Engineering Encyclopedia: Introduction To Geology

Engineering Encyclopedia
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards
Introduction To Geology
Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services. Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramcos employees. Any material contained in this document which is not already in the public domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given, or disclosed to third parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part, without the written permission of the Vice President, Engineering Services, Saudi Aramco.
Chapter : Geology File Reference: AGE10701
For additional information on this subject, contact J.L. McKissack on 874-2514
Geology Introduction to Geology
CONTENTS
PAGES
GEOLOGY ............................................................................................................1 The Nature and Scope of Geology .............................................................1 Early Geology.............................................................................................1 Types of Geology .......................................................................................5 Formation of the Earth................................................................................5 PARTS OF THE EARTH ......................................................................................6 Atmosphere ................................................................................................6 Hydrosphere ...............................................................................................8 Biosphere....................................................................................................8 Lithosphere...............................................................................................10 Continental Masses...................................................................................13 The Mantle ...............................................................................................13 The Core...................................................................................................13 THE ROCK CYCLE............................................................................................19 MOVEMENTS OF THE EARTH........................................................................19 The Ocean Floor.......................................................................................19 Continental Drift/Continental Jigsaw Puzzle............................................21 Seafloor Spreading ...................................................................................23 Polar Movement .......................................................................................23
GEOLOGICAL PROCESSES .............................................................................27 Erosion .....................................................................................................27 Tectonism .................................................................................................36 Volcanism.................................................................................................38 Earthquakes ..............................................................................................44 Effects Of Earth Movement......................................................................45 WORK AID #1 ....................................................................................................49 WORK AID #2 ....................................................................................................50 WORK AID #3 ....................................................................................................51 WORK AID #4 ....................................................................................................53 WORK AID #5 ....................................................................................................54 WORK AID #6 ....................................................................................................55 GLOSSARY ........................................................................................................56
GEOLOGY The Nature and Scope of Geology The word geology is from the Greek. Geo means earth and logos means discourse. Geology deals with the origin, structure and history of the earth recorded in the rocks. The challenge to geologists is to learn more about the earth we live on. This is done by studying events of millions of years ago in order to relate them to events of today. The earth is important to everyone. Products from the soil feed the people. This soil is formed through geological processes. Gasoline and oil run the cars. Oil and other products are from prehistoric plants and animals. Modern industry could not have developed without the products formed by geological processes. Early Geology Early geologists began the study of the earth. They examined all types of earth features such as hills, mountains, valleys, rivers, rocks and fossils to determine the processes that formed them and when it happened. This type of study separated the events of the past from the events of today. Modern geology began when Nicolaus Steno used inductive reasoning in the study of the earth. Steno showed that different earth features such as crystals, shells and some rocks were different products of the same process of deposition of solid matter from fluid. From this, Steno inferred that it should be possible to determine the order or sequence in which the various parts of each solid substance came into being. The concept became known as the law of sequence. This concept is an accepted generalization in geology today. The concept or law states that "The record of an event or sequence of events surrounds, is impressed upon the record of earlier events or sequence of events." Use of this generalization makes it possible to establish a relative order of when specific earth features came into being. Figure 1 is a diagram of how the law of sequence applies. Layer A is older than layer B. Layer B is older than Layer C. This is a simplification since no other events have happened. These events are slow events. They take many thousand or millions of years to occur. This sequence could be overturned or upset by a geological event such as earthquake or volcanic eruption. These geological events are just as important as those that take millions of years.
The law of sequence explains the order of events. It does not explain how and why. Modern answers as to the origin of geological features is the work of James Hutton in the 1700's. Hutton did much observation of rocks. He believed that the same geological processes of today have been going on since the earth began. This conclusion has become known as the principal of uniformity of process. This principal states that understanding today's processes and their results helps to understand the earth's features produced in the past. The processes are the same. The rate of the process may not be the same now as in the past. Scientists believe that streams erode faster now because continents are higher above sea level. The extent of change may be different. In the past, oceans dried up and left thousands of miles of thick beds of salt. Now this happens in only a few places in desert areas. The processes remain the same, but the rate and scale vary greatly over time.
A IS OLDER THAN B B C D E IS OLDER THAN C IS OLDER THAN E IS OLDER THAN E LIES ON TOP OF D AT VALLEY G
LAW OF SEQUENCE
FIGURE 1
Another significant development was the work done in Europe which stated that the crust of Europe could be divided into four parts or sequences stacked on top of each other. Figure 2 illustrates a cross section of this rock crust. A is the oldest layer composed of igneous and metamorphic rock. B is an over-laying thick dark layer of sedimentary rock with few fossils. C is a flat, slightly deformed layer of sedimentary rock. D is the surface layer overspread by loose and weak cemented sand, gravel and clay with many beautiful, well-preserved fossils. The geologists concluded that since the crust of Europe was like this, the whole world could be divided into four sequences. This led to the division of geological time into four parts. Today, geologists examine rocks in the four parts very carefully. In 1799, William Smith recognized that a layer could be distinguished from the layer above and below by the type of fossils present in the layer. This was the key element in the development of geological time. At the same time two French scientists were developing the same information. These two studies lend to the development of fossil correlation charts as shown in Figure 3. Certain fossils such as X,Y, and Z are index fossils because they occur in different layers or strata. The clam at C is not a good index because it appears in all layers. From these studies come stratographic column section maps. An example is the area studied by Guvier in France shown in Figure 4. Geological time and absolute time are not the same. Geological time is a relative period of time. It is based on the time when certain fossils lived. This is called a period by a geologist. It is relative. Very few absolute times can be established. Therefore, geologists say an event happened during a certain period, not 500 million years ago, which is absolute. Finally, geological events can be interrupted, as stated before. Any event imaginable could happen in geological time . The time span is so long that any event that is physically possible becomes likely to happen or has happened in the past. Storms of 31 inches of rain would be almost impossible in our lifetime. Yet, it happened in 1969 in an eight hour rainstorm in the U.S.A. Animals and fossils have been found thousands of miles from where they should be. So in the geological study of the earth, we must include catastrophic events that could have happened. The only ones excluded are those that are physically impossible no matter how much time is allowed. Examples of this would be like stating that "all rock was made through precipitation of oceans" or that "some formations are caused by water that flows uphill." These events are impossible and could not happen.
Types of Geology There are two types of geology: physical geology and historical geology. Historical geology studies the history of man by examining layers of the earth. Physical geology studies the planet earth, the materials in the earth, and how the material of the earth are changed by forces acting upon them. This course will study physical geology. Formation of the Earth There are a number of theories to explain the formation of the earth. These theories are not the focus of this module. Most scientists now accept the "big bang" theory that an explosion occurred in space. This produced atoms forming different elements. Shock waves from the explosion caused cold clouds of dust and gas to condense into dense, smaller clouds where complete molecules were formed. Gravitational attraction produced the sun and planets. Dust and debris kept growing into larger clumps. These clumps eventually formed the earth. Compression caused by gravitation produced great internal heat and pressure. Gravity sorted out the elements of the earth, as shown in Figure 5. Heavy elements were drawn to the middle of the earth. Lighter elements and compounds collected near the surface. The lightest element was an outer film of gases. The main constituents may have been water vapor and carbon dioxide. A chemical reaction probably created free oxygen and nitrogen, and the atmosphere was made. Lighter gases rose to the atmosphere during the cooling process. Rain developed out of the warming of the gases, and moisture fell back to the earth. Thus began the cycle of life. We exist because our earth gives us life. Our earth exists because of these life forms.
PARTS OF THE EARTH The earth is divided into four parts or spheres. The four parts are: Atmosphere Hydrosphere Biosphere Lithosphere
Atmosphere As the earth cooled and magnetic action separated the elements, the atmosphere was made. A thin layer of gases and water vapor escaped into the air and formed oxygen. The oxygen in our atmosphere allowed life to form. Rain fell causing plants to grow. Plants gave off more oxygen and absorbed the carbon dioxide given off by animal life. Each sustained the other. Gases continued to flow into the atmosphere until the present time. Nitrogen is absorbed by the soil, which was formed by dead plants and animals. Nitrogen is used by the plants. Rain helps the plants to grow and erodes the soil to make more soil. The life cycle of the earth would be impossible without the atmosphere. The atmosphere is the area above the earth, which contains the free gases. It goes hundreds of miles up and extends around the entire earth. It is made of hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon dioxide. The predominant gases are nitrogen (78 percent) and oxygen (20 percent). These gases make life on earth possible. Figure 6 shows how the atmosphere forms as cover for the earth This cover protects the earth from the heat of the sun. The atmosphere causes meteors to burn before hitting the earth. Rain could not occur without the atmosphere around the earth. The atmosphere causes weathering. Weathering is one of the processes of geological change.
ATMOSPHERE
PARTS OF THE EARTH
FIGURE 6
Hydrosphere The hydrosphere started with the first drop of water vapor. At one time the planet earth was a hot mass. As gases were released from the eruptions, water vapor was also released. This process is known as outgassing. Most geologists believe the water released from the process caused the seas. These vapors also produced rain. Rain contained chemicals which helped weather the bedrock to form soil. Some water remained on the surface. Eventually small plants and animals were able to live in the water. Later these plants and animals were able to move to land as the soil grew, and the oxygen content of the atmosphere increased. The water became a part of the geological process. As the continents rose higher, accumulated water started running downhill to form rivers and streams, which caused further erosion and made more soil. The hydrosphere is shown at Figure 7. The hydrosphere includes all the waters of the earth. The oceans, lakes, rivers, and ground water are all parts of the hydrosphere. Most of the hydrosphere is in the oceans. The oceans cover about 70 percent of the earth's surface. The oceans are an average of about 2 1/2 miles deep. The hydrosphere is as important to the geological processes of today, as it was in the beginning. Running water, ground water, and oceans causes physical and chemical changes in the earth. These changes replenish the earth. Biosphere As the earth cooled and gases formed the atmosphere and hydrosphere, small plants and animals began to grow in the water. These small plants and animals formed the original biosphere. As more oxygen became available and the plant and animal life increased, they moved to land. Life forms became more complete until finally the biosphere formed as we know it today. Man appeared and became the dominant animal. Other animals and plants disappeared for various reasons. These ancient life forms, buried in layers of earth, allow us to study the past. Elements of the biosphere are shown in Figure 8. The earth has millions of plants and animals. The air and water mixture of the earth gives life to these plants and animals. All of these living things (organic life) make up the biosphere. Dead plants and animals are called organic material. Minerals that are not made of organic material are called inorganic. Minerals, such as iron, are inorganic minerals.
HYDROSPHERE
Nile Delta
Dead Sea
Eu ph ra te s
Nile River
The Gulf
Egypt Saudi Arabia
ea dS Re
Indian Ocean
Ethiopia
HYDROSPHERE
HYDROSPHERE
FIGURE 7
Lithosphere The earth was mainly formed of molten material. The spinning motion of the earth created compression and gravitational pull. As the earth continued to cool, heavier elements, such as iron, were drawn to the center and lighter elements were redistributed to the surface in the form of magma. This magma carried with it the light and volatile elements. This made it possible for a crust to form on the earth. Heat from the lower mantle caused plates of crust to move. As all of the elements interacted with the atmosphere, biosphere and hydrosphere, the continents began to form. The lithosphere is shown in Figure 9. The lithosphere is the solid part of the earth. Rocks and minerals are parts of the lithosphere. These rocks and minerals form the continental lands and the ocean basins. Changes in the structure of the land occur in the lithosphere. Figure 9 shows the various parts of the lithosphere where these changes occur. The parts are the crust, mantle and core.
The Crust
The crust is the upper layer of the earth where most things grow. This layer is about 4 miles thick under the ocean and about 40 miles thick under the mountains. The rock in this layer weighs less than rock in the lower layers of the earth. Minerals, oil, and building material come from this layer. The crustal elements are shown in the pie chart in Figure 10. The elements are as follows: a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. Oxygen 46.6% Silicone 27.72% Aluminum 8.13% Iron 5.0% Calcium 3.63% Sodium 2.83% Potassium 2.59% Magnesium 2.09% Other Elements 1.41%
The crust is further divided into two more parts: Continental Masses Ocean Basins
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MANTLE
CRUST
EARTH
EARTH
FIGURE 9
LITHOSPHERE
CORE
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B A
C D E F G H I
MAJOR ELEMENTS AND AMOUNTS
FIGURE 10
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Continental Masses The Continental masses are shown in Figure 11. The continents are rocky masses that cover about 29 percent of the earth's surface. The continents are composed mostly of granite rock. The average height is about three miles above the ocean floor. The continental masses are an average height of 1/2 mile above sea level. The continental masses extend into the oceans. This area under the ocean is divided into two parts. These parts are the continental shelf and the continental slope.
Continental Shelf
The Continental shelf is the part of the crust that joins the land surface. Figure 12 shows the continental shelf. It is mostly flat. It may be slightly sloped to about 0.1 degree. The shelf is covered with water and extends to a depth of about 200 meters.
Continental Slope
The continental slope is a downward feature in the earth's crust. It is inclined about 3 to 6 degrees. This slope is found between the continental shelf and the deep part of the ocean. The continental slope is shown in Figure 12. The Mantle The mantle of the earth is shown in Figures 13 and 14. It is the part of the earth that is between the crust and the core. The mantle is composed of rock layers about 1,800 miles thick. The rock in the mantle is much heavier than the rock in the crust. Parts of this layer are partially melted. This melted rock may flow slowly from space to space. Melted rock in the earth is known as magma rock. This magma rock sometimes finds a path through the crust as lava from a volcano. This type of rock will be discussed later. The Core The area at the center of the earth, where gravity is centered, is called the core. The core of the earth was formed from the heavy elements as the earth's spinning motion caused gravity in the center of the earth's molten mass. These heavy elements magnetized in the process and formed gravity in the earth. As the earth cooled and magnetic metals were trapped in the center, it formed the earth's gravitational field. This gravitational field caused water to collect in oceans and water to run downhill. Without gravity, there would be no earth as we know it today. The core of the earth is further divided into the outer and inner core.
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 13
CONTINENT
OCEAN BASIN
CONTINENTAL SLOPE CONTINENTAL SHELF SEA LEVEL OCEAN
FIGURE 12
14
MANTLE
EARTH
FIGURE 13
15
CONTINENT
OCEAN BASIN
CONTINENTAL SLOPE CONTINENTAL SHELF SEA LEVEL OCEAN
MANTLE
FIGURE 14
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The Outer Core
The outer core is a layer of dense molten rock. The outer core is between the mantle and the inner core, as shown in Figure 15. The outer core is about 1,400 miles thick. This core is mostly iron and nickle, the heavy metals.
The Inner Core
The inner core is a solid ball about 1,540 miles across. The temperature of the core is 3,700 degrees centigrade. The pressure around the inner core keeps the core from melting. Geologists disagree on this part of the lithosphere. Information is scarce because the inner core is difficult to test. The inner core is shown an Figure 15.
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INNER CORE
OUTER CORE
FIGURE 15
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THE ROCK CYCLE The rock cycle describes the changes that rocks go through. There are three types of rocks: igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic. These types of rock will be covered in depth in a later module. These rocks are part of the rock cycle. Any of these rocks can be changed from one type to another in this cycle. This concept makes the rock cycle very important to the earth's balance. Figure 16 illustrates how the rock cycle works. Igneous rock are worn away by erosion and deposited as sediment. This sediment later becomes sedimentary rock. Sedimentary rock may be changed, by forces, into metamorphic rock. Metamorphic rock may undergo change through heat and pressure within the earth and become molten. This molten material within the earth is called magma. Igneous rock is formed when magma cools and hardens. The cycle continues until interrupted by outside forces. The starting point of the cycle is magma which is the most important part of the cycle. The geological processes that have been covered are a part of the rock cycle. Erosion makes sediment. Tectonic movement redistributes rocks into the earth. Magma is made from these rocks. Volcanism brings the magma back to the surface to make igneous rock. The cycle keeps going in this manner. MOVEMENTS OF THE EARTH Movements of the earth are an important part of the rock cycle. How do scientists know that the earth is moving? Examination of the ocean floor, continental drift and polar movement hold the key. The Ocean Floor The make-up of the ocean floor is important to our understanding of plate tectonics. Look at the profile in Figure 17. Only the most important features are illustrated. The continental shelf and the continental slope have already been discussed. Submarine canyons are deep canyons that are cut by rivers flowing back to the sea. Spreading ridges are submarine mountain chains. Trenches are deep, steep-sided troughs running through the ocean's plains. Abyssal plains are sediment-covered, deep sea plains about 1,500 feet below sea level. Island arc is a curved row of volcanic islands usually on the continental side of the trench.
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START
N IO AT Z I LL TA S Y CR
MAGMA
Me ltin g
IGN EO ROC US KS
RPH AMO MET OCKS R IC
Weathering
SE DI ME NT S
Y AR NT S E K M DI OC SE R
Lithification
CYCLE MAY BE INTERRUPTED
ROCK CYCLE
FIGURE 16
MET
AMO
RPH
ISM
n sio on Ero ortati nsp Tra
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The theory of tectonism relies on other concepts for its explanation. Two of these concepts are seafloor spreading and continental drift. These concepts help to explain volcanos and earthquakes. These concepts also help explain folds in the earth called mountain ranges. Continental Drift/Continental Jigsaw Puzzle Continental drift is evident. The continents have moved throughout time. Figure 18 shows the continents when they were joined together. Figure 19 is a global view of how today's continents would fit like a jigsaw puzzle. The continental shelf must be included for the parts of the puzzle to fit. Figure 20 shows the current continents with continental shelves and slopes shaded. Scientists cite this jigsaw puzzle effect as evidence of continental drift.
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NORTH POLE
LAURASIA
EQUATOR
GONDWANALAND
SOUTH POLE
ANCIENT EARTH
FIGURE 18
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Seafloor Spreading Continental drift is also evident from the study of the bottom of the sea. Marine geologists have found that submarine mountain chains give much information. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge is a 10,000 mile undersea mountain range. This range starts at the southern tip of Africa and ends at Iceland. This ridge illustrates how continents drift. The ocean floor near the drift moves. Figure 21 shows this concept. A deep rift or trench runs along the top of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. The rift causes volcanic activity beneath the ridge. Lava flows out of the central rift running down the sides of the ridge. The volcanic eruptions cause pressure. The pressure of the flowing lava pushes the sides of the trench farther apart. The lava is older at a point farther away from the trench. The result is a series of lava bands. Each band is older than the band between it and the trench. Many fractures and openings in the crust occur. The crust is soft and easily deformed. This concept of the opening and widening of the seafloor is called seafloor spreading. Many of the fractures are 90 to the main fracture. These fractures are called transform faults. The lava flows, and transform faults are indications that the seafloor is constantly changing. The continents are being pushed away from the ridge. The Pacific Ocean basin is becoming smaller. Scientists believe that the extra rock material in the Pacific is being forced downward through subduction zones. Figure 22 illustrates these subduction zones. Polar Movement Scientific study indicates that the magnetic poles of the earth have changed locations over time. The rocks in the earth have small pieces of magnetic iron. Magnetic iron in rock has the same polarity as when it was formed. The rock keeps the same polarity throughout life. Scientists have found that rocks along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge have different magnetic pull or polarity. The magnetic field of older rock points in a different direction than younger rock. The directions may be different from the present position of the poles. Figure 23 illustrates how the poles have moved. Figure 24 illustrates the different polarity of each layer of rock formed along the ridge. Scientists know from these observations that the earth's surface has been in motion over time and is still moving.
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SEA LEVEL
+ + + + + +
es eas r c n or i a flo e s of Age
Age of
sea floor incre ases
+ ++ + + + + +
ASTHENOSPHERE
RIFT IN MID - OCEAN RIDGE
FIGURE 21
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PERU - CHILE TRENCH
ANDES MOUNTAINS
PACIFIC OCEAN CONTINENTAL CRUST OCEANIC

CR US T
MANTLE
BENIOFF ZONE
EARTHQUAKES
SUBDUCTION ZONE
FIGURE 22
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A. ROCKS AT1 HAVE NORMAL POLARITY
B. ROCKS AT 2 HAVE REVERSED POLARITY
C. ROCKS AT 3 HAVE NORMAL POLARITY AGAIN
POLARITY OF MATERIALS IN SEAFLOOR SPREADING

FIGURE 24
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GEOLOGICAL PROCESSES Changes in the geology of the earth have occurred throughout time. The Grand Canyon in the United States is an example of this change. The Great Sahara Desert and the Arabian Peninsula are examples of changes in the earth caused by geological processes. These geological processes are: Erosion The process of erosion includes several types of erosion such as erosion by water, wind, ice movement, weathering and mass movements.
Water Erosion
Erosion Tectonism Volcanism
Water erosion is caused by running water in streams and rivers. Erosion is also caused by oceans, lakes and ground water. Running water is the most important of all types of erosion. Streams and rivers gouge out the earth as they run downhill. This earth is eroded and moved to new locations. This process replenishes the earth and is always remaking itself. Due to gravity, streams and rivers start in the high areas and flow downhill. This process moves huge amounts of material and deposits it in to lower areas. This keeps the valleys fertile. Erosion can change mountains into hills and flat land into valleys. Rivers drain about 70 percent of the dry land. Rivers carry about 20 billion tons of material to the sea each year. The rivers flow fast in the mountains. This fast running water cuts deep river valleys. Rivers in the lower regions run slower and eat away at the soft banks causing them to widen. Figure 25 shows the profile of a stream. Notice the valley profile at a, b and c.
Ground Water
Ground water circulates downward because of gravity. The ground has open spaces or pores which fill from the bottom up. Chemicals made by natural reactions mix with this ground water to corrode and erode the rock in the ground. This type of erosion ensures a steady supply of mantle and crystal rock. Figure 26 illustrates ground water erosion.
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Oceans Erosion
The ocean is constantly changing the shore line around it. The movement of the ocean erodes the land. Some of the land is deposited on shore; some on the beach. Land is also taken far out to sea. This land keeps the sea bottom replenished. Figure 27 illustrates ocean erosion.
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SINKHOLE
CAVERN
GROUND WATER EROSION
FIGURE 26
29
COASTAL FIGURES DEVELOPED BY MARINE EROSION. A - SEA CAVE DEVELOPED IN WAVE - CUT CLIFF B - STACK
OCEAN EROSION
FIGURE 27
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Wind Erosion
Wind erosion is continuous. The wind is always moving sand and rock particles around. Sand drifts up in piles forming sand dunes. These dunes are constantly moving and changing. The land is being eroded. The sand being moved abrades the land under it loosening more particles. Land caught up in dust storms can travel hundreds of miles. Figure 28 shows example of wind erosion.
Ice Movement
Glaciers are large slow moving land ice masses. In cold areas the snow will last all year. The lowest latitude where snow lasts all year is called the snow line. Massive snow fields form above the snow line. Snow fields are large masses where snow piles up. The snow freezes and compacts. An over abundance of snow causes glaciers.
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ROCK FORMED BY WIND
WIND EROSION
FIGURE 28
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The frozen snow is covered by new snow. Ice is formed underneath. The new snow on top compacts the ice even more. The entire underneath mass turns to glacier ice. Gravity causes it to move downhill. Glaciers move very slowly. Glaciers erode the soil underneath and on the sides of the valley in which it moves. The glacier transports material much like a river. The process of movement of material is called glaciation. Glaciers move at different rates. Some glaciers move one inch per day. Other glaciers move 100 feet per day. The rate of movement is determined by the thickness, slope and structure of land, temperature and amount of unfrozen water in the glacier. Glaciers move faster when big and thick. Glaciers move faster on steep slopes. High temperature causes more movement in glaciers. A typical glacier is shown at Figure 29. The lower part of the glacier is called the zone of flow. The upper part of the glacier is called the zone of fracture. Deep cracks called crevasses appear in the zone of fracture. Glacial erosion is so powerful few objects can stand in a glacier's path. Glaciers erode in three ways. Glaciers pick up pieces of bedrock. These fragments of bedrock and other rock debris abrade other rock over which the glacier passes. Loose material is pushed ahead of the glacier. Some material pulls off the side of the valley onto the top of the glacier.
Weathering
Figure 30 shows three examples of weathering. Weathering erosion is a process where chemical and physical changes take place naturally. These changes occur at or near the surface. This process is one of the most important. Material for rock is formed this way. Soil is also made this way. Types of weathering are mechanical and chemical. Mechanical weathering is also known as disintegration. Mechanical weathering can be caused by temperature changes. These changes make rock material contract and expand. This causes rock to crack apart into smaller pieces. Another mechanical weathering process is frost action. Water in the rock pores freeze and cause them to crack. There are two types of frost action: frost wedging and frost heaving. Frost wedging breaks rocks apart by sideways movement. Frost heaving is an upward movement. The second type can cause damage to foundation and roads.
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CREVASSES
ZON
E O F E O F F LOW
ZON
FRA CTU RE
SIDE VIEW
GLACIER PROFILE
FIGURE 29
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The third type of mechanical weathering is caused by plants and animals. Tree and shrub roots grow in cracks of rocks and break them. Animals walk across rocks and crush them. Ants, rodents and worms bring materials to the surface to be exposed to weathering. Man also does his share. Road building, mining and farming are just three ways man helps disintegrate rock.
Chemical Weathering
Chemical weathering is also known as decomposition. Decomposition produce a chemical breakdown of the rock. Chemical weathering produces rock material that is different from the original rock. Four common types of chemical weathering are oxidation, hydration, carbonation, and solution.
Oxidation - Oxidation occurs as oxygen and moist air come together. Oxygen and wet air act
on some mineral to form oxides. Rocks with iron decompose. Fast oxidation of iron causes rust. Some iron compounds form acids which attack the rock. These acids speed the process of decomposition.
Hydration - The chemical process that joins water with other material. Rocks and minerals in
this process may produce new products. Material in this process are expanded mechanically. This produces cracks in the rocks which speeds up the physical breakdown.
Carbonation - Carbon dioxide, water and soil combine with certain rock to change the minerals. Material produced this way is soluble and decomposes easily. Carbon dioxide and water produce carbonic acid. Carbonic acid breaks down minerals in rock. Solution - Solution is the process that dissolves minerals. They are chemically absorbed by
water. The process is greatly increased with carbonic acid. Solution is accomplished mostly by ground water flowing downward through the earth.
Mass Movement
Erosion is caused by mass movement of earth. Mass movement includes all types of slides. Mass movement is also known as mass-wasting. This process happens when earth material moves downhill. Mass movements happen because of gravity and steep slopes. Mass movements may be caused by water, freezing and thawing, undercutting, animals or shock waves. Mass movements may be rapid or slow. Common types of rapid movement are landslide, mudflows and earthflows. Examples of slow movements are soil creep and solifluction.
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Tectonism Tectonism is the belief that all solid parts of the earth move. The theory is that parts of the earth have moved throughout time. Part of this theory is that the continents are large floating plates that were once tied together in one land mass, but have now drifted apart. Tectonic comes from a Greek word meaning builder.
Plate Tectonics
Plate tectonics is the study of the lithosphere moving laterally across the asthenosphere. The asthenosphere is a dense layer of plastic material in the lower mantle. The plates move and float across the plastic layer. Figure 31 illustrates the plates. Scientists believe that heat from the core and lower mantle produces currents which move these plates. The plates are sometimes called crustal plates and are made up of a slab of oceanic crust or continental crust. A plate may be made of both in some cases. These crust slabs are anchored to a rigid slab of upper mantle. All these plates together make up the lithosphere. These plates join together. The places where plates join are called margins or boundaries. Boundaries usually occur at mid-oceanic ridges, deep sea trenches, large faults or linear fold mountains. There are four types of boundaries. These types of boundaries are divergent, convergent, shear and triple junction. These boundaries are shown at Figure 32.
Divergent Boundaries - Divergent boundaries develop when two plates move away from each
other. Divergent boundaries are located along the mid-oceanic ridges. These ridges form continuous submarine mountain ranges that divide the ocean basins. Figure 33 illustrates the layout of the ocean floor. The ocean floor will be discussed in more detail later. The ridges of the oceans are zones of tension in the lithosphere. This tension or force makes a fracture or opening along the ridge. The two plates pull apart. This is called sea-floor spreading. New crust is formed along the fracture as molten rock is pushed upward. Divergent boundaries are also known as constructive margins. Constructive means they add to the land. These midoceanic ridges are also areas where volcanic and earthquake activities take place.
Convergent Boundaries - Convergent boundaries are also called destructive margins.
Convergent boundaries develop when two plates move toward each other. These collisions may occur at an oceanic and continental crust, two sections of continental crust or two sections of oceanic crust. One plate slides below the other plate. The plate that moves downward is changed or deformed.
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The destructive margin gets its name from this action. The thinner and more dense oceanic plate is the downgoing plate when it collides with the continental plate. Continental rock is lighter and will not sink. Continental rock overrides the oceanic rock. The zone where the downgoing plate dips under the overriding plate is called the subduction zone. Convergent boundaries and subduction zones are found along deep ocean trenches and volcanic island arc systems. These areas are found along the western edge of the Pacific Ocean. As the downgoing plate continues, earthquakes are produced. The formation of fold mountains is another action when plates collide. These fold mountains form on the overriding plate as the leading edge buckles and crumples. Figure 34 shows the mountain building process when an island arc and a continent collide at A. The island arc at c and the continent d move toward each other on two different plates. Offshore sediment is located between the two at b. The collision shown at B squeezes the sediment b between the island arc volcanos C and continent d producing a type of chain called a cordilleron mountain chain. The Andes and Western North America are cordilleron mountains. Old convergent boundaries being replaced by new ones are shown as C and D. Figure 35 shows mountain building where two continents collide. In Figure 35A, the continents move toward each other. In Figure 35B, the collision pushes up sediment and the ocean gets smaller. In Figure 35C, the ocean crust between moves below the two continents and they collide. The collision causes mountains like the Alps and the Himalayas. During this type of action magma is produced when the downgoing plate melts. This molten material may be recycled as lava.
Shear Boundaries - Shear boundary plates do not collide or separate. Figure 36 shows this type of fault. Shear boundary plates slide past each other. These boundaries (transform faults) are at right angles to the ridge system. The San Andreas fault in California is considered by some scientists as a transform fault. Plates along these boundaries slip past each other without being greatly deformed. Crustal material is neither added or subtracted. Triple Junction - Three tectonic plates may meet at one point. This boundary is called a triple
junction. The three parts may involve three different plate margin features. Divergent, convergent and shear boundaries may occur at triple junctions.
37
Volcanism Volcanos cause another type of earth movement. This movement also helps build new earth and rocks. Volcanos are vent openings in the earth's crust. Molten rock and lava pass through these openings. The typical volcano is a cone-shaped mountain with a crater at the top. (See Figure 37). This crater is connected with the underground magma chamber by the vent. Steam, dust, ash, stone and molten rock are called lava. Lava flows from the crater during eruption. The magma chamber is a container for hot molten rock material. Lava may flow within the spaces in the crust of the earth or to the surface. Rock formed in this manner will be covered in a later module. There are three types of volcanos named according to the activity in them: active, dormant and extinct. Active volcanos are still producing eruptions. Dormant volcanos are inactive at present, but have erupted in modern time. Extinct volcanos have not erupted in modern time. An example of a dormant volcano was Mt. St. Helens until it erupted in 1980. Figure 38 shows how Mount St. Helens may be connected to a subduction zone. An example of a volcano thought to be extinct was Lassen Peak in California. Lassen Peak erupted in 1914 after 200 years of dormancy.
38
MOUNT ST. HELENS JUAN DE FUCA PLATE PACIFIC OCEAN
NORTH AMERICAN PLATE CASCADE RANGE
OCEANIC C RU ST
CONTINENTAL CRUST
MANTLE MANTLE
PACIFIC SUBDUCTION ZONE
FIGURE 38
39
There are two types of eruptions: central and fissure eruption. Central eruption forces material through one vent into the crater. Fissure eruption forces lava into many cracks in the earth's crust.
Volcano Location
Volcanos occur in well-defined zones along plate boundaries. Exceptions are the Hawaiian Islands which are caused by hot spots. Hot spots are pipe-like features in the earth that carry heat and mantle material to the crust. The Pacific belt has most of the world's active volcanos. Figure 39 illustrates the major areas of volcanic activity. Figure 40 shows the zones where volcanos are most likely to erupt. Volcanos make four main types of land forms: lava plains, volcanic mountains, volcanic craters and calderas.
40
INDIA
THE DECCAN PLATEAU ( DARK ) FORMED FROM LAVA OUTFLOWS, COVERS 250,000 SQUARE MILES.
FIGURE 39
41
Lava Plains
Lava plains are formed by fissure eruptions. Sheets of lava flood the earth's surface forming a rock called basalt. The Deccan Plateau in India is covered with basalt 7,000 feet thick. The lava covers 250,000 square miles. Figure 41 shows the size of the Decca flow. Another example is the western United States where basalt covered 200,000 square miles. This flow covers parts of Washington, Oregon, Nevada and Utah.
42
KATMAI ALAID FUJIYAMA ST. HELENS LASSEN MAUNA LAO PARICUTIN TAAL KILAUEA FUEGO COTOPAXI PELEE
PACIIFIC OCEAN
KRAKATOA
NGAURUHOE
OSORNO
DOTS SHOW RECENT VOLCANIC ACTIVITY
VOLCANO AREAS
FIGURE 41
43
Volcanic Mountains
Volcanic mountains are made by central eruptions. Volcanic mountains are three types: explosion cones, composite cones and lava domes.
Volcanic Craters
Volcanic craters are v-shaped holes in the top of volcanic mountains. Most craters are produced by explosive eruptions.
Calderas
Calderas are round basins in the top of volcanos. Calderas are larger than craters. Crater Lake in Oregon, U.S.A., is not a crater but a caldera. Crater Lake caldera was formed by the collapse of an extinct volcano. The caldera is filled with a lake 22 square miles in area and 2,000 feet deep. Figure 42 illustrates how a caldera is formed. Earthquakes Although earthquakes are not considered a type of erosion in technical terms, they are related to plate movement and volcanos. For that reason an overview of earthquakes is included here. Earthquakes are another type of earth's movements. An earthquake is a natural vibration in the earth's crust. These vibrations cause the ground to shake. Rocks break along a fault. A fault is a fracture in the earth's crust. Figure 43 shows land after an earthquake has occurred Figure 44 illustrates the San Andreas fault in California. Earthquakes are evidence that the earth is still moving Figure 45 shows how land may sink after earthquakes. Earthquakes, like volcanos, occur along the margins of the continental plate. Shallow quakes occur where margins are colliding and separating. Deep quakes seem to occur where plates collide. The San Andreas fault is made up of two huge blocks which are sliding past each other. These earthquakes are called tectonic earthquakes. Volcanic explosions may also cause earthquakes. Figure 46 shows activity in the subduction zone. Earthquake activity is studied with a delicate instrument called a seismograph. The records produced by the seismograph are called seismograms.
Distribution of Earthquakes
Most earthquakes occur along plates as already stated. About 80 percent of the world's earthquakes take place in the belt around the Pacific. The zone contains young mountains and volcanos. Figure 47 shows the earthquake zone.
44
Effects Of Earth Movement The Participant may be wondering why all this activity in the earth is important. These processes and constant movements of the earth are responsible for our energy sources and minerals.
Fossil Fuels
Coal, oil and natural gas are fossil fuels. Fossil fuel was made as plant and animal life died in past times. These fossils were buried in the ground through the processes and earth movements that have been discussed in this module. Life probably started in the ocean. Life forms are about three billion years old. Large numbers of life forms developed as time advanced. The movements in the earth and the shift of the poles caused huge amounts of life to be trapped and moved deep into the earth. Heat and pressure within the earth caused a process which over time produced fossil fuels.
45
SAN FRANCISCO
LOS ANGELES
SAN ANDREAS FAULT
LAND WEST OF FAULT IS MOVING NORTHWEST
SAN ANDREAS FAULT
FIGURE 44
46
SEA FLOOR SEA LEVEL
TONGA TRENCH
TONGA
0 100 200 300 DEPTH ( km )
400 500
600 700
SLAB OF LITHOSPHERE DESCENDING INTO MANTLE SUBDUCTION ZONE
EACH DOT REPRESENTS A 1988 EARTHQUAKE I IN THE TONGA BASIN
EARTHQUAKES
FIGURE 46
47
Coal
Coal is found mostly in sediment deposits. Coal is the carbonized remains of tropical plants. These plants grew in great swamps and marshes. The swamps were lowlands and had warm, wet climates. Most coal is found in highlands now. This indicates that shifts in the earth have occurred. Shifts in the earth are also indicated when fossilized topical plants are found in cold areas. Most coal swamps were probably caused because of the movements of crustal plates. The coal of the mountain regions was formed in sea basins. These basins were pushed up into mountains when plates overrode each other.
Oil and Natural Gas
Oil and natural gas are found in sedimentary rock. Most oil and gas comes from ancient sea beds. The marine sedimentary rock has openings in it. These openings are called pores. Oil and gas are found in oil-bearing strata or layers of old sea basins. Scientists do not fully understand the process which makes plants and animals into oil and gas. The oil-forming process will be covered in a later module. Most of the world's oil is found in sedimentary layers along continental shelfs. Sedimentary rock was formed from marine sediment before the continents separated. This separation is called a rift. Oil formation may occur in such rift areas. The rock is tilted because of the separation. Oil formed in this area will travel up the slope of the sediment layers toward the continent. Oil may also be found in basins between the continent and a subduction zone.
Environment
Earth movements are important to our environment. Buildings must be strongly built in earthquake zones. Sanitary land fills must be built differently depending on ground water, earthquakes, and land features. Wells are drilled and pumped with attention to the water table and the ground structure. Pumping too much water from the ground can cause it to collapse making sink holes. All Participants must consider the earth and our environment when planning a project or inspecting a project. Finally, earth movements can cause disasters killing thousands of people each year and destroying billions of dollars worth of property.
48
WORK AID #1 FACTS SHEET This Work Aid is to be used to identify the principal divisions of the earth. EARTH - 4 Parts Atmosphere Hydrosphere Biosphere Lithosphere (Air) (Water) (Living things) (Solid part of earth)
Atmosphere Nitrogen Oxygen Others (78%) (20%) (2%) (20% of earth surface)
Hydrosphere Biosphere Plants Animals Microorganisms Oceans Streams and rivers Lakes Ground water
Lithosphere Soil Rocks Rock fragments Sand Magma (molten rock)
49
WORK AID #2 FACTS SHEET This Work Aid is to be used to identify the physical features of the earth. PHYSICAL FEATURES Crust Continental masses Continental shelf Continental slope
Ocean basins
Mantle Core Outer core Inner core
50
WORK AID #3 FACTS SHEET This Work Aid is to be used to identify how the three geological processes affect the physical features of the earth. EROSION Water Rivers and streams Ground water Oceans
Wind Ice Weathering Mechanical (disintegration) Temperature changes Frost action Plants and animals
Chemical Oxidation Hydration Carbonation Solution
Mass Movements Slides Falls Avalanches Flows
51
Mass Movements Slumps Creep Solifluction
VOLCANISM Lava plains Volcanic mountains Volcanic craters Calderas (basin)
TECTONICS (Earth Movements) Divergent Boundaries (Constructive Margins) Convergent Boundaries (Destructive Margins) Shear Boundaries (Transform Margins) Continental Drift Seafloor Spreading Polar Movement Earthquakes
52
WORK AID #4
This Work Aid will be used to identify the physical features of the ocean floor. OCEAN FLOOR Submarine Canyons Submarine Plateau Abyssal Plain Spreading Ridge Trench Island Arc
53
WORK AID #5 FACT SHEET This Work Aid will be used to identify the parts of the rock cycle. ROCK CYCLE Magma (Molten Rock) Crystallization
Igneous Rocks Weathering Erosion Transportation
Sediment Lithification
Sedimentary Rocks Metamorphism
Metamorphic Rock Melting
NOTE: Any kind of rock can melt, metamorphise or weather.
54
WORK AID #6 FACT SHEET This Work Aid will be used to identify the parts of a volcano. Volcano Parts Magma (Molten Rock) Magma Chamber Pipe Side Vent Vent Cone Lava Ash Gas
Volcano Land Forms Lava Plains Volcanic Mountains Volcanic Craters Calderas (Basins)
55
GLOSSARY
asthenosphere atmosphere basin bedrock biosphere carbonation carbon dioxide continental shelf continental slope convergent boundaries crevasse crust deflation deflation basin (hollow) deposition depression desert pavement
Plastic layer of the lower part of the earth on which the earth's plates move. The gases around the earth. A low area in the earth's surface. Solid rock under the soil. The area of the earth that contains living things and that were once alive that are now dead. Natural mixing of carbon dioxide with water and soil. A gas used by plants to live. A gas given off by animals when they breathe. That part of the earth's crust under the ocean near the shore. A downward feature of the land under the ocean between deep water and the continental shelf. Place where two tectonic plates are moving toward each other. A deep crack in a glacier. Upper layer of the earth; the earth's cover. The process of wind blowing away loose rock and sand. A low area where the wind has blown away the rock and sand. The process whereby nature places material in the earth. A low area in the earth's crust produced by sinking rock. A hard surface of coarse rock where all the sand has been blown away by the wind. things
56
disintegration divergent boundaries dormant englacial load evaporation explosion cone extinct fault fossil fossil fuel fracture geological process glaciation gradient ground water hamada hooks hydration hydraulic action hydrosphere impaction
The process of rock reduced to smaller rock without chemicals. Also mechanical weathering. Place where two tectonic plates are pulling away from each other. Not active at present. Material carried inside a glacier. Also intraglacial The process where a liquid changes to vapor. Volcano core caused by a violent eruption. Dead or no longer extant. A fracture in the earth's crust. The remains of dead matter that was once alive. Organic remains used to produce heat and energy. A break or opening. Change in the earth over time. The process of erosion, transport and deposit by a glacier. Incline angle or downhill. Water that is contained in the earth's lower mantle rock. Wind swept rock; (also, desert pavement.) Spits that turn shoreward at the end. Chemical mixing of material and water. Loosening and removing rock by water movement. All the water of the earth. The process where rocks hit or collide with each other.
57
lava dome leeward lithosphere loess (luss) magma magmatic water magma chamber mechanical weathering meteoric water organic outwash oxidation porous porosity regolith rift sediment sedimentary rock slip face slope
A round shaped mountain of mostly solid lava. The side of a sand dune opposite the wind direction. The solid part of the earth which includes rock, minerals, land and ocean basins. A deposit of wind blown silt. Melted rock in the earth. Water deposited in magma or released from magma. A reservoir underground that contains molten rock. Physical breakdown of rock that does not include chemicals. Ground water from rain. Living things. Material sorted by water as a glacier melts. Oxygen and moist air combining to decompose or rot minerals. Having holes or void spaces that will hold water or other fluids. The amount of open spaces in rock. Small pieces of rock A trench or opening in the ocean or land. Sand, rock, silt or mud suspended in water or recently deposited from water. Rock formed from loose sediment deposited in layers over time. The straight side of a sand dune opposite the wind. A place in the earth that has a downward feature.
58
sphere spits spreading ridge soluble solution stalactites stalagmites subglacial load subduction subduction zone suboceanic superglacial load strata stratification tectonics tectonism tectonic plates till tied islands
Area of influence. Long narrow land mass of sand and pebbles that extends into the ocean. Sea-floor ridge that opens during sea-floor spreading and provides much activity. Readily dissolvable in water or other liquid. Chemicals absorbed by water Solid material hanging from cave's ceilings. Solid material developed upward from cave floors. Material carried along under the glacier. One tectonic plate moving under another. A long narrow area in which one tectonic plate moves under another plate. Below the ocean. Material carried on top of the glacier. Layers of materials Deposition of material in layers. The study of large scale movements of the earth. Belief that the earth is constantly moving. Large pieces of the earth that move. Unsorted material laid down directly from glaciers Two or more islands connected by sand bars or tombolos.
59
tombolo transform fault turbulence velocity wind erosion
A sand bar connecting islands to land or islands to each other. An earthquake fault where two plates slip past each other. Violent mixing of water flow. Speed of travel. Wearing away of earth by wind.
60

Engineering Encyclopedia: Introduction To Geology

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Engineering Encyclopedia: Introduction To Geology

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Chapter : Geology File Reference: AGE10701

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