Switched Reluctance Motor

Chapter 2
Principle of Operation of
the Switched Reluctance
Motor
2.1 Introduction
Switched reluctance motor (SRM) drives are simpler in construction compared
to induction and synchronous machines. Their combination with power elec-
tronic controllers may yield an economical solution [Bos 04]. The structure of
the motor is simple with concentrated coils on the stator and neither windings
nor brushes on the rotor. This apparent simplicity of its construction is decep-
tive [Ste 95]. The Switched Reluctance Motor drives present several advantages
as high eciency, maximum operating speed, good performance of the motor
in terms of torque/inertia ratio together with four-quadrant operation, mak-
ing it an attractive solution for variable speed applications [Giu 91]. The very
wide size, power and speed range together with the economical aspects of its
construction, will give the SRM place in the drives family.
The performances of switched reluctance motor strongly depend on the
applied control. Figure 2.1 shows the principal parts of a switched reluctance
drive. Three main parts can be identied: the motor itself, which can have var-
ious topologies as explained in the next section, the power electronic converter
and the controller. The drive system, comprising signal processing, power con-
verter and motor must be designed as a whole for a specic application.
There is one converter unit per phase. A battery or a rectier supplies the dc
power. The basic principle is simple: each phase is supplied with dc voltage by
its power-electronic converter unit as dictated by the control unit, developing
a torque, which tends to move the rotor poles in line with the energized stator
poles in order to maximize the inductance of the excited coils. An important
fact is that the torque production is independent of the direction of current,
13
14 Principle of Operation
U
DC
Converter
Controller
Phase current
SRM
Rotor position
Figure 2.1: Switched reluctance drive system.
which contributes to the reduction of the number of switches per phase.
This chapter presents the main topologies of switched reluctance motors,
the energy ows and control variables. The electromagnetic principles are
described along classical lines. The machine operations in all of its four quad-
rants, the torque versus speed characteristics, and the mathematical model of
the equivalent circuit are formulated. The magnetically linear model is used
to provide a structure for understanding the SRM control. The chapter pro-
vides the description of a four-phase 8/6 SRM motor and its control scheme.
The simulated annealing method is proposed to nd the optimal speed con-
troller gains. The simulations carried out and their most important results are
discussed.
2.2 Machine Topologies
As any other motor, the structure of the switched reluctance motor consists
of a stator and a rotor. Both stator and rotor are laminated. Stacking the
laminations punched from steel lamination with high magnetic quality yields
the rotor cores. The stator is formed from punched laminations too bonded
into a core, and the coils are placed on each of the stator poles.
Each stator pole carries an excitation coil, and opposite coils are connected
to form one phase. There are no windings on the rotor. The number of stator
and rotor poles are chosen using a series of criteria developed in Chapter IV.
In this chapter it is supposed that the number of rotor poles N
r
, and stator
poles N
s
are known without discussing the criteria for their choice.
Switched reluctance machines can oer a wide variety of aspect ratios and
salient pole topologies without aecting performance too much. This means
that each application is likely to be better suited for a specic SR topology.
Single Phase Motor
These are the simplest SR motors having the advantage of fewest connections
between machine and power electronics. However, the very high torque ripple
2.3. Basic SRM Principles 15
and inability to start at all angular positions represents a drawback. They can
present interest only for very high-speed applications.
Two Phase Motor
The use of a stepping the air-gap can avoid the starting problems. For a two
phase SRM the high torque ripple is an important drawback.
Three Phase Motor
The most popular topology of a three-phase SRM is the 6/4 form (N
s
= 6
and N
r
= 4). It represents a good compromise between starting and torque
ripple problems and number of phases. Alternative three-phase machines with
doubled-up pole numbers can oer a better solution for lower speed applica-
tions.
Four Phase Motor
The four-phase motor is known for reducing torque ripple. The large number
of power electronic devices and connections is a major drawback, limiting four-
phase motors to a specic application eld. A practical limitation to consider
larger phase numbers is the increase of the converter phase units, hence of the
total cost.
2.3 Basic SRM Principles
The switched reluctance motor with its passive rotor has a simple construction.
However, the solution of its mathematical model is relatively dicult due to its
dominant non-linear behaviour. The SRM is characterized by its geometrical
layout, the characteristic of the magnetic material and electrical parameters.
The cross sectional view of a four-phase SRM is shown in Figure 2.2.
The selection of the stator and rotor teeth number N
s
and N
r
is made with
the respect to several constraints as rotor deformation, capability of torque
production at all rotor positions and four-quadrant operation. The relation-
ships among all these constraints will be presented in Chapter IV. The number
of phases is identied from the stator and rotor pole numbers:
q =
_
Ns
|NsNr|
,q integer
2Ns
|NsNr|
,q non-integer
(2.1)
Once the number of poles is chosen, the next parameters are stator
s
and
rotor
r
pole arcs in order to minimize the inductance, maximize the inductance
ratio, avoid dead zones and allow four quadrant operation. The stator and rotor
pole tapering angles
s
and
r
are direct functions of the number of stator and
rotor teeth:
1
2
3
4
b
s
b
r
a
r
a
s
Figure 2.2: Cross sectional view of a four-phase SRM.
s
=
2
N
s
rad and
r
=
2
N
r
rad (2.2)
A torque is produced when one phase is energized and the magnetic circuit
tends to adopt a conguration of minimum reluctance, i.e. the rotor poles
aligned with the excited stator poles in order to maximize the phase inductance.
As the motor is symmetric, it means that the one phase inductance cycle is
comprised between the aligned and unaligned positions or vice versa (Figure
2.3).
Figure 2.3: Inductance prole of SRM.
2.3. Basic SRM Principles 17
The aligned position (L
a
)
Consider a pair of rotor and the stator poles to be aligned. Applying a cur-
rent to phase establishes a ux through stator and rotor poles. If the current
continues to ow through this phase, the rotor remains in this position, the
rotor pole being stuck face to face to the stator pole. This position is called
aligned position, and the phase inductance is at its maximum value (L
max
or
L
a
) as the magnetic reluctance of the ux path is at its minimum.
Intermediate rotor positions (L
int
)
At intermediate positions the rotor pole is between two stator poles. In this
case the induction is intermediate between the aligned and unaligned values. If
there is any overlap at all, the ux is diverted entirely to the closer rotor pole
and the leakage ux path starts to increase at the base of the stator pole on
one side.
The unaligned position (L
u
)
In the unaligned position, the magnetic reluctance of the ux path is at its
highest value as a result of the large air gap between stator and rotor. The
inductance is at its minimum (L
min
or L
u
). There is no torque production in
this position when the current is owing in one the adjacent phases. However,
the unaligned position is one of unstable equilibrium.
Mathematically, the inductance prole of phase j may be approximated by:
L()
j
= L
1
()
_

r
q
(j 1)
_
(2.3)
Figure 2.3 shows the idealised inductance prole of one phase as a function of
the rotor position for a pair of stator poles. The number of cycles of inductance
variation per revolution is proportional to the number of rotor pole pairs, and
the length of the cycle is equal to the rotor pole pitch. In reality the rotor pole
arc
r
is always larger than the stator pole
s
if N
s
> N
r
. The value of the
interval
r
r
between the rotor teeth is larger than
s
in order to have the
minimum value of the inductance L
min
as low as possible. For the calculation,
the value of the air gap is considered to be constant in the interval where the
stator and rotor teeth are face to face.
The equation of the inductance prole can be rewritten as:
L() =
_
_
L
u
,
1
< < 0
L
u
+k, 0
s
L
a
,
s

r
L
u
+k(
r
s
),
r

r
+
s
(2.4)
where k is the slope of the prole in the zone of increasing inductance:
k =
L
a
L
u
s
(2.5)
The torque developed by a phase in which current ows tends to move the
rotor in such a direction as to increase the phase inductance, i.e. the aligned
position. This means that the motoring torque can be produced only in the
direction of the rising inductance. The instantaneous torque is obviously not
constant, as shown further, depending of the rotor position and the instanta-
neous phase current. Note that the torque is independent of the direction of
current ow, the motoring or braking torque production only depending of the
rotor position, suggesting the existence of the impact of switching angles of the
power electronic switches. This particularity of the switched reluctance motor
is discussed further.
The control scheme is based on the torque-speed characteristic (Figure 2.4).
Lawrenson [Law 80] describes three basic modes of operation of switched reluc-
tance motor based on the torque speed characteristic. Currents in the stator
circuits are switched on and o in accordance to the rotor position. With this
simplest form of control, the switched reluctance motor inherently develops the
torque speed characteristics typical of d.c. machine.
T
Chopping
Current-limited Const. power Natural
T = const.
T = const w
T = const w
2
0
w
b
w
p w
q
D
increasing q
D
fixed
max q
D
Figure 2.4: SRM Torque - Speed characteristics.
This rst mode is the natural one with xed supply voltage and xed switch-
ing angles. The operating region is the constant torque region, below rated
speed. Base speed (
b
) is dened as the highest speed at which maximum cur-
rent can be supplied to the motor (I
max
) at rated voltage, with xed switching
angles. There is, of course, a family of characteristics for varying supply volt-
ages. At given speed the ux is proportional to the voltage U, and the torque
varies with the current squared. The chopping voltage control is able to control
an SRM drive only in the mode below rated speed where the generated voltage,
being larger than the back-EMF, forces the drive states on the sliding surface.
If xed switching angles are maintained at speeds above
b
, the torque falls
2.4. Mathematical approach 19
as 1/. This is the second important mode of operation, when the machine
speed is above base speed (
b
). A control alternative for the switched reluctance
motor is to reduce the conduction angle
c
=
off

on
at constant voltage.
In this mode, the voltage generator is fully applied across the phase till
off
and the current decreases.
There is a practical limitation of increasing the conduction angle. If it were
increased so that the turn-o angle corresponds to the next cycle turn-on angle,
then the ux level would not return to zero at the end of each pulse. In this
case, the net ux in the phase winding would increase until the machine became
continuously saturated. This corresponds to a rotor speed
p
. Running above
this sped implies a fall of the torque production as 1/
2
.
2.4 Mathematical approach
An accurate analysis of the motor behaviour requires a formal, and relatively
complex, mathematical approach. The instantaneous voltage across the ter-
minals of a single phase of an SRM drive winding is related to the ux linked
by the winding. Conform to Tomko [Tom 98], the ux linkage is a function of
two variables, the current i and the rotor position (angle ). The mathematical
model describes the equivalent circuit for one phase (Figure 2.5).
U
R
S
U
R
L( ,i) q
R
Figure 2.5: Equivalent circuit for one phase.
U = Ri +
(, i)
i
di
dt
+
(, i)
d
dt
(2.6)
where U is the supply voltage, i is the phase current, R is the phase resis-
tance, is the ux-linkage , and is the rotor angular position.
The general torque expression is:
T(, i) =

_
1
0
(, i)
(2.7)
In general, the dynamical model of an SRM is characterized by the rotor
angular speed-angular position relationship:
=
d
dt
(2.8)
T T
load
= J
d
dt
+B (2.9)
It is a set of four non-linear partial dierential equations. Its solution,
neglecting the nonlinearity due to magnetic saturation is:
(, i) = iL(, i) (2.10)
can be written as:
U = Ri +L(, i)
di
dt
+i
dL(, i)
d
(2.11)
The average torque can be written depending on the number of phases of
the SRM as:
T =
n
phase=1
T
phase
(2.12)
In this section it is assumed that the drive works in the linear region, limited
by the saturation value of the current I
max
.
2.5 SRM modelling
The torque or force production in a switched reluctance motor may be found
from the variation of the stored magnetic energy as a function of the rotor
position (virtual work principle). This relationship is also used to analyse
electromagnetic relays, holding magnets, solenoid actuators, and other devices
where force is produced between two magnetic surfaces, including all machines
with saliency.
2.5.1 Linear analysis of the voltage equation and torque
production
A linear analysis assume that the inductance is unaected by the current, thus
no magnetic saturation occurs. For the sake of simplicity it is also assumed
that all the ux crosses the air gap in the radial direction, the mutual coupling
between phases may be ignored, and the eect of fringing ux around the pole
corners is also negligible. In the linear region, the equation of the magnetic
characteristics is
= L()i (2.13)
2.5. SRM modelling 21
where L() is the inductance of a phase as a function of the angle . Its
idealized prole, one rotor pole pitch in length, has been presented in Figure
2.3.
The rate of charge of the energy, i.e. the power is:
Ui =
d
_
1
2
L(, i)i
2
_
dt
+
i
2
2
dL(, i)
d
(2.14)
This equation shows that when the rotor operates in the rst quadrant,
the input electrical power goes partially to the increase of the magnetic energy
stored in the self-inductance
_
1
2
Li
2
_
and the other part
i
2
2
dL()
d
is transformed
into mechanical power. As seen in the Figure 2.5, the equivalent circuit is
equipped with a switch representing the power electronic component. When the
switch S is closed, part of energy from source 1 (U) is converted into mechanical
output and the other part is stored magnetically. When S is open, the stored
magnetic energy is partly transferred to the second source (U
R
)(charging, thus
recovering energy) and partly is transformed in mechanical energy.
For an SRM, an operating cycle consists in energising the phase followed by
demagnetising, achieved by zeroing the current. When one phase is energised,
a torque is produced in order to minimise the reluctance of the phase by pulling
the pair of rotor poles into alignment with the corresponding stator phase. The
mechanical output power is the product of the electromagnetic torque and rotor
speed.
P
a
=
m
T
e
(2.15)
from which the torque is obtained:
T =
1
2
i
2
dL(, i)
d
(2.16)
Equation (2.16) shows that the torque is proportional to the current square,
hence the current can be unipolar to produce unidirectional torque. The slope
of the inductance versus rotor position characteristic gives the torque constant.
Intervals (0,
s
) and (
r
,
s
+
r
) are eective torque zones. These intervals
have to be as large as possible. Interval (
s
,
r
) is a dead zone required for the
ux to be reduced to zero. Interval (
s
+
r
,
r
) represents the interval between
rotor and stator pole-corners in the unaligned position. The instantaneous
torque over a period can be expressed by substituting (2.4) in (2.16):
T =
_
_
0,
1
0
1
2
ki
2
, 0
s
0,
s

r
1
2
ki
2
,
r
(
r
+
s
)
(2.17)
Graphically, this can be visualized as in Figure 2.6. In the linear analysis,
the torque value is a quadratic function of the current and a linear one of the
commutation angle. When the conduction angle is situated on the non-zero
inductance slope zone, a non-zero torque is produced. This torque can be
developed until the phase voltage reaches the rated value U
N
, that is, up to a
speed dened as:
b
= U
U
N
KI
m
(2.18)
L, i
i
L
t
T
t
Figure 2.6: Torque production in SRM - idealized representation.
Conform with the voltage equation of one phase winding (2.11), the varia-
tion of the phase current can be written as
di
dt
=
U
N
i
dL()
d

L()
(2.19)
where the second term of the numerator is the back-EMF, which depends
on the phase current, rotor position, and machine speed. As the maximum
phase current is I
m
, the linear inductance slope is constant, it results that the
maximum value of back-EMF is function of the shaft speed.
The speed torque characteristic of the switched reluctance motor can be
mathematical expressed by considering the basic modes of operation. Two basic
modes of operation, named A and B are possible, depending of the machine
speed. Mode A (bellow the base speed) occurs when supply voltage is larger
than the back-EMF, and mode B occurs in the opposite case (above the base
speed). Figure 2.7 presents the voltage, current, and inductance proles for
one phase of switched reluctance motor in mode A, and respectively mode B
of operation.
In mode A, the applied voltage is larger then any value possible of back-EMF
for the shaft speed range of [0
b
], which is equivalent to a possible current
Figure 2.7: Basic modes of operation for SRM.
variation control depending of the applied chopping voltage. The switching
angles (turn-on and turn-o) are xed and depend of the machine conguration
and control constraints, as developed further.
In mode B, the level of current diminishes because even for a fully applied
voltage the back-EMF is larger. Mode B has, therefore, the merit of enlarging
the torque speed characteristic of an SRM. Here the control variables are turn-
on and turn-o angles. The turn-on angle is controlled from the inrush moment
(the moment when full voltage is applied) to a maximum value. The turn-o
angle is controlled from zero to a maximum value that, at high speeds and
currents, is restricted by the extinction constraints.
2.5.2 Nonlinear analysis of torque production
The analysis of switched reluctance motor made till now has avoided the ques-
tion of the inuence of the nonlinear, saturation characteristic of real magnetic
steel. However, a proper understanding and handling of saturation is essential.
Such analysis is based on magnetization curves. A magnetization curve is a
curve of ux-linkage versus current i at a particular rotor position (Figure
2.8).
The dierence between these characteristics and the ideal ones is obvi-
ous. The two most important magnetization curves, the aligned and the
unaligned, can be easily seen on Figure 2.8. In the aligned position, the curve
is similar to that of an iron-cored inductor with an air gap. At low ux density,
the curve is linear. The unaligned curve is straight because of the dominating
large air-gap. The saturation eect is observed at current levels that are usually
too high for normal operation and therefore the unaligned curve is assumed to
be linear.
There are two distinct eects of saturation. One is related to the values of
the phase current, being similar the saturation eect in other types of machines.
The second eect depends on the rotor position, and is known as local eect.
In the switched reluctance motor both eects are present and interact, but their
Figure 2.8: Magnetization curves of SRM.
impacts can be isolated by observations at particular rotor angles. The rst
eect can be observed best for aligned position between stator and rotor poles
where there is no inuence of the local saturation. The second eect is evident
for rotor positions corresponding to partial overlapping of rotor and stator
poles. The nonlinear eect of the magnetic circuit is well seen in Figure 2.8.
In the linear part at any position the co-energy, represented by the area below
the magnetization curve, is equal to the stored eld energy, W
f
, represented
by the area above the magnetization curve as (Figure 2.9):
W
f
= W
=
1
2
L(, i)i
2
(2.20)
where L(, i) represents the inductance at a particular current value and
rotor position.
Flux-linkage
Y
Current
W
f
W
Figure 2.9: The nonlinear eect of a magnetic circuit.
The co-energy is dened:
W
=
_
i
0
di (2.21)
The most general expression for the torque produced by one phase at any
rotor position is given by the change in magnetic co-energy (virtual work prin-
ciple):
T =
_
W
_
i=constant
(2.22)
In conventional switched reluctance motors, the torque produced is deter-
mined directly from the area enclosed by the ux-linkage/current (/i) of each
phase. The instantaneous torque represents the work variation W
m
at con-
stant current for an innitesimal rotor displacement . This is illustrated in
Figure 2.10. During the displacement there is an exchange of energy with the
supply, and there is also a change in the stored magnetic energy. The constant-
current constraint ensures that during such a displacement, the mechanical
work done is exactly equal to the change in magnetic co-energy.
Flux-linkage
Y
Current
A
B
C
D
i
O
DW
m
D D W = W
e m
DW +
f
Figure 2.10: Determination of electromagnetic torque.
As the rotor moves from A to B by a displacement at constant current
i, the machine exchanges energy with the supply:
W
e
= ABCD (2.23)
The change in stored magnetic energy is:
W
f
= OBC OAD (2.24)
The input electrical power goes partly to the increase of the magnetic energy
stored in the self-inductance. The other part is transformed into mechanical
output power:
W
e
= W
f
+ W
m
(2.25)
and the mechanical work done is found to be equal to the area enclosed by
both ux-linkage curves:
W
m
= T = W
e
W
f
= OAB (2.26)
By applying the co-energy method to each rotor position and for the whole
range of phase currents, the instantaneous torque curves can be build. An im-
portant observation is that not all the supply energy is converted into mechan-
ical work, some of it being stored in the magnetic eld. This has an important
eect on the rating of the controller and the need for lter capacitors [Mil 93].
The torque curves for a four-phase 8/6 SRM are presented in Figure 2.11.
They have been obtained using the nite element analysis, as it will be devel-
oped in Chapter IV.
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
-4
-2
0
2
4
T
[
N
m
]
q [ ]
I
max
I
min
Figure 2.11: Torque curves of a four-phase 8/6 SRM.
When the rotor pole pair is exactly aligned with the stator pole pair for any
current owing in the phase, no torque is produced because the rotor is at a
position of maximum inductance. As explained earlier, the sign of the torque
depends on the sign of the inductance slope.
Much of the classical theory of torque control in electric drives is based on
the independently excited dc machine, in which the torque is proportional to
the ux and current product. The control law of such machines is based on
the capability of independent control of ux and current. Generally speaking,
in classical d.c. and a.c. machines the ux is maintained constant while the
current is varied in response to torque demand. The switched reluctance motor
is a singly excited machine and therefore the orthogonality of the ux and
current is very dicult to see. In this way, the armature and eld current are
indistinguishable from the actual phase current. Therefore no equivalent of
eld-oriented theory is applicable in switched reluctance motor.
2.6. SRM Drives - Converters and Dynamic Operation 27
The torque in a switched reluctance motor is composed of a sequence of
impulses and the ux in each phase must usually be built-up from zero and
returned to zero during each stroke. To achieve continuous control of the
instantaneous torque, the current waveform must be modulated according to a
complex mathematical model of the machine, as shown later. For a q phase and
N
r
rotor pole SRM, the torque averaged over one revolution and the eciency,
are:
T
ave
=
qN
r
2
W (2.27)
=
T
T +qRI
2
RMS
(2.28)
I
RMS
is the root mean-square value of the current in one phase. The torque
ripple T
r
is:
T
r
=
T
max
T
min
T
ave
(2.29)
where T
max
, T
min
and T
ave
are, respectively, the maximum, minimum and
average torque values.
2.6 SRM Drives - Converters and Dynamic
Operation
As developed till now, the basic operating principle of the SRM is quite simple:
as current is passed through one of the stator windings, torque is generated by
the tendency of the rotor to align with the excited stator pole. The direction
of the torque generated is a function of the rotor position with respect to
the energized phase, and is independent of the direction of current owing
through the phase winding. Continuous torque can be produced by intelligently
synchronizing each phases excitation with the rotor position. The amount of
current owing through the SRM winding is controlled by switching on and
o power electronic devices, such as MOSFETs or IGBTs, which can connect
each SRM phase to the DC bus. The power electronic inverter topology is
an important issue in SRM control because it largely dictates how the motor
can be controlled. During the last years, various converters congurations
used in SRM drive have been developed in the research laboratories. Their
functionality emerges from some basic technical and economical requirements
and constraints.
There are numerous options available, and invariably the decision will come
down to a trade-o between the cost of the converter components against having
enough control capability (independent control of phases, current feedback,
etc.) built into the drive. The dependency of the torque production cycles of
the rotor position and the current value owing into the phase winding suggests
the existence of control intervals. The construction of the SRM drive converters
has to be done after the analysis of the control cycle interval. Based on this, a
conguration of converters used in SRM drives is developed.
2.6.1 Control interval and switching angles
As seen previously, the torque production of the switched reluctance motor
strongly depends on rotor position and phase current. In the linear analysis
the inuence of the nonlinear, saturation characteristics is neglected. This de-
pendency aects the control strategy of the machine. For an SRM, an operating
cycle consists in energising the phase and demagnetising, achieved by zeroing
the current, which suggests the existence of control intervals.
In practice a dc voltage source supplies the SRM, by applying to the motor
a two-level voltage (U
N
, U
N
). In order to drive an SRM, three angles are
identied dividing the period into four intervals: inrush, chopping, extinction
and rest. The names of each interval represent in fact the command. Figure
2.12 shows the four intervals (rst quadrant operation) as a function of the
rotor position. The four intervals are located among three important angles:
on
,
off
and
ext
. The dierence between the turn-on and turn-o angle is
called the dwell angle. The interval controller output gives four values 1, 2, 3
and 4 as a function of the rotor position and the reference torque sign.
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
I quadrant
0
1
2
3
4
5
I
n
t
e
r
v
a
l
Rotor position [ ] , q
IV quadrant
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
0
1
2
3
4
5
I
n
t
e
r
v
a
l
-120 -100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0
0
1
2
3
4
5
I
n
t
e
r
v
a
l
II quadrant
-120 -100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0
0
1
2
3
4
5
I
n
t
e
r
v
a
l
III quadrant
Figure 2.12: SRM interval controller.
The inrush (output value 4) and the chopping (output value 1) intervals
are located between
on
and
off
. At
on
, the supply voltage is fully
applied across the phase provoking an increase of the phase current. The
chopping interval begins from the moment the current reaches its preset
maximum value (established by the control or in natural way by the
saturation current I
m
). The angular dierence (
off

on
) is called the
conduction interval of the phase and its length is from zero to
s
in order
to prevent the split of the current between two adjacent phases.
As the motor speed increases, the back-EMF becomes signicant and it is
necessary to advance the switching angle in order to reach the reference
current in the phase winding before the start of pole overlap. An algo-
rithm for calculating the correct phase angle has to be made neglecting
resistive voltage drop Ri in the stator winding and the motor back-EMF
in (2.11). The required value of the current is reached at the moment
s
(the beginning of the positive inductance slope) by calculating the value
of
1
using (2.11) where i(
s
) is the value of the current at
s
and L is
the inductance (L
min
motor or L
max
for generator operation). This is
the inrush interval. The output of interval controller is 4.
1
=
Li(
s
)
U
N
(2.30)
In order to avoid the ripple torque, for motoring and generating mode, the
advanced turn-on angle has a limitation imposed by the motor geometry.
In the motoring mode, the maximum advanced turn-on angle is limited
to the angular dimension of unaligned position. For generating mode, the
limitation is due to the angular dimension of aligned position.
_

1

r
(
r
+
s
) motoring mode
1
|
r
s
| generating mode
(2.31)
The extinction interval (output of interval controller is 2) extends from
turn-o angle,
off
, to extinction angle,
ext
. At
off
a fully inverted
voltage is applied in order to remove the current quickly. The existence of
a current in the phase during the negative inductance slope period implies
a negative torque, i.e.
ext

r
. The system detects the instant when
the current reaches zero and automatically passes to the next interval,
even if
ext
has not been reached yet.
The rest interval (output value 3) extends from
ext
to
on
+
r
. The
switch S is open and no current ows in the phase circuit. A major prob-
lem might be the instant when the chopping interval (positive current
in the coil) becomes rest interval, the switch S being open. This can be
caused by a sudden change in rotation direction of the drive: the torque
becomes negative. In this case the slope inductance is positive, the cur-
rent is not equal to zero and the voltage is zero provoking an uncontrolled
increase of the current. The solution is to transform a natural rest into
extinction interval, independent of the rotor position. The process is
not easy. Meanwhile the SRM continues to rotate, which may provoke a
change of the interval.
For an SRM an operation session consists in energising the phase, constant
current and de-energising it by zeroing the current. When phases are energized
in a clockwise sequence, an anticlockwise torque is produced minimising the
reluctance by pulling the pair of rotor poles into alignment with the corre-
sponding stator phase. The anticlockwise direction is considered as positive.
L, i
i
L
T
0
L, i L, i
L L
i i
T T
a) b) c)
Figure 2.13: Torque of SRM (linear analysis).
Figure 2.13a. shows an idealised operation. The current i, increased
during the interval of constant L = L
min
, reaches maximum value during
the interval of increasing L. It decreases and becomes zero during the
interval of maximum value of L = L
max
;
Figure 2.13b. shows a less good operation: the current did not reach its
maximum value when L begins to increase. A negative torque is produced
if the current is not zero while the inductance slope is negative;
A braking operation is presented in Figure 2.13c., the switch S being open
during the period decreasing of L.
The discussion so far has established the existence of three angles that
govern the switched reluctance motor control: turn-on, turn-o, and extinction.
Since the torque in SRM drives is independent of the excitation current polarity,
SRM drives require only one switch per phase winding. Various converter
topologies exist, and each one has its own merits and drawbacks. Function
of the converter topology, a fourth angle can be established called freewheeling
angle, delimiting the freewheeling interval. The role of the freewheeling interval
is to return the energy to the supply via the diodes after the commutation.
During a typical motoring stroke the locus of the operating point [i, ] follows
a curve similar to the one shown in Figure 2.14c. (current with respect of the
rotor position). In the same gure, the inductance curve for a constant current
is presented in order to make the whole process clearer.
At A the power electronic switch is turn-on and the current starts to ow
in the phase winding. It increases till the angle B where it reaches its reference
value. Usually this angle coincides with the beginning of overlap of rotor and
stator poles. The turn-on angle A is situated on the unaligned magnetization
curve (Figure 2.14a.). At turn-o angle C the supply voltage is reversed and
the current freewheels through the diode.
Figure 2.14: Analysis of energy-conversion loop.
At C the accumulated energy from the supply is equal to the total area
W = W
m
+ W
sme
(Figure 2.14a.). The stored magnetic energy is equal to
W
sme
. The area enclosed between the curve ABC and the magnetization curve
C
represents the mechanical work W
m
done during the conduction period of
the power electronic switch.
The freewheeling interval starts after the commutation point C and is rep-
resented by the area enclosed between the magnetization curve
C
and the
curve CD (Figure 2.14b.). The supply voltage is reversed and the energy W
D
is delivered. During the freewheeling interval, the current still ows into the
phase winding, which obviously generates a torque. The area W
mD
in this case
expresses the mechanical work done. Mathematically, this can be expressed as
W
mD
= W
sme
W
D
.
A rough energy balance can be deducted graphically. The result suggests
that at each stroke the total mechanical work done during the power electronic
device and freewheeling diode period represents about 2/3 of the supplied en-
ergy, while the remaining energy is returned to the supply. As seen, the use
of a freewheeling angle is not necessary for controlling the switched reluctance
motor. Its only advantage is the energy eciency improvement. However,
this advantage has its limitations by the torque ripple produced during the
freewheeling period. Without a fully inverted voltage immediately after the
turn-o angle C, the time necessary for zeroing the current is higher. For high
speeds, this can provoke negative torque generation, and the price paid is a sig-
nicant degradation of the motor performances (average torque, ripple torque,
etc.).
2.6.2 Four-quadrant operation
Variable speed applications require usually a four-quadrant operation. The
switched reluctance motor allows this kind of control. The advantage of the
SRM is that forward and reverse motoring/braking operations do not depend
on the direction of the current owing in the phase windings, but only on the
rotor position (Figure 2.15).
Forward motoring requires a positive electromagnetic torque during the for-
ward motion and is developed when the four phase windings of the motor are
switched in the sequence A, B, C, D during their rising inductance zone. Re-
verse motoring, similarly, requires negative electromagnetic torque during neg-
ative (read reverse) direction of rotation and is obtained by exciting the phase
windings in the reverse switching sequence B, A, D, C, again during their ris-
ing inductance zone. A braking action requires reverse electromagnetic torque
with respect to the actual direction of rotation. Forward braking requires the
switching sequence to be A, B, C, D during the falling inductance zone whereas
reverse braking is accomplished by the sequence B, A, D, C during the falling
inductance zone of the phase windings.
2.6.3 Dynamic Operation
Summarising the previous discussion, the control of the switched reluctance
motor can be realized with unidirectional phase currents, and the work session
consists of four intervals:
Inrush interval where the full positive voltage is applied; it extends from
advance turn-on angle to turn-on (
onadv
on
);
q
T
q
0
L, i
i
L
w < 0
T > 0
w
T
0
q
q
w > 0
T > 0
T
L, i
i
L
T
L
i
q
q
0
w > 0
T < 0
L, i
0
T
q
q
w < 0
T < 0
L, i
L i
Figure 2.15: Four-quadrant operation of SRM.
Chopping or single-pulse interval; it extends from turn-on to turn-o
angle (
on
off
); during the chopping interval, the phase current is con-
trolled by chopping the supplied dc voltage generator; during the single-
pulse interval, the full positive voltage is applied;
Extinction interval where the dc voltage is fully inverted across the phase
to remove the current quickly; it extends from turn-o to the extinction
angle (
off

ext
);
Rest interval where the phase is open and no current ows;
Depending on the chosen strategy, a fth interval can be considered, the
freewheel interval. It does not contribute to the control of the machine
and its only purpose is to maximize the eciency, as it is used to return
the energy to the supply via the diodes; it extends from the freewheeling
angle to the turn-o angle (
frwheel
off
).
The ux in the switched reluctance motor is not constant, but must be built
up from zero during every stroke. Switching the supply voltage on at turn-on
angle and o at the commutation angle controls the process. Current control is
achieved with closed-loop control by a chopping action using either a PWM or
hysteresis switching control of the converter. The current controller structure
is dierent, depending on the switching strategy chosen.
PWM Current Control
The selection of the Pulse Width Modulation strategy is an important issue
in SRM control, as it dictates how the motor can be controlled. The PWM
strategy is also directly related to the power electronic converter topology.
Assuming that each phase of the SRM can be independently controlled, there
are three PWM strategies.
Single pulse operation
Each phase must be energized at its turn-on angle and switched o at
its turn-o angle. In single pulse operation, the power supply is kept
switched on during the dwell angle and is switched o at the phase com-
mutation angle. As there is no control of the current and as there is
a sharp increase in the rate of change of current, this PWM strategy
is used when the amount of time available to get the desired current is
short. Typically, single pulse operation is used at high speed.
Chopping voltage strategy
The chopping voltage strategy is useful for controlling the current at low
speeds. This PWM strategy works with a xed chopping frequency. In
this case, the supply voltage is chopped at a xed frequency with a duty
cycle depending on the current error. Thus both current and rate of
change of current can be controlled.
The chopping voltage strategy can be separated into two modes: hard and
soft chopping strategies. The xed duty-cycle is dened as d = t
on
/T, where
t
on
is the on time and T is the period of the chopping frequency. PWM width
is determined by comparing the measured phase current and the required ref-
erence current (Figure 2.16).
i
ref
i
+
-
k
e +
+
if duty_cycle T
duty_cycle = T
end;
if duty_cycle 0
duty_cycle = 0
end;
z
-1
duty_cycle
Figure 2.16: Duty cycle ow chart.
K is the proportional gain and depends on the motor parameters and also
on dc bus voltage. Considering S the number of steps allowed in one PWM
cycle, the proportional gain K can be determined. Let i be the change in
phase current for 100% change in PWM duty cycle. The parameter i depends
on motor and converter types. The proportional gain K can be dened as:
K =
S
i
(2.32)
Krishnan in [Kri 01] suggests that to obtain a high response speed, its value
is in the range of 30 to 70.
Chopping current strategy
The chopping current strategy is a hysteresis type current control in which the
voltage supply is chopped according to whether the current is larger or less
than a reference value. At low speed, the current is controlled using chopping
control. Chopping controls the plant in a closed-loop in order to force the state
of the plant to slide along a given surface (sliding surface). To keep the current
suciently close to its reference value, the switching function is dened as:
i
= i i
(2.33)
The existence conditions of the sliding regime are
i
d
i
dt
< 0 (2.34)
and
| U
eq
|<| U
N
| (2.35)
The phase voltage is manipulated as follows:
Hard chopping
U =
_
U
N

i
< 0
U
N

i
> 0
(2.36)
Soft chopping
U =
_
U
N

i
< 0
0
i
> 0
(2.37)
The equivalent voltage for constant current(d
i
/ = 0) is:
U
eq
= ki (2.38)
The hysteresis controller is used to limit the phase current within a preset
hysteresis band. As the supply voltage is xed, the result is that the switching
frequency varies as the current error varies. The current chopping is not xed
frequency. This PWM method is more commonly implemented in drives, where
motor speed and load do not vary too much, so that the variation in switching is
small. As seen previously, here again both hard and soft chopping schemes are
possible. Hysteresis controllers realize the switching logic, one for each phase
(Figure 2.17). Note that the strategy described in the gure is soft chopping,
the output voltage having two values +U
dc
and 0. A similar strategy can be
achieved by switching the output voltage between +U
dc
and U
dc
.
Figure 2.17: Current control using hysteresis PWM.
The simple hysteresis controller maintains the current between an upper
and a lower limit, the hysteresis band. As the supply voltage is xed, the
result is that the switching frequency decreases as the incremental inductance
of the phase winding increases. This control technique is valid only for an
SRM drive operating in mode A, the dc voltage is larger than the back-EMF.
Hysteresis current control allows rapid variation of the motor phase current
and thus the motor torque, because the full bus voltage is instantly available
to force the current to change quickly.
Hard or Soft chopping
Chopping is necessary to control the current at low speed. Till now it was
shown that chopping the supply voltage using various PWM strategies can
control the phase current. The voltage can be chopped between three dened
values as:
U =
_
_
_
U
N
equivalent to INRUSH interval
0 equivalent to FREEWHEEL interval
U
N
equivalent to EXCTINCTION interval
(2.39)
Switching the voltage between full positive voltage and 0 is called soft chop-
ping (Figure 2.18a.). Hard chopping (Figure 2.18b.) consists in switching the
supply voltage between fully positive and fully negative voltage. This control
strategy puts more ripples into dc link capacitor, thus reducing its lifetime and
increasing the switching losses of the power switches due to frequent switching
necessitated by the energy exchange. This can be improved by an alternate
switching strategy [Kir 01]. The chopping interval is a synthesis among the
three other intervals.
i
L
+ U
DC
- U
DC
0
+ U
DC
- U
DC
0
i
L L, i L, i
t t
t t
Figure 2.18: Hard and soft chopping current control.
If the switching frequency remains constant, hard chopping increases the
current ripple by a large factor. Miller [Mil 93] suggests that the typical increase
is by a factor between 5 and 10. This is the main reason why this kind of control
strategy is not desirable for motoring operation. However, in generating or
braking operation, it may be necessary as the only feasible means to control
the current. Experience suggests that soft chopping produces lower acoustic
noise and less EMI. It also decreases the dc ripple current in the supply and
substantially reduces the requirement for lter capacitance.
2.6.4 Converter Structures for SRM
The subject of converter structures for SRM is not well covered in the literature,
relatively few being published about their development. Most of the authors
focus on the development of the control strategies, considering the converter as
ideal, thus practically ignoring it during their analysis. The objective of this
work is to synthesise, from the knowledge of the specications, the structure of
a power electronic converter capable of controlling the SRM in accordance to
the rules, intervals and switching angles developed previously. In this section,
the purpose is to nd straightforward way without using empirical data, the
structure of the converter which answers best the imposed requirements. A
hysteresis current controller is considered here due to its simplicity in concept
and implementation.
Therefore, it is necessary to determine:
the structure of the converter, i.e. the number and the place of the
switches;
the static and dynamic characteristics of the switches.
It is necessary to know the characteristics of the dc supply and of several
types of power electronics switches. A battery can supply and receive power.
It is a reversible voltage source. The winding of an electrical motor phase is a
reversible current source. During its operation, the converter connects through
these switches the sources ensuring and controlling the exchange of energy.
In order to make these links, a certain number of rules have to be respected
imperatively:
a voltage source should not ever be short-circuited, but it can be opened;
the circuit of a current source should not never be opened but it can be
short-circuited;
two sources of the same nature should never be connected;
only a current source and a voltage source can be connected .
Conform to Foch et al. [Foc 88], the sources of input and output of a
converter being characterized (voltage or current source, reversibility) and the
inter-connection rules of the sources being known, the converter structure can
be deducted. It is called the basic conguration diagram which, without as-
sumption of the characteristics of the switches, allows all possible intercon-
nections between a given input and output source. In case of an SRM, the
input and output sources have dierent nature, therefore a direct connection
conguration will be used.
Resuming, the problem to solve is: the input source being a voltage source
and the output source a current source, which are the dierent interconnection
possibilities of these two sources and which is the structure that makes it pos-
sible to carry out all these interconnections? Having these two sources and the
rules presented previously, the connections of Figure 2.19 are feasible.
to connect in one way input and output source (state I)
to connect in the opposite way the input and the output sources (state
II)
to separate both by opening the voltage source and by shorting-circuiting
the current source (state III)
+
-
+
-
+
-
I II III
Figure 2.19: Possibilities of interconnections of a voltage and a current source.
It is noted that these three interconnections are necessary to allow all ex-
changes and to control the energy ow between voltage and the current source.
If all three states have to be realized without using a middle point converter
topology, the simplest solution is to use a four switches bridge topology (Figure
2.20).
K1 and K3 closed gives state I;
K2 and K4 closed gives state II;
K1 and K4 closed or K2 and K3 closed gives state III.
+
-
K
1
K
2
K
4
K
3
Figure 2.20: Base conguration of a voltage - current converter.
This diagram will be considered from now as the basic conguration for
the switched reluctance motor converter. As an observation, a direct converter
is an electric circuit made only of switches. It is unable to store energy, the
energy transfer being carried out directly from input to output. If the losses in
the converter are neglected, input and output power are equal at each instant.
The current control in switched reluctance motor is realized by chopping the
supplied voltage among three values: +U
dc
, 0, and U
dc
. Since the torque of
a switched reluctance motor is independent of the excitation current polarity,
the direction of the current owing into the phase windings will be the same in
all the cases. Motoring and braking in four-quadrant operation are made in the
same way, the dierence being given by the instant when the voltage is applied,
in accordance to the intervals and switching angles developed previously. The
dc source may be a battery but usually is a rectied ac supply with a lter to
provide a dc input source to the SRM converters [Kri 01].
The Figure 2.21 presents the four control sequences of a switched reluctance
motor. The chopping interval is in fact a synthesis among the inrush, freewheel
(soft chopping) or extinction (hard chopping) intervals. The description corre-
sponds to the control sequences presented in Figure 2.21a.
Figure 2.21: Four control sequences of a switched reluctance motor.
By closing K1 and K3, and opening K2 and K4, the SRM phase is supplied
with fully positive voltage provoking a rise of the current, corresponding to
the inrush interval (1). The chopping interval consists of a hard chopping,
corresponding to a switch of the voltage between fully positive (2) and fully
inverted voltage supply (2). The sub-interval (2) is identical with the inrush
interval, and the (2) sub-interval is realized by closing K2 and K4, and opening
K1 and K3. The freewheeling interval (3) is obtained by closing K1 and K4,
and opening K2 and K3. The fully inverted voltage is obtained in a similar
way as sub-interval (2), corresponding to the extinction interval (4).
Before starting the analysis of the control sequence, one important remark
has to be made. In the steady state, a switch can be characterized as a non-
linear resistance, very small at turn-on, very high at turn-o. Considering the
switch as a load, its static characteristic I = f(U) can be represented as in
Figure 2.22. If the static operating points of the sequences before and after
commutation are on two half-axes of same signs, this commutation can only be
forced (A B and C D). If the static operation points of the sequences
before and after commutation are on two half-axes with contrary signs, this
commutation can only be spontaneous (A D and B C) [Foc 88].
D
U
A
B
C
I
U
I
Figure 2.22: Static characteristic of a switch.
The control sequence of the proposed SRM control strategy is (1) (2)
(2
) (3) (4). Now, the operating point for each switch can be described
for each control sequence. Examining for each switch the way to pass from one
operating point to another, the commutation type can be deducted. Figure
2.23 shows the operation points for switches K1, K2, K3, and K4.
Figure 2.23: Characteristics of the switches for SRM control sequences.
Summarizing, it can be seen that the switches K1 and K3 present two states,
both being forced. Their characteristics suggest that K1 and K3 are IGBTs.
The characteristics of K2 and K4 switches suggest a spontaneous turn-on and
respectively turn-o states. This corresponds to forward biased diodes. The
analysis leads to the converter presented in Figure 2.24.
T1
D2
D1
T2
+
-
Figure 2.24: Asymmetric converter for SRM with freewheel and regeneration
capability.
Figure 2.24 shows an asymmetric bridge converter for one phase of the
switched reluctance motor. The rest of the phases are similarly connected.
Turning-on and -o of T1 and T2 for the proposed strategy is shown in Figure
2.25. Turning on T1 and T2 circulates a current in the SRM phase. If the
current rises above the reference value, T1 and T2 are turned o. The energy
stored in the motor winding recharges the dc source through the diodes D1 and
D2, bringing rapidly the current below the reference value, the phase voltage
being negative. During this interval, there is a repeated exchange of energy
between the dc source and machine winding. During turn-on and -o of T1
and T2, the machine phase winding experiences twice the rate of change of dc
link voltage, resulting in a higher deterioration of the insulation. This control
strategy puts more ripples into the dc link capacitor, thus reducing its lifetime
and also increasing the switching losses of the power electronic switches.
From Figure 2.18, it can be seen that inrush and extinction intervals auto-
matically impose simultaneous turn-on and -o of T1 and T2. Soft chopping
implies the existence of the freewheel interval, thus the energy stored into phase
winding is not anymore returned to the source. In this case the time for the
phase current to return under the reference value is higher than previous as
seen in Figure 2.18b. The advantage of the soft chopping is that reduces the
switching frequency and hence the switching losses. This is realized by keeping
T1 turned-on during the inrush, chopping, and freewheel interval. During the
freewheel interval, the current continues to ow in the phase winding, convert-
ing the stored energy to useful mechanical work.
Krishnan [Kri 01] describes a unipolar switching strategy derived from the
soft chopping strategy presented previously. The inrush, soft chopping, and
freewheel intervals are identical as presented, but instead of an extended ex-
tinction interval, the strategy alternates freewheeling and extinction interval.
0
T
1
T
2
D
1
D
2
+ U
DC
- U
DC
L
i
Figure 2.25: Hard chopping strategy.
The result is a more judicious choice of negative or zero voltages across the
winding to obtain a fast current response.
A lightly modied soft chopping strategy can be realized by alternating
the freewheeling cycle through the upper and the lower diode. This is made
by alternatively turning-o T1 and T2 respectively in the chopping region
(
on

frwheel
) (Figure 2.26). The advantage of using this strategy is that it
gives equal ratings for the power devices and diodes in each phase conductor.
Each switch conducts for two on times and one o time and is turned o
for one o time. Such a switching strategy enables equal rms currents in the
switches and equal average currents in the diodes.
During the chopping interval (
on
frwheel
), the average duty cycle is:
d =
I
p
(R
s
+
m
)
U
dc
(2.40)
Various power converter congurations exist to control a switched reluc-
tance motor: two-stage power converter, single-switch-per-phase converters,
etc. Each category has advantages and drawbacks. For the present thesis, the
asymmetric converter developed previously has been considered. During the
simulations only the control strategy has been retained, the converter being
Figure 2.26: Modied soft chopping strategy.
considered as ideal.
2.7 SRM system modelling
Closed-loop motor control has the attractive properties of response and optimal
performance for varying load conditions. The switched reluctance motor has
strong similarity to dc and synchronous reluctance machine, but in control it is
very familiar to these machines and therefore, analogous control developments
are not possible [Kri 01]. To overcome the torque ripple of the motor and the
nonlinearity of the torque characteristics, various control solutions have been
developed.
This section deals with the description of the control scheme and its main
components. The switched reluctance drive is an electro-mechanical unit, com-
posed of a SRM, a power electronic converter and a controller, all components
being coupled The development starts with the motor model based on the
mathematical description of one phase. It continues with the description of the
interval controller, speed controller and tuning of the speed controller gains
using simulated annealing algorithm.
2.7.1 Motor model
The magnetization curves allow the complete mathematical description of the
motor. Considering the equivalent circuit of one phase, the voltage equation
is:
2.7. SRM system modelling 45
U = Ri +
(i, )
i
di
dt
+
(i, )
d
dt
(2.41)
The rst term of the equation corresponds to the voltage due to the phase
resistance R. The second is the contribution of the inductive voltage, and the
last term corresponds to the back-EMF.
The partial derivates of the ux with the current
(i,)
i
and respectively
with the rotor position
(i,)
are easily found from the magnetization as seen

in Figure 2.27. The variation in time of the current is expressed by the voltage
equation:
di
dt
=
1
(i,)
i
_
U Ri
(i, )

_
(2.42)
Figure 2.27: Partial derivatives of the ux with respect to current and rotor
position.
This non-linear model of the switched reluctance motor (Figure 2.28) is very
handy and uses only the partial derivates of the ux-linkage with respect of
rotor position and phase current, derivatives that are stored as look-up tables.

Interval
and
Current
Controller
U
i q
i
ref
w
ref
( )

- -
= w
q
q y
q y
.
,
. .
,
1 i
i R u
i
i dt
di
Figure 2.28: Non-linear switched reluctance motor model.
The interval controller output gives four values as a function of the rotor
position and the reference torque sign. The output values correspond to the
inrush, chopping, extinction and rest intervals, and the intervals extreme lim-
its are named switching angles, which can be found using dierent analytical
or/and simulation methods, function of the criteria chosen (maximising the av-
erage torque output, maximizing the machine eciency, reducing ripple torque
level, etc.). This will be developed for an SRM four-phases 8/6 in the next
section.
Postulating a very small sample time, the following transformation from
continuous time to discrete time state space causes a negligible error. By this
transformation, the mechanical equation can be rewritten as explained. The
integration in the continuous time of a variable X is transformed to:
Int
X
=
1
s
(2.43)
In discrete time space the same integration is written as Figure 2.29, which
can be mathematically written as:
Int
X
=
T
s
1 z
1
(2.44)
X
T
s
+
+
Int
1
z
Figure 2.29: Integration in discrete time space.
Equalizing, the transformation from continuous time to discrete time space
yields:
s =
1 z
1
T
s
(2.45)
The mechanical equation written in discrete time space is presented in Fig-
ure 2.30. Tolerating a small discretisation error, the transformation from con-
tinuous time to the discrete time state space causes a negligible error.
Figure 2.30: Mechanical equation.
2.7.2 General scheme
The switched reluctance drive is an electro-mechanical unit, composed of an
SRM, a power electronic converter and a controller, all components being cou-
pled. A specic power electronic converter supplies the switched reluctance
motor. The converters turn-on and turn-o conditions can follow dierent
schemes in order to control the motor speed.
By combining these various blocks of the drive system, system equations
are assembled containing dierential, algebraic, and conditional equations. The
dierential equations are solved for a given instant of time with a suciently
small sample time using Matlab/Simulink. The general scheme of the drive is
shown in Figure 2.31. Variations from this block diagram may be minor, and
are usually conned to the controller section, being specic to the application.
Figure 2.31: Block diagram of the SRM controller.
Interval controller
The optimal switching angle and interval control is very important. The In-
terval controller module assures the choice of the right instant of each interval
function of rotor position, reference current, and operation quadrant. The
module contains a series of logic functions and look-up tables, the output data
being the optimal switching angles.
Finding the optimal switching angle for a specic SRM application, is an
optimisation problem. The interest points in controlling SRM systems is to
assure the lowest torque ripple, maximum eciency, maximum average torque,
minimal acoustic noise, reducing reactive power ow, etc. These objectives can
be targeted together or individually as a function of the required application.
As described above, optimal switching angles choice strongly depends on the
reference current and machine speed. This feature is developed in Chapter IV.
2.7.3 Speed Controller
Various control strategies exist in the literature. In the following subsections,
fuzzy logic and proportional-integral (PI) controller are presented. Finally, the
PI controller is chosen for the switched reluctance motor speed loop regulation.
Tuning of PI gains can be realized using various methods. In the present
thesis the simulated annealing method is used to determine the optimum gain
tuning. It is not intended in this thesis to advocate one or another speed
controller type as best solution for Switched Reluctance Motor, neither to nd
the optimal tuning method, but rather to present the eectiveness of using
simulated annealing algorithm in tuning the PI controller.
Fuzzy logic
Fuzzy logic applications in power electronics and drives are relatively new. A.
Zadeh has developed the theory of sets, in the middle of seventh decade [Zad
96]. It is based on the mathematics of vague notions, as it imitates human
perception expressed in words as not really, almost, etc. This theory appears
to be the opposite of the more common bivalent logic. There is a very wide
range of controllers based on fuzzy logic: fuzzy controllers of the PID type,
fuzzy controllers - sliding mode, fuzzy controllers type Sugeno and Takagi,
direct and indirect adaptive fuzzy controllers, etc [Bir 99]. The advantages of
fuzzy logic controllers are:
There is no need of exact knowledge of the mathematical model of the
controlled process;
More ecient control of non-linear systems due to the non-linear nature
of the controller;
Fuzzy controllers are relatively easy to implement;
Lower cost than other intelligent control systems.
However, the main problem of a fuzzy controller is its stability. A compar-
ison of the fuzzy-controlled system performance with that of a PID control is
given in [Li 89] proving the superiority of the former.
Proportional-integral (PI) controllers
Proportional-integral (PI) controllers are widely used in industry for drives. In
many industrial processes accurate speed control associated with good speed
holding capability in the presence of load disturbance is essential to ensure
product quality. Many non-linearities arise in drives.
The speed controller converts the speed error in a torque reference value
(or current reference value). Keeping torque and current within predetermined
boundaries is achieved by limiting the output of the speed controller. The
most commonly used speed controller for drives contains two separate control
loops (Figure 2.32). The inner loop is responsible for the current control and
incorporates a PWM hysteresis controller, activated by the error between set
and measured motor current. The current/torque reference is generated by
the outer control loop, in which the error between reference and actual speed
activates the proportional-integral (PI) speed controller.
Figure 2.32: Cascade control of SRM.
In order to simplify the calculations, the system can be decoupled in two
modes: quick mode (electrical mode) and slow mode (mechanical mode). This
hypothesis is mostly true as the mechanical time constant is much larger than
the electrical. In this way the current control loop can be considered as being
unity. The model equations are non-linear, because the current and its control
enter the speed equation.
Tuning the speed controller
The tuning of electric drive controllers is a complex problem due to the many
non-linearities of the machine, power electronic converter and controller. The
inherent non-linearity of the SRM is dicult to handle for a proper tuning of
the controller parameters. The power converter presents a non-linear transfer
characteristic because of imposed switching dead times. A further obstacle
in nding the optimum settings for the parameters of a proportional-integral
(PI) speed controller is the diculty of characterizing the load. Many methods
have been published. Miller suggests that specifying the damping ratio , the
natural frequency
n
and the maximum overshoot M
r
yields the PI-controller
parameters [Mil 01]. For small-signal analysis the spring load force can be
regarded as constant. The system can be described as a standard second-order
system with a zero:
(s)
ref
(s)
=
K
J
(s +a)
s
2
+
_
f+K
J
_
s +
Ka
J
=

2
n
a
(s +a)
s
2
+ 2
n
s +
2
n
(2.46)
Tuning the controller for optimal performance in a non-linear system (pos-
sibly together with an anti-windup system) may become a dicult task, es-
pecially when load disturbances are involved. Da Silva et al. [Sil 01] propose
on-line optimization of a PI controller with anti-windup circuit using genetic
algorithm. The genetic algorithm has proven to be capable of nding the op-
timum or near optimum settings for proportional and integral gains, together
with the setting of the non-linear blocks of anti-windup circuit. An alternative
is the simulated annealing method.
Simulated annealing method
The simulated annealing method is an optimisation technique that can be em-
ployed to nd global minima or maxima. The inspiration for simulated anneal-
ing comes from the physical process of cooling molten materials down to their
solid state. When molten steel is cooled too quickly, its atoms have no time
to nd the equilibrium position and the product presents a low mechanical
resistance. A slow cooled down schedule ends up with the best nal product,
bringing the steel to a low-energy, optimal state.
The application of the simulated annealing method in tuning PI speed con-
trollers has given very good results [Aca 02]. Stochastic search techniques avoid
the requirement for mathematical modelling of the power electronic converter,
drive and load, being able to deal with non-linearities. They simulate the ran-
dom evolution of a physical system and reach equilibrium as the steady-state
distribution over states of a corresponding Markov chain. Simulated annealing
can be shown to converge to a globally optimal solution. However, it can be
extremely computationally expensive.
A physical system, as it cools down, seeks to reach to a minimum-energy
state. For any discrete set of particles, minimizing the total energy is a combina-
torial optimisation problem. Through random transitions generated according
to the above probability distribution, the physics to solve arbitrary combinato-
rial optimisation problems can be simulated. The simulated annealing tuning
algorithm for proportional-integral (PI) can be formulated as follows.
Set the independent parameters to the initial values;
Set Temperature to a relatively high value;
Perturb the independent parameters;
Calculate the new cost function in the new conditions;
Compare the new and best till now cost functions:
- If the new cost function is lower than or equal to the best, the new one
becomes the best till now;
- If not, choose a random number r uniformly from [0,1]. If r < e
(E/kT)
,
accept the worst solution (the new one) as best till now;
Repeat steps 3-5 an arbitrary number of times n;
If an improvement has been made after n iterations, set the center point
to be the best point.
Reduce the temperature following the preset schedule;
Repeat the algorithm till the stop criterion.
Acarnley et al. [Aca 02] introduce the application of simulated anneal-
ing to the problem of tuning electric drive speed controllers. In this thesis
a similar algorithm is used for nding optimal parameters of a PI controller
of a switched reluctance drive. The algorithm consists of comparing a ran-
domly generated potential solution B[K
pB
, K
iB
, IAE
B
], to an existing solution
A[K
pA
, K
iA
, IAE
A
]. The solution space denes the maximum and minimum
values of the PI gain, and any potential solution B is in the allowed system
solution space. The algorithm consists of two steps.
Proximity of the solutions
The rst step is to generate a randomly potential solution B within the allowed
system solution space and to calculate an acceptance probability, P
A
, function
of the distance between A and B, and the instantaneous temperature. There
are two acceptance probabilities, corresponding to the two gains, P
AA
and P
AB
dened as:
P
A
= exp
_
displacement
range
kT
_
(2.47)
where the gain displacement (for proportional and respectively integral
gains) is dened by:
_
displacement
P
=| K
pA
K
pB
|
displacement
I
=| K
iA
K
iB
|
(2.48)
Each acceptance probability is then compare to a random value, r, between
[0, 1]. If r > P
A
, the potential solution gain is rejected, otherwise it is accepted.
If both potential solution gains are accepted, the entire potential solution, B, is
accepted for the second step of the algorithm, otherwise the algorithm proposes
another potential solution and the loop is restarted. This prevents the search
of a potential solution far away from the actual solution.
The acceptance probability, P
A
, is a function depending on the instan-
taneous temperature, T, and the ratio displacement/range. The acceptance
probability is higher for any displacement/range ratio at the beginning of the
process when the temperature is high than at the end of the process (Fig-
ure 2.33). A proposed solution B has a higher acceptance probability to be
evaluated all along the process, if it is close to the existing solution A.
A number of 500 solutions per temperature level, B, is proposed for eval-
uation in the rst step for each temperature. Not all of them are accepted,
just those situated in the proximity of the existing solution A (represented as
a circle on Figure 2.34). At the beginning, the proposed solutions, B, are dis-
tributed in the whole solution space around A. As temperature decreases, the
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
0
0.5
1
Acceptance probability
P
A
Temperature
displacement/range
1
0.1
0.3
0.5
0.8
A
c
c
e
p
t
a
n
c
e
p
r
o
b
a
b
i
l
i
t
y
,
P
A
Figure 2.33: Eect of temperature on the acceptance probability P
A
.
acceptance probability is more and more sensitive to the displacement of B to
A, the accepted solutions, B, being chosen closer to A (Figure 2.34).
Figure 2.34: Eect of the temperature on the accepted displacement.
Cost function
The second step of the algorithm consists in evaluating the proposed solution
B, and corresponds to the point (5) of the simulated annealing algorithm. The
evolution of the error signal in the transitory regime is a required parameter in
the evaluation of quality of an automatic control system. The most common
evaluation criteria for a PI controller are the IAE (integral absolute error), ITSE
(integral of time-multiplied square error), ISE (integral square error) or ITAE
(integral of time-multiplied absolute-value of error) [Mar 87]. For the present
algorithm, the IAE criterion has been chosen for evaluation. The so-called cost
function is:
E =
_
0.15
0
| e(t) | dt (2.49)
The corresponding change in cost function E is calculated and it is decided
upon this dierence whether the proposed transition is accepted. If E
B
< E
A
,
B is accepted and A is replaced by B. Else, if the new result (E
B
) is higher than
the actual best (E
A
), a random number r in the range of [0,1] is generated and
compared to a change probability. To get out of a local minimum, an increase
of the cost function is accepted with a certain change probability. Hence, a
new state with a larger cost has a high probability of being accepted. The
probability of accepting a worse state is high at the beginning and decreases
as the temperature decreases (Figure 2.35). For each temperature, the system
must reach equilibrium i.e., a number of new states must be tried, before the
temperature is reduced typically by 10%. The change probability is dened as:
P
c
=
1
1 +exp
_
E
kT
_ (2.50)
Figure 2.35: Eect of temperature on the change probability, P
C
.
Temperature decrement function
Frequently an exponential decay in temperature by a multiplication with a
constant factor is used. The value of the multiplication factor is a compromise
between temperature decrement between stages and number of iterations per
stage. A larger number of iteration per stage allows the use of a lower multipli-
cation factor. The best values for the multiplication factor are between 0,8 and
0,98. In this thesis, the multiplication factor is 0.95 with an initial temperature
of 1 (Figure 2.36).
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
[
]
Number of temperature levels

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
Figure 2.36: Temperature decrement function.
Number of iteration per stage
In practice many criteria can be used to limit the number of iteration per
stage. A common one is a constant number of iteration, or a constant num-
ber of accepted transitions per stage. Experiments show that better results
are achieved by keeping the temperature constant until the cost function is
oscillating around a constant value. Another option is to impose the num-
ber of iterations. Typically, 100 to 1,000 iterations might be permitted before
lowering the temperature.
Stop criterion
Typically, when the value of the current solution has not changed or improved
within the last iteration or so, the search is terminated and the current solution
reported.
2.7.4 Four-quadrant control of SRM drive - linear analy-
sis
This section deals with control of a four-phase 8/6 switched reluctance motor in
all four quadrants. The scheme contains a speed loop (PI control), current loop
(chopping control) and interval controller developed in the previous sections
(Figure 2.37). A specially designed algorithm for the interval controller is
proposed to control the voltage in order to minimise torque ripple. The rotor
position is calculated from the speed integration. Simulation results conrm
torque ripple reduction, illustrate performance and robustness of the control
scheme proposed and show good overall behaviour of an SRM drive model
under various types of disturbances.
The simulated SRM has the following data and parameters: P
N
= 7.5kW,
N
= 1900r/min, U
N
= 460V , I
N
= 32A, I
m
= 8A, q = 4, N
s
= 8, N
r
= 6,
L
min
= 10mH, L
max
= 110mH,
r
= 1.05rad,
s
= 0.35rad,
r
= 0.42rad,
f = 0.004Nms/rad, J = 0.0016kg m
2
.
Reg (s)
T
*
I
*
U
SRM
U
N
Sgn(T )
*
I
n
t
e
r
v
a
l
C
o
n
t
r
o
l
l
e
r
w
w
*
+
-
q
H
y
s
t
e
r
e
s
i
s
C
o
n
t
r
o
l
Figure 2.37: Linear model - control schema.
The controller applies the correspondent voltage at each phase as a function
of the rotor position in order to maintain the phase current close to the reference
value given by the PI controller. A special algorithm was designed to drop the
phase current to zero (interval 3) in order to minimise the ripple torque. The
rotor angle is detected by the integration of the drive speed value. The system
was designed in modules in order to provide a simple solution in implementing
further research (running above the rated speed, sensorless control, dierent
kinds of controllers, dierent types of SRM drives, etc).
In case of a linear analysis, the inductance prole of one phase (j) is ap-
proximated by (2.3). Figure 2.3 shows the idealised inductance prole of one
phase as a function of the rotor position for a pair of stator poles.
In most of dc drives, torque control is a synonym of current control. Be-
cause of its nonlinearity, the SRM control is signicantly dierent in this regard.
Torque is a nonlinear function of the current and rotor position. The instanta-
neous torque of a single phase over a period can be expressed by (2.17). The
instantaneous torque developed by the motor is the sum of the instantaneous
torques developed by the individual phases.
Interval controller and switching angles
The four intervals are located among the three important angles:
on
,
off
and
ext
. For each quadrant, the choice of the switching angles is made with the
respect to the torque production and to the assumption that only one phase is
active at each instant.
The control variables of an SRM drive are switching angles and current
amplitude. Function of the strategy adopted, the relations among these control
variables are established. To produce a positive motoring torque it is expected
that the current pulse coincide more or less exactly with the rising part of the
phase self-inductance curve. Thus the turn-on angle,
on
, must be chosen at
the beginning of the torque zone. The turn-o,
off
, is controlled from 0 to
s
. It is essential that the phase current is brought to zero before negative
slope inductance begins in order to avoid any negative torque production. It
is evident that 0
on

off

ext
.
Conform to the analysis made beforehand, the switching angles of the rst
phase in all four quadrants are chosen as presented in Table 2.1:
Table 2.1: Switching angles in four quadrants.
I II III IV
on 0 s + r s r
off
r
q
(s + r)
r
q
s
r
q
r +
r
q
The advance turn-on angle is chosen for the current to reach the desired
level i(0) at = 0:
onadv
=
L
u
i(0)
U
N
(2.51)
The simulation circuit requires the detection of the motor speed and the
phase currents. The rotor position is calculated from the integration of the
drive speed, the initial start position being the 0 angle of the rst phase in
the positive rotation sense (counterclockwise) and the 0 angle of the second
phase in the opposite rotation sense (clockwise). As an observation, for the
positive rotation direction, the phase order is L1, L2, L3, L4, L1, L2,... and for
the negative rotation direction the phase order is L2, L1, L3, L4, L2, L1,...
The phase voltage is manipulated in both the chopping and the extinction
interval. The extinction angle is not xed, but automatically calculated as
a function of current and speed. The SRM was designed to operate in four-
quadrants, the control strategies being dierent. For motor operations in both
directions the start of the chopping interval is the instant when the induc-
tance starts to increase. For generation operation the chopping interval begins
when the inductance starts to decrease. The SRM performance depends on the
current value in each phase as a function of the rotor position.
An important aspect in speed control of a drive is the torque ripple. The
SRM drive system has the particularity of a non-linear relation between air-
gap torque and the excitation current. The complexity of the control task is
amplied in this case by the commutation strategy. During the commutation,
one phase is demagnetised and the next one is energised. Without a proper
control of the current ow in both adjacent phases, the sum of the air gap
torques contributes to an increase of the torque ripple.
A solution is to control the torques (currents) in two adjacent phases through
a torque (current) distribution function, so that the summation of the two air
gap torques equals at any instant the reference torque. For two adjacent phases,
A and B, the air gap torque might be written as
T
= T
A
+T
B
(2.52)
The torques of each phase can be expressed using the torque distribution
functions (f
A
() and f
B
()) as:
T
A
= T
f
A
() and T
B
= T
f
B
() (2.53)
Note that they are function of the rotor position. Combining (2.52) with
(2.53) results that at any instant:
f
A
() +f
B
() = 1 (2.54)
These functions can be determined based on many criteria. As presented
beforehand, there are four intervals located among the three important an-
gles: inrush, chopping, extinction and rest. However, introducing the concept
of torque distribution function implies the existence of another interval, the
commutation interval. This interval can be identied with a chopping interval,
since the current is controlled after a falling (respectively rising) distribution
function. It is obviously that in this case, the inrush and extinction intervals
are replaced by a chopping commutation interval. The extreme limits of this
interval can be geometrical determined for each operation quadrant: initial
(
i
) and nal (
f
) commutation angles. A number of distribution functions
have been suggested in the literature having as variables the initial and nal
commutation angles [Kri 01]. In this thesis based on the observations, it will
be shown that the distribution function is dependent only of the initial (
i
)
commutation angle. In the rst quadrant, where T
> 0, the commutation

angles can be expressed as:
0 <
i
<
f
<
s
(2.55)
The conduction period of one phase is limited by the eective torque zone
(2.17). Between two phases, the rotor has to move with an angular distance of
r
/q. Before this angle, only the rst phase (in this case phase A) is able to
produce torque. The maximum eective torque zone of one phase is determined
by the stator pole-arc width,
s
. Thus, the limits of the commutation interval
are [
r
q
,
s
]. The initial commutation angle (
i
) must be situated in this inter-
val. For higher speeds and currents (as it will be shown in Chapter IV), it is
preferably to chose
i
as close as possible of the minimum extreme of the com-
mutation interval. In this thesis,
i
=
r
q
has been considered. Summarising,
the torque distribution function of phase A is:
f
A
() =
_
_
_
1, 0 <
r
q
F
A
(,
i
),
r
q
<
s
0,
s
<
r
(2.56)
Conform to (2.54), the torque distribution function of phase B is f
B
() =
1 f
A
(). The choice of the distribution function during the commutation
interval (F
A
(,
i
)) can be made using various criteria such as minimum stator
losses, minimum peak current, etc [Kri 01]. The simplest form is a linear
function with a negative slope (phase A). In this thesis, an exponential function
depending on the rotor position has been chosen. This function satises the
boundary conditions of the commutation interval: F
A
(
i
) = 1 and F
A
(
r
q
) 0.
F
A
(,
i
) = e
(i)
2
(2.57)
Neglecting the saturation, the relation (2.16) allows to translate the ref-
erence torque into reference current. In this case, the implementation of the
current distribution function is relatively easy. In the non-linear case, the re-
lation torque-current is much more dicult to be expressed in a mathematical
function. Usually, this is made using the look-up tables (as it will be explained
in Chapter III). Figure 2.38 shows the behaviour of the proposed distribution
function in creation of the resulting commutation air gap torque.
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
q [ ]
D
i
s
t
r
i
b
u
t
i
o
n
f
u
n
c
t
i
o
n
s
f ( )
A
q
f ( )
B
q
Commutation
interval
f ( ) + f ( )
A B
q q
Figure 2.38: Torque (current) distribution function.
The implementation of the torque distribution function technique requires
no change in the power electronic converter structure. The only dierence as
explained above is the transformation of the inrush and extinction intervals in
chopping interval.
Speed controller
Figure 2.39 presents the speed controller scheme. The reference speed is com-
pared to the machine speed, and the error is transformed through a PI controller
into torque reference. In the linear analysis, a mathematical function based on
(2.18) is used to transform the reference torque into reference current.
Simulated annealing was used in a simulation study to tune the PI con-
troller. The cost function to be minimized is the integral of absolute speed
error.
+
-
PI Speed controller
K
P
K
I
w
*
w
T
*
I
*
i =
2T
(dL/d ) q
+
+
Figure 2.39: PI Speed controller.
The PI gains are tuned by examining the response in closed loop of the
SRM system to a large step input (0 - 150 rad/sec) over a time period of
50 ms. The solution space range of the proportional gain, Kp, is between 0
and 10 Nm/(rad/s), and for the integral gain, Ki, between 0 and 20 Nm/rad.
During the simulation, Figure 2.40 shows the proposed controller gains during
simulated annealing. It can be easily noted that they cover all the space. Not
all of them have been accepted for further investigation.
Figure 2.41 presents the controller gains investigated during simulated an-
nealing (K
P
and K
I
) for each level of temperature.
The minimum of E is found to be 1.9678 rad, corresponding to the controller
gains K
P
= 9.44 A/rad/s and K
I
= 0.33 A/rad. The speed responses obtained
for dierent controller settings during annealing simulation are presented in
Figure 2.42.
Simulation results
For the verication of the proposed model, simulations in all four quadrants
are carried out. The typical phase current waveform relative to the rotor angle
is presented in Figure 2.43. The phase current reaches its reference value by
Figure 2.40: Proposed controller settings.
Number of accepted solutions
A
c
c
e
p
t
e
d
c
o
n
t
r
o
l
l
e
r
s
e
t
t
i
n
g
s
0 70 10 20 30 40 50 60
0
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
K [A/(rad/s)]
P
K [A/rad]
I
Figure 2.41: Investigated controller settings for each temperature level.
manipulating the voltage according to hysteresis control. Figure 2.43 presents
also the phase inductance as a function of time for a constant speed of 130
rad/s and a load torque of -4 Nm. The SRM runs in the positive direction
(clockwise) under generator condition. The phase inductance is shown using a
scale factor of 30 in order to assure the clarity of the gure. The speed controller
generates the reference current i
ref
for each motor phase, the right switching
instant being assured by the interval controller. On Figure 2.43 the reaction of
the interval controller to bring the phase current to zero can be seen in order
to minimise torque ripple.
One of the required characteristics of a high-performance drive is that it
must assure robustness during load torque disturbances. The simulation results
prove that the controller is able to track the reference speed closely without
any static error and a very small overshoot. Figure 2.44 presents the start
of the SRM in the fourth quadrant with load torque representing 77% of the
w
[
r
a
d
/
s
]
t [s]
0 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.01
50
180
150
100
0
IAE = 1.96 rad
IAE = 2.62 rad
IAE = 2.0 rad
Figure 2.42: Speed responses for dierent controller settings.
0.16 0.17 0.18 0.19 0.2
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
t [s]
i
[
A
]
a
n
d
L
[
H
]
Figure 2.43: Phase current and phase inductance waveforms.
maximum torque.
The response of the drive is good. The SRM reaches its reference speed of
130 rad/s in 0.1 s without a considerable overshoot. At 0.21 s, the load torque
becomes zero bringing the SRM in the rst quadrant. The speed presents a
small disturbance that is fastly re-established by the controller. In order to
assure clarity of the gure, the load torque is multiplied by a factor of 100.
Figure 2.45 presents the SRM starting in the rst quadrant.
The reference speed of 131 rad/s is reached without any considerable over-
shoot. Applying a negative load torque yields the passage to the fourth quad-
rant. The response to a negative reference speed under load torque, provoking
the SRM to operate in the third quadrant is good, proving the eciency of the
proposed model. Finally, the SRM is stopped under a load torque of 22% of
the maximum torque.
It has to be checked if a problem with torque ripple exists. The four phase
Figure 2.44: SRM starting under load torque.
Figure 2.45: Speed response of SRM under load torque.
SRM (8/6) is very popular for reducing torque ripple further. It is important
to remember that it is not the electromagnetically developed torque that is
likely to be of primary interest to the user, but the speed ripple. Figure 2.46
shows the typical instantaneous torque of an SRM. The controller imposes a
maximum torque so that the reference speed is reached in the time delay set.
After the reference speed (
ref
= 60 rad/s) is reached, the motor torque falls
to a specic value (load torque T
load
= 3 Nm) in order to assure constant
speed. The system was simulated in both cases, without (left) and with (right)
torque distribution function (TDF).
The results demonstrate the reduction of the torque ripple produced by
SRM using torque distribution function control. The resulting torque is given
by the sum of instantaneous torques of each phase, as explained in (2.12).
Conform to (2.17), the instantaneous torque of one phase is a function mainly
2.8. Conclusions 63
-200 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
-200 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
Rotor position [ ] Rotor position [ ]
T
[
N
m
]
T
[
N
m
]
Without
Torque Distribution Function
With
Torque Distribution Function
Figure 2.46: SRM torque without (left) and with TDF (right).
of the value of the current owing. The problem is that this current is not
dropping instantaneously to zero due to the inductance even when full inverted
voltage is applied (extinction interval). The sum of two instantaneous torques
provokes an overshoot of the total torque. The current control using hystere-
sis technique is very fast, but still not instantaneous, producing the irregular
resulting torque (Figure 2.47).
Figure 2.47: SRM torque ripple.
2.8 Conclusions
The goal of this chapter was to introduce the basic principles of switched reluc-
tance motor, main machine and converter topologies, mathematical approach,
and full four quadrants operating conditions. The focus has been on develop-
ing a general control scheme based on the control variables in the linear and
non-linear analysis.
Torque or force production in a reluctance motor is developed from the
variation of the stored magnetic energy as a function of the rotor position
(virtual work principle). Torque production, interval control, switching angles,
and dynamic operation have been described.
In accordance to the rules, intervals and switching angles analysed before-
hand, the structure of the converter which answers best the imposed require-
ments is developed. The presented power converter achieves the objectives of
complete independence to each phase winding for control and torque genera-
tion. Using this conguration, the energy can be freewheeled, partially con-
verted to mechanical/electrical energy and partially returned to the dc source.
Dynamic modelling and simulation play a crucial role in the drive system
analysis. The general control schema modelling and its integration are devel-
oped step by step. The tuning of electric drive controllers is a complex problem
due to the many non-linearities of the machine, power converter and controller.
Special attention is given to the speed (PI) and current (hysteresis) controller.
Various methods of calculating the proportional-integral (PI) speed controller
are presented. A new approach of applying the simulated annealing method in
nding the optimal PI gains is given. This stochastic tuning method avoids the
non-linearities of the system and the requirement for mathematical modelling
of dierent parts of the system. Simulations illustrate the eectiveness of the
proposed and implemented tuning algorithm.
The control of an 8/6 SRM drive in all four quadrants using the linear
analysis is described. A special algorithm was designed and implemented in
order to minimise the ripple torque. A comprehensive and clear description
of the control strategy is given. The simulations carried out in four-quadrants
prove the eciency of the proposed model. This chapter can be also regarded
as a smart introduction into Switched Reluctance Motor modelling.

Switched Reluctance Motor

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Chapter 2

are easily found from the magnetization as seen

Number of temperature levels

> 0, the commutation

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