Engineering Geology

SCIENCE:

In this modern age, the word "Science" has got different

meanings for different types of people. An ordinary man takes
it as "something" beyond his understanding, whereas others
may take it as mysteries of nuclear reasearch, which are
understood only by a few persons, working amidst complicated
apparatus and instruments in a laboratory. A non-scientist has
the idea that scientific endeavour is aimed at some phase of
improving the man's life on the earth.
But science may be defined as the growth of ideas through
observations and experimentation. In this sense, science does
not, necessarily, has to contribute something to the welfare of
the human life, although man has received many benefits from
the scientific investigations.

Department of Civil Engineering,

University of Engineering and Technology Taxila
BRANCHES OF SCIENCE:
 All the branches have a common principle,
that they employ experimentation and
observation with the hope of establishing a
general rule, as to how the natural forces act
under a certain set of conditions. It has been
customary to group things according to some
common characteristics, to facilitate their
training and research activities. This has
resulted in differentiation of science into the
following four broad categories:-
 1. PHYSICAL SCIENCES.
 2. MEDICAL SCIENCES.
 3. BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES.
 4. NATURAL SCIENCES.
GEOLOGY AS A SCIENCE:
• Geology (Greek, Geo = Earth,
Logos=science), is that branch of natural
science which deals with the earth as a whole,
regarding its history, composition, structure
and day-to-day changes which are visible on
the earth's surface, as well as those beneath
the ground. Geology is important and useful,
as well as it reveals the hidden treasures of
the earth, i.e. presence of minerals which form
invaluable raw materials for different types of
industries. As a matter of fact, minerals form
an important natural wealth of a country.
• It is therefore, essential, that their study
should be pursued in a most systematic
manner so that maximum benefit may be
derived out of them.
BEGINNING AND DEVELOPMENT
OF GEOLOGY:
It is believed that the word Geology was coined by a
Bishop in the 15th Century. Previously there was a
word "Theology" (Greek Theos=God, logos =science)
which meant that the study of things created by God. It
included a few ancient ideas, which were odd,
unsystematic and based mostly on myths, containing
incomplete information.
It will be interesting to know, how early the man had
been curious to know about the earth and different
processes going on it. For example, why does a river
carry sand particles right up to the tail? What are the
mechanisms involved in an earthquake and a volcanic
eruption?
BEGINNING AND DEVELOPMENT OF GEOLOGY (cont’d):

 In fact the people of olden times, used to content

themselves by holding gods responsible for all the
riddles. For along time, even up to the end of the
l7th century. such explanations satisfied the man
and the subject remained totally unknown.
 Today the geologists have found solution to some of
the riddles. To others, answers are still tentative;
and on still others only a slight ray of light has been
thrown, which may illuminate the way to solutions.
BEGINNING AND DEVELOPMENT OF GEOLOGY (cont’d):

The basic principles and ideas of early Geology were very simple, but it
took many many years to get each one of them established. The
difficulties, which arose before the earlier geologist's, were two-fold:-
1. The subject was in its infancy, and there was no sufficient
material with them to put up the new ideas in a systematic
way; so as to make them easily convincing.
2. There were bitter criticisms and even controversies about
very simple and easily convincing concepts, which now
appear to be self-evident.

The progress of Geology was blocked by the Church in Europe. In the

middle ages learnings or teachings, that did not have their approval
from the Church, were prohibited.
It is also said that Leonardo da Vinci (about 519 A.D.) a scientist and an
engineer, was engaged on the excavation of a canal in Northern Italy.
During the excavation, he found some fossils, (Latin, Fossils=remains
of living organisms). He argued and said that these fossils were the
remains of marine life which remained buried since the region had been
beneath the sea. People of the time could not tolerate it and badly
condemned his idea. They said that these fossils were the special
creations of God. When he found these creations to be unsuitable, he
buried them in the rocks. Thus his idea was also put to an end.
BEGINNING AND DEVELOPMENT OF GEOLOGY (cont’d):
A systematic and scientific progress of Geology was started
in 1776, which may be remembered as the year of
declaration of independence of America when WERNER(a
scientist of Germany) discovered fossils and stated that the
different layers of the rocks can be identified by a particular
fossil that had occurred at a particular horizon.

Early progress in the geologic studies was made by the

Greeks and the people of other civilised countries. It may be
noted that Geology, in its early history, was only an
academic science and its practical applications and uses
were not visualized properly. But the Industrial Revolution
brought a new turning point in the subject, as all types of raw
materials were required in abundance for various types of
industries.

This demand for minerals and raw materials changed the

minds of geologists on the discovery of raw materials and
minerals. Thus the academic was put to practical use. Since
then Geology and geologists started contributing to the
treasures of mankind, by discovering oil-fields and locating
deposits of metallic ores and minerals for the industry.
GEOLOGY AND ENGINEERING:
As a matter of fact, the progress in a certain branch of
science enriches the other branches of the bordering
sciences. Similarly, with the passage of time, the
concepts of Geology, aided by other branches of physical
sciences, started contributing and proved beneficial to
Engineering regarding the problems arising from the
conditions near the earth's surface.
Today, the knowledge of Geology has become an
essential feature for a Civil Engineer, and in this
connection certain aspects of Geology have become of
much importance to an engineer. Compilation of all such
aspects has given birth to "ENGINEERING GEOLOGY".
Thus Engineering Geology as the name indicates, is that
branch of earth-science or Geology which is of a
particular interest to an engineer. It may be, noted that its
complete knowledge is essential in planning and carrying
out various engineering projects safely and successfully.
SUB-DIVISIONS OF GEOLOGY:
The science of Geology is a very vast
subject. But if it is seen from an
engineering point of view, we find that
ENGINEERING GEOLOGY can be sub -
divided into the following three main
heads:-
1. GENERAL GEOLOGY.

2. PETROLOGY, and
3. CIVIL ENGINEERING GEOLOGY.
GENERAL GEOLOGY:

It includes the study of Geology, in general

the knowledge of which is very essential to
study the subject systematically. It includes
the following topics:-
1. INTRODUCTION.
2. THE RESTLESS EARTH,
3. PALAEONTOLOGY, and
4. MINERALOGY.
GENERAL GEOLOGY:

GEOLOGY

INTRODUCTION The Restless Earth Palaeontology Mineralogy

General Geology (Cont’d)

INTRODUCTION:
This topic deals with the introduction of the subject, to the engineering.
students and vice-versa (i.e. introduction of Engineering to the Geology
students).
THE RESTLESS EARTH:
This deals with the necessary background of our Solar system, and the
importance of our planet (i.e. earth) in it. It also deals with the history of
the earth, i.e. origin and age of the earth, along with its different parts,
i.e. atmosphere, crust and interior of the earth.
PALAEONTOLOGY:
This topic deals with the study of ancient events of a region, which is
invariably undertaken by the systematic study of fossils (i.e. remains or
traces of living organisms of the past). It also deals with the various
factors, which help in preserving the fossils.
MINERALOGY:
This deals with the various properties and uses of minerals.
A mineral may be defined as an inorganic substance having usually, a
definite chemical composition and homogeneous in character. Though
the study of mineralogy is purely of economic and geologic interest, yet
its few applications are important from the subject point of view.
PETROLOGY:
This branch of Geology deals with the formation, composition
and uses of rock (i.e. stones). The rocks are broadly classified on
the basis of their mode of origin into the following three
categories:
1. IGNEOUS ROCKS.
2. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS.
3. METAMORPHIC ROCKS.
1.IGNEOUS ROCKS:
These are the rocks which are formed by the direct solidification of
magma either on the surface or below it.
2. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
These are the rocks which are formed by the consolidation of the pre-
existing rocks under the mechanical, chemical or organic activities of
the wind, running water etc.
3. METAMORPHIC ROCKS:
These are the rocks which are formed under the influence of heat,
pressure or both from the pre-existing rocks.
The study of Petrology is most important for a Civil Engineer, in the
selection of suitable rocks for building stones, road .metal etc'.
ENGINEERING GEOLOGY:
It includes that part of the science of Geology, the knowledge
of which is very essential for various branches of Engineering;
namely CIVIL ENGINEERING, MINING ENGINEERING,
METALLURGICAL ENGINEERING, etc. Since the science of
Engineering Geology is more related to Civil Engineering, as
compared to other branches, therefore, in this part, a
particular stress has always been laid for Civil Engineers. It
includes the following topics:-
1. PHYSICAL GEOLOGY.
2. STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY.
3. FIELD GEOLOGY.
4. HYDROLOGY.
5. EARTH MOVEMENTS AND VOLCANIC ACTIVITIES.
6. CIVIL ENGINEERING GEOLOGY.
1.PHYSICAL GEOLOGY:
This deals with the various processes of
physical agents, such as wind, running water,
glaciers and sea waves. These agents go on
modifying the surface of the earth continuously.
It includes the study of their erosion,
transportation and deposition.
The study of Physical Geology is most useful
for a Civil Engineer, as it reveals the
constructive and destructive processes of
various physical agents at a particular site. It
helps in selecting a suitable site for different
types of projects, to be undertaken after
studying the effects of the physical agents,
which go on modifying the surface of the earth
physically, chemically and mechanically.
2. STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY:
This topic deals with the arrangement or
architecture of the rocks, which form the
earth's crust. It also includes the
factors, which lead to such an
arrangement, i.e. folds, faults and joints.
The study of Structural Geology is most
useful for a Civil Engineer, as the
arrangement of rocks always plays an
important role for the selection of
suitable sites for all types of projects
such as dams, tunnels, multi-storeyed
buildings etc.
3. FIELD GEOLOGY:
This subject deals with the study of rocks,
along with their structural behaviour and
mineralogical composition in the field. It has
the following two main features:
i) Geological survey in the field.
ii) Interpretation in the Laboratory.
4. HYDROLOGY:
This subject deals with the study of quality and
quantity of water present in the rocks, and in
different states. It also includes the study of
atmospheric water, surface water, and
underground water.
5. EARTH MOVEMENTS AND VOLCANIC
ACTIVITIES:
This deals with the earth movements, i.e.
earthquakes, landslides and volcanic activities,
with a particular stress on their mode of origin.
It also includes the damages they are likely Co
cause along with suitable treatments to
improve the situation according to the
requirements.
6. CIVIL ENGINEERING GEOLOGY:
This, perhaps, is the youngest branch of
Geology, which deals with all the geological
implications alongwith suitable treatments
arising in the field of a Civil Engineer. It also
includes such details in the construction of
dams, tunnels, mountain roads, selecting
suitable sites for reservoirs and suitable rocks
for building stones and road metals.
GENERAL GEOLOGY:

GEOLOGY

INTRODUCTION The Restless Earth Palaeontology Mineralogy

This topic deals with the study of ancient

events of a region, which is invariably undertaken
by the systematic study of fossils
(i.e. remains or traces of living organisms of the past).
It also deals with the various factors,
which help in preserving the fossils.
 PALAEONTOLOGY:
INTRODUCTION:
Stratified rocks of a region have been considered
as the most important and useful tools for a
geologist, to know the various events of its
geologic history. It may be noted that all the
events of a region have been recorded in its
bedded rocks pertaining to its ancient climate, life
and history with a particular stress on their mode
of formation, e.g. the existence of old sand dunes
indicates the climate and deposition that had taken
place in the past. Similarly the existence of old
stream-valleys indicates the stream that had been
running in the past. A systematic study of such
ancient events and their interpretation on the basis
of the stratified rocks, is known as
PALAEONTOLOGY (Greek, Palaeo=Ancient)
TECHNICAL TERMS : .
Before entering into the details of the subject, the following
technical terms,: which will be commonly used in dealing
this topic, should be clearly understood at this stage:
1. FOSSILS:
Fossils (Latin, Fossilies=remains of living organisms) are the remains or
traces of the living organisms such as plants and animals, which are
preserved naturally in the form of bodies, skeletons or impressions in
stratified rocks under favourable geologic conditions. These are
considered Co be the most important tools in the hands of the geologist
Co know the various events of the page.
2. LAW OF SUPERPOSITION:
In a deposit of Sedimentary strata, which has not been disturbed by
folding, faulting or otherwise, since its accumulation, the youngest strata
is at the top, and the oldest one is at the bottom. This simple and self-
evident principle is known as the "LAW OF SUPERPOSITION".
3. PRINCIPLE OF CORRELATION:
It is one of the most important principles of Stratigraphy, which
establishes a mutual relationship among a group of a series of
rock .systems of an area with that of the standard stratigraphical scale.
This is generally done either by the study of fossils, structure or
chemical composition of the rocks.
PRESERVATION OF FOSSILS:

As a matter of fact, the plants and animals in the

past lived and died, as they do now. Some of them
were buried into the sediments, hardened into
stones and were preserved in the form of fossils.
The process of preservation of fossils depends upon
the following factors:-
 1. Parts of the animals or plants.
 2. Environments at the time of burial, and
 3. Time taken for burial
PRESERVATION OF FOSSILS:
1. PARTS OF THE ANIMALS OR PLANTS:
It has been observed that the remains of organisms,
insects and worms of different kinds, which do not possess
any bony skeleton, are not commonly preserved. The
simple reason, for the same is that the soft parts,
constituting their bodies, are decomposed very soon.
Similarly, the soft parts of other animals like flesh, hair etc.
are also decomposed rapidly; whereas the harder parts
like shells, skeletons, bones, claws, teeth, horns etc., are
generally preserved for millions of years.
Similarly, soft parts of plants or trees like leaves, buds,
flowers etc., decompose rapidly and thus are not
commonly preserved as fossils. On the other hand the
massive trunks of trees (which are not worn out so quickly)
are generally preserved in the sedimentary rocks. It is thus
obvious that the organisms having hard skeletons are
better preserved as fossils than those having soft parts.
PRESERVATION OF FOSSILS:
2. ENVIRONMENTS AT THE TIME OF BURIAL:
The process of preservation of fossils, also
depends upon the; environments of the destructive
chemical agents of the area-It has been observed that the
presence of such agents decomposes and destroys all the
party of the organism or plant quickly. But, if there is no
such agent in the area, the preservation of fossils is much
easier under the same set of conditions.
It has been observed that under ideal conditions (which
are vary rarely encountered) the whole body of an animal
or plant may be found Co have been preserved. In such
cases, even the soft parts are preserved- The remains of
woolly mammoth and rhinoceros, discovered in Northern
Siberia, are the examples, in which the respective animals
have been preserved intact. This perfect preservation was
possible, because the animals were buried under a thick
cover of ice.
PRESERVATION OF FOSSILS:
3. TIME TAKEN FOR BURIAL:
The last factor in the process of preservation of fossils is
the immediate burial of the dead bodies of animals and
plants. It has been observed that if the dead bodies are
not buried immediately, these are likely to be spoiled either
by animals, physical weathering or chemical
decomposition. But if the dead bodies are buried
immediately they find adequate protection against physical
weathering or chemical decomposition and are suitably
preserved as fossils in the course of time.
It has been observed that the remains of the organisms,
which live on the land masses of the globe are seldom
buried under a thick cover immediately.That is why, the
fossils of such organisms are not found in abundance. On
the other hand, the dead bodies of sea-animals and plants
are buried immediately which facilitate their preservation in
the form of fossils. That is why, the fossils of sea-animals
and plants are found in abundance.
IMPORTANCE OF FOSSILS:
During the last hundred years, much importance has been
attached to the fossils, since they are considered to be the
most reliable evidence for studying the past history of a
region. The fossils not only tell us the time and conditions
of a deposition, but also help us greatly in correlating the
different series of rocks with that of a standard
stratigraphical scale. Following are the important uses of
fossils:-
1. In the study, evolution and migration of animals
and plants through ages.
2. In establishing the geological age of rock-beds and
their correct order of succession.
3. In the study of ancient geography of an area.
4. In the study of ancient climate of an area.

Now we shall discuss all the above-mentioned uses one by one.

1. Importance of fossils, in the study of
evolution and migration of animals and
plants through ages:
It has been observed that the remains of ancient
undeveloped animals and plants occur in rock beds,
which were formed during earlier part of the
geological history of the earth. The rocks belonging
to the later geological periods do not contain the
remains of ancient animals.
However, they contain the remains of .advanced
forms of animals and plants. A number of ancient
undeveloped animals and plants, which occur as
fossils as rock beds, have ceased to exist. In their
place, some new animals and plants of more
advanced forms have grown and flourished during
the subsequent periods.
1. Importance of fossils, in the study of evolution and
migration of animals and plants through ages: (Cont’d)

The animals, in the course of their evolution,

have often migrated, from place to place on
the surface of the earth. This has been
adequately justified by the study of fossils on
the different parts of the earth's surface.
The study of fossils has shown that the
primitive horses happened to originate in North
America. In the course of gradual evolution,
they left their home for ever, and migrated to
Central Asia, and also to the sub-continent,
towards the later part of the Tertiary period. It
is thus obvious, that the existing theory of
evolution and migration of life, 'through ages,
is based fundamentally on the basis of
detailed and systematic study of fossils.
2. Importance of fossils in establishing
the geological age of rock beds and their
correct order of succession:
The existing theory of the evolution of life, clearly indicates
that the animals and plants have passed through the
different stages during the geologic past. It is, thus, obvious
that the sedimentary rock-beds formed during different
geological periods, should contain the remains of those
organisms only, which were developed at the time of
formation of the respective beds.
It has been observed that some of ancient animals and
plants existed only during a particular period. During the
tenure of their life, they were widely distributed over the
surface of the earth. The study of fossils of such animals
and plants, in different areas, helps us in correlating and
establishing the geological age of the rock beds. After
determining the geological age of the individual rock-beds,
their order of succession can also be established.
3. Importance of fossils, in the study of
ancient geography of an area.
The fossils of animals and plants, which lived on
land, can be readily differentiated from those
living in water. Similarly, the fossils of animals
and plants, which lived in shallow water can be
readily differentiated from those living in deep
waters. A little consideration will show, that the
presence of fossils of sea animals or plants
indicates the existence of sea, during the
geologic past, at a place where such fossils lie
at present.
It is thus obvious, that a detailed and systematic
study of fossils will help us greatly in visualising
the nature and distribution of land and sea
during the earlier part of geological history of
the earth.
4. Importance of Fossils in the study of
ancient Climate of an area:
It has been observed that the existence of
different animals and plants depends
upon prevalent climatic conditions of the
area. It is thus obvious, that the remains
of a particular type of animals or plants
indicate the type of climate, which
prevailed at the time of their existence.

NOTE: FOR ILLUSTRATIONS OF SOME

FOSSILS SEE NEXT PAGE
Fossils
Fossils
 Three small ammonite
fossils, each
approximately 1.5cm
across.
 Eocene fossil fish
Priscacara liops from
Green River Formation
of Utah
 Fossils
Petrified wood fossil formed through
permineralization. The internal
structure of the tree and bark are
maintained in the permineralization
process.
FOSSILS
GENERAL GEOLOGY:

GEOLOGY

INTRODUCTION The Restless Earth Palaeontology Mineralogy

This deals with the various

properties and uses of minerals.
MINERALOGY.
INTRODUCTION:
A mineral may be defined as an inorganic
substance, having usually a definite chemical
composition, which can be expressed by a chemical
formula and physical properties. It is always
homogeneous in nature, even if minutely examined
under a microscope. As a matter of fact, minerals
form an invaluable raw material for different types of
industries and also form an important natural wealth
of a country. A detailed study of minerals, regarding
their properties and uses is known as
MINERALOGY.
MINERALOGY (CONT’D)

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF A MINERAL:

It has been observed that every mineral has a set of physical as

well as chemical properties. A careful study of these properties is
essential for its identification. In general, following properties are
studied for the identification of a mineral and to distinguish one
from another.
1. STRUCTURE.
2. CRYSTAL SYSTEM.
3. COLOUR.
4. LUSTRE.
5. STREAK.
6. HARDNESS.
7. SPECIFIC GRAVITY.
8. CLEAVAGE.
9. FRACTURE.
MINEROLOGY
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF A MINERAL: (CONT’D)

STRUCTURE: Columnar

Fibrous Granular
The structure of a mineral may be defined as
the property, which indicates the order in which structure
the atoms of a mineral are arranged. It is an
important criterion for the identification of a Bladed Crystalline
mineral. The terms used are:-
Massive

 FIBROUS .. When a mineral has a thread-like structure.

 COLUMNAR.. When a mineral has a thick or thin column like
structure.
 GRANULAR.. When a mineral has numerous grains, coarse or
fine, if packed together.
 CRYSTALLINE.. When a mineral has fine crystals packed together.
 MASSIVE .. When a mineral has an irregular structure.
 BLADED .... When a mineral appears to be composed of blade-
like structure
MINERALOGY (CONT’D)

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF A MINERAL:

 2. CRYSTAL SYSTEM:
 A crystal of a mineral may be defined as a regular
polyhedral form, bounded by smooth surfaces,
which is acquired under the action of intermolecular
forces. It is an important property, of a mineral, for
its identification. There are 32 classes of the
crystals, based on the symmetry and internal
structure. But in common practice, there are 6
groups or crystal systems and a given crystal must
belong to any one of them. These may be
summarized as follows:—
MINERALOGY (CONT’D)

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF A MINERAL:

2. CRYSTAL SYSTEM:

(a) CUBIC (ISOMETRIC)

SYSTEM:
This system includes all those
crystals, which have three
equal axes, and at right angles
,to each other. The most
common examples of cubic
system crystals are cube and
octahedron as shown aside
MINERALOGY (CONT’D)

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF A MINERAL:

2. CRYSTAL SYSTEM:

(b) TETRAGONAL SYSTEM :

This system includes all chose
crystals, which have three
axes at right angles to each
other. Two of these axes are
equal and horizontal and the
third one, which is vertical, is1
either longer or shorter than
the horizontal ones, as shown
in FIGURE-3, aside. The most
common examples of
tetragonal system crystals are
regular prisms and pyramids.
MINERALOGY (CONT’D)

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF A MINERAL:

2. CRYSTAL SYSTEM:

(C) HEXAGONAL SYSTEM:

This system includes all those
crystals, which have four axes.
Three of these axes are equal,
horizontal and meet at an angle
of 60° with each other. The
fourth one, which is vertical, is
either longer or shorter than the
horizontal ones; as shown in
FIGURE-4, aside. The most
common examples of
hexagonal crystal system are
regular hexagonal prisms and
hexagonal pyramids.
MINERALOGY (CONT’D)

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF A MINERAL:

2. CRYSTAL SYSTEM:
(d) ORTHORHOMBIC SYSTEM:
This system includes all those
crystals, which have three
axes at right angles to each
other. But all the three axes
are essentially unequal. The
most common examples of
orthorhombic system are
prisms and orthorhombic
pyramid as shown in FIGURE-
5, page 12-A.
MINERALOGY (CONT’D)

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF A MINERAL:

2. CRYSTAL SYSTEM:
(d) ORTHORHOMBIC SYSTEM:
This system includes all those
crystals, which have three
axes at right angles to each
other. But all the three axes
are essentially unequal. The
most common examples of
orthorhombic system are
prisms and orthorhombic
pyramid as shown in FIGURE-
5 aside
MINERALOGY (CONT’D)

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF A MINERAL:

2. CRYSTAL SYSTEM:
(e) MONOCLINIC SYSTEM:
This system includes all those
crystals, which have three
essentially unequal axes. Two
of these axes are horizontal
and are inclined at certain
angle (but not at right angle)
and the third one is vertical.
The most common example of
monoclinic system crystals are
irregular prisms and
monoclinic pyramids as shown
in FIGURE-6, aside
MINERALOGY (CONT’D)

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF A MINERAL:

2. CRYSTAL SYSTEM:
(f) TRICLINIC SYSTEM:
This system includes all those
crystals, which have three
unequal axes, and none of
them is right angles to the
other as shown in FIGURE-7,
page 12-A.
A little consideration will show
that all the irregular crystals
belong to the TRICLINIC
SYSTEM.
MINEROLOGY
MINERALOGY (CONT’D)

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF A MINERAL:

3. COLOUR:
For some minerals, their colour is considered to be an
important property for identification. But for others, it is
of little significance, as a mineral may occur in a
variety of colours; whereas several different minerals
may occur in the same colour. Thus, due to the
presence of impurities in the minerals, the colour is hot
a reliable test, which would have been the important
criterion otherwise. In-spite of the above-mentioned
apparent difficulties, the colour is still considered to be
an important property of a mineral. Sometimes, an
experienced and skilled observer can identify a
mineral by observing its colour only.
MINERALOGY (CONT’D)

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF A MINERAL:

3. COLOUR:
Minerals may come in different colours as shown below
Quartz(left) and similarly can feldspar as shown on (left)
MINERALOGY (CONT’D)

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF A MINERAL:

3. COLOUR:
Some minerals may come in uniform colours as shown below
Talc (left) and similarly can Topaz as shown on (left)
 MINERALOGY (CONT’D)

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF A MINERAL:

4. LUSTRE:
The lustre of a mineral may be defined as its appearance in
reflected light, or in other words, the radiant beauty of a shining
surface is called its lustre. It depends upon the amount of
reflection at the surface. It may be noted that this property of a
mineral is independent of its colour. The terms used, in order of
decreasing amount of lustre, are:-
ADAMANTINE .. When a mineral has lustre like
diamonds.
VITREOUS .. When a mineral has a lustre like a broken
glass.
RESINOUS .. When a mineral has a lustre like grease.
PEARLY .. When a mineral has a lustre like pearls.
METALLIC .. When a mineral has a lustre like metal.
DULL .. When a mineral has no lustre.
MINERALOGY (CONT’D)

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF A MINERAL:

5. STREAK:

The streak of a mineral may be defined as

the colour of its fine powder, which is
obtained by scratching or rubbing the
mineral on a piece of an unglazed porcelain
plate called 'STREAK PLATE'. It may be
noted that the streak of a mineral is fairly
constant in colour and is considered Co be
an important criterion for its identification.
MINERALOGY (CONT’D)

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF A MINERAL:

6. HARDNESS:
The hardness of a mineral may be defined
as the resistance offered to abrasion.
This property of a mineral is fairly
constant, and is considered to be an
important criterion for its identification.
The hardness of a mineral is determined
by observing the comparative ease or
difficulty in scratching it with another
mineral of known hardness. It is always
expressed in "MOH'S SCALE OF
HARDNESS", which is given below:-
MINERALOGY (CONT’D)
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF A MINERAL:

HARDNESS (Cont’d)
1. TALC.
2. GYPSUM.
3. CALCITE.
4. FLUORITE.
5. APATITE.
6. ORTHOCLASE
7. QUARTZ
8. TOPAZ.
9. CORUNDUM.
10. DIAMOND.
 Where 1-10 indicates hardness number.
 It has been observed that a soft mineral like talc and
gypsum can be scratched even with a finger nail, a steel
knife can cut apatite and orthoclase but not quartz..
 (Tall Girls Can Fool And Other Queer Things Can Do)
MINERALOGY (CONT’D)
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF A MINERAL:

7 . SPECIFIC GRAVITY:
The specific gravity of a mineral may be defined
as the ratio of its weight- to an equal volume of
water at 4°C(39.2°F) , and is always expressed In
numbers. The specific gravity of a mineral
depends upon the weight and spacing of it
atoms. A mineral consisting of lighter and widely
spaced atoms will have a low specific gravity.

The specific gravity of a mineral is often

considered to be an important property for its
identification. All minerals have been found to
range in specific gravity from 1 to 20. But most
of them lie between 2 to 7.
MINERALOGY (CONT’D)
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF A MINERAL:

8. CLEAVAGE:
Several minerals have a tendency to split up
easily along certain parallel planes producing
more or less a smooth surface. This habit or
tendency of a mineral, in which it tends to split
up, is known 'CLEAVAGE'. It is also an important
criterion for the Identification of a mineral. The
terms used are:-
PERFECT GOOD OR DISTINCT .. When a mineral
can split up with great ease and gives a smooth
surface.
POOR, IMPERFECT OR NONE .. When a mineral
does not split up evenly with an average force.
MINERALOGY (CONT’D)
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF A MINERAL:
9. FRACTURE:
The fracture of a mineral may be defined as the appearance
of its broken surface. It is also an important criterion for the
identification of a mineral.
The terms used are:-
CONCHOIDAL .. When a mineral breaks up with a curved
surface.
EVEN .. When a mineral breaks up with almost a smooth-
and flat surface.

UNEVEN .. When a mineral breaks up with an irregular

and rough surface.

HACKLY . .. When a mineral breaks up with an irregular

surface having sharp edges.
MINERALOGY (CONT’D)
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF A MINERAL:
DESCRIPTION OF MINERALS:
At present approximately 3000 minerals are known. But a few of
them are of common occurrence and are important both from the
economic and engineering points of view:-
AMDALUSITE:
1. Chemical composition - Aluminum Silicate (Al2SiO3).
2. Structure - Fibrous,
3. Crystal system - Orthorhombic.
4. Colour - grey, dark or red.
5. Lustre-Vitreous
6. Streak.- White.
7. Hardness - 7.5.
8. Specific gravity - 3.1 to 3.3.
9. Cleavage - Poor.
10. Fracture - Even.
A few lustrous varieties are used as gem stones. It is also used as
refractory material. Few varieties are also used in the manufacture
of high grade porcelain and refractories.
MINERALOGY (CONT’D)

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF A MINERAL:

Now we will see some of the minerals and their
properties on the new presentation named
“Geology minerals”