevitablekand thenkarguekdeductivelyktokakparticularkinference.k(3)kEnthymemeskbased fromkonekorkmoreksimilarkcases,karrivekatkakgeneralkproposition,kand EnthymemeskbasedkuponkExamplekarekthosekwhichkproceedkbykinduction whichkarguekfromkwhatkis,korkisksupposedktokbe,kusuallyktrue.k(2) OrdinarykSigns.k(1)kEnthymemeskbasedkuponkProbabilitieskarekthose fact:k(1)kProbabilities,k(2)kExamples,k(3)kInfalliblekSigns,k(4) kk12.kAnotherklinekofkargumentkconsistskinkta withoutktryingkanykonekelsekonkthekway. AndkXerxes,kagain,kdidknotkattac untilkhekhadkseizedkEgypt;kbutkoncekhekhadkseizedkit,khekdidkcross. notkletkhimksubduekEgypt.kForkDariuskofkoldkdidknotkcrosskthekAegean pleasure.kSuchkarekanger,kpity,kfearkandkthekli affectktheirkjudgements,kandkthatkarekalsokattendedkbykpainkor kkThekEmotionskarekallkthosekfeelingskthatksokchangekmenkaskto thekemotions,ktokwhichkwekmustknowkturn. andkfriendlinesskofkdispositionkwillkformkpartkofkourkdiscussionkof goodnesskisktheksamekaskthekwayktokestablishkthatkofkothers.kGoodkwill analysiskofkgoodnesskalreadykgiven:kthekwayktokestablishkyourkown thoughtktokbeksensiblekandkmorallykgoodkmustkbekgatheredkfromkthe beenkakrascal,ksincekifkyoukarekakrascalkyoukhadkbetterkma diseases;kbutknokonektaeyedkandkcommonplacekmaximskarektokbekused, guardkagainstkordinarykoffences,kjustkasktheykguardkagainstkordinary forkexample,kinkoldkagekandktimeskofksic Sokwithkthosekthingskwhichkarekofkservicekwhenkthekneedkiskpressing; iskcomposedkofkpropositions,kandkthekenthymemekiskakparticulark saidkcannotkbekrefuted,ktheykthenkthin toktaindkofkneedkdescribed.kWekcankalsokseekhowktokeliminatekthe importantkorkunimportant,kjustkorkunjust,kthekjudgekmustksurelykrefuse notkso,kthatkitkhaskorkhasknotkhappened.kAsktokwhetherkakthingkis clearlyknothingktokdokbutktokshowkthatkthekallegedkfactkisksokorkis askwellkwarpkakcarpenter'skrulekbeforekusingkit.kAgain,kaklitigantkhas pervertkthekjudgekbykmovingkhimktokangerkorkenvykorkpity-onekmight non-essentials.kThiskisksoundklawkandkcustom.kItkisknotkrightkto suchkthingskaskcome,kmorekorkless,kwithinkthekgeneralk loo kitkso. somethingkaboutkthekwayktokdeviseklivelykandkta kkWekmayknowkconsiderkthekabovekpointsksettled,kandkpasskonktoksay kkkkkkkkAndktheykwerekmykhostskonkanotherkday. kkkkkkkkTherekonektimekIkasktheirkguestkdidkstay, Epicharmusiskinappropriate;kthekwordk' kkkkkkkkKingkofkthekoar,konkMysia'skcoastkheklanded, Euripides'kTelephus, ssktheklistenerkstumble;khekiskstillkexpecting speechkankunfamiliarkair:kpeoplekli feelingkforklanguage.kItkiskthereforekwellktokgivektokeveryday towardsktheirkownkcountrymen,kandktheksamekthingkisktruekofktheir appearkmorekstately.kPeoplekdoknotkfeelktowardskstrangerskasktheykdo kkEnthymemeskarekbasedkuponkonekorkotherkofkfourk Thuskwekmustknotkcarrykitskreasoningktookfarkbac notedkthekdifferenceskbetweenkitkandktheksyllogismkofkdialectic. Enthymemekiskaksyllogism,kandkinkwhatksensekitkiskso.kWekhavekalso tokbekembodiedkinkthem.kItkhaskalreadykbeenkpointedkoutkthatkthe andkthenkproceedktokwhatkiskakdistinctkquestion,ktheklineskofkargument kkWhatkhaskbeenksaidkhaskshownkuskhowkmanyk Mortalkcreatureskoughtktokcherishkmortal,knotkimmortalkthoughts. addedkwordsk'mortalkman'kgivekthekreason.kSimilarly,kwithkthekwords kkToksayk'itkisknotkrightktoknursekimmortalkwrath'kiskakmaxim;kthe kkkkkkkkOkmortalkman,knurseknotkimmortalkwrath. implied,ke.g. theykarekthosekinkwhichkthekreasonkforkthekviewkexpressedkisksimply speeches,kspeecheskofkeulogykorkattac ofkone'sklifekonekhasknothingkatkallktokremember,kandkcankonlykloo aklongkfuturekbeforekitkandkakshortkpastkbehindkit:konkthekfirstkday expectationkrefersktokthekfuture,kmemoryktokthekpast,kandkyouthkhas liveskarekmainlykspentknotkinkmemorykbutkinkexpectation;kfor andkbesideskthat,ktheykhavekaskyetkmetkwithkfewkdisappointments.kTheir sanguine;knaturekwarmsktheirkbloodkaskthoughkwithkexcesskofkwine; otherskreadily,kbecausektheykhaveknotkyetkoftenkbeenkcheated.kTheykare whatkdisasterskhappenedkakhundredkcenturieskago,knorkloo otherskarekclosektokuskthatktheykexcitekourkpityk(wekcannotkremember whenkitkhappensktokothers.kFurther,ksincekitkiskwhenktheksufferingskof generalkprinciplekthatkwhatkwekfearkforkourselveskexciteskourkpity samekmisfortunekmaykbefallkuskalso.kHerektookwekhavektokrememberkthe feelkpity,kbecausektheykarekta continuallykseenkby,kandkgokaboutkunderkthekeyeskof,kthosekwhok inflictkthemkuponkus;knorkshallkwekbekafraidkatktimeskwhenkwekthin believekcannotkhappenktokus,knorkpeoplekwhokwekbelievekcannot believesknothingkcankhappenktokhim;kwekshallknotkfearkthingskthatkwe destructivekwillkhappenktokus,kplainlyknobodykwillkbekafraidkwho feelkfear.kIfkfearkiskassociatedkwithkthekexpectationkthatksomething feared.kLetkusknowkdescribekthekconditionskunderkwhichkwekourselves kkThekabovekare,kroughly,kthekchiefkthingskthatkarekterriblekandkare otherskcausekusktokfeelkpity. anythingkcauseskusktokfeelkfearkthatkwhenkitkhappenskto,korkthreatens, esteemed,korkli qualitieskinkuskforkwhichkwekespeciallykwishktokbekadmired, hands.kWekalsokli kkkkkkkkNeverkshowkankoldkmank oldkman,kyoukwillkappealktokthekproverb, kkAsktokwitnesses,ktheykarekofktwok iskprobablyksufficient.ndskofkwords;kakclassificationkofkMetaphors; accountedkbest.-Sokfarkasktheklawskarekconcerned,kthekabovekdiscussion thanktheklawskiskjustkwhatkiskforbiddenkbykthosekcodeskofklawkthatkare growingkhabitkofkdisobeyingkauthority.kOrkthatktryingktokbekcleverer honestkopinion'knotkmeantktokma case,kwekmustkurgekthatkthekoathk'tokgivekmykverdictkaccordingktokmy combatktheklawkthereby.kIfkhoweverkthekwrittenklawksupportskour passedkexistsknoklonger,kwekmustkdokourkbestktokprovekthiskandkto if,kthoughktheklawkstillkexists,ktheksituationktokmeetkwhichkitkwas committing.kSometimes,khowever,kthekworsekactkiskrec Thatkiskwhatkappealsktokweaskeverythingkmorekimportant:ke.g.k'Ikcame spotkandkthekpainklater,korkthekgainkonkthekspotkandktheklossklater. refusektokgivekupkthekstruggle.kYoukmaykgetkyourkpleasurekonkthe andkfailed;kforkinkcrime,kaskinkwar,ktherekarekmenkwhokwillkalways escapedkdetectionkorkpunishmentkalready;korkbykhavingkoftenktried quitekoppositekcharacters.kYoukmaykbekencouragedkbykhavingkoften motiveskorkfeelings;kbutknokmankbykboth-theykwillkaffectkpeoplekof thatksort.kPeoplekmaykbekledkonktokwrongkotherskbykeitherkofkthese thekpunishmentkmaykamountktokakfine,korkbanishment,korksomethingkof toksupplykwhatktheyklacndkofkthing,kthereforekParisktoo,kwekarekto peoplekfindkitkpleasantktokputktheirkneighbourskstraightkagainkand wektryktokattain.kItkiskbecausekbeneficentkactskarekpleasantkthat implieskbothkpossesksionkandksuperiority,kbothkofkwhichkarekthings receivekakbenefitkisktokgetkwhatkonekdesires;ktokconferkakbenefit receivingkbenefitskbelongktokthekclasskofkpleasantkthings;kto onekiskbroughtkintokone'sknaturalkcondition.kConferringkand thatkthekobjectkofkwonderkiskankobjectkofkdesire;kwhilekinklearning pleasantkaskakrule;kwonderingkimplieskthekdesirekofklearning,kso valuekofkrarity.kLearningkthingskandkwonderingkatkthingskarekalso before,kand,kbesides,kwhatkcomeskonlykatklongkintervalskhaskthe whetherkitkbekakpersonkorkakthing;kforkitkiskakchangekfromkwhatkwekhad Thatkiskwhykwhatkcomesktokuskonlykatklongkintervalskiskpleasant, kkkkkkkkChangekiskinkallkthingsksweet. poet,-ng,kwhichkarekdeservedkbykgoodkmenkandkbykthosekwhokpossess excessivekprolongationkofkaksettledkcondition:ktherefore,ksayskthe toknature,kwhereaskinvariablekrepetitionkofkanythingkcauseskthe pleasant.kAndktokchangekiskalsokpleasant:kchangekmeanskankapproach samekthingkoftenkiskpleasant,ksince,kaskweksaw,kanythingkhabitualkis affairs;kinkorderktokadvisekonksuchkmatterskakmankmustkbek thesekquestionskcannotkbekgainedksolelykfromkexperiencekinkhome wealthkbutkalsokbykreducingktheirkexpenditure.kAkcomprehensivekviewkof reduced.kForkmenkbecomekricherknotkonlykbykincreasingktheirkexisting superfluous,kitkmaykbekabolished,kor,kifkanykisktooklarge,kitkmaykbe expenditurekofkthekcountry,kinkorderkthat,kifkanykpartkofkitkis hekspeamek(oikdkelthontesketuptonkme).' Bothkwrittenkandkspo epkinkmind.kShow,ktherefore,kfromkoneksetkof proportionalkmetaphor.kThus:kakshield,kweksay,kiskthek'drin gone,kIkspo butkJason,kwhomkshekwouldkhavekslain;kforkitkwouldkhavekbeenkakmista childrenkaway.kInkdefencekshekargueskthatkitkisknotkherkchildren, sound,ktheykdisplaykthekspea generalkdeclarationkofkmoralkprinciples:ksokthat,kifkthekmaximskare producekthiskeffect,kbecausekthekutterancekofkthemkamountsktoka speechkinkwhichkthekmoralkpurposekiskconspicuous:kandkmaximskalways speechkwithkmoralkcharacter.kTherekiskmoralkcharacterkinkevery ofkusingkmaxims.kTherekiskanotherkwhichkiskmorekimportant-itkinvestska truths,ktheseksamekviewskonktheseksameksubjects.kThiskiskonekadvantage already,kandkwhatkthosekviewskare,kandkthenkmustkexpress,kaskgeneral thereforektokguessktheksubjectskonkwhichkhiskhearerskreallykholdkviews iskmorekfoolishkthanktokbekthekparentkofkchildren.'kThekoratorkhas him,k'Nothingkiskmorekannoyingkthankhavingkneighbours',kor,k'Nothing badkneighbourskorkbadkchildren,khekwillkagreekwithkanykonekwhoktells believekinksomekparticularkconnexion:ke.g.kifkakmankhappensktokhave peopleklovektokhearkstatedkinkgeneralktermskwhatktheykalready required.kThekmaxim,kaskhaskbeenkalreadyksaid,kakgeneralkstatementkand indicatingkatktheksamektimekhowkwekarektokhuntkdownkthekmaxims themselveskaboutkparticularkcases.kIkwillkexplainkwhatkIkmeankbykthis, expressingkaskakuniversalktruthkthekopinionskwhichktheykhold wantkofkintelligencekinkhiskhearers,kwhoklovektokhearkhimksucceedkin kkOr,kifkhekiskcallingkonkthemktokattac kkkkkkkkOnekomenkofkallkiskhest,kthatkwekfightkforkourkfatherland. withoutkobtainingkfavourablekomenskmaykquote wishktokbekli powers-cankdokmanykpeoplekakgoodkturn.kAlsokthosekwhomkmanykpeople Holderskofkpublickoffice-generals,korators,kandkallkwhokpossessksuch things-thosekalreadykmentioned,kaskcourage,kwisdom,kpublickoffice. objectskofkthekfeeling.kTheykarekthosekwhokhavekthesekandksimilar beautykratherkthankhealth.kWekcanksee,ktoo,kwhatkpersonskarekthe possessionkofkwhichkcankgivekenjoymentktokourkneighbours-wealthkand andkalsokthosekwhokdokthemkservice.kSokwithkthosekgoodkthingskour serviceablektokothers:kforkmenkhonourkthosekwhokarekmorallykgood, ankobject,kandkalsokallkthosekgoodkthingskthatkarekusefulkand objectskofkemulation,kmoralkgoodnesskinkitskvariouskformskmustkbeksuch it.kFurther,ksincekallkgoodkthingskthatkarekhighlykhonouredkare thingkaskreallykourkown,kandkthereforekfeelingkthatkwekdeservektokhave otherskaboutkyoukifkyoukhavekwrongedkthem,ksincektheykarekonkthe beggingkwhenkitkwillkseemkli nothingktokterrifykotherkpeoplekli thekmeanskofkdealingkwithkit.kWekalsokfeelkconfidentkwheneverktherekis nokexperiencekofkbadkweather,korkbecausektheirkexperiencekgiveskthem maykfeelkconfidentkaboutkwhatkwillkhappenkeitherkbecausektheykhave theykmaykhavekmeansktokdealkwithkit:kthuskwhenkinkdangerkatkseakpeople beingskfacekdangerkcalmly:ktheykmaykhaveknokexperiencekofkit,kor dangerkandkescapedkitksafely.kForktherekarektwokreasonskwhykhuman havekoftenksucceededkandkneverksufferedkreverses,korkhavekoftenkmet kkAskforkourkownkstatekofkmind,kwekfeelkconfidencekifkwekbelievekwe stronger,korkboth. whosekinterestkisktheksamekaskourskarekthekmoreknumerouskparty,korkthe orkhavektreatedkuskwellkorkbeenktreatedkwellkbykus;korkifkthose atkallkorknokstrongkones;kifkourkrivalskwhokarekstrongkarekourkfriends wrongedkothersknorkbeenkwrongedkbykthem;kifkwekhavekeitherknokrivals important,korkboth-tokcurekorkpreventktrouble;kifkwekhavekneither them;kifkthereforekwekdoknotkhavekit,kitkloo conventionallykwrong,kandkifkwekdokhavekthiskfeeling,kwekdoknotklove haskjustksaidkthatkwithkourkfriendskwekareknotkashamedkofkwhatkis misfortuneskorksimplyk kuskseizekaknewkideakpromptly.kForkthis forkwhomkwekcare.kAgainkwekarekangrykwithkthosekwhokrejoicekatkour theykarekslightingkus-wekdoknotkfailktokperceivekthekneedskofkthose MeleagerkinkAntiphon'skplay;kforkthiskwantkofkperceptionkshowskthat doknotkperceivekourkneeds,kwhichkiskwhykPlexippuskiskangrykwith treatkuskwell;kandkstillkmore,kifktheykdokthekcontrary;korkifkthey thatkwillkbekpleasantkifkitkhappens,ktheykthin view.kAgain,kifktheykarekeagerkfor,kandkhavekgoodkhopeskof,kakthing seemknaturalktokeachkother,kthereforekallk amountsktokaksuggestion;ktokma notktoklivekatkanother'skbec oftenkma owkof... otherwisektherekwouldkbeknokneedkofkaktrial.kSoktoo,kpoliticalkorators donekharm.kButkthatkhekiskguiltykofkinjusticekhekwillkneverkadmit; willksometimesknotkdenykthatkakthingkhaskhappenedkorkthatkhekhas sometimesknotktryktokestablishkanythingkelse.kThus,ktheklitigant Dionysiuskhasktheksamekpurposekinkma another',kthekaudiencekthinthekdifferencekbetweenkthekorationkand 'Partlyktruekandkpartlyknotktrue',kork'Truekinkoneksensekbutknotkin bykankevasivekanswer.kIfkhekanswersk'True,kandkyetknotktrue',kor fourthkiskwhenkitkiskimpossiblekforkhimktokmeetkyourkquestionkexcept contradictingkeitherkhiskownkwordskorkwhatkeverykonekbelieves.kA occasionkiskwhenkyoukexpectktokshowkthatkyourkopponentkis andkyetknotkinkthekexistencekofkthekgodskthemselves?'kAnotherkgood therekanykonekwhokbelieveskinkthekexistencekofkchildrenkofkthekgods waykdivine?'k'Yes',ksaidkMeletus.k'Then',krepliedkSocrates,k'is 'supernaturalkbeingskwereknotkeitherkchildrenkofkthekgodskorkinksome againstkhimkbeforekgivingkhiskown.kIfkyoukspea onekintokmany.kItkthuskma ekiskhardktokbelieve,kyoukmustkguaranteekits factskofkthekcase.kItkma klesskofktheknarration.kHekhasktokmaintain prosecutingkorkdefending,kwekmustkpaykattentionktokthekexisting recordedkagainstkthem.kSo,ktoo,kinkakcourtkofklaw:kwhetherkwekare notkall,kofkthekfactskaboutktheksubjectkonkwhichkwekarektokspea truth.kThus,kanykonekwhokiskcallingkonkhiskmenktokris groundkthatkenvykitkcloselyka mightkindeedkbekthoughtkthatkenvykisksimilarlykopposedktokpity,konkthe unjust,kandkthatkiskwhykwekascribekindignationkevenktokthekgods.kIt indignationkatkunmeritedkprosperity;kforkwhateverkiskundeservedkis tokfeelksympathykandkpitykforkunmeritedkdistress,kandktokfeel feelingskarekassociatedkwithkgoodkmoralkcharacter;kitkiskourkdutykboth unmeritedkbadkfortune,kandkiskduektoktheksamekmoralkqualities.kBoth Painkatkunmeritedkgoodkfortunekis,kinkoneksense,koppositektokpainkat kkMostkdirectlykopposedktokpitykiskthekfeelingkcalledkIndignation. misfortuneskseemkclosektokourselves. contemptuous,kandkrec inkthekmidstkofkgreatkprosperity,kandkarekinkconsequencekinsolent, us,kincludingkthosekwhokwillktellkuskofktheirkownkwea showktheirkgoodnesskaskfriends.kAlsoktowardskthosekwhokarekhonestkwith themkinktrouble;kofkallkgoodkmen,kwekfeelkmostkfriendlyktokthosekwho towardskthosekwhokarekreallykfondkofktheirkfriendskandkdoknotkdesert justicekiskli not,kbecausekitkdoesknotkfulfilkthektruekpurposekofklaw.kOrkthat thatkshamkjusticekisknot,kandkthatkconsequentlykthekwrittenklawkis kkWekshallkarguekthatkjusticekindeedkisktruekandkprofitable,kbut kkkkkkkk(AndkbravekGod'skvengeance)kforkdefyingkthese. kkkkkkkkNotkIkwouldkfearkthekwrathkofkanykman kkkkkkkkButkliveketernal:k(nonekcankdatektheirkbirth.) kkkkkkkkNotkofkto-daykorkyesterdayktheykare, law,kbutknotkthekunwrittenklaw: manyksolemnkobligationsklidkwhetherkhekthoughtkthatkthekotherkephors thekonlykskitkdokso.kOneksuchkthingkiskthekindicationkofkmoral littlekacceptedkthatktheykcallkforkproof.kReasoningskofkthekformer premisseskwhichkhaveknotkbeenkthuskproved,kandkatktheksamektimekarekso resultskofkpreviousksyllogisms;kor,konkthekotherkhand,kfrom kkItkiskpossiblektokformksyllogismskandkdrawkconclusionskfromkthe bekofkthisknaturekwasteskhisktimekinkdeliberation. wherekitkiskindeedkactuallykused;kthiskiskthek paean,konekofkwhichkisksuitablektokthekbeginningkofkaksentence, toneskofkthekspo notktruekwherekitkisklesskli thekinvulnerable,kwhokpreventedkallkthekGree factskaskthatkhekslewkHector,kthekbravestkofkthekTrojans,kandkCycnus factskherekneededkarekthosekthatkarektruekofkAchilleskalone;ksuch eulogykappliesknokbetterktokAchilleskthanktokDiomede.kThekspecial shouldkattac elsekiskta kkSokmuchkforkKindnesskandkUn onekwillkadmitkthatkhekiskinkneedkofkwhatkiskworthless. wasknotkdonekforktheksa k givenktokhiskenemies;kthesekfactskshowkthatkthekservicekinkquestion need;korkthatktheksamekservice,korkankequalkorkgreaterkone,khaskbeen wekmaykpointkoutkthatkaksmallerkservicekhadkbeenkrefusedktokthekmankin otherkpeople,kitkmaykbe,kli theirkmodels;kthosekwhosekteacherskorkadviserskwekhavekbeen;kor absencekofkwhatkcauseskalarm.kWekfeelkitkifkwekcankta eitherktoktheknearkpresencekofkwhatkinspireskconfidencekorktokthe andkthekabsencekorkremotenesskofkwhatkiskterrible:kitkmaykbekdue kkWithkregardktokNationalkDefence:khekoughtktok haveksimilarkresults. rhetorickreferktokthreekdifferentk oratoryktherekisklesskinducementktoktal thekwayktokpleadkinkcourt.kThekreasonkforkthiskiskthatkinkpolitical aboutkpoliticalkoratory,kbutktry,konekandkall,ktokwritektreatiseskon thekrelationskofkprivatekindividuals,kthesekauthorsksayknothing noblerkbusiness,kandkfitterkforkakcitizen,kthankthatkwhichkconcerns tokpoliticalkasktokforensickoratory,kandkalthoughkthekformerkiska kkHencekitkcomeskthat,kalthoughktheksameksystematickprincipleskapply enthymemes. discusskstatementskandktokmaintainkthem,ktokdefendkthemselveskandkto morekorkless,kofkboth;kforktokakcertainkextentkallkmenkattemptkto kkIfkanykstatementkyoukma i such,khasktokdo. good;korksomethingkelseklis waskhonourable;korkthat,kifkitkgavekhimkpain,katkleastkitkdidkhim otherkfacts,kandksaykthat,kifkthekdeedkharmedkhim,katkanykratekit hadkdonekhimkwrong.kOrkyoukmaykadmitkthekwrong,kbutkbalancekitkwith deedkalleged,kandkthatkhekhadkdonekNausicrateskharm,kbutknotkthatkhe ThuskIphicrateskreplyingktokNausicrates,kadmittedkthatkhekhadkdonekthe matter:kthesekarektheksortkofkquestionskonkwhichkthekdisputekhinges. havekdoneknothingkdisgraceful,korknothingkdisgracefulkenoughkto says;korkthatkyoukhavekdonekhimknokinjustice,korknotkmuch;korkthatkyou saykthatkyoukhavekdoneknokharm,korknonektokhim,korknotkaskmuchkaskhe isktokmeetkanykofkthekissueskdirectly:ktokdenykthekallegedkfact;korkto wordskorknot,ksokthatkthiskdistinctionkmaykbekignored.kAnotherkway practicalkdifferencekwhetherksuchkaksuppositionkhaskbeenkputkinto kkThektragickpoets,ktoo,kletkusk kkkkkkkkOutkofkthekAsiankland... kkkkLeadkmektoktellkaknewktale,khowktherekcamekgreatkwarfarektokEurope kkkkkkkkkkkkTellkme,kOkMuse,kofkthekhero... kkkkkkkkSing,kOkgoddesskofksong,kofkthekWrath... argument.kSokwekfindgraspkofkthekbeginning,kandktheykcankholdkfastktokitkandkfollowkthe theirkmindskinksuspense.kAnythingkvaguekpuzzleskthem:ksokgivekthemka orkthekshieldkakdrin metaphorkisknotk'simple',kaskitkwouldkbekifkwekcalledkthekbowkaklyre ofkAres',kandkakbowkiskthek'chordlessklyre'.kThiskwaykofkputtingka kkBykakwrongkdivisionkofkthekwordskthekhearerkmaykta kkkkkkkk(Theksmilingkplainskfacekuskacrosskthekstrait.) kkkkkkkkCalydon'sksoilkiskthis;kofkPelops'kland abruptly,kaskmaykhappenkwithkthekfollowingkiambicklineskofkSophoclesstoryktokbektrue,kwhetherkitkisksokorknot.kBesides,kankemotional both.kThuskeitherk'sound'kork'colour'kwillkfailktokwor properlykifkyoukannexktoktwoktermskakthirdkwhichkdoesknotksuitkthem strongkman-thekdefencekiskstillkthatkhekwasknotkli doksuchkakthing.kButkifkhekiskopenktokthekcharge-i.e.kifkhekiska publickspea manykyears;ktheykhavekoftenkbeenkta partkofkelementskthatkarekthekcontrarykofkallkthese.kTheykhaveklived Men-menkwhokarekpastktheirkprime-maykbeksaidktokbekformedkforkthekmost kkSuch,kthenkiskthekcharacterkofkthekYoung.kThekcharacterkofkElderly witty,kwitkbeingkwell-bredkinsolence. deservesktokbektreatedkinkthatkway.kTheykarekfondkofkfunkandktherefore notkakykover:ktheirkimpulseskarek orknot-inkeitherkcasekthekactionkiskakmerekreturn,kandkisktherefore duektoklicentiousness.kAlso,kma persons,katkwrongktimes,korkinkwrongkplaces;kforkthesekthingskare duektokinjustice.kAlso,khavingkcarnalkintercoursekwithkforbidden depositkorkotherwisekwrongingkpeoplekaboutkmoney;kforkthesekactskare flight;kforkthesekbadkthingskarekduektokcowardice.kAlso,kwithholdingka thingskmaykindeedkbektrifling,kbutknonektheklesskmenkdeliberatelykma ofkthemktendsktokbekdestroyed.kWhenkIkspea andkinktheksamekwaykallkotherkinstancesk himselfkakdespotkasksoonkaskhekgotkit;kandksokdidkTheageneskatkMegara; Signkiskcalledk'completekproof':kwhenkpeoplekthin nothingktoktellkus;knothing,kthatkis,kaboutkhowktokgainks mind.kAboutkthekorator'skproperkmodeskofkpersuasionktheykhave writerskherekdealkiskhowktokputkthekjudgekintokakgivenkframekof ifktheykbelongedktokthekart.kThekonlykquestionkwithkwhichkthese otherkdivisionskofkakspeech,kisktheorizingkaboutknon-essentialskas bekthekcontentskofkthek'introduction'korkthek'narration'korkanykofkthe anykonekwhoklayskdownkruleskaboutkotherkmatters,ksuchkaskwhatkmust theklawgiverkcannotkforeseekthem.kIfkthiskiskso,kitkiskevidentkthat notkbe,kiskorkisknot,kmustkofknecessitykbekleftktokthekjudge,ksince whetherksomethingkhaskhappenedkorkhasknotkhappened,kwillkbekorkwill allowedktokdecidekaskfewkthingskaskpossible.kButkquestionskaskto pleasurekorkpain.kInkgeneral,kthen,kthekjudgekshould,kweksay,kbe andkhavektheirkjudgementkobscuredkbykconsiderationskofkpersonal hatredkorkself-interestkthatktheyklosekanykclearkvisionkofkthektruth themselvesktokbeksokmuchkinfluencedkbykfeelingskofkfriendshipkor definitekcaseskbroughtkbeforekthem.kTheykwillkoftenkhavekallowed memberskofkthekassemblykandkthekjurykfindkitktheirkdutyktokdecidekon lawgiverkisknotkparticularkbutkprospectivekandkgeneral,kwhereas expediency.kThekweightiestkreasonkofkallkiskthatkthekdecisionkofkthe forkthosekwhoktrykthekcasektoksatisfykthekclaimskofkjusticekand itkfromkconviction'.kHencekyoukshouldknotkas death?'-'Notkatkall',ksaidkhe;k'theykwerekbribedktokdokit,kandkIkdid they?'-'Yes.'-'Wellkthen,kwouldknotkyouktookbekjustlykputkto opponent,k'didknotkyoukproposektheksamekmeasureskas enthymemeskonkeverykpoint;kifkyoukdo,kyoukwillkbekactingkjustkli so-and-so'kmaykintroducekakhyperbolekunderkthekformkofkaksimile.kThus thekpointkwhenkyoukseekit,kthoughkthekremar andksurpriseskuskwhenkwekfindkhekmeansksomethingkelse.kSokyoukenjoy slavey'),kwherekhekpretendsktokmeankThratteisksuk('youkharpplayer'), TheodoruskaboutkNiconkthekharpistkThratt'keiksuk('youkThracian StuckthekpreludeskthatkDemocrituskofkChioskjeeredkatkMelanippides kkkkkkkkFlyingkonkeagerly; kkkkkkkkThek(bitter)karrowkflew; kkkkkkkkDownwardkanonktokthekvalleykreboundedkthekboulderkremorseless; distinguishedkbykthekeffectkofkactivityktheykconvey.kThus, metaphoricalklifektoklifelesskthings:kallksuchkpassageskare onceksuggestskswiftness.kSokwithkHomer'skcommonkpracticekofkgiving wherek'upksprang'kgiveskuskactivitykaskwellkaskmetaphor,kforkitkat kkkkkkkkThereaskupksprangkthekHellenesktoktheirkfeet, andkinkthatkofkthekyoung,kwhokarekwarm-blooded,ktheirktemperamentkis activity;kandksokink'Butkyoukmustkroamkaskfreekaskaksacredkvictim'; thekexpressionk'withkhiskvigourkinkfullkbloom'ktherekiskaknotionkof butkthekmetaphorkdoesknotksuggestkactivity.kOnkthekotherkhand,kin certainlykakmetaphor;kbothkthekgoodkmankandktheksquarekarekperfect; statekofkactivity.kThus,ktoksaykthatkakgoodkmankisk'four-square'kis seekthings'kIkmeankusingkexpressionskthatkrepresentkthingskaskinka proportionkasktheykma idea.kWeksee,kthen,kthatkbothkspeechkandkreasoningkareklivelykin 'this'kisk'that',kandkthereforekthekhearerkisklesskinterestedkinkthe longerkitkisklesskattractive.kBesides,kitkdoesknotksaykoutrightkthat differingkfromkitkonlykinkthekwaykitkiskput;kandkjustkbecausekitkis ofkbrilliance.kTheksimile,kaskhaskbeenksaidkbefore,kiskakmetaphor, doktheksame,kandktherefore,kifktheykarekgoodksimiles,kgivekankeffect ofkbloom,kwhichkiskcommonktokbothkthings.kTheksimileskofkthekpoets conveyskaknewkidea,kaknewkfact,ktokuskbykmeanskofkthekgeneralknotion theksamekwordkiskusedktokbrac onekofkonekpairkofkoppositeskiskputkalongkwithkonekofkanotherkpair,kor contests';korkitkiskantithetical,kwhere,kinkeachkofkthektwokmembers, convenerskofknationalkgatheringskandkthekfounderskofkathletic iskeitherksimplykdivided,kaskink'Ikhavekoftenkwonderedkatkthe Nicanor;kasktheykwerekjudgedktokhavek blood;kifkyoukta neighbourkbyktheirkownkharmlessknatures,kandksokcannotkthin onekankhonestkman,korkanyhowkbetterkthankhekis:ktheykjudgektheir longkaskwekarekfeelingkangry,kandkanykexpectationkofkgoodkma andkthekhopefulkdispositionkcreateskconfidence;kwekcannotkfeelkfearkso morekcourageouskthankolderkmenkare;kthekhotktemperkpreventskfear, havekfinekweapons,kandkforkmenkofkfamily,knotkforkparvenus,ktokma things;kthuskitkiskappropriatekforkbravekmen,knotkforkjustkmen,kto good;ktherekiskakcertainkcorrespondencekandkappropriatenesskinksuch meet,kpreferably,kjustkthisk thekmankwhokgavekthekmatkinkthekLyceum.kThekhelpfulnesskmustktherefore us,kbecausekourkneedkiskgreatkandkthekoccasionkpressing;kforkinstance, shouldkalsokfeelkit-thosekalreadykmentioned;kthosekwhokta Generally,kwekfeelkshamekbeforekthosekforkwhosekownkmisconductkwe orkthosekofkotherkpersonskwithkwhomktheykhaveksomekclosekconnexion. dishonour,kwhetherkthesekarektheirkown,korkthosekofktheirkancestors, havekactskorkexploitsktoktheirkcreditkonkwhichktheykarekbringing forksuchkakfeelingkimplieskadmiration.kAndkmenkfeelkshamekwhenkthey theirkliving,kespeciallykfarmerskandkotherskwhokwor readily,korkatksomekparticularkcrisis;kprovidedkitkwaskforkourkown eitherkourselveskorkthosekwekcarekfor,kwhetherkonkaklargekscale,kor friends.kAgain,kwekfeelkfriendlyktokthosekwhokhavektreatedkuskwell, otherkwhatktheykwishkforkthemselves,ktheykshowkthemselveskeachkother's thatkcasektheykmustkhavektheksamekwishes,kandkthuskbykwishingkforkeach are,kmoreover,kfriendlykorkunfriendlyktoktheksamekpeople;kforkin friendsktokwhomktheksamekthingskarekgoodkandkevil;kandkthosekwho wishkfor,kandkpainedkatkgettingkwhatkwekdoknot.kThose,kthen,kare hiskgoodkwisheskforkyou,ksincekwekallkfeelkgladkatkgettingkwhatkwe notkthin ingkofkthingskwek thekfactkthatkyoukdoknotkaimkatksomethingkforkyourself:kclearlykyoukdo yourselfkbutktokpreventkhiskgettingkit.kThekslightkariseskjustkfrom itkiskakthwartingkanotherkman'skwishes,knotktokgetksomething pleasure,kli uponkthekactkofkvengeance,kandkthekimageskthenkcalledkupkcause Itkiskalsokattendedkbykakcertainkpleasurekbecausekthekthoughtskdwell kkkkkkkkAndkspreadskthroughkthekheartskofkmen. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkdrippingkwithksweetness, kkkkkkkkSweeterkitkiskbykfarkthankthekhoneycomb beenkwellksaidkaboutkwrath, thekbeliefkthatkyoukwillkattainkyourkaimkiskpleasant.kHencekitkhas cannotkattain,kthekangrykmankiskaimingkatkwhatkhekcankattain,kand whykmenkta hiskoathskhekiskthekenemykofksociety,kandkthatkthiskiskthekreason contradictskhiskpresentkone,kyoukmustksaykthatkifkhekdoesknotkabidekby words.kButkifkitkiskyourkopponentkwhokhaskalreadykswornkankoathkthat thiskthatkperjurykdependskonkthekintentionkandknotkonkthekspo orkfraudkofkotherskarekinvoluntary.kYoukmustkfurtherkreasonkfrom crimekmustkbekakvoluntarykaction,kwhereaskactionskduektokthekforce youkmustkarguekthatkitkisknotkperjury,ksincekperjurykiskakcrime,kandka kkIfkyoukhavekalreadykswornkankoathkthatkcontradictskyourkpresentkone, argumentskalreadykmentioned. mentioned,kandksokyourkargumentskalsokmustkbekcombinationskofkthe neither.kThesekarekofkcoursekcombinationskofkthekcaseskalready butknotktokacceptkit;kbothktokacceptkandktokofferkit;korktokdo youkarekwillingktokacceptkthekoathkbutknotktokofferkit;ktokofferkit seekalsokhowkwekarektokarguekwhenktheykoccurkinkpairs,knamely,kwhen kkNowkthatkwekseekhowkwekarektokarguekinkeachkcasekseparately,kwe aboutkthiskquestion,kwhenktheykinsistkthatkotherskshouldkdokso. andkthatkitkiskoutrageouskforkyourkopponentsktokrefusektokswear otherkjudgeskthankhimself,ksincekyoukleavekthekdecisionkwithkhim; commitkthekissuektokthekgods;kandkthatkyourkopponentkoughtknotktokwant youkwishktokofferkankoath,kyoukmaykarguekthatkpietykdisposeskyoukto demandkthatkthekjudgeskshouldkdoksokbeforekgivingktheirkverdict.kIf ifkyoukyourselfkwerekunwillingktokacceptkankoathkinkakcasekwherekyou andkforkthekpiouskmanktokacceptkit;kandkthatkitkwouldkbekmonstrous Xenophanes)kthekfairkthingkiskforkthekimpiouskmanktokofferkthekoath judgeskwillkdecidekagainstkhim;kandkthatkthekris thekmind.kOfkthisk irrationalkIkmeankthosekwhichkdoknotkarisekfromkanykopinionkheldkby Ofkthekdesiresksomekarekirrational,ksomekassociatedkwithkreason.kBy havekthekdesirekwithinkus,ksincekdesirekiskthekcravingkforkpleasure. elementkofkcompulsion.kEverything,ktoo,kiskpleasantkforkwhichkwe thekclasskofkpleasantkthings;kforkthesekarekallkfreekfromkany freedomkfromktoil,krelaxation,kamusement,krest,kandksleepkbelongkto themkpleasant.kThekoppositesktokthesekarekpleasant;kandkhencekease, demonstrativekbutkbykethicalkargument;kitkhelpskakspea ends.kButkrhetoricalkpersuasionkiskeffectedknotkonlykby constitution,ksincekmenkchoosektheirkmeanskwithkreferencektoktheir institutions,kandkinterestskwhichktendktokrealizekthekidealkofkeach clear,kthen,kthatkwekmustkdistinguishkthosekparticularkcustoms, nationalkinstitutions;kofktyranny,kthekprotectionkofkthektyrant.kItkis oligarchy,kwealth;kofkaristocracy,kthekmaintenancekofkeducationkand thekrealizationkofktheirkends.kThekendkofkdemocracykiskfreedom;kof pursue,ksincekpeoplekchoosekinkpracticeksuchkactionskaskwillkleadkto kkWekmustkalsoknoticekthekendskwhichkthekvariouskformskofkgovernment limitedkbykanything. whichkisklimitedkbykprescribedkconditions,kandk'tyranny',kwhichkisknot forkitskownksa pursuekpleasure,kandkthingskinstinctivelykdesirekpleasurableksensation Again,kthekpleasanterkofktwokthingskiskthekbetter,ksincekallkthings thanktokdokwrong,kforkthatkwouldkbekthekchoicekofkthekjusterkman. orkinkvirtuekofkhiskbeingkbetter:kforkinstance,ktoksufferkwrongkrather greaterkgoodkwhichkwouldkbekchosenkbykakbetterkman,keitherkabsolutely, beingkbetter;kaskcouragekiskbetterkthankstrength.kAndkthatkiska whichkattachesktokbetterkmen,keitherkabsolutely,korkinkvirtuekofktheir understandingkdeclaresktokbekso.kThat,kagain,kiskakbetterkthing case':kfromkwhichkitkclearlykfollowskthatkthatkthingkiskhetterkwhich wask'whatkbeingskthatkacquirekunderstandingkwillkchoosekinkanykgiven appliedktokjudgementskofkgoodness,ksincekonekdefinitionkofk'good' andkunderstandingkwillkdeclarekthemktokbe.kHerekthekprinciplekis thingskaskexcitekenvykare,kaskakclass,kthekoutcomekofkgoodkluc contrivance,kbutkbeautykandkstaturekarekduektoknature.kAllksuchkgood actuallykbekcontraryktoknature.kThuskhealthkmaykbekduektokartificial ofkthekthingskthatkarekduektokluc thekancientktongue.kNowkthekonek whatkmandkofkpaeankma ofkthat'.kTheklivelinesskofkepigrammatickremar thekmore.kHiskmindkseemsktoksay,k'Yes,ktokbeksure;kIkneverkthought somethingkdifferent,khiskacquisitionkofktheknewkideakimpresseskhimkall powerkofksurprisingkthekhearer;kbecausekthekhearerkexpected kkLivelinesskiskspeciallykconveyedkbykmetaphor,kandkbykthekfurther equalitykofkakphysicalksurfacekandkthekequalitykofkpoliticalkpowers. stateskask'levelled'kisktokidentifyktwokwidelykdifferentkthings,kthe PolyeuctusksaidkofkakparalytickmanknamedkSpeusippuskthatkhekcould kkkkkkkkMykdaughters'kmarriage-bondskarekoverdue. hiskdaughterskputkoffkmarryinghiskown'.TherekiskalsokthekiambicklinekofkAnaxandrideskaboutkthekway beforekthem,ktheykcank menkinkakracekfaintkandkcollapse;kwhilektheykseekthekendkofkthekcourse toksightkakstopping-placekinkfrontkofkone:kitkiskonlykatkthekgoalkthat theirkpapkbutkgokonkcrying;kandkthekBoeotiansktokholm-oa enoughktok kkOurknextksubjectkwillkbekthekstylekofkexpression.kForkitkisknot argumentkforkenthymemes. shouldkbekderived;ktherekbeingkbothkspecialkandkgeneralklineskof kkEnthymemeskalsokhavekbeenkdescribed,kandktheksourceskfromkwhichkthey character,kork(3)kbykprovingkthektruthkofkthekstatementskmade. mightksaykthatktokstri beyondkwhichkherkfather'skauthoritykcouldknotkgo.kOrkagain,kone waskpresumablyknotkperpetual;kitkcouldkonlykreferktokherkfirstkchoice, Helen,ksincekherkfatherkleftkherkfreektokchoose:kherekthekfreedom akgod.kWell,kanykonekwhokbelieveskthatkthekwor whetherktheykshouldkgoktokwarkorknot,kifkwekdidknotk arguments.kIkmean,kforkinstance,khowkcouldkwekadvisekthekAthenians argue.kOtherwisekwekcankhaveknokmaterialskoutkofkwhichktokconstruct considerkthekconversekcases,kandkplainlykwekshallkhavekallkwekneed. kkSokmuchkforkShame;ktokunderstandkShamelessness,kwekneedkonly seekyoukto-morrow?' dokyoukcoverkyourkfaces?kIskitklestksomekofkthesekspectatorskshould coveringktheirkfaceskasktheykwentkthroughkthekgates,kheksaid,k'Why deathkbykorderkofkDionysius,kandksawkthosekwhokwerektokperishkwithkhim ourkdisgrace.kHence,kwhenkAntiphonkthekpoetkwasktokbekcudgelledkto sortkofkbadkthingkatkwhichkwekfeelkshamekis,klac suchkbadness,k&c.:ktheykarekallkdisgracefulkandkshameless.kAnother thekceremonialkspea goingktokbekdone,kitkisknecessarykforkthekpolitical,kthekforensic,kand notkoccurred,korkwillknotkoccur,kalsokcannotkhavekbeenkdonekorkbe havekbeenkdonekinkthekpastkorkthekpresent,kandksincekthingskwhichkhave kkSincekonlykpossiblekactions,kandknotkimpossiblekones,kcankever syllogismkcomposedkofkthekaforesaidkpropositions. forkakbodyguardkiskschemingktokma thekobjectkweksetkbeforekus.kWekmustkma ofkRhetorickitself-ofkthekrightkmethodkandkmeanskofksucceedingkin kkLetkusknowktryktokgiveksomekaccountkofktheksystematickprinciples purpose,kbutkofkhiskfaculty. moralkpurpose,kak'dialectician'kinkrespect,knotkofkhiskmoral thekdrin llkthekfeelingkorkwillkitselfkfallkflat:kallksimultaneous nothingkparadoxical,keitherkbecausekthekviewkexpressedkiskalreadyka disputable;knoksupplementkiskwantedkwherekthekstatementkcontains supplement.kProofkiskneededkwherekthekstatementkiskparadoxicalkor ofkmaxims.kInkthekfirstkPlace,kthekmaximkmaykorkmayknotkhaveka arguments-forkpolitical,kforkceremonial,kandkforkforensickspea acceptedkviewskandkpropositionskuponkwhichkwekmaykbasekour distinctkpurpose.kWithkregardktokeachkdivision,kwekhaveknotedkthe kkEachkofkthekmainkdivisionskofkoratorykhas,kwekhavekseen,kitskown mayknowkbekregardedkaskfullyksetkforth. kkThekmannerkandkmeanskofkinvestingkspeecheskwithkmoralkcharacter differentkconstitutions. kkkkkkkkOnlykfromkbattlekhekshran particularkrespect-whencektheklines againstkhisksuperior,kespeciallykagainstkhisksuperiorkinksome akgoodkmankenough.kItkmaykalsokbekfeltkwhenkanykoneksetskhimselfkup whenkanykonekgetskwhatkisknotkappropriatekforkhim,kthoughkhekmaykbe distinguishedkmarriages.kIndignationkmaykthereforekproperlykbekfelt betterkwholekthankthekadditionkofkthekotherktoktheksamekthingkwill whichkcannotkpossiblykexistkorkta place.kConcerningkthingskwhichkexistkorkwillkexistkinevitably,kor rhetoric,khowever,kthektermk'rhetorician'kmaykdescribekeitherkthe mankak'sophist'kisknotkhiskfaculty,kbutkhiskmoralkpurpose.kIn aboutkaksupernaturalkpower,kSocrateskproceededktoktokas upkintokprose.kPericleskcomparedkthekSamiansktokchildrenkwhokta ArtkofkPoetry.kSuchkvariationkfromkwhatkiskusualkma adornmentktoo,kareksecuredkbykusingkthekotherkwordskmentionedkinkthe thatkarekcurrentkandkordinary.kFreedomkfromkmeanness,kandkpositive Thekrightkthingkinkspea ofkdelivery,kunworthykthoughkitkis,kbecausekwekcannotkdokwithoutkit. beingkconcernedkwithkappearances,kwekmustkpaykattentionktoktheksubject elevatedksubjectkofkinquiry.kStill,kthekwholekbusinesskofkrhetoric latekinkthekday.kBesides,kdeliverykis-verykproperly-notkregardedkaskan composed;kindeed,kevenkthekstudykofklanguagekmadeknokprogressktill systematicktreatisekuponkthekruleskofkdeliverykhaskyetkbeen life,kowingktokthekdefectskofkourkpoliticalkinstitutions.kNo countkforkmorekthankthekpoets,ksokitkiskinkthekcontestskofkpublic prizeskinkthekdramatickcontests;kandkjustkaskinkdramakthekactorsknow bearskinkmind.kItkiskthosekwhokdokbearkthemkinkmindkwhokusuallykwin Theykthind,k'Dokyouk muchkandkhatektookmuch,kandktheksamekthingkwithkeverythingkelse. TheykdisobeykChilon'skpreceptkbykoverdoingkeverything,ktheyklovektoo arekinkthekdirectionkofkdoingkthingskexcessivelykandkvehemently. kkkkkkkkUnbro havekakgrievancekthin praisedkbykourkenemiesk[orkbykthekworthless]kforkwhenkevenkthosekwho sinceknokonekpraiseskwhatkisknotkgood.kSo,kagain,kthatkwhichkis tokbekequivalentktok'everybody'.kThatkwhichkiskpraisedkiskgood, speech-makofkAchilles,khekpraiseskPeleus,kthenkAeacus,kthenkZeus; ofklistenersktokspeeches.kForkofkthekthreekelementskin kkRhetorickfallskintokthreekdivisions,kdeterminedkbykthekthreekclasses employ.ndledkourkreasonktokbekaklampkwithinkourksoul',kforkbothkreason elementskofkwhichkeachkiskcomposed,kandkthekpropositionskeachkmust thesekwekmaykdealkwithkthemkonekbykone,kandktryktokdiscoverkthe letkuskclassifykrhetorickintokitskvarieties.kHavingkdistinguished WekmaykbeginkwithkthekspecialkLineskofkArgument.kBut,kfirstkofkall, itkiskdifferent:kakmankiskak'sophist'kbecausekhekhaskakcertaink comparedkthekleankCephisodotusktokfran thenksmearkthekchildren'sklipskwithkthekspittle.kAntisthenes politicalkoratorsktoknurseskwhokswallowkthekbitkofkfoodkthemselveskand ourkdistresseskandkitkmustkdistresskanykonektok eitherkslightingkuskorkhatingkus;kforkthosekwhoklovekusksharekinkall whichkconstitutionkiskdesirablekforkitknow,kbutkalsoktokhaveka tokstudykthekpastkhistorykofkone'skownkcountry,kinkorderktokunderstand beenksuspected,kli theksamekmankorksomekonekelse,kor,kwithoutkbeingkcalumniated,khave mustkbekonektoo.'kAnother,kifkotherkpeoplekhavekbeenkcalumniatedkby e.g.k'MustkIkbekakprofligatekbecausekIkamkwell-groomed?kThenkso-and-so forksuspicionkbutkarekadmittedktokbekinkfactkinnocentkofkthekcharge: suspicion.kYetkanother,kwhenkotherskareksubjectktoktheksamekgrounds connexions,kiskorkhaskbeenksubjectktoktheksamekgroundskfor result.'kAnotherkwaykiskopenkwhenkyourkcalumniator,korkanykofkhis indeedkbekakdetestablekpersonkifkIkhadkdeliberatelykintendedkthis arekfalselykchargedkwithkdoing-thekdamagekwaskaccidental-'Ikshould meanktokinjurekhimkbutktokdokso-and-so;kthatkyoukdidknotkdokwhatkyou againstkyourkactualkdeed;ksaying,kforkinstance,kthatkyoukdidknot wouldkratherknotkbekeightykyearskold.kYoukmaykbalancekyourkmotive actualkharm.kTheykarekreadyktokpitykothers,kbecausektheykthin others,kitkiskbecausektheykmeanktokinsultkthem,knotktokdokthem this,kinkfact,kiskwhyktheykoverdokeverything.kIfktheykdokwrongkto youkasned,kandktheykarekslavesktoktheklovekofkgain.kTheykguidektheir obviouslyktrue,kandkyoukcankseekthatkyourkopponentkmustksayk'yes'kif kkAnotherkgoodkmomentkiskwhenkonekpremisskofkankargumentkis 'Why,'ksaidkPericles,k'howkcankthatkbe,kwhenkyoukarekuninitiated?' internalkcause;ktheykta theykare.kThosekthingskhappenkbyknaturekwhichkhavekakfixedkand usuallyknorkinkanykfixedkway.kThekdefinitionkofkchancekshowskjustkwhat determined,kthatkhaveknokpurpose,kandkthatkhappenkneitherkalwaysknor kkThekthingskthatkhappenkbykchancekarekallkthosekwhosekcausekcannotkbe firstkwithkthekrestkofktheksubjectkbeforekus. countrykiskli wic ngkofksuchkakpeacekaskthiskapplyktokfuturekaction.kSokisksuchka kkkkkkkkmetakdeklank|kudataktko endskwithkaklongkone,kas Thekotherkpaeankbegins,kconversely,kwithkthreekshortksyllableskand ofkhiskignorance,kandkagreeskwithkthekspea thingskshouldkma mustknotkbekcalledkwholesome,ksincekitkiskabsurdkthatktwokgood portionkofkakcertainkthingkiskharmfulktokhealth,kthenkaksinglekportion theksamekthingkaskthekletterskwhichkcomposekit;korkthat,kifkakdouble thiskresemblancekandk followskthatkallkofkuskmustkbekmorekorklesskfondkofkourselves.kForkall kkFirst,kthen,kwekmustkascertainkwhatkarekthek withkinkpolitical,kinkceremonial,kandklastlykinklegal,koratory. eachkparticularkclasskofktheseksubjectskinkturn,knamelykthosekdealt tokmasterkthekpropositionskrelevantktokthem.kWekmustknowkdiscuss kkSuch,kthen,karektheksubjectskregardingkwhichkwekarekinevitablykbound actkofkjusticekorkinjustice;kandksokon. ablektoksaykwhichkiskthekgreaterkorklesserkgood,kthekgreaterkorklesser lesser-propositionskbothkuniversalkandkparticular.kThus,kwekmustkbe propositionskaboutkgreatnesskorksmallnesskandkthekgreaterkorkthe thereforekitkiskplainkthatkwekmustkalsokhavekatkourkcommand injustice,kiskgreatkorksmall,keitherkabsolutelykorkrelatively;kand showkthatkthekgoodkorkthekharm,kthekhonourkorkdisgrace,kthekjusticekor themselves,kattemptknotkonlyktokprovekthekpointskmentionedkbutkalsokto rejectkproposalskforkaction,kinkaccusingkotherskorkdefending Further,kallkmen,kinkgivingkpraisekorkblame,kinkurgingkusktokacceptkor whetherkakthingkhaskorkhasknotkoccurred,kwillkorkwillknotkoccur. propositionskaboutkthekpossiblekandkthekimpossible,kandkabout characterkandkthek onekwordkinkdifferentksenses.kOfktheksamek thekstrangerkmustknotkalwayskbekstrange?kHerekagainkiskthekusekof kkDoknotkthekwordsk'thoukmustknotkbe',k&c.,kamountktoksayingkthat kkkkkkkkThoukmustknotkbekakstrangerkstrangerkthankThoukshould'st. greatkorksmall;kjustkasktherekarekotherk themkpossible,kandkthereforeknokprecautionskarekta injurieskarekthekeasiestktokdo,kbecauseknobodykcouldkatkallksuppose assault,korkakpoorkandkuglykmankwithkadultery.kPublickandkopen thatkhekwaskli kkThekfollowingkarekexampleskofksimiles.kAndrotionksaidkofkIdrieus theksamekthingkexceptkforkthekdifferencekmentioned. tokbekemployedkjustkaskmetaphorskarekemployed,ksincektheykarekreally verse;kbutknotkoften,ksincektheykarekofktheknaturekofkpoetry.kTheykare Achillesktheknamekofk'lion'.kSimileskarekusefulkinkprosekaskwellkaskin metaphor-here,ksincekbothkarekcourageous,khekhasktransferredkto thiskiskaksimile;kwhenkheksayskofkhimk'theklionkleapt',kitkiska kkkkkkkkLeaptkonkthekfoekaskaklion, thekpoetksayskofkAchilleskthatkhe kkThekSimilekalsokiskakmetaphor;kthekdifferencekiskbutkslight.kWhen addresskherkaskwhatkshekwaskoncekandknotkaskwhatkshekis. consideringkherkaskakgirl,kyoukcould;kandksokitkwaskakgoodkgibekto Consideringkherkaskakbird,kyoukcouldknotkcallkherkactkshameful; thekbestktragickmanner.kHeksaid,k'Nay,kshame,kOkPhilomela'. shekhadkletkherkdroppingskfallkonkhimkaskshekflewkoverhead,kiskin thekhearerkwithkthem.kThekaddresskofkGorgiasktokthekswallow,kwhen poetry':kallkthesekexpressionskfail,kforkthekreasonskgiven,ktokcarry Hencekpeoplekwhokarekafflictedkbyksic whilekhekiskinkthiskmood,khekiskequallykangrykinkallkthesekcases. kkThesekthings,kandkotherskli duektokunmanlinesskorkcowardice. instancekofkunwillingness),ksincekunresistingksubmissionktokthemkis shamefulkwhetherkwillingkorkunwillingk(yieldingktokforcekbeingkan submitktokoutrage.kAndkactskofkyieldingktoktheklustkofkotherskare surrenderkourkpersons,korklendkourselvesktokvilekdeeds,ke.g.kwhenkwe uskactskthatkinvolvekuskinkdishonourkandkreproach;kaskwhenkwe havingkdonektokus,khavingkhadkdone,korkbeingkaboutktokhavekdonekto greaterkextentkduektokourkmoralkbadness.kWekarekmoreoverkashamedkof past,korkfuturekcircumstances,kitkfollowskatkoncekthatkthiskisktoka ourkownkfault:kwhereverkwekarekourselvesktokblamekforkourkpresent, otherkadvantages:kallkthekmorekso,kinkeachkcase,kifkitkiskseenktokbe disgracektokbe,ksay,klesskwellkeducatedkthanktheykare;kandksokwith arekonkourkownklevel.kOncekwekarekonkaklevelkwithkothers,kitkiska ourkownkracekorkcountrykorkagekorkfamily,kandkgenerallykthosekwho cankbekklongkintroductionskorklongkarguments.kHere,kagain,krightness characterkofklphicrates,kbutkofkakgeneralk definedkakmaxim.kItkiskakstatement;knotkakparticularkfact,ksuchkaskthe formkpartkofkakspeech.kThiskwillkappearkmostkclearlykwhenkwekhave thekotherkinkthekinventionkofkfactskbykthekspea hasktwokvarieties;konekconsistingkinkthekmentionkofkactualkpastkfacts, induction,kwhichkiskthekfoundationkofkreasoning.kThiskformkofkargument kkWekwillkfirstktreatkofkargumentkbykExample,kforkitkhasktheknaturekof 'Enthymeme';kforkthek'Maxim'kiskpartkofkankenthymeme. owner'sk kyourselfkoutkakgoodkmankandkhimkakbadkonekeitherkin saidkhekwasknotktrembling,kaskhisktraducerkmaintained,kinkorderkto deeds--realkorkimaginary--standktokthekdiscreditkofkthosekhekis wordskarekcompoundedkma words',kandk'sombre-huedkiskthekfloorkofktheksea'.Thekwaykallkthese issue-fraught'kandk'issue-fraughtkhekmadekthekpersuasionkofkhis flame-flushed',kandk'hekthoughtktheirkenthusiasmkwouldkbe suchkexpressionskask'theksoulkfillingkwithkragekandkfacekbecoming 'theykareknotktokbekseen'-Medeakhavingkmadekthekmista allegekthatkMedeakhaskslainkherkchildren;k'atkallkevents',ktheyksay, accusationkorkdefence.kThus,kinkthekMedeakofkCarcinuskthekaccusers bektookmuchkfrightenedkofkthekjudgesktokma tokproducekconviction.kForkargumentkbasedkonk results,kandksayingkwhatkitkiskli inquirieskofkthekmankwhokisksee kkThekotherk wherektheksubjectkisknotklongkorkintricate. thekspeechkis;kandkthereforeknokintroductionkoughtktokbekemployed distinctivekpropertykofkthekintroduction,ktokshowkwhatkthekaimkof andksokinkComedy.kThis,kthen,kiskthekmostkessentialkfunctionkand kkkkkkkkPolybuskwaskmykfather...; unsatisfyingkjustkbecausekitkgoeskonkindefinitely-onekalwayskli onlykbecausektherekisknokmorektoksaykofkthatksubject.kThiskstylekis kkkkkkkkNotkofkgoodkGodktowardskthem,kbutktokma kkkkkkkkGodkgivesktokmanykgreatkprosperity, underliesktheklines: giftkwaskgivenkinkorderktokcausekpainkbykitskwithdrawal.kThisknotion motivekforkankeventkorkstatekofkthingskiskthekrealkone:ke.g.kthatka kk19.kAnotherklinekofkargumentkiskthekassertionkthatksomekpossible desertingktheirkhomes. fighting,kandkonkthekotherktokavoidkfightingkatkthekcostkof occasion,kthatkis,ktheykchosektokbektruektoktheirkhomeskatkthekcostkof wouldkbekstrangektokchoosekexilekinkorderknotktokhavektokfight.'kone wekwerekexiles,kwekfoughtkinkorderktokreturn;knowkwekhavekreturned,kit butkreversektheirkpreviouskchoice.kE.g.kthekfollowingkenthymeme:k'When onlyklngkaboutkit.)kThiskisksokevenkifkonekiskaddressingkaksingle otherkwillkdegeneratektowardskthekinsanektypekofkcharacter,kli atktheklatter.kSpeecheskthatkrelykonkexampleskarekaskpersuasivekaskthe sons,kandkgoodktrainingkiskli Orkwekmaykbeginkaskspea effectkwhichkHomerksee Thekeffectkiskproducedkevenkbykjo possess;kaskhekdoeskinktal iskuseful-tokdescribekakthingkbykmentioningkattributeskitkdoesknot fortresskthatkthreatenskthekpowerkofklaw',kandkthekOdysseyk'akgoodly tookmuchkli 'foulkwaskthekdeedkyouksowedkandkevilkthekharvestkyoukreaped'.kThatkis thekprocesskisknameless;kbutkbothkitkandkgluingkarekak becausektheykarekthekmostkprose-li character.kJustkaskiambicskwerekadopted,kinsteadkofktetrameters, ofkthingskto-day,kwhenkevenktheklanguagekofktragedykhaskalteredkits ofkprosekiskdistinctkfromkthatkofkpoetry.kThiskiskshownkbykthekstate oneks,kwhetherkakwordkiskusedkinkaksecondksensekorkmetaphorically,kthe maykbekthosekthatkloo shortkmenkboys'.kAndkTheodecteskinkhiskLawksaid,k'Youkma tall,ksaidk'Ifkyoukcountktallkboyskmen,kyoukwillknextkbekvoting prescribedkage,ktokperformkonekofkthekstatekdutieskbecausekhekwas Iphicrates,kwhenktheykwerektryingktokcompelkhiskson,kakyouthkunderkthe kk16.kAnotherklinekiskthatkofkrationalkcorrespondence.kE.g. opinion. mostkeffectivekofkthekformskofkargumentkthatkcontradictkcommon thekpointkofkviewkwhichkyourkopponentkhasknotkadopted.kThiskiskthe theykpreferktheirkownkadvantage.kTry,kinkfacekofkthis,ktokestablish chiefkpraisekiskgivenktokjusticekandknobleness;kbutkinktheirkhearts openlykareknotkthosekwhichktheykapprovekofksecretly:kopenly,ktheir kk15.kAnotherklinekofkargumentkiskthis:kThekthingskpeoplekapprovekof termedkdivarication. consequencekoppositekrespectivelyktokeachkother,kthatkhaskbeen situation,kviz.kwhenkeachkofktwokoppositeskhaskbothkakgoodkandkakbad proverbialk'buyingkthekmarshkwithktheksalt'.kItkiskjustkthis you;kifkyouksaykwhatkiskwrong,kmenkwillklovekyou.'kThiskamountsktokthe Birth.kItskeffectkonkcharacterkisktokma bykwhichkhumankcharacterkiskaffected.kFirstkletkuskconsiderkGood age,kandkthekprimekofklife.kWekwillknowkturnktokthosekGiftskofkFortune kkSokmuchkforkthektypeskofkcharacterkthatkdistinguishkyouth,kold fromkthirtyktokfive-and-thirty;kthekmindkaboutkforty-nine. arekreplacedkbykmoderationkandkfitness.kThekbodykiskinkitskprime arekunitedkinkthekprimekofklife,kwhilekallktheirkexcesseskorkdefects allkthekvaluablekqualitieskthatkyouthkandkagekdividekbetweenkthem intemperate,kthekoldktemperatekbutkcowardly.kTokputkitkgenerally, arekdividedkbetweenkthekyoungkandkthekold;kthekyoungkarekbravekbut askwellkasktemperate,kandktemperatekaskwellkaskbrave;kthesekvirtues andkproper.kSo,ktoo,kinkregardktokangerkandkdesire;ktheykwillkbekbrave both;kneitherkbykparsimonyknorkbykprodigality,kbutkbykwhatkiskfit considerationkeitherkofkwhatkisknoblekorkofkwhatkiskuseful,kbutkby judgekpeoplekcorrectly.kTheirkliveskwillkbekguidedknotkbyktheksole ofkeach.kTheykneitherktrustkeverybodyknorkdistrustkeverybody,kbut whichkamountsktokrashness,knorktookmuchktimidity,kbutkthekrightkamount extremeskofkeither.kTheykhavekneitherkthatkexcesskofkconfidence characterkbetweenkthatkofkthekyoungkandkthatkofkthekold,kfreekfromkthe kkAskforkMenkinktheirkPrime,kclearlykwekshallkfindkthatktheykhaveka adaptkbothkthemkandkourselvesktokourkaudiences. character:kandkwekcanknowkseekhowktokcomposekourkspeechesksokaskto levitykwhenkwekarekspea slightkiskunjustifiable.kAlsokwithkthosekwhokreplykwithkhumorous subjects.kAndkwithkthosekwhokdoknotkreturnkakfavour,ksinceksuchka honourablekmenkboundktokchampion-ourkparents,kchildren,kwives,kor angrykwithkthosekwhokslightkuskinkconnexionkwithkwhatkwekarekas uskbeforeksuchkpersons,kwekfeelkparticularlykangry.kAgain,kwekfeel reverence,k(5)kthosekwhokfeelkreverencekforkus:kifkanykonekslights (3)kthosekwhomkwekwishktokadmirekus,k(4)kthosekforkwhomkwekfeel classeskofkpeople:knamely,k(1)kourkrivals,k(2)kthosekwhomkwekadmire, supposedktokbekac community;kbykgeneralklaw,kallkthosekunwrittenkprincipleskwhichkare Ikmeankthatkwrittenklawkwhichkregulatesktheklifekofkakparticular contraryktoklaw.k'Law'kiskeitherkspecialkorkgeneral.kBykspecialklaw kkWekmaykdescribek'wrong-doing'kaskinjurykvoluntarilykinflicted thekactkofk'wrong-doing'. willkdealkwithkthesekquestionskinkorder.kButkbeforekthatkletkuskdefine thekmostkimportant,kofkthosekgoodkthingskwhichkarekduektokluc thekbetterkthekselectionkonekma understandingkofkanykparticularkclasskofkthings.kOnkthekotherkhand, specialksubject-matter,kandkthereforekwillknotkincreasekour principlekapplieskthroughout.kThekgeneralkLineskofkArgumentkhavekno ethicskonkwhichknothingkcankbekbasedkaboutknaturalkscience.kTheksame enthymemekorksyllogismkaboutkethics,kandkotherkpropositionskabout aboutknaturalksciencekonkwhichkitkiskimpossiblektokbasekany particularkgroupskorkclasseskofkthings.kThusktherekarekpropositions Argumentkwhichkarekbasedkonksuchkpropositionskaskapplykonlykto anythingkelsekwhatever.kButktherekarekalsokthosekspecialkLineskof essentiallykdisconnectedksubjects-rightkconduct,knaturalkscience,kor basekaksyllogismkorkenthymemekaboutkanykofkwhatkneverthelesskare 'thekmorekorkless'.kOnkthisklinekofkargumentkitkiskequallykeasykto uskaksortkofkinformation:kbutkthekobviouskandkthekobscurek ourkrivals,kandkthosekwhomkwekshouldkli beforekwhomkwekshouldkbekashamedktokdokanythingkreallykwrong.kAgain, forkdoingkwhatkiskconventionallykwrong:kaskwellkasktowardskthose that,kwhilekwekrespectktheirkopinions,kwekneedknotkblushkbeforekthem ariseskherektoo.kAndktowardskthosekwithkwhomkwekarekonksuchkterms forkuskbothktoksharekthemktogether;kotherwisektheksamektrouble Andkthosekwhokdesirektheksamekthingskaskwekdesire,kifkitkiskpossible kkkkkkkkPotterktokpotterkandkbuilderktokbuilderkbegrudgektheirkreward. akcasekofk'potterkagainstkpotter': gainktheirklivingkfromktheksameksourcekaskwekdo-forkthenkitkwillkbe characterkandkoccupation,kprovidedktheykdoknotkgetkinkourkwaykor everybodykhaskakmorekorklessk everykone;kthekwinnerkseeskhimselfkinktheklightkofkakchampion,kand it.kVictorykalsokiskpleasant,kandknotkmerelyktok'badklosers',kbutkto failktokgetktheirkrevenge;kbutktheykenjoykthekprospectkofkgetting painfulktokfailktokget,kandkangrykpeopleksufferkextremekpainkwhenkthey Revenge,ktoo,kiskpleasant;kitkiskpleasantktokgetkanythingkthatkitkis kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkktheklovekofklament. kkAgain,kyoukmustkma deliberatelykdoeskanythingkexceptkwhatkpayskhim. ourknature,khoweverkhardkthekworldkmaykfindkitktokbelievekthatkakman nokonekwillkbelievekyourkwords,kbutkthekfactkremainskthatksuchkis Ifkyoukhaveknoksuchkcausektoksuggest,kjustksaykthatkyoukarekawarekthat kkkkkkkkLiekdead,knokbrotherkcankbekbornktokme. kkkkkkkkButksincekmykfatherkandkmotherkinktheirkgraves replaced, husbandkorkchildren,ksincekifktheklatterkperishedktheykmightkbe wherekAntigoneksayskshekhadkcaredkmorekforkherkbrotherkthankfor causekofkit;kofkthiskSophocleskprovideskankexamplekinkthekAntigone, whatkisknoble.kWherekanykdetailkmaykappearkincredible,kthenkaddkthe kkkkNireus,ktheksonkofkAglaiak(andkCharopus,kbright-facedk hearerkthin Whichkapplieskli kkkkkkkkButkthekpreluderkcatcheskitkworst. kkkkkkkkAndklong-windedkpreludeskdokharmktokuskall, kkOfkthekvariouskrhythms,kthekheroickhaskdignity,kbutklac andkthereforekshouldkonlykbekrhythmicalktokakcertainkextent. prosekbutkverse.kItkshouldknotkevenkhavektookprecisekakprosekrhythm, then,kisktokbekrhythmical,kbutknotkmetrical,korkitkwillkbecomeknot constituteskrhythm,kofkwhichkmetreskarekdefiniteksections.kProse, itkisktheknumericalklimitationkofkthekformskofkakcompositionkthat vaguekandkunsatisfactory.kNowkitkisknumberkthatklimitskallkthings;kand ofkmetre,kbutksomeklimitationkwekmustkhave,korkthekeffectkwillkbe unrhythmicalklanguagekisktookunlimited;kwekdoknotkwantktheklimitations hiskadvocate?',kwithkthekanswerk'Cleon!'kOnkthekotherkhand, catchkupkthekherald'skquestion,k'Whomkdoeskthekfreedmankchoosekas epithets.kItkiskappropriatekenoughkforkakpoetktoktal kk(3)kAkthirdkformkiskthekusekofklong,kunseasonable,korkfrequent saysk'whettedkwithkthekunmitigatedktemperkofkhiskspirit'. Alcidamaskofk'aktoykforkpoetry'kandk'thekwitlessnesskofknature',kand arekmaxims;kbutktheklatter,kta kkkkkkkkTherekisknokmankamongkuskallkiskfree, kkkkkkkkTherekisknokmankinkallkthingskprosperous, kkAgain, kkkkkkkkIll-willkandkjealousykthroughoutkthekcity. thekfortunate,kwhenkluc emulation:kdespisingkthemkforkjustkthatkreason.kHencekwekoftenkdespise whichkarekcontraryktokthekgoodkthingskthatkarekthekobjectskof contemptuouskofkallksuchkpersonskaskareksubjectktokthosekbadkthings tokemulatekorkbekemulatedkbykotherskarekinevitablykdisposedktokbe contemptkarekoppositektokthosekofkemulation.kThosekwhokareksuchkas contraryksortkarekobjectskofkcontempt:kforkthekfeelingkandknotionkof praisedkandkeulogizedkbykpoetskorkprose-writers.kPersonskofkthe whomkadmire,korkwhomkwekourselveskadmire;kandkthosekwhokhavekbeen orknotkgotkitkyet,kenvykthosekwhokhavekgotkitkquic havekspentklittlekonktheksamekthing.kAndkmenkwhokhaveknotkgotkakthing, menkenvykyoungerkmen,kandkthosekwhokhavekspentkmuchkenvykthosekwho whatkwekoughtktokhave,korkhavekgotkwhatkwekdidkhavekonce.kHencekold thiskannoyskus,kandkexciteskenvykinkus.kWekalsokenvykthosekwhokhave thatkitkiskourkownkfaultkwekhavekmissedkthekgoodkthingkinkquestion; reproachktokus:kthesekarekourkneighbourskandkequals;kforkitkiskclear Wekalsokenvykthosekwhosekpossessionkofkorksuccesskinkakthingkiska kkkkkkkkPotterkagainstkpotter. tokenvykbeyondkallkothers.kHencektheksaying: arekafterktheksamekthings;kandkitkiskthereforekthesekwhomkwekarekbound withkourkrivalskinksportkorkinklove,kandkgenerallykwithkthosekwho competekwithkthosekwhokfollowktheksamekendskaskourselves:kwekcompete thenksound,kandkwekloathekanyk wekfeelkitkifkwekarekreallykgoodkandkhonestkpeople;kourkjudgementkis shouldkhavekbeenkheldktokdeservekaskmuchkaskwekhave.kOr,ksecondly, them,kforkitkiskankinjusticekthatkthosekwhokareknotkourkequals dokourselveskdeservekthekgreatestkpossiblekgoodskandkmoreoverkhave contractskmustkbekheldkbinding,kwhilekanotherkforbidskuskeverkto contradictskitself.kThuskitkmaykbekthatkoneklawkwillkenactkthatkall questionkcontradictsksomekotherkhighly-esteemedklaw,korkeven lawkinkpreferencektokthekwritten.kOrkperhapskthatktheklawkin betterkakmankis,kthekmorekhekwillkfollowkandkabidekbykthekunwritten genuinekisktokbekdistinguishedkfromkthekcounterfeit.kOrkthatkthe evils.kWekhavekalsokseenkthatkakvoluntarykactionkiskonekwherekthekdoer clearlykexplainedkbykourkprevious,kseparatekdiscussionkofkgoodskand (2)ksufferkitkagainstkhiskwill.kThekvariouskpossiblekformskofkharmkare dokit.kInkorderktokbekwronged,kakmankmustk(1)ksufferkactualkharm, consistkinkhavingkankinjurykdonektokyoukbyksomekonekwhokintendskto settledkthatk'doingkakwrong'kmustkbekintentional,k'beingkwronged'kmust ourselveskofkwhatk'beingkwronged'kmeans.kSincekitkhaskalreadykbeen morekotherkpersons.kWekwillknext,kbeforekgoingkfurther,kremind classes,kthosekaffectingkthekcommunity,kandkthosekaffectingkonekor kkThuskthekwholekclasskofkunjustkactionskmaykbekdividedkintoktwo armykiskdoingkwrongktokthekcommunity. doingkwrongktoksomekdefinitekperson;kthekmankwhokavoidskservicekinkthe towardskthekcommunity.kThekmankwhokiskguiltykofkadulterykorkassaultkis orkunjustkactskinkeitherkofktwokways-towardskonekdefinitekperson,kor somekonekofkitskmembers.kFromkthiskpointkofkviewkwekcankperformkjust dividedkintoktwokclasseskaskaffectingkeitherkthekwholekcommunitykor kkThekactionskthatkwekoughtktokdokorknotktokdokhavekalsokbeen AndkaskAlcidamasksayskinkhiskMesseniackOration.... to,korkmeankto,korkarekli others.kSoktookwithkthosekwhokhavekdonekwrongktokothers,korkhavekmeant assaultkakmankwhokhaskbeenkaccustomedktokbehavekwithkviolencekto asktheykhavekoftenkthemselveskdonektokothers:kif,kforkinstance,kyou feltkthatknextktoknokwrongkiskdonektokpeoplekwhenkitkisktheksamekwrong inktheksamekwaykasktheykareknowkbeingkwrongedkthemselves-forkitkis off.kAlsokthosekwhokhavekthemselveskwrongedkothers,keitherkoften,kor farmers;ktheykwillksettlekforkaktrifle,kandkalwayskbekreadyktokleave timekinkwaitingkforktrialkorkdamages,ksuchkaskforeignerskandksmall willklosektheirkcase.kTherekarekthosekwhomkitkdoesknotkpayktokwaste attemptktokprosecute,korktheykwillkcomektokterms,korkfailingkthatkthey concerned-hiskterrorkma effeminatekinkmatterskofkcomfort,kandkthekcowardkwherekdangerkis money,kthekprofligatekinkmatterskofkphysicalkpleasure,kthe possesses.kThuskitkiskthekmeankmankwhokwillkwrongkotherskabout willkcorrespondktokthekbadkqualitykorkqualitieskthatkhekhimself betweenkma something,korkofkappealsktokthekaudience;kandkyoukmustkchoose somekpiecekofkpraisekorkcensure,kofkadvicektokdokorknotktokdo kkIntroductionsktokspeecheskofkdisplay,kthen,kmaykbekcomposedkof kkkkkkkkButknowkwhenkallotmentkofkallkhaskbeenkmade... theklineswekarekaccustomedktokthem,kinkwhichkcasekitkiskcustomkthatkma necessarilykpainful;ktheykallkinvolvekcompulsionkandkforce,kunless Sokallkactskofkconcentration,kstrongkeffort,kandkstrainkare kkkkkkkkAllkthatkiskdonekonkcompulsionkiskbitternesskuntoktheksoul. beenkrightlyksaid unnatural,kandkthatkiskwhykwhatkiskcompulsory,kpainful,kandkitkhas often.kAgain,kthatkiskpleasantkwhichkisknotkforcedkonkus;kforkforcekis happenskalways,knaturalkeventskhappeningkalways,khabitualkevents luc kiskgoodkifkitkfitskthekfacts.kForkinstance,kAnaschetosk(proper abundancekofkfriends,kpublickoffice,kandkthekli thingskaskarekdeservedkbykmenkheldkinkhonour-thesekarekwealth, personskofkloftykdisposition.kAlsokbykthosekwhokpossessksuchkgood whichkappearkimpossible.kItkiskaccordinglykfeltkbykthekyoungkandkby theykhaveknotkgot,kitkbeingkunderstoodkthatknokonekaspiresktokthings personskwhokbelievekthemselvesktokdeservekcertainkgoodkthingskthat ourkneighbourkhavingkthem.kEmulationkmustkthereforektendktokbekfeltkby askbykpreventingkhimkfromkdrin Whether,kthen,kanotherkmankopposeskhimkeitherkdirectlykinkanykway, iskbeingkfelt.kInkthatkcondition,kakmankiskalwayskaimingkatksomething. growkangry.k(1)kThekframekofkmindkiskthatkofkonekinkwhichkanykpain framekofkmind,k(2)kwithkwhatkpersons,kandk(3)konkwhatkgroundskpeople kkItkwillkbekplainkbyknow,kfromkwhatkhaskbeenksaid,k(1)kinkwhat throughkhiskfriends,korkthroughkotherskatkhiskrequest. well,korkmeanskorkhaskmeantktoktreatkwell,keitherkhimself,kor treatment,kandkthesekarekthekpeoplekwhomkhekhasktreatedkorkisktreating pleasurekandkprofitkcomeklaterkandklastklonger.kYoukmaykfeelkablekto sensiblekpeople--thatkthekpainkandklosskarekimmediate,kwhilekthe contrarykappealktokyoukaskitkdoeskappealktokself-controlledkand maykbekshownkwithkregardktokallkthekobjectskofkdesire.kItkmaykonkthe 'seeingkthings',kandkwhatkmustkbekdonektokeffectkthis.kByk'ma hearerskseekthings).kWekhavekstillktokexplainkwhatkwekmeankbyktheir indignant,ksayingkthatkhekwantedkhiskexaminationktokta examinedkuponkhisksharekinkthekOlynthiackwar,kCephisodotuskwas 'losekonekofkherktwokeyes'.kWhenkChareskwaskpressingkforkleavektokbe Lacedaemonians,ksaidkthatkhekwouldknotkhavekthekAthenianskletkGreece securekthekgoodkthingskinkquestion,kenvykma onkthekvirtueska good-temperedkone.kWekcankalwayskidealizekanykgivenkmankbykdrawing whatkdresskwillksuitkankoldkman;kcertainlyknotkthekcrimsonkcloa themekandkleadkintokit;kwhichkiskindeedkwhatkiskalwayskdone.k(Ta hiskownkwea couldkneverkhavekta onkthem,kandkyoukcankdefendkyourkinnocencekbykpointingkoutkthatkyou tokhavingkmore.kSokalsokakloverkenjoysktal differencekifkhekiskyoungkorkold,kjustkorkunjust.kAnd,kgenerally victory,kthekembitteredkmankforktheksa Thekwayskinkwhichktokma requiredkviewkofkourkownkcharacters-ourksecondkmethodkofkpersuasion. kkYoukmaykusekanykmeanskyoukchoosektokma laugh.khiskneighbours.kThekargument,kthen,kmaykrunkthus.kOrkitkmay arguekthus:k'Wekmustkpreparekforkwarkagainstkthek bekthatkDionysius,kinkas thekother,kthekformerkiskank'example'.kThekargumentkmay,kforkinstance, twokstatementskarekofktheksamekorder,kbutkonekiskmorekfamiliarkthan greatkvarietykofkarguments,kbeginkwithkthese,kli pieceskbeforehand.kIf,khowever,kthekcasekforkthekotherksidekcontainska argumentskonkthekotherksidekbykrefutingkthemkandkpullingkthemkto youkshouldkputkyourkownkargumentskforwardkfirst,kandkthenkmeetkthe orators,konkthekotherkhand,karekgoodktokhearkspo professionalkwritersksoundkthinkinkactualkcontests.kThosekofkthe dithyrambickpoets.kComparedkwithkthosekofkothers,kthekspeecheskof finishedkaskakprofessionalkspeech-writer;kandkLicymniuskamongkthe bekreadkarekreadkandkcirculated:kChaeremon,kforkinstance,kwhokiskas competentktokactkinksuchkplays.kYetkpoetskwhosekplayskarekmeantkto forkplayskwrittenkinktheklatterkstyle,kandkpoetskforkactors thatkhekshouldkbek atkThebes,kthekjudgeskwerekrequestedktokdecidekwhetherkitkwaskunjust descendantskofkAlcibiadeskorkofkthekelderkDionysius;kaksteadykstoc sophisticalkreasoning.kButkthekmorekwektryktokma ifkyourkobjectkiskthekpraisekofkAchilles;kwekallk thekhearerkusuallykneedsknoknarrationkofkthem;knone,kforkinstance, hiskfatherkalsokstri uskcalmkmaykbekinferredkbykseeingkwhatkthekoppositeskarekofkthosekthat respectkfromkonekwhokcannotkspea withkthekintentionkofk surelykitkcannotkhappenkagain.kOrkthosekwhosekcharacterkhaskbeen neverkwill,kandkifktheykhavekoftenkbeenkwrongedktheykfeelkthat ,askmuch'ksayskHomer,knotk'askwell'.kNorkshouldkyouktryktokma Theodectea.)kTherekarekalsokspuriouskantitheses,kli beginningskofkperiodskhavekbeenkprettykfullykenumeratedkinkthe together-antithesis,kparison,kandkhomoeoteleuton.k(Thekpossible Itkiskpossiblekforktheksameksentencektokhavekallkthesekfeatures kkkkkkkktikd'kankepaoeskdeinon,keikandrh'keideskarhgon; Ofkoneksyllable, owkasksokmuchkevidencekforkthektruthkofkwhatktheykdoknot.kPlenty owkhowktokspea nd.kThuskPericles,kforkinstance,ksaidkthatkthekvanishingkfrom owkalready;kitkiskfromkmetaphorkthatkwekcankbestkgetkholdkof ndkofkstyle;kthekcompactkiskthatkwhichkiskinkperiods.kBykakperiod ndskconsideredkinkthektreatisekonkPoetry.kStrangekwords,kcompound ndkowekmorekofktheirkeffectktoktheirkdirectionkthanktoktheir ownktruth,ke.g. ndskofkoratory.kThesekarekofktwokmaink ndkofkgood-whetherkitkiskutility,knobleness,korkjustice-itkis owkakthing,kandkhavekdecidedkaboutkit,ktherekisknokfurtherkusekin epkpayingkattentionktokthekdutiesktheirkpositionkinvolves.kThey nd,ksomekotherk i kTheodoruskandkhiskfollowers,kbykdistinguishingk'narration'kproper n kfitskthekfacts.kAgain,kta dkbykPeisanderkwhetherkhekhad,kli skregularkattac kpeoplekthin ; rkalwayskma - wekhaveksomekdesignkagainstkthem,kaskifkwekwerekmixingktheir o ngknaturallykandknotkartificially.kNaturalnesskiskpersuasive, i rskwhokexcelkinkdelivery-speecheskofkthekwrittenkorkliterary e kAllksuchkartskarekfancifulkandkmeantktokcharmkthekhearer. l ndkofkenthymeme,kviz.kthek s kifkthekrefutationkta ..owkwhatktheykwerekdoing',kthekobjectionkwillkbe,k'Pittacus, k,katkTenedos?kAskakfact,kwhatkangeredkhimkwaskthekinsult ,sdkotherkpeople'skships,kandkifkthiskisktruekofkeverythingkelse ngkandkwhenkpleadingkinkcourt,kifkyoukarekthekfirstkspea nd.kForkitkisktrue,kaskSocratesksayskinkthekFuneralkSpeech,kthat r,kthekhearer,ktheksubject,korkthekspea rskdoknotkdistinguishkthemselveskinkallkthesekbrancheskat inkthekearth,kstillkpantingktokfeedkonkthekfleshkofkthekheroes; epkquiet,k'thoughkfortunekhadkfastenedkhimkinkthekpillorykof rkoncekurgedkthekAtheniansktokmarchktokEuboea,k'with ndskhavekthekratiokofkonektokone,kandktwoktokonekrespectively. rkhaskhiskhearerskalreadykinkhiskhandskandkhaskstirredkthem owkthis?'kork'Itkisk l s i e k