Kinematics of Machinery

N.P.R.
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

N.P.R. Nagar, Natham - 624 401, Tamil Nadu, India.
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Kinematics of Machinery
III SEMESTER MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Prepared by John Martin .A, Asst.Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, N.P.R.College of Engineering and Technology, Natham.
KOM/AJM/MECH/N.P.R.C.E.T
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ME1202 KINEMATICS OF MACHINERY 3104 UNIT I BASICS OF MECHANISMS 7
LTPC
Definitions Link Kinematic pair Kinematic chain Mechanism Machine Degree of Freedom Mobility Kutzbach criterion (Grueblers equation) Grashoff's law Kinematic Inversions of four-bar chain and slider crank chain Mechanical Advantage Transmission angle Description of common Mechanisms Offset slider mechanism as quick return mechanisms Pantograph Straight line generators (Peaucellier and Watt mechanisms) Steering gear for automobile Hookes joint Toggle mechanism Ratchets Escapements Indexing Mechanisms UNIT II KINEMATIC ANALYSIS 10 Analysis of simple mechanisms (Single slider crank mechanism and four bar mechanism) Graphical Methods for displacement Velocity and Acceleration Shaping machine mechanism Coincident points Coriolis acceleration Analytical method of analysis of slider crank mechanism and four bar mechanism Approximate analytical expression for displacement, velocity and acceleration of piston of reciprocating engine mechanism. UNIT III KINEMATICS OF CAMS 8 Classifications Displacement diagrams Parabolic, Simple harmonic and Cycloidal motions Graphical construction of displacement diagrams and layout of plate cam profiles Circular arc and tangent cams Pressure angle and undercutting. UNIT IV GEARS 10 Classification of gears Gear tooth terminology Fundamental law of toothed gearing and involute KOM/AJM/MECH/N.P.R.C.E.T Page 2
gearing Length of path of contact and contact ratio Interference and undercutting Gear trains Simple Compound Epicyclic gear trains Differentials. UNIT V FRICTION 10 Dry friction Friction in screw jack Pivot and collar friction Plate clutches Belt and rope drives Block brakes Band brakes L: 45 T: 15 Total: 60 TEXT BOOKS 1. Ambekar, A.G., Mechanism and Machine Theory, Prentice Hall of India, 2007. 2. Uicker, J.J., Pennock, G.R. and Shigley, J.E., Theory of Machines and Mechanisms(Indian Edition), Oxford University Press, 2003. REFERENCES 1. Thomas Bevan, Theory of Machines, CBS Publishers and Distributors, 1984. 2. Ramamurti, V., Mechanism and Machine Theory, 2nd Edition, Narosa Publishing House, 2005. 3. Ghosh, A. and Mallick, A.K., Theory of Mechanisms and Machines, Affiliated East-West Pvt. Ltd., 1998. BIS Codes of Practice/Useful Websites 1. IS 2458 : 2001, Vocabulary of Gear Terms Definitions Related to Geometry 2. IS 2467 : 2002 (ISO 701: 1998), International Gear Notation Symbols for Geometric Data. 3. IS 5267 : 2002 Vocabulary of Gear Terms Definitions Related to Worm Gear Geometry. 4. IS 5037 : Part 1 : 2004, Straight Bevel Gears for General Engineering and Heavy Engineering - Part 1: Basic Rack. 5. IS 5037 : Part 2 : 2004, Straight Bevel Gears for General Engineering and Heavy Engineering - Part 2: Module and Diametral Pitches. Web site: www.howstuffworks.com
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Objective: To study the mechanism, machine and the geometric aspect of motion. Unit I BASICS OF MECHANISMS
Introduction: The objective of kinematics is to develop various means of transforming motion to achieve a specific kind needed in applications. For example, an object is to be moved from point A to point B along some path. The first question in solving this problem is usually: What kind of a mechanism (if any) can be used to perform this function? And the second question is: How does one design such a mechanism?
The objective of dynamics is analysis of the behavior of a given machine or mechanism when subjected to dynamic forces. For the above example, when the mechanism is already known, then external forces are applied and its motion is studied. The determination of forces induced in machine components by the motion is part of this analysis. As a subject, the kinematics and dynamics of machines and mechanisms is disconnected from other subjects (except statics and dynamics) in the Mechanical Engineering curriculum. This absence of links to other subjects may create the false impression that there are no constraints, apart from the kinematic ones, imposed on the design of mechanisms. Look again at the problem of moving an object from A to B. In designing a mechanism, the size, shape, and weight of the object all constitute input into the design process. All of these will affect the size of the mechanism. There are other considerations as well, such as, for example, what the allowable speed of approaching point B should be. The outcome of this inquiry may affect either the configuration or the type of the mechanism. Within the subject of kinematics and dynamics of machines and mechanisms such requirements cannot be justifiably formulated; they can, however, be posed as a learning exercise.
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KINEMATICS AND DYNAMICS AS PART OF THE DESIGN PROCESS The role of kinematics is to ensure the functionality of the mechanism, while the role of dynamics is to verify the acceptability of induced forces in parts. The functionality and induced forces are subject to various constraints (specifications) imposed on the design. Look at the example of a cam operating a valve Fundamentals of Kinematics and Dynamics of Machines and Mechanisms The design process starts with meeting the functional requirements of the product. The basic one in this case is the proper opening, dwelling, and closing of the valve as a function of time. To achieve this objective, a corresponding cam profile producing the needed follower motion should be found. The rocker arm, being a lever, serves as a displacement amplifier/reducer. The timing of opening, dwelling, and closing is controlled by the speed of the camshaft. The function of the spring is to keep the roller always in contact with the cam. To meet this requirement the inertial forces developed during the followervalve system motion should be known, since the spring force must be larger than these forces at any time. Thus, it follows that the determination of component accelerations needed to find inertial forces is important for the choice of the proper spring stiffness. Kinematical analysis allows one to satisfy the functional requirements for valve displacements. Dynamic analysis allows one to find forces in the system as a function of time. These forces are needed to continue the design process. The design process continues with meeting the constraints requirements, which in this case are: 1. Sizes of all parts; 2. Sealing between the valve and its seat; 3. Lubrication; 4. Selection of materials; 5. Manufacturing and maintenance; 6. Safety; 7. Assembly, etc. The forces transmitted through the system during cam rotation allow one to KOM/AJM/MECH/N.P.R.C.E.T Page 5
determine the proper sizes of components, and thus to find the overall assembly dimension. The spring force affects the reliability of the valve sealing. If any of the requirements cannot be met with the given assembly design, then another set of parameters should be chosen, and the kinematic and dynamic analysis repeated for the new version. Thus, kinematic and dynamic analysis is an integral part of the machine design process, which means it uses input from this process and produces output for its continuation.
IS IT A MACHINE, A MECHANISM, OR A STRUCTURE? The term machine is usually applied to a complete product. A car is a machine, as is a tractor, a combine, an earthmoving machine, etc. At the same time, each of these machines may have some devices performing specific functions, like a windshield wiper in a car, which are called mechanisms. An internal combustion engine is called neither a machine nor a mechanism. It is clear that there is a historically established terminology and it may not be consistent. What is important, as far as the subject of kinematics and dynamics is concerned, is that the identification of something as a machine or a mechanism has no bearing on the analysis to be done. And thus in the following, the term machine or mechanism in application to a specific device will be used according to the established custom. The distinction between the machine/mechanism and the structure is more fundamental. The former must have moving parts, since it transforms motion, produces work, or transforms energy. The latter does not have moving parts; its function is purely structural, i.e., to maintain its form and shape under given external loads, like a bridge, a building, or an antenna mast. Fundamentals of Kinematics and Dynamics of Machines and Mechanisms chair, or a solar antenna, may be confusing. Before the folding chair can be used as a chair, it must be unfolded. The transformation from a folded to an unfolded state is the transformation of motion. Thus, the folding chair meets two definitions: it is a mechanism during unfolding and a structure when unfolding is completed. Again, the terminology should not affect the understanding of the substance of the matter. Definitions : Link or Element, Pairing of Elements with degrees of freedom, Grublers criterion (without derivation), Kinematic chain, Mechanism, Mobility of Mechanism, Inversions, Machine. KOM/AJM/MECH/N.P.R.C.E.T Page 6
Kinematic Chains and Inversions : Recall that a kinematic chain becomes a mechanism when one of the links in the chain becomes a frame. The process of choosing different links in the chain as framesis known as kinematic inversion. In this way, for an n-link chain n different mechanisms can be obtained. An example of a four-link slider-crank chain shows how different mechanisms are obtained by fixing different links functionally. Steam engines
Beam engine, with twin connecting rods (almost vertical) between the horizontal beam and the flywheel cranks The first steam engines, Newcomen's atmospheric engine, was single-acting: its piston only did work in one direction, and so these used a chain rather than a connecting rod. Their output rocked back and forth, rather than rotating continuously.
Crosshead of a stationary steam engine: piston rod to the left, connecting rod to the right Steam engines after this are usually double-acting: their internal pressure works on each side of the piston in turn. This requires a seal around the piston rod and so the KOM/AJM/MECH/N.P.R.C.E.T Page 7
hinge between the piston and connecting rod is placed outside the cylinder, in a large sliding bearing block called a crosshead.
Steam locomotive rods, the large angled rod being the connecting rod Internal combustion engines
Compound rods
Articulated connecting rods in a WW1 aero-engine
BMW 132 radial engine rods
LINKS
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Types Of Mechanisms: i) Quick return motion mechanisms Drag link mechanism, Whitworth mechanism and Crank and slotted lever mechanism ii) Straight line motion mechanisms Peaceliers mechanism and Roberts mechanism. iii) Intermittent motion mechanisms Geneva mechanism and Ratchet & Pawl mechanism. iv) Toggle mechanism, Pantograph, Hookes joint and Ackerman Steering gear mechanism.
1. Terminology and Definitions-Degree of Freedom, Mobility Kinematics: The study of motion (position, velocity, acceleration). A major goal of understanding kinematics is to develop the ability to design a system that will satisfy specified motion requirements. This will be the emphasis of this class. Kinetics: The effect of forces on moving bodies. Good kinematic design should produce good kinetics. Mechanism: A system design to transmit motion. (low forces) Machine: A system designed to transmit motion and energy. (forces involved) Basic Mechanisms: Includes geared systems, cam-follower systems and linkages (rigid links connected by sliding or rotating joints). A mechanism has multiple moving parts (for example, a simple hinged door does not qualify as a mechanism). Examples of mechanisms: Tin snips, vise grips, car suspension, backhoe, piston engine, folding chair, windshield wiper drive system, etc. KOM/AJM/MECH/N.P.R.C.E.T Page 10
Key concepts: Degrees of freedom: The number of inputs required to completely control a system. Examples: A simple rotating link. A two link system. A four-bar linkage. A five-bar linkage. Types of motion: Mechanisms may produce motions that are pure rotation, pure translation, or a combination of the two. We reduce the degrees of freedom of a mechanism by restraining the ability of the mechanism to move in translation (x-y directions for a 2D mechanism) or in rotation (about the zaxis for a 2-D mechanism). Link: A rigid body with two or more nodes (joints) that are used to connect to other rigid bodies. (WM examples: binary link, ternary link (3 joints), quaternary link (4 joints)) Joint: A connection between two links that allows motion between the links. The motion allowed may be rotational (revolute joint), translational (sliding or prismatic joint), or a combination of the two (roll-slide joint). Kinematic chain: An assembly of links and joints used to coordinate an output motion with an input motion. Link or element:
A mechanism is made of a number of resistant bodies out of which some may have motions relative to the others. A resistant body or a group of resistant bodies with rigid connections preventing their relative movement is known as a link.
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A link may also be defined as a member or a combination of members of a mechanism, connecting other members and having motion relative to them, thus a link may consist of one or more resistant bodies. A link is also known as Kinematic link or an element. Links can be classified into 1) Binary, 2) Ternary, 3) Quarternary, etc. Kinematic Pair: A Kinematic Pair or simply a pair is a joint of two links having relative motion between them. Example:
In the above given Slider crank mechanism, link 2 rotates relative to link 1 and constitutes a revolute or turning pair. Similarly, links 2, 3 and 3, 4 constitute turning pairs. Link 4 (Slider) reciprocates relative to link 1 and its a sliding pair. Types of Kinematic Pairs: Kinematic pairs can be classified according to i) Nature of contact. ii) Nature of mechanical constraint. iii) Nature of relative motion. i) Kinematic pairs according to nature of contact : a) Lower Pair: A pair of links having surface or area contact between the members is known as a lower pair. The contact surfaces of the two links are similar. Examples: Nut turning on a screw, shaft rotating in a bearing, all pairs of a slidercrank mechanism, universal joint. b) Higher Pair: When a pair has a point or line contact between the links, it is known as a higher pair. The contact surfaces of the two links are dissimilar. Examples: Wheel rolling on a surface cam and follower pair, tooth gears, ball and roller bearings, etc. ii) Kinematic pairs according to nature of mechanical constraint. a) Closed pair: When the elements of a pair are held together mechanically, it is known as a closed pair. The contact between the two can only be broken only by the destruction of at least one of the members. All the lower pairs and some of the higher pairs are closed pairs. b) Unclosed pair: When two links of a pair are in contact either due to force of gravity or some spring action, they constitute an unclosed pair. In this the links are not held together mechanically. Ex.: Cam and follower pair. iii) Kinematic pairs according to nature of relative motion. KOM/AJM/MECH/N.P.R.C.E.T Page 12
a) Sliding pair: If two links have a sliding motion relative to each other, they form a sliding pair. A rectangular rod in a rectangular hole in a prism is an example of a sliding pair. b) Turning Pair: When on link has a turning or revolving motion relative to the other, they constitute a turning pair or revolving pair. c) Rolling pair: When the links of a pair have a rolling motion relative to each other, they form a rolling pair. A rolling wheel on a flat surface, ball ad roller bearings, etc. are some of the examples for a Rolling pair. d) Screw pair (Helical Pair): if two mating links have a turning as well as sliding motion between them, they form a screw pair. This is achieved by cutting matching threads on the two links. The lead screw and the nut of a lathe is a screw Pair e) Spherical pair: When one link in the form of a sphere turns inside a fixed link, it is a spherical pair. The ball and socket joint is a spherical pair. Degrees of Freedom: An unconstrained rigid body moving in space can describe the following independent motions. 1. Translational Motions along any three mutually perpendicular axes x, y and z, 2. Rotational motions along these axes. Thus a rigid body possesses six degrees of freedom. The connection of a link with another imposes certain constraints on their relative motion. The number of restraints can never be zero (joint is disconnected) or six (joint becomes solid). Degrees of freedom of a pair is defined as the number of independent relative motions, both translational and rotational, a pair can have. Degrees of freedom = 6 no. of restraints. To find the number of degrees of freedom for a plane mechanism we have an equation known as Grublers equation and is given by F = 3 ( n 1 ) 2 j1 j2 F = Mobility or number of degrees of freedom n = Number of links including frame. j1 = Joints with single (one) degree of freedom. J2 = Joints with two degrees of freedom. If F > 0, results in a mechanism with F degrees of freedom. F = 0, results in a statically determinate structure. F < 0, results in a statically indeterminate structure. Kinematic Chain: A Kinematic chain is an assembly of links in which the relative motions of the links is possible and the motion of each relative to the others is definite (fig. a, b, and c.)
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In case, the motion of a link results in indefinite motions of other links, it is a nonkinematic chain. However, some authors prefer to call all chains having relative motions of the links as kinematic chains. Linkage, Mechanism and structure: A linkage is obtained if one of the links of kinematic chain is fixed to the ground. If motion of each link results in definite motion of the others, the linkage is known as mechanism. If one of the links of a redundant chain is fixed, it is known as a structure. To obtain constrained or definite motions of some of the links of a linkage, it is necessary to know how many inputs are needed. In some mechanisms, only one input is necessary that determines the motion of other links and are said to have one degree of freedom. In other mechanisms, two inputs may be necessary to get a constrained motion of the other links and are said to have two degrees of freedom and so on. The degree of freedom of a structure is zero or less. A structure with negative degrees of freedom is known as a Superstructure. Motion and its types:
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Completely Constrained Motion
Partially Constrained Motion
Incompletely Constrained Motion
The three main types of constrained motion in kinematic pair are, 1.Completely constrained motion : If the motion between a pair of links is limited to a definite direction, then it is completely constrained motion. E.g.: Motion of a shaft or rod with collars at each end in a hole as shown in fig.
2. Incompletely Constrained motion : If the motion between a pair of links is not confined to a definite direction, then it is incompletely constrained motion. E.g.: A spherical ball or circular shaft in a circular hole may either rotate or slide in the hole as shown in fig.
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3. Successfully constrained motion or Partially constrained motion: If the motion in a definite direction is not brought about by itself but by some other means, then it is known as successfully constrained motion. E.g.: Foot step Bearing.
Machine: It is a combination of resistant bodies with successfully constrained motion which is used to transmit or transform motion to do some useful work. E.g.: Lathe, Shaper, Steam Engine, etc. Kinematic chain with three lower pairs It is impossible to have a kinematic chain consisting of three turning pairs only. But it is possible to have a chain which consists of three sliding pairs or which consists of a turning, sliding and a screw pair. The figure shows a kinematic chain with three sliding pairs. It consists of a frame B, wedge C and a sliding rod A. So the three sliding pairs are, one between the wedge C and the frame B, second between wedge C and sliding rod A and the frame B.
This figure shows the mechanism of a fly press. The element B forms a sliding with A and turning pair with screw rod C which in turn forms a screw pair with A. When link A is fixed, the required fly press mechanism is obtained.
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2. Kutzbach criterion, Grashoff's law Kutzbach criterion: Fundamental Equation for 2-D Mechanisms: M = 3(L 1) 2J1 J2 Can we intuitively derive Kutzbachs modification of Grublers equation? Consider a rigid link constrained to move in a plane. How many degrees of freedom does the link have? (3: translation in x and y directions, rotation about z-axis) If you pin one end of the link to the plane, how many degrees of freedom does it now have? Add a second link to the picture so that you have one link pinned to the plane and one free to move in the plane. How many degrees of freedom exist between the two links? (4 is the correct answer) Pin the second link to the free end of the first link. How many degrees of freedom do you now have? How many degrees of freedom do you have each time you introduce a moving link? How many degrees of freedom do you take away when you add a simple joint? How many degrees of freedom would you take away by adding a half joint? Do the different terms in equation make sense in light of this knowledge? Grashoff's law: Grashoff 4-bar linkage: A linkage that contains one or more links capable of undergoing a full rotation. A linkage is Grashoff if: S + L < P + Q (where: S = shortest link length, L = longest, P, Q = intermediate length links). Both joints of the shortest link are capable of 360 degrees of rotation in a Grashoff linkages. This gives us 4 possible linkages: crank-rocker (input rotates 360), rocker-crank-rocker (coupler rotates 360), rocker-crank (follower); double crank (all links rotate 360). Note that these mechanisms are simply the possible inversions (section 2.11, Figure 2-16) of a Grashoff mechanism. Non Grashoff 4 bar: No link can rotate 360 if: S + L > P + Q Lets examine why the Grashoff condition works: Consider a linkage with the shortest and longest sides joined together. Examine the linkage when the shortest side is parallel to the longest side (2 positions possible, folded over on the long side and extended away from the long side). How long do P and Q have to be to allow the linkage to achieve these positions? Consider a linkage where the long and short sides are not joined. Can you figure out the required lengths for P and Q in this type of mechanism 3. Kinematic Inversions of 4-bar chain and slider crank chains: Types of Kinematic Chain: 1) Four bar chain 2) Single slider chain 3) Double Slider chain Four bar Chain: The chain has four links and it looks like a cycle frame and hence it is also called quadric cycle chain. It is shown in the figure. In this type of chain all four pairs will be turning pairs. KOM/AJM/MECH/N.P.R.C.E.T Page 17
Inversions: By fixing each link at a time we get as many mechanisms as the number of links, then each mechanism is called Inversion of the original Kinematic Chain. Inversions of four bar chain mechanism: There are three inversions: 1) Beam Engine or Crank and lever mechanism. 2) Coupling rod of locomotive or double crank mechanism. 3) Watts straight line mechanism or double lever mechanism. Beam Engine: When the crank AB rotates about A, the link CE pivoted at D makes vertical reciprocating motion at end E. This is used to convert rotary motion to reciprocating motion and vice versa. It is also known as Crank and lever mechanism. This mechanism is shown in the figure below.
2. Coupling rod of locomotive: In this mechanism the length of link AD = length of link C. Also length of link AB = length of link CD. When AB rotates about A, the crank DC rotates about D. this mechanism is used for coupling locomotive wheels. Since links AB and CD work as cranks, this mechanism is also known as double crank mechanism. This is shown in the figure below.
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3. Watts straight line mechanism or Double lever mechanism: In this mechanism, the links AB & DE act as levers at the ends A & E of these levers are fixed. The AB & DE are parallel in the mean position of the mechanism and coupling rod BD is perpendicular to the levers AB & DE. On any small displacement of the mechanism the tracing point C traces the shape of number 8, a portion of which will be approximately straight. Hence this is also an example for the approximate straight line mechanism. This mechanism is shown below.
2. Slider crank Chain: It is a four bar chain having one sliding pair and three turning pairs. It is shown in the figure below the purpose of this mechanism is to convert rotary motion to reciprocating motion and vice versa. Inversions of a Slider crank chain: There are four inversions in a single slider chain mechanism. They are:
st
1) Reciprocating engine mechanism (1 inversion)

nd
2) Oscillating cylinder engine mechanism (2 inversion)

nd
3) Crank and slotted lever mechanism (2 inversion)

rd
4) Whitworth quick return motion mechanism (3 inversion)

rd
5) Rotary engine mechanism (3 inversion)

th
6) Bull engine mechanism (4 inversion)

th
7) Hand Pump (4 inversion) 1. Reciprocating engine mechanism : In the first inversion, the link 1 i.e., the cylinder and the frame is kept fixed. The fig below shows a reciprocating engine.
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A slotted link 1 is fixed. When the crank 2 rotates about O, the sliding piston 4 reciprocates in the slotted link 1. This mechanism is used in steam engine, pumps, compressors, I.C. engines, etc. 2. Crank and slotted lever mechanism: It is an application of second inversion. The crank and slotted lever mechanism is shown in figure below.
In this mechanism link 3 is fixed. The slider (link 1) reciprocates in oscillating slotted lever (link 4) and crank (link 2) rotates. Link 5 connects link 4 to the ram (link 6). The ram with the cutting tool reciprocates perpendicular to the fixed link 3. The ram with the tool reverses its direction of motion when link 2 is perpendicular to link 4. Thus the cutting stroke is executed during the rotation of the crank through angle and the return stroke is executed when the crank rotates through angle or 360 . Therefore, when the crank rotates uniformly, we get, Time to cutting = = Time of return 360 This mechanism is used in shaping machines, slotting machines and in rotary engines. 3. Whitworth quick return motion mechanism:
Third inversion is obtained by fixing the crank i.e. link 2. Whitworth quick return mechanism is an application of third inversion. This mechanism is shown in the figure below. The crank OC is fixed and OQ rotates about O. The slider slides in the slotted link and generates a circle of radius CP. Link 5 connects the extension OQ provided on the opposite side of the link 1 to the ram (link 6). The rotary motion of P is taken to the ram R which reciprocates. The quick return motion mechanism is used in shapers and slotting machines. The angle covered during cutting stroke from P1 to P2 in counter clockwise direction is or 360 -2. During the return stroke, the angle covered is 2 or . KOM/AJM/MECH/N.P.R.C.E.T Page 20
Therefore,
Time to cutting = 360 -2 = 180 Time of return 2 = = . 360
4. Rotary engine mechanism or Gnome Engine: Rotary engine mechanism or gnome engine is another application of third inversion. It is a rotary cylinder V type internal combustion engine used as an aero engine. But now Gnome engine has been replaced by Gas turbines. The Gnome engine has generally seven cylinders in one plane. The crank OA is fixed and all the connecting rods from the pistons are connected to A. In this mechanism when the pistons reciprocate in the cylinders, the whole assembly of cylinders, pistons and connecting rods rotate about the axis O, where the entire mechanical power developed, is obtained in the form of rotation of the crank shaft. This mechanism is shown in the figure below.
Double Slider Crank Chain: A four bar chain having two turning and two sliding pairs such that two pairs of the same kind are adjacent is known as double slider crank chain. Inversions of Double slider Crank chain: It consists of two sliding pairs and two turning pairs. They are three important inversions of double slider crank chain. 1) Elliptical trammel. 2) Scotch yoke mechanism. 3) Oldhams Coupling. 1. Elliptical Trammel: This is an instrument for drawing ellipses. Here the slotted link is fixed. The sliding block P and Q in vertical and horizontal slots respectively. The end R generates an ellipse with the displacement of sliders P and Q.
The co-ordinates of the point R are x and y. From the fig. cos = x. PR and Sin = y. QR Squaring and adding (i) and (ii) we get x2 + y2 = cos2 + sin2
2 2
(PR) KOM/AJM/MECH/N.P.R.C.E.T
(QR) Page 21
x2
2
+ y2 = 1
2
(PR) (QR) The equation is that of an ellipse, Hence the instrument traces an ellipse. Path traced
2 2 2 2
by mid-point of PQ is a circle. In this case, PR = PQ and so x +y =1 (PR) (QR) It is an equation of circle with PR = QR = radius of a circle. 2. Scotch yoke mechanism: This mechanism, the slider P is fixed. When PQ rotates above P, the slider Q reciprocates in the vertical slot. The mechanism is used to convert rotary to reciprocating mechanism.
3. Oldhams coupling: The third inversion of obtained by fixing the link connecting the 2 blocks P & Q. If one block is turning through an angle, the frame and the other block will also turn through the same angle. It is shown in the figure below.
An application of the third inversion of the double slider crank mechanism is Oldhams coupling shown in the figure. This coupling is used for connecting t wo parallel shafts when the distance between the shafts is small. The two shafts to be connected have flanges at their ends, secured by forging. Slots are cut in the flanges. These flanges form 1 and 3. An intermediate disc having tongues at right angles and opposite sides is fitted in between the flanges. The intermediate piece forms the link 4 which slides or reciprocates in flanges 1 & 3. The link two is fixed as shown. When flange 1 turns, the intermediate disc 4 must turn through the same angle and whatever angle 4 turns, the flange 3 must turn through the same angle. Hence 1, 4 & 3 must have the same angular velocity at every instant. If the distance between the axis of the shaft is x, it will be the diameter if the circle traced by the centre of the intermediate piece. The maximum sliding speed of each tongue along its slot is given by v=x where, = angular velocity of each shaft in rad/sec v = linear velocity in m/sec
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4. Mechanical Advantage, Transmission angle: The mechanical advantage (MA) is defined as the ratio of output torque to the input torque. (or) ratio of load to output. Transmission angle. The extreme values of the transmission angle occur when the crank lies along the line of frame. 5. Description of common mechanisms-Single, Double and offset slider mechanisms - Quick return mechanisms: Quick Return Motion Mechanisms: Many a times mechanisms are designed to perform repetitive operations. During these operations for a certain period the mechanisms will be under load known as working stroke and the remaining period is known as the return stroke, the mechanism returns to repeat the operation without load. The ratio of time of working stroke to that of the return stroke is known a time ratio. Quick return mechanisms are used in machine tools to give a slow cutting stroke and a quick return stroke. The various quick return mechanisms commonly used are i) Whitworth ii) Drag link. iii) Crank and slotted lever mechanism 1. Whitworth quick return mechanism: Whitworth quick return mechanism is an application of third inversion of the single slider crank chain. This mechanism is shown in the figure below. The crank OC is fixed and OQ rotates about O. The slider slides in the slotted link and generates a circle of radius CP. Link 5 connects the extension OQ provided on the opposite side of the link 1 to the ram (link 6). The rotary motion of P is taken to the ram R which reciprocates. The quick return motion mechanism is used in shapers and slotting machines.
The angle covered during cutting stroke from P1 to P2 in counter clockwise direction is or 360 -2. During the return stroke, the angle covered is 2 or . 2. Drag link mechanism :
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This is four bar mechanism with double crank in which the shortest link is fixed. If the crank AB rotates at a uniform speed, the crank CD rotate at a non-uniform speed. This rotation of link CD is transformed to quick return reciprocatory motion of the ram E by the link CE as shown in figure. When the crank AB rotates through an angle in Counter clockwise direction during working stroke, the link CD rotates through 180. We can observe that / >/ . Hence time of working stroke is / times more or the return stroke is / times quicker. Shortest link is always stationary link. Sum of the shortest and the longest links of the four links 1, 2, 3 and 4 are less than the sum of the other two. It is the necessary condition for the drag link quick return mechanism. 3. Crank and slotted lever mechanism: It is an application of second inversion. The crank and slotted lever mechanism is shown in figure below.
In this mechanism link 3 is fixed. The slider (link 1) reciprocates in oscillating slotted lever (link 4) and crank (link 2) rotates. Link 5 connects link 4 to the ram (link 6). The ram with the cutting tool reciprocates perpendicular to the fixed link 3. The ram with the tool reverses its direction of motion when link 2 is perpendicular to link 4. Thus the cutting stroke is executed during the rotation of the crank through angle and the return stroke is executed when the crank rotates through angle or 360 . Therefore, when the crank rotates uniformly, we get, Time to cutting = = Time of return 360 This mechanism is used in shaping machines, slotting machines and in rotary engines. 6. Ratchets and escapements - Indexing Mechanisms - Rocking Mechanisms: Intermittent motion mechanism: 1. Ratchet and Pawl mechanism: This mechanism is used in producing intermittent rotary motion member. A ratchet and Pawl mechanism consists of a ratchet wheel 2 and a pawl 3 as shown in the figure. When the lever 4 carrying pawl is raised, the ratchet wheel rotates in the counter clock wise direction (driven by pawl). As the pawl lever is lowered the pawl slides over the ratchet teeth. One more pawl 5 is used to prevent the ratchet from reversing. Ratchets are used in feed mechanisms, lifting jacks, clocks, watches and counting devices.
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2. Geneva mechanism: Geneva mechanism is an intermittent motion mechanism. It consists of a driving wheel D carrying a pin P which engages in a slot of follower F as shown in figure. During one quarter revolution of the driving plate, the Pin and follower remain in contact and hence the follower is turned by one quarter of a turn. During the remaining time of one revolution of the driver, the follower remains in rest locked in position by the circular arc.
3. Pantograph: Pantograph is used to copy the curves in reduced or enlarged scales. Hence this mechanism finds its use in copying devices such as engraving or profiling machines.
This is a simple figure of a Pantograph. The links are pin jointed at A, B, C and D. AB is parallel to DC and AD is parallel to BC. Link BA is extended to fixed pin O. Q is a point on the link AD. If the motion of Q is to be enlarged then the link BC is extended to P such that O, Q and P are in a straight line. Then it can be shown that the points P and Q always move parallel and similar to each other over any path straight or curved. Their motions will be proportional to their distance from the fixed point. Let ABCD be the initial position. Suppose if point Q moves to Q1 , then all the links and the joints will move to the new positions (such as A moves to A1 , B moves to KOM/AJM/MECH/N.P.R.C.E.T Page 25
Q1, C moves to Q1 , D moves to D1 and P to P1 ) and the new configuration of the mechanism is shown by dotted lines. The movement of Q (Q Q1) will be enlarged to PP1 in a definite ratio. 4. Toggle Mechanism:
In slider crank mechanism as the crank approaches one of its dead centre position, the slider approaches zero. The ratio of the crank movement to the slider movement approaching infinity is proportional to the mechanical advantage. This is the principle used in toggle mechanism. A toggle mechanism is used when large forces act through a short distance is required. The figure below shows a toggle mechanism. Links CD and CE are of same length. Resolving the forces at C vertically F Sin =P Cos 2 Therefore, F = P . (because Sin /Cos = Tan ) 2 tan Thus for the given value of P, as the links CD and CE approaches collinear position (O), the force F rises rapidly. 5. Hookes joint:
Hookes joint used to connect two parallel intersecting shafts as shown in figure. This can also be used for shaft with angular misalignment where flexible coupling does not serve the purpose. Hence Hookes joint is a means of connecting two rotating shafts whose axes lie in the same plane and their directions making a small angle with each other. It is commonly known as Universal joint. In Europe it is called as Cardan joint. 5. Ackermann steering gear mechanism:
This mechanism is made of only turning pairs and is made of only turning pairs wear and tear of the parts is less and cheaper in manufacturing. The cross link KL connects KOM/AJM/MECH/N.P.R.C.E.T Page 26
two short axles AC and BD of the front wheels through the short links AK and BL which forms bell crank levers CAK and DBL respectively as shown in fig, the longer links AB and KL are parallel and the shorter links AK and BL are inclined at an angle . When the vehicles steer to the right as shown in the figure, the short link BL is turned so as to increase , where as the link LK causes the other short link AK to turn so as to reduce . The fundamental equation for correct steering is, CotCos = b / l In the above arrangement it is clear that the angle through which AK turns is less than the angle through which the BL turns and therefore the left front axle turns through a smaller angle than the right front axle. For different angle of turn , the corresponding value of and (Cot Cos ) are noted. This is done by actually drawing the mechanism to a scale or by calculations. Therefore for different value of the corresponding value of and are tabulated. Approximate value of b/l for correct steering should be between 0.4 and 0.5. In an Ackermann steering gear mechanism, the instantaneous centre I does not lie on the axis of the rear axle but on a line parallel to the rear axle axis at an approximate distance of 0.3l above it. Three correct steering positions will be: 1) When moving straight. 2) When moving one correct angle to the right corresponding to the link ratio AK/AB and angle . 3) Similar position when moving to the left. In all other positions pure rolling is not obtainable. Some Of The Mechanisms Which Are Used In Day To Day Life. BELL CRANK: GENEVA STOP:
BELL CRANK: The bell crank was originally used in large house to operate the servants bell, hence the name. The bell crank is used to convert the direction of reciprocating movement. By varying the angle of the crank piece it can be used to change the angle of movement from 1 degree to 180 degrees. GENEVA STOP: The Geneva stop is named after the Geneva cross, a similar shape to the main part of the mechanism. The Geneva stop is used to provide intermittent motion, the orange wheel turns continuously, the dark blue pin then turns the blue cross quarter of a turn for each revolution of the drive wheel. The crescent shaped cut out in dark orange section lets the points of the cross past, then locks the wheel in place when it is stationary. The Geneva stop mechanism is used commonly in film cameras.
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ELLIPTICAL TRAMMEL
PISTON ARRANGEMENT
ELLIPTICAL TRAMMEL: This fascinating mechanism converts rotary motion to reciprocating motion in two axis. Notice that the handle traces out an ellipse rather than a circle. A similar mechanism is used in ellipse drawing tools. PISTON ARRANGEMENT: This mechanism is used to convert between rotary motion and reciprocating motion, it works either way. Notice how the speed of the piston changes. The piston starts from one end, and increases its speed. It reaches maximum speed in the middle of its travel then gradually slows down until it reaches the end of its travel. RACK AND PINION RATCHET
RACK AND PINION: The rack and pinion is used to convert between rotary and linear motion. The rack is the flat, toothed part, the pinion is the gear. Rack and pinion can convert from rotary to linear of from linear to rotary. The diameter of the gear determines the speed that the rack moves as the pinion turns. Rack and pinions are commonly used in the steering system of cars to convert the rotary motion of the steering wheel to the side to side motion in the wheels. Rack and pinion gears give a positive motion especially compared to the friction drive of a wheel in tarmac. In the rack and pinion railway a central rack between the two rails engages with a pinion on the engine allowing the train to be pulled up very steep slopes. RATCHET: The ratchet can be used to move a toothed wheel one tooth at a time. The part used to move the ratchet is known as the pawl. The ratchet can be used as a way of gearing down motion. By its nature motion created by a ratchet is intermittent. By using two pawls simultaneously this intermittent effect can be almost, but not quite, removed. Ratchets are also used to ensure that motion only occurs in only one
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direction, useful for winding gear which must not be allowed to drop. Ratchets are also used in the freewheel mechanism of a bicycle. WORM GEAR WATCH ESCAPEMENT.
WORM GEAR: A worm is used to reduce speed. For each complete turn of the worm shaft the gear shaft advances only one tooth of the gear. In this case, with a twelve tooth gear, the speed is reduced by a factor of twelve. Also, the axis of rotation is turned by 90 degrees. Unlike ordinary gears, the motion is not reversible, a worm can drive a gear to reduce speed but a gear cannot drive a worm to increase it. As the speed is reduced the power to the drive increases correspondingly. Worm gears are a compact, efficient means of substantially decreasing speed and increasing power. Ideal for use with small electric motors. WATCH ESCAPEMENT: The watch escapement is the centre of the time piece. It is the escapement which divides the time into equal segments. The balance wheel, the gold wheel, oscillates backwards and forwards on a hairspring (not shown) as the balance wheel moves the lever is moved allowing the escape wheel (green) to rotate by one tooth. The power comes through the escape wheel which gives a small 'kick' to the palettes (purple) at each tick. GEARS CAM FOLLOWER.
GEARS: Gears are used to change speed in rotational movement. In the example above the blue gear has eleven teeth and the orange gear has twenty five. To turn the orange gear one full turn the blue gear must turn 25/11 or 2.2727r turns. Notice that as the blue gear turns clockwise the orange gear turns anti-clockwise. In the above example the number of teeth on the orange gear is not divisible by the number of teeth on the blue gear. This is deliberate. If the orange gear had thirty three teeth then every three turns of the blue gear the same teeth would mesh together which could cause excessive wear. By using none divisible numbers the same teeth mesh only every seventeen turns of the blue gear.
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CAMS: Cams are used to convert rotary motion into reciprocating motion. The motion created can be simple and regular or complex and irregular. As the cam turns, driven by the circular motion, the cam follower traces the surface of the cam transmitting its motion to the required mechanism. Cam follower design is important in the way the profile of the cam is followed. A fine pointed follower will more accurately trace the outline of the cam. This more accurate movement is at the expense of the strength of the cam follower. STEAM ENGINE.
Steam engines were the backbone of the industrial revolution. In this common design high pressure steam is pumped alternately into one side of the piston, then the other forcing it back and forth. The reciprocating motion of the piston is converted to useful rotary motion using a crank. As the large wheel (the fly wheel) turns a small crank or cam is used to move the small red control valve back and forth controlling where the steam flows. In this animation the oval crank has been made transparent so that you can see how the control valve crank is attached. 7. Straight line generators, Design of Crank-rocker Mechanisms: Straight Line Motion Mechanisms: The easiest way to generate a straight line motion is by using a sliding pair but in precision machines sliding pairs are not preferred because of wear and tear. Hence in such cases different methods are used to generate straight line motion mechanisms: 1. Exact straight line motion mechanism. a. Peaucellier mechanism, b. Hart mechanism, c. Scott Russell mechanism 2. Approximate straight line motion mechanisms a. Watt mechanism, b. Grasshoppers mechanism, c. Roberts mechanism, d. Tchebicheffs mechanism a. Peaucillier mechanism : The pin Q is constrained to move long the circumference of a circle by means of the link OQ. The link OQ and the fixed link are equal in length. The pins P and Q are on opposite corners of a four bar chain which has all four links QC, CP, PB and BQ of equal length to the fixed pin A. i.e., link AB = link AC. The product AQ x AP remain constant as the link OQ rotates may be proved as follows: Join BC to bisect PQ at F; then, from the right angled triangles AFB, BFP, we have AB=AF+FB and BP=BF+FP. Subtracting, AB-BP= AF-FP=(AFFP)(AF+FP) = AQ x AP . Since AB and BP are links of a constant length, the product AQ x AP is constant. Therefore the point P traces out a straight path normal to AR. KOM/AJM/MECH/N.P.R.C.E.T Page 30
b. Roberts mechanism: This is also a four bar chain. The link PQ and RS are of equal length and the tracing pint O is rigidly attached to the link QR on a line which bisects QR at right angles. The best position for O may be found by making use of the instantaneous centre of QR. The path of O is clearly approximately horizontal in the Roberts mechanism.
a. Peaucillier mechanism
b. Hart mechanism
Oldham Coupling. Below is exploded view of an Oldham Coupling.
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An Oldham coupler is a method to transfer torque between two parallel but not collinear shafts. It has three discs, one coupled to the input, one coupled to the output, and a middle disc that is joined to the first two by tongue and groove. The tongue and groove on one side is perpendicular to the tongue and groove on the other. Often springs are used to reduce backlash of the mechanism. The coupler is much more compact than, for example, two universal joints. The coupler is named for John Oldham who invented it in Ireland, in 1820, to solve a paddle placement problem in a steamship design. The middle disc rotates around its center at the same speed as the input and output shafts. Its center traces a circular orbit, twice per rotation, around the midpoint between input and output shafts.
Unit II KINEMATICS Velocity and Acceleration analysis of mechanisms (Graphical Methods): Velocity and acceleration analysis by vector polygons: Relative velocity and accelerations of particles in a common link, relative velocity and accelerations of coincident particles on separate link, Coriolis component of acceleration. Velocity and acceleration analysis by complex numbers: Analysis of single slider crank mechanism and four bar mechanism by loop closure equations and complex numbers. 8. Displacement, velocity and acceleration analysis in simple mechanisms: Important Concepts in Velocity Analysis 1. The absolute velocity of any point on a mechanism is the velocity of that point with reference to ground. 2. Relative velocity describes how one point on a mechanism moves relative to another point on the mechanism. 3. The velocity of a point on a moving link relative to the pivot of the link is given by the equation: V = r, where = angular velocity of the link and r = distance from pivot. Acceleration Components 2 Normal Acceleration: An = r. Points toward the center of rotation t Tangential Acceleration: A = r. In a direction perpendicular to the link Coriolis Acceleration: Ac = 2(dr/dt). In a direction perpendicular to the link Sliding Acceleration: As = d2r/dt2. In the direction of sliding.
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A rotating link will produce normal and tangential acceleration components at any point a distance, r, from the rotational pivot of the link. The total acceleration of that point is the vector sum of the components. A slider attached to ground experiences only sliding acceleration. A slider attached to a rotating link (such that the slider is moving in or out along the link as the link rotates) experiences all 4 components of acceleration. Perhaps the most confusing of these is the coriolis acceleration, though the concept of coriolis acceleration is fairly simple. Imagine yourself standing at the center of a merry-go-round as it spins at a constant speed (). You begin to walk toward the outer edge of the merry-go-round at a constant speed (dr/dt). Even though you are walking at a constant speed and the merry-go-round is spinning at a constant speed, your total velocity is increasing because you are moving away from the center of rotation (i.e. the edge of the merry-go-round is moving faster than the center). This is the coriolis acceleration. In what direction did your speed increase? This is the direction of the coriolis acceleration. The total acceleration of a point is the vector sum of all applicable acceleration components: A = An + At + Ac + As These vectors and the above equation can be broken into x and y components by applying sines and cosines to the vector diagrams to determine the x and y components of each vector. In this way, the x and y components of the total acceleration can be found. 9. Graphical Method, Velocity and Acceleration polygons : Graphical velocity analysis: It is a very short step (using basic trigonometry with sines and cosines) to convert the graphical results into numerical results. The basic steps are these: 1. Set up a velocity reference plane with a point of zero velocity designated. 2. Use the equation, V = r, to calculate any known linkage velocities. 3. Plot your known linkage velocities on the velocity plot. A linkage that is rotating about ground gives an absolute velocity. This is a vector that originates at the zero velocity point and runs perpendicular to the link to show the direction of motion. The vector, VA, gives the velocity of point A. 4. Plot all other velocity vector directions. A point on a grounded link (such as point B) will produce an absolute velocity vector passing through the zero velocity point and perpendicular to the link. A point on a floating link (such as B relative to point A) will produce a relative velocity vector. This vector will be perpendicular to the link AB and pass through the reference point (A) on the velocity diagram. 5. One should be able to form a closed triangle (for a 4-bar) that shows the vector equation: VB = VA + VB/A where VB = absolute velocity of point B, VA = absolute velocity of point A, and VB/A is the velocity of point B relative to point A. 10. Velocity Analysis of Four Bar Mechanisms: Problems solving in Four Bar Mechanisms and additional links.
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11. Velocity Analysis of Slider Crank Mechanisms: Problems solving in Slider Crank Mechanisms and additional links. 12. Acceleration Analysis of Four Bar Mechanisms: Problems solving in Four Bar Mechanisms and additional links. 13. Acceleration Analysis of Slider Crank Mechanisms: Problems solving in Slider Crank Mechanisms and additional links. 14. Kinematic analysis by Complex Algebra methods: Analysis of single slider crank mechanism and four bar mechanism by loop closure equations and complex numbers. 15. Vector Approach: Relative velocity and accelerations of particles in a common link, relative velocity and accelerations of coincident particles on separate link 16. Computer applications in the kinematic analysis of simple mechanisms: Computer programming for simple mechanisms 17. Coincident points, Coriolis Acceleration: Coriolis Acceleration: Ac = 2(dr/dt). In a direction perpendicular to the link. A slider attached to ground experiences only sliding acceleration. A slider attached to a rotating link (such that the slider is moving in or out along the link as the link rotates) experiences all 4 components of acceleration. Perhaps the most confusing of these is the coriolis acceleration, though the concept of coriolis acceleration is fairly simple. Imagine yourself standing at the center of a merry-go-round as it spins at a constant speed (). Yo u begin to walk toward the outer edge of the merry-go-round at a constant speed (dr/dt). Even though you are walking at a constant speed and the merry-go-round is spinning at a constant speed, your total velocity is increasing because you are moving away from the center of rotation (i.e. the edge of the merry-go-round is moving faster than the center). This is the coriolis acceleration. In what direction did your speed increase? This is the direction of the coriolis acceleration.
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Unit III KINEMATICS OF CAM Camshaft For the fictional characters of the same name, see Camshaft (Transformers).
Computer animation of a camshaft operating valves A camshaft is a shaft to which a cam is fastened or of which a cam forms an integral part. CAMPROFILE
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Cams: Type of cams, Type of followers, Displacement, Velocity and acceleration time curves for cam profiles, Disc cam with reciprocating follower having knife edge, roller follower, Follower motions including SHM, Uniform velocity, Uniform acceleration and retardation and Cycloidal motion.
Cams are used to convert rotary motion into reciprocating motion. The motion created can be simple and regular or complex and irregular. As the cam turns, driven by the circular motion, the cam follower traces the surface of the cam transmitting its motion to the required mechanism. Cam follower design is important in the way the profile of the cam is followed. A fine pointed follower will more accurately trace the outline of the cam. This more accurate movement is at the expense of the strength of the cam follower. 18. Classifications - Displacement diagrams Cam Terminology: KOM/AJM/MECH/N.P.R.C.E.T Page 37
Physical components: Cam, follower, spring Types of cam systems: Oscilllating (rotating), translating Types of joint closure: Force closed, form closed Types of followers: Flat-faced, roller, mushroom Types of cams: radial, axial, plate (a special class of radial cams). Types of motion constraints: Critical extreme position the positions of the follower that are of primary concern are the extreme positions, with considerable freedom as to design the cam to move the follower between these positions. This is the motion constraint type that we will focus upon. Critical path motion The path by which the follower satisfies a given motion is of interest in addition to the extreme positions. This is a more difficult (and less common) design problem. Types of motion: rise, fall, dwell Geometric and Kinematic parameters: follower displacement, velocity, acceleration, and jerk; base circle; prime circle; follower radius; eccentricity; pressure angle; radius of curvature. 19. Parabolic, Simple harmonic and Cycloidal motions: Describing the motion: A cam is designed by considering the desired motion of the follower. This motion is specified through the use of SVAJ diagrams (diagrams that describe the desired displacement-velocity-acceleration and jerk of the follower motion) 20. Layout of plate cam profiles: Drawing the displacement diagrams for the different kinds of the motions and the plate cam profiles for these different motions and different followers. SHM, Uniform velocity, Uniform acceleration and retardation and Cycloidal motions Knife-edge, Roller, Flat-faced and Mushroom followers. 21. Derivatives of Follower motion: Velocity and acceleration of the followers for various types of motions. Calculation of Velocity and acceleration of the followers for various types of motions. 22. High speed cams: High speed cams 23. Circular arc and Tangent cams: Circular arc Tangent cam 24. Standard cam motion: Simple Harmonic Motion Uniform velocity motion Uniform acceleration and retardation motion Cycloidal motion 25. Pressure angle and undercutting: Pressure angle KOM/AJM/MECH/N.P.R.C.E.T Page 38
A camshaft The relationship between the rotation of the camshaft and the rotation of the crankshaft is of critical importance. Since the valves control the flow of air/fuel mixture intake and exhaust gases, they must be opened and closed at the appropriate time during the stroke of the piston. For this reason, the camshaft is connected to the crankshaft either directly, via a gear mechanism, or indirectly via a belt or chain called a timing belt or timing chain. In some designs the camshaft also drives the distributor and the oil and fuel pumps. Some General Motors vehicles also have the power steering pump driven by the camshaft. Also on early fuel injection systems, cams on the camshaft would operate the fuel injectors.
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In a two-stroke engine that uses a camshaft, each valve is opened once for each rotation of the crankshaft; in these engines, the camshaft rotates at the same rate as the crankshaft. In a four-stroke engine, the valves are opened only half as often; thus, two full rotations of the crankshaft occur for each rotation of the camshaft. The timing of the camshaft can be advanced to produce better low end torque or it can be retarded to produce better high end torque.
Duration
Duration is the number of crankshaft degrees of engine rotation during which the valve is off the seat. As a generality, greater duration results in more horsepower. The RPM at which peak horsepower occurs is typically increased as duration increases at the expense of lower rpm efficiency (torque). Duration can often be confusing because manufacturers may select any lift point to advertise a camshaft's duration and sometimes will manipulate these numbers. The power and idle characteristics of a camshaft rated at .006" will be much different than one rated the same at .002". Many performance engine builders gauge a race profile's aggressiveness by looking at the duration at .020", .050" and .200". The .020" number determines how responsive the motor will be and how much low end torque the motor will make. The .050" number is used to estimate where peak power will occur, and the .200" number gives an estimate of the power potential. A secondary effect of increase duration is increasing overlap, which is the number of crankshaft degrees during which both intake and exhaust valves are off their seats. It is overlap which most affects idle quality, inasmuch as the "blow-through" of the intake charge which occurs during overlap reduces engine efficiency, and is greatest during low RPM operation. In reality, increasing a camshaft's duration typically increases the overlap event, unless one spreads lobe centers between intake and exhaust valve lobe profiles.
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Lift
The camshaft "lift" is the resultant net rise of the valve from its seat. The further the valve rises from its seat the more airflow can be realised, which is generally more beneficial. Greater lift has some limitations. Firstly, the lift is limited by the increased proximity of the valve head to the piston crown and secondly greater effort is required to move the valve's springs to higher state of compression. Increased lift can also be limited by lobe clearance in the cylinder head construction, so higher lobes may not necessarily clear the framework of the cylinder head casing. Higher valve lift can have the same effect as increased duration where valve overlap is less desirable. Higher lift allows accurate timing of airflow; although even by allowing a larger volume of air to pass in the relatively larger opening, the brevity of the typical duration with a higher lift cam results in less airflow than with a cam with lower lift but more duration, all else being equal. On forced induction motors this higher lift could yield better results than longer duration, particularly on the intake side. Notably though, higher lift has more potential problems than increased duration, in particular as valve train rpm rises which can result in more inefficient running or loss or torque. Cams that have too high a resultant valve lift, and at high rpm, can result in what is called "valve bounce", where the valve spring tension is insufficient to keep the valve following the cam at its apex. This could also be as a result of a very steep rise of the lobe and short duration, where the valve is effectively shot off the end of the cam rather than have the valve follow the cams profile. This is typically what happens on a motor over rev. This is an occasion where the engine rpm exceeds the engine maximum design speed. The valve train is typically the limiting factor in determining the maximum rpm the engine can maintain either for a prolonged period or temporarily. Sometimes an over rev can cause engine failure where the valve stems become bent as a result of colliding with the piston crowns.
Position
Depending on the location of the camshaft, the cams operate the valves either directly or through a linkage of pushrods and rockers. Direct operation involves a simpler mechanism and leads to fewer failures, but requires the camshaft to be positioned at KOM/AJM/MECH/N.P.R.C.E.T Page 41
the top of the cylinders. In the past when engines were not as reliable as today this was seen as too much bother, but in modern gasoline engines the overhead cam system, where the camshaft is on top of the cylinder head, is quite common.
Number of camshafts
Main articles: overhead valve and overhead cam While today some cheaper engines rely on a single camshaft per cylinder bank, which is known as a single overhead camshaft (SOHC), most modern engine designs (the overhead-valve or OHV engine being largely obsoleted from passenger vehicles), are driven by a two camshafts per cylinder bank arrangement (one camshaft for the intake valves and another for the exhaust valves); such camshaft arrangement is known as a double or dual overhead cam (DOHC), thus, a V engine, which has two separate cylinder banks, may have four camshafts (colloquially known as a quad-cam engine[6]). More unusual is the modern W engine (also known as a 'VV' engine to distinguish itself from the pre-war W engines) that has four cylinder banks arranged in a "W" pattern with two pairs narrowly arranged with a 15 degree separation. Even when there are four cylinder banks (that would normally require a total of eight individual camshafts), the narrow-angle design allows the use of just four camshafts in total. For the Bugatti Veyron, which has a 16 cylinder W engine configuration, all the four camshafts are driving a total of 64 valves. The overhead camshaft design adds more valvetrain components that ultimately incur in more complexity and higher manufacturing costs, but this is easily offset by many advantages over the older OHV design: multi-valve design, higher RPM limit and design freedom to better place valves, ignition (Spark-ignition engine) and intake/exhaust ports.
Maintenance
The rockers or cam followers sometimes incorporate a mechanism to adjust and set the valve play through manual adjustment, but most modern auto engines have hydraulic lifters, eliminating the need to adjust the valve lash at regular intervals as KOM/AJM/MECH/N.P.R.C.E.T Page 42
the valvetrain wears, and in particular the valves and valve seats in the combustion chamber. Sliding friction between the surface of the cam and the cam follower which rides upon it is considerable. In order to reduce wear at this point, the cam and follower are both surface hardened, and modern lubricant motor oils contain additives specifically to reduce sliding friction. The lobes of the camshaft are usually slightly tapered, causing the cam followers or valve lifters to rotate slightly with each depression, and helping to distribute wear on the parts. The surfaces of the cam and follower are designed to "wear in" together, and therefore when either is replaced, the other should be as well to prevent excessive rapid wear. In some engines, the flat contact surfaces are replaced with rollers, which eliminate the sliding friction and wear but adds mass to the valvetrain.
Alternatives
In addition to mechanical friction, considerable force is required to overcome the valve springs used to close the engine's valves. This can amount to an estimated 25% of an engine's total output at idle, reducing overall efficiency. Some approaches to reclaiming this "wasted" energy include: Springless valves, like the desmodromic system employed today by Ducati Camless valvetrains using solenoids or magnetic systems have long been investigated by BMW and Fiat, and are currently being prototyped by Valeo and Ricardo The Wankel engine, a rotary engine which uses neither pistons nor valves, best known for being used by Mazda in the RX-7 and RX-8 sports cars.
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Gallery
Components of a typical, four stroke cycle, DOHC piston engine. (E) Exhaust camshaft, (I) Intake camshaft, (S) Spark plug, (V) Valves, (P) Piston, (R) Connecting rod, (C) Crankshaft, (W) Water jacket for coolant flow.
Double overhead cams control the opening and closing of a cylinder's valves. 1. Intake 2. Compression 3. Power 4. Exhaust
Valve timing gears on a Ford Taurus V6 engine the small gear is on the crankshaft, the larger gear is on the camshaft. The gear ratio causes the camshaft to run at half the RPM of the crankshaft.
Unit IV GEARS
For the gear-like device used to drive a roller chain, see Sprocket. This article is about mechanical gears. For other uses, see Gear (disambiguation).
Two meshing gears transmitting rotational motion. Note that the smaller gear is rotating faster. Although the larger gear is rotating less quickly, its torque is proportionally greater.
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A gear is a rotating machine part having cut teeth, or cogs, which mesh with another toothed part in order to transmit torque. Two or more gears working in tandem are called a transmission and can produce a mechanical advantage through a gear ratio and thus may be considered a simple machine. Geared devices can change the speed, magnitude, and direction of a power source. The most common situation is for a gear to mesh with another gear, however a gear can also mesh a non-rotating toothed part, called a rack, thereby producing translation instead of rotation. The gears in a transmission are analogous to the wheels in a pulley. An advantage of gears is that the teeth of a gear prevent slipping. When two gears of unequal number of teeth are combined a mechanical advantage is produced, with both the rotational speeds and the torques of the two gears differing in a simple relationship. In transmissions which offer multiple gear ratios, such as bicycles and cars, the term gear, as in first gear, refers to a gear ratio rather than an actual physical gear. The term is used to describe similar devices even when gear ratio is continuous rather than discrete, or when the device does not actually contain any gears, as in a continuously variable transmission.
Spur Gears
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Miter Gears
Helical Gears
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Miter Gears-Helical
Worm Gears
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Planetary Gears
Non-Metal Gears
GEAR TRAINS
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Gears are used to change speed in rotational movement.
In the example above the blue gear has eleven teeth and the orange gear has twenty five. To turn the orange gear one full turn the blue gear must turn 25/11 or 2.2727r turns. Notice that as the blue gear turns clockwise the orange gear turns anticlockwise. In the above example the number of teeth on the orange gear is not divisible by the number of teeth on the blue gear. This is deliberate. If the orange gear had thirty three teeth then every three turns of the blue gear the same teeth would mesh together which could cause excessive wear. By using none divisible numbers the same teeth mesh only every seventeen turns of the blue gear.
26. Spur gear Terminology and definitions: Spur Gears: External Internal Definitions
27. Fundamental Law of toothed gearing and Involute gearing: Law of gearing Involutometry and Characteristics of involute action KOM/AJM/MECH/N.P.R.C.E.T Page 51
Path of Contact and Arc of Contact Contact Ratio Comparison of involute and cycloidal teeth 28. Inter changeable gears, gear tooth action, Terminology: Inter changeable gears Gear tooth action Terminology 29. Interference and undercutting: Interference in involute gears Methods of avoiding interference Back lash 30. Non standard gear teeth: Helical, Bevel, Worm, Rack and Pinion gears (Basics only) Helical Bevel Worm Rack and Pinion gears Worm
Worm gear Worm gears resemble screws. A worm gear is usually meshed with an ordinary looking, disk-shaped gear, which is called the gear, wheel, or worm wheel. Worm-and-gear sets are a simple and compact way to achieve a high torque, low speed gear ratio. For example, helical gears are normally limited to gear ratios of less than 10:1 while worm-and-gear sets vary from 10:1 to 500:1.[ A disadvantage is the potential for considerable sliding action, leading to low efficiency. Worm gears can be considered a species of helical gear, but its helix angle is usually somewhat large (close to 90 degrees) and its body is usually fairly long in the axial KOM/AJM/MECH/N.P.R.C.E.T Page 52
direction; and it is these attributes which give it its screw like qualities. The distinction between a worm and a helical gear is made when at least one tooth persists for a full rotation around the helix. If this occurs, it is a 'worm'; if not, it is a 'helical gear'. A worm may have as few as one tooth. If that tooth persists for several turns around the helix, the worm will appear, superficially, to have more than one tooth, but what one in fact sees is the same tooth reappearing at intervals along the length of the worm. The usual screw nomenclature applies: a one-toothed worm is called single thread or single start; a worm with more than one tooth is called multiple thread or multiple start. The helix angle of a worm is not usually specified. Instead, the lead angle, which is equal to 90 degrees minus the helix angle, is given. In a worm-and-gear set, the worm can always drive the gear. However, if the gear attempts to drive the worm, it may or may not succeed. Particularly if the lead angle is small, the gear's teeth may simply lock against the worm's teeth, because the force component circumferential to the worm is not sufficient to overcome friction. Wormand-gear sets that do lock are called self locking, which can be used to advantage, as for instance when it is desired to set the position of a mechanism by turning the worm and then have the mechanism hold that position. An example is the machine head found on some types of stringed instruments. If the gear in a worm-and-gear set is an ordinary helical gear only a single point of contact will be achieved. If medium to high power transmission is desired, the tooth shape of the gear is modified to achieve more intimate contact by making both gears partially envelop each other. This is done by making both concave and joining them at a saddle point; this is called a cone-drive.
RACK AND PINION KOM/AJM/MECH/N.P.R.C.E.T
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RACK AND PINION: The rack and pinion is used to convert between rotary and linear motion. The rack is the flat, toothed part, the pinion is the gear. Rack and pinion can convert from rotary to linear of from linear to rotary. The diameter of the gear determines the speed that the rack moves as the pinion turns. Rack and pinions are commonly used in the steering system of cars to convert the rotary motion of the steering wheel to the side to side motion in the wheels. Rack and pinion gears give a positive motion especially compared to the friction drive of a wheel in tarmac. In the rack and pinion railway a central rack between the two rails engages with a pinion on the engine allowing the train to be pulled up very steep slopes. WORM GEAR: A worm is used to reduce speed. For each complete turn of the worm shaft the gear shaft advances only one tooth of the gear. In this case, with a twelve tooth gear, the speed is reduced by a factor of twelve. Also, the axis of rotation is turned by 90 degrees. Unlike ordinary gears, the motion is not reversible, a worm can drive a gear to reduce speed but a gear cannot drive a worm to increase it. As the speed is reduced the power to the drive increases correspondingly. Worm gears are a compact, efficient means of substantially decreasing speed and increasing power. Ideal for use with small electric motors.
31. Gear trains: Gear Train Basics The velocity ratio, mV, of a gear train relates the output velocity to the input velocity. For example, a gear train ratio of 5:1 means that the output gear velocity is 5 times the input gear velocity. 32. Parallel axis gear trains: Simple Gear Trains A simple gear train is a collection of meshing gears where each gear is on its own axis. The train ratio for a simple gear train is the ratio of the number of teeth on the input gear to the number of teeth on the output gear. A simple gear train will typically have 2 or 3 gears and a gear ratio of 10:1 or less. If the train has 3 gears, the intermediate gear has no numerical effect on the train ratio except to change the direction of the output gear. Compound Gear Trains A compound gear train is a train where at least one shaft carries more than one gear. The train ratio is given by the ratio m V = (product of number of teeth on driver gears)/(product of number of teeth on driven gears). A common approach to the design of compound gear trains is to first determine the number of gear reduction steps needed (each step is typically smaller than 10:1 for size purposes). Once this is done, determine KOM/AJM/MECH/N.P.R.C.E.T Page 54
the desired ratio for each step, select a pinion size, and then calculate the gear size. Reverted Gear Trains A reverted gear train is a special case of a compound gear train. A reverted gear train has the input and output shafts in line with one another. Assuming no idler gears are used, a reverted gear train can be realized only if the number of teeth on the input side of the train adds up to the same as the number of teeth on the output side of the train. 33. Epicyclic gear trains: If the axis of the shafts over which the gears are mounted are moving relative to a fixed axis , the gear train is called the epicyclic gear train. Problems in epicyclic gear trains. 34. Differentials: Used in the rear axle of an automobile. To enable the rear wheels to revolve at different speeds when negotiating a curve. To enable the rear wheels to revolve at the same speeds when going straight. Rack and pinion
Rack and pinion gearing A rack is a toothed bar or rod that can be thought of as a sector gear with an infinitely large radius of curvature. Torque can be converted to linear force by meshing a rack with a pinion: the pinion turns; the rack moves in a straight line. Such a mechanism is used in automobiles to convert the rotation of the steering wheel into the left-to-right motion of the tie rod(s). Racks also feature in the theory of gear geometry, where, for instance, the tooth shape of an interchangeable set of gears may be specified for the rack (infinite radius), and the tooth shapes for gears of particular actual radii then derived from that. The rack and pinion gear type is employed in a rack railway.
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Epicyclic
Epicyclic gearing In epicyclic gearing one or more of the gear axes moves. Examples are sun and planet gearing (see below) and mechanical differentials. Sun and planet
Sun (yellow) and planet (red) gearing Main article: Sun and planet gear Sun and planet gearing was a method of converting reciprocal motion into rotary motion in steam engines. It played an important role in the Industrial Revolution. The Sun is yellow, the planet red, the reciprocating crank is blue, the flywheel is green and the driveshaft is grey.
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Harmonic drive
Harmonic drive gearing A harmonic drive is a specialized proprietary gearing mechanism. Cage gear A cage gear, also called a lantern gear or lantern pinion has cylindrical rods for teeth, parallel to the axle and arranged in a circle around it, much as the bars on a round bird cage or lantern. The assembly is held together by disks at either end into which the tooth rods and axle are set. Nomenclature General nomenclature
Rotational frequency, n Measured in rotation over time, such as RPM. Angular frequency, Measured in radians per second. 1RPM Number of teeth, N How many teeth a gear has, an integer. In the case of worms, it is the number of thread starts that the worm has. Gear, wheel The larger of two interacting gears. Pinion The smaller of two interacting gears. KOM/AJM/MECH/N.P.R.C.E.T Page 57
= / 30 rad/second
Path of contact Path followed by the point of contact between two meshing gear teeth. Line of action, pressure line Line along which the force between two meshing gear teeth is directed. It has the same direction as the force vector. In general, the line of action changes from moment to moment during the period of engagement of a pair of teeth. For involute gears, however, the tooth-to-tooth force is always directed along the same linethat is, the line of action is constant. This implies that for involute gears the path of contact is also a straight line, coincident with the line of actionas is indeed the case. Axis Axis of revolution of the gear; center line of the shaft. Pitch point, p Point where the line of action crosses a line joining the two gear axes. Pitch circle, pitch line Circle centered on and perpendicular to the axis, and passing through the pitch point. A predefined diametral position on the gear where the circular tooth thickness, pressure angle and helix angles are defined. Pitch diameter, d A predefined diametral position on the gear where the circular tooth thickness, pressure angle and helix angles are defined. The standard pitch diameter is a basic dimension and cannot be measured, but is a location where other measurements are made. Its value is based on the number of teeth, the normal module (or normal diametral pitch), and the helix angle. It is calculated as: in metric units or in imperial units.[15] Module, m A scaling factor used in metric gears with units in millimeters who's effect is to enlarge the gear tooth size as the module increases and reduce the size as the module decreases. Module can be defined in the normal (mn), the transverse (mt), or the axial planes (ma) depending on the design approach employed and the type of gear being designed.[15] Module is typically an input value into the gear design and is seldom calculated. Operating pitch diameters KOM/AJM/MECH/N.P.R.C.E.T Page 58
Diameters determined from the number of teeth and the center distance at which gears operate.[4] Example for pinion: Pitch surface In cylindrical gears, cylinder formed by projecting a pitch circle in the axial direction. More generally, the surface formed by the sum of all the pitch circles as one moves along the axis. For bevel gears it is a cone. Angle of action Angle with vertex at the gear center, one leg on the point where mating teeth first make contact, the other leg on the point where they disengage. Arc of action Segment of a pitch circle subtended by the angle of action. Pressure angle, The complement of the angle between the direction that the teeth exert force on each other, and the line joining the centers of the two gears. For involute gears, the teeth always exert force along the line of action, which, for involute gears, is a straight line; and thus, for involute gears, the pressure angle is constant. Outside diameter, Do Diameter of the gear, measured from the tops of the teeth. Root diameter Diameter of the gear, measured at the base of the tooth. Addendum, a Radial distance from the pitch surface to the outermost point of the tooth. a
(Do D) / 2
Dedendum, b Radial distance from the depth of the tooth trough to the pitch surface.
b=
(D rootdiameter) / 2
Whole depth, ht The distance from the top of the tooth to the root; it is equal to addendum plus dedendum or to working depth plus clearance. Clearance Distance between the root circle of a gear and the addendum circle of its mate. KOM/AJM/MECH/N.P.R.C.E.T Page 59
Working depth Depth of engagement of two gears, that is, the sum of their operating addendums. Circular pitch, p Distance from one face of a tooth to the corresponding face of an adjacent tooth on the same gear, measured along the pitch circle. Diametral pitch, pd Ratio of the number of teeth to the pitch diameter. Could be measured in teeth per inch or teeth per centimeter. Base circle In involute gears, where the tooth profile is the involute of the base circle. The radius of the base circle is somewhat smaller than that of the pitch circle. Base pitch, normal pitch, pb In involute gears, distance from one face of a tooth to the corresponding face of an adjacent tooth on the same gear, measured along the base circle. Interference Contact between teeth other than at the intended parts of their surfaces. Interchangeable set A set of gears, any of which will mate properly with any other. Helical gear nomenclature Helix angle, Angle between a tangent to the helix and the gear axis. Is zero in the limiting case of a spur gear. Normal circular pitch, pn Circular pitch in the plane normal to the teeth. Transverse circular pitch, p Circular pitch in the plane of rotation of the gear. Sometimes just called "circular pitch". pn
= pcos()
Several other helix parameters can be viewed either in the normal or transverse planes. The subscript n usually indicates the normal.
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Worm gear nomenclature Lead Distance from any point on a thread to the corresponding point on the next turn of the same thread, measured parallel to the axis. Linear pitch, p Distance from any point on a thread to the corresponding point on the adjacent thread, measured parallel to the axis. For a single-thread worm, lead and linear pitch are the same. Lead angle, Angle between a tangent to the helix and a plane perpendicular to the axis. Note that it is the complement of the helix angle which is usually given for helical gears. Pitch diameter, dw Same as described earlier in this list. Note that for a worm it is still measured in a plane perpendicular to the gear axis, not a tilted plane. Subscript w denotes the worm, subscript g denotes the gear. Tooth contact nomenclature
Line of contact
Path of action Line of action
Plane of action
Lines of contact (helical gear)
Arc of action
Length of action Limit diameter
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Face advance Zone of action Point of contact Any point at which two tooth profiles touch each other. Line of contact A line or curve along which two tooth surfaces are tangent to each other. Path of action The locus of successive contact points between a pair of gear teeth, during the phase of engagement. For conjugate gear teeth, the path of action passes through the pitch point. It is the trace of the surface of action in the plane of rotation. Line of action The path of action for involute gears. It is the straight line passing through the pitch point and tangent to both base circles. Surface of action The imaginary surface in which contact occurs between two engaging tooth surfaces. It is the summation of the paths of action in all sections of the engaging teeth. Plane of action The surface of action for involute, parallel axis gears with either spur or helical teeth. It is tangent to the base cylinders. Zone of action (contact zone) For involute, parallel-axis gears with either spur or helical teeth, is the rectangular area in the plane of action bounded by the length of action and the effective face width. Path of contact The curve on either tooth surface along which theoretical single point contact occurs during the engagement of gears with crowned tooth surfaces or gears that normally engage with only single point contact. Length of action KOM/AJM/MECH/N.P.R.C.E.T Page 62
The distance on the line of action through which the point of contact moves during the action of the tooth profile. Arc of action, Qt The arc of the pitch circle through which a tooth profile moves from the beginning to the end of contact with a mating profile. Arc of approach, Qa The arc of the pitch circle through which a tooth profile moves from its beginning of contact until the point of contact arrives at the pitch point. Arc of recess, Qr The arc of the pitch circle through which a tooth profile moves from contact at the pitch point until contact ends. Contact ratio, mc, The number of angular pitches through which a tooth surface rotates from the beginning to the end of contact.In a simple way, it can be defined as a measure of the average number of teeth in contact during the period in which a tooth comes and goes out of contact with the mating gear. Transverse contact ratio, mp, The contact ratio in a transverse plane. It is the ratio of the angle of action to the angular pitch. For involute gears it is most directly obtained as the ratio of the length of action to the base pitch. Face contact ratio, mF, The contact ratio in an axial plane, or the ratio of the face width to the axial pitch. For bevel and hypoid gears it is the ratio of face advance to circular pitch. Total contact ratio, mt, The sum of the transverse contact ratio and the face contact ratio.
= + mt = mp + mF
Modified contact ratio, mo For bevel gears, the square root of the sum of the squares of the transverse and face contact ratios. Limit diameter
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Diameter on a gear at which the line of action intersects the maximum (or minimum for internal pinion) addendum circle of the mating gear. This is also referred to as the start of active profile, the start of contact, the end of contact, or the end of active profile. Start of active profile (SAP) Intersection of the limit diameter and the involute profile. Face advance Distance on a pitch circle through which a helical or spiral tooth moves from the position at which contact begins at one end of the tooth trace on the pitch surface to the position where contact ceases at the other end. Tooth thickness nomeclature
Chordal Tooth thickness Thickness relationships thickness Tooth thickness measurement over pins
Span measurement Circular thickness Length of arc between the two sides of a gear tooth, on the specified datum circle. Transverse circular thickness Circular thickness in the transverse plane. Normal circular thickness Long and short addendum teeth
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Circular thickness in the normal plane. In a helical gear it may be considered as the length of arc along a normal helix. Axial thickness In helical gears and worms, tooth thickness in an axial cross section at the standard pitch diameter. Base circular thickness In involute teeth, length of arc on the base circle between the two involute curves forming the profile of a tooth. Normal chordal thickness Length of the chord that subtends a circular thickness arc in the plane normal to the pitch helix. Any convenient measuring diameter may be selected, not necessarily the standard pitch diameter. Chordal addendum (chordal height) Height from the top of the tooth to the chord subtending the circular thickness arc. Any convenient measuring diameter may be selected, not necessarily the standard pitch diameter. Profile shift Displacement of the basic rack datum line from the reference cylinder, made non-dimensional by dividing by the normal module. It is used to specify the tooth thickness, often for zero backlash. Rack shift Displacement of the tool datum line from the reference cylinder, made nondimensional by dividing by the normal module. It is used to specify the tooth thickness. Measurement over pins Measurement of the distance taken over a pin positioned in a tooth space and a reference surface. The reference surface may be the reference axis of the gear, a datum surface or either one or two pins positioned in the tooth space or spaces opposite the first. This measurement is used to determine tooth thickness. Span measurement Measurement of the distance across several teeth in a normal plane. As long as the measuring device has parallel measuring surfaces that contact on an KOM/AJM/MECH/N.P.R.C.E.T Page 65
unmodified portion of the involute, the measurement will be along a line tangent to the base cylinder. It is used to determine tooth thickness. Modified addendum teeth Teeth of engaging gears, one or both of which have non-standard addendum. Full-depth teeth Teeth in which the working depth equals 2.000 divided by the normal diametral pitch. Stub teeth Teeth in which the working depth is less than 2.000 divided by the normal diametral pitch. Equal addendum teeth Teeth in which two engaging gears have equal addendums. Long and short-addendum teeth Teeth in which the addendums of two engaging gears are unequal. Pitch nomenclature Pitch is the distance between a point on one tooth and the corresponding point on an adjacent tooth.[4] It is a dimension measured along a line or curve in the transverse, normal, or axial directions. The use of the single word pitch without qualification may be ambiguous, and for this reason it is preferable to use specific designations such as transverse circular pitch, normal base pitch, axial pitch.
Pitch Circular pitch, p
Tooth pitch
Base pitch relationshipsPrincipal pitches
Arc distance along a specified pitch circle or pitch line between corresponding profiles of adjacent teeth. Transverse circular pitch, pt Circular pitch in the transverse plane. Normal circular pitch, pn, pe KOM/AJM/MECH/N.P.R.C.E.T Page 66
Circular pitch in the normal plane, and also the length of the arc along the normal pitch helix between helical teeth or threads. Axial pitch, px Linear pitch in an axial plane and in a pitch surface. In helical gears and worms, axial pitch has the same value at all diameters. In gearing of other types, axial pitch may be confined to the pitch surface and may be a circular measurement. The term axial pitch is preferred to the term linear pitch. The axial pitch of a helical worm and the circular pitch of its worm gear are the same. Normal base pitch, pN, pbn An involute helical gear is the base pitch in the normal plane. It is the normal distance between parallel helical involute surfaces on the plane of action in the normal plane, or is the length of arc on the normal base helix. It is a constant distance in any helical involute gear. Transverse base pitch, pb, pbt In an involute gear, the pitch on the base circle or along the line of action. Corresponding sides of involute gear teeth are parallel curves, and the base pitch is the constant and fundamental distance between them along a common normal in a transverse plane. Diametral pitch (transverse), Pd Ratio of the number of teeth to the standard pitch diameter in inches. Normal diametral pitch, Pnd Value of diametral pitch in a normal plane of a helical gear or worm. Angular pitch, N, Angle subtended by the circular pitch, usually expressed in radians. degrees or radians Backlash Main article: Backlash (engineering) Backlash is the error in motion that occurs when gears change direction. It exists because there is always some gap between the trailing face of the driving tooth and the leading face of the tooth behind it on the driven gear, and that gap must be closed before force can be transferred in the new direction. The term "backlash" can also be used to refer to the size of the gap, not just the phenomenon it causes; thus, one could KOM/AJM/MECH/N.P.R.C.E.T Page 67
speak of a pair of gears as having, for example, "0.1 mm of backlash." A pair of gears could be designed to have zero backlash, but this would presuppose perfection in manufacturing, uniform thermal expansion characteristics throughout the system, and no lubricant. Therefore, gear pairs are designed to have some backlash. It is usually provided by reducing the tooth thickness of each gear by half the desired gap distance. In the case of a large gear and a small pinion, however, the backlash is usually taken entirely off the gear and the pinion is given full sized teeth. Backlash can also be provided by moving the gears farther apart. For situations, such as instrumentation and control, where precision is important, backlash can be minimised through one of several techniques. For instance, the gear can be split along a plane perpendicular to the axis, one half fixed to the shaft in the usual manner, the other half placed alongside it, free to rotate about the shaft, but with springs between the two halves providing relative torque between them, so that one achieves, in effect, a single gear with expanding teeth. Another method involves tapering the teeth in the axial direction and providing for the gear to be slid in the axial direction to take up slack. Shifting of gears In some machines (e.g., automobiles) it is necessary to alter the gear ratio to suit the task. There are several methods of accomplishing this. For example: Manual transmission Automatic gearbox Derailleur gears which are actually sprockets in combination with a roller chain Hub gears (also called epicyclic gearing or sun-and-planet gears) There are several outcomes of gear shifting in motor vehicles. In the case of air pollution emissions, there are higher pollutant emissions generated in the lower gears, when the engine is working harder than when higher gears have been attained. In the case of vehicle noise emissions, there are higher sound levels emitted when the vehicle is engaged in lower gears. This fact has been utilized in analyzing vehicle generated sound since the late 1960s, and has been incorporated into the simulation of KOM/AJM/MECH/N.P.R.C.E.T Page 68
urban roadway noise and corresponding design of urban noise barriers along roadways. Tooth profile
Undercut Profile of a spur gear A profile is one side of a tooth in a cross section between the outside circle and the root circle. Usually a profile is the curve of intersection of a tooth surface and a plane or surface normal to the pitch surface, such as the transverse, normal, or axial plane. The fillet curve (root fillet) is the concave portion of the tooth profile where it joins the bottom of the tooth space.2 As mentioned near the beginning of the article, the attainment of a non fluctuating velocity ratio is dependent on the profile of the teeth. Friction and wear between two gears is also dependent on the tooth profile. There are a great many tooth profiles that will give a constant velocity ratio, and in many cases, given an arbitrary tooth shape, it is possible to develop a tooth profile for the mating gear that will give a constant velocity ratio. However, two constant velocity tooth profiles have been by far the most commonly used in modern times. They are the cycloid and the involute. The cycloid was more common until the late 1800s; since then the involute has largely superseded it, particularly in drive train applications. The cycloid is in some ways the more interesting and flexible shape; however the involute has two advantages: it is easier to manufacture, and it permits the center to center spacing of the gears to vary over some range without ruining the constancy of the velocity ratio. Cycloidal gears only work properly if the center spacing is exactly right. Cycloidal gears are still used in mechanical clocks.
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An undercut is a condition in generated gear teeth when any part of the fillet curve lies inside of a line drawn tangent to the working profile at its point of juncture with the fillet. Undercut may be deliberately introduced to facilitate finishing operations. With undercut the fillet curve intersects the working profile. Without undercut the fillet curve and the working profile have a common tangent.
Formulae used: i)Addendum = m/4 ii)Pitch circle radius of pinion ,r = m Tp/2 iii)Pitch circle radii of Gear wheel ,R= mTA/2 iv)Addendum radius of gear wheel ,RA =R+Addendum v)Length of path of contact ,KL = KP+ PL vi) Length of arc of contact = KL / cos vii) Number of teeth in contact = length of arc of contact / Circular pitch (P c)
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Unit V FRICTION Friction Friction is a measure of how hard it is to slide one object over another. Take a look at the figure below. Both of the blocks are made from the same material, but one is heavier. I think we all know which one will be harder for the bulldozer to push.
Friction force versus weight To understand why this is, let's take a close look at one of the blocks and the table:
Because friction exists at the microscopic level, the amount of force it takes to move a given block is proportional to that block's weight.
Even though the blocks look smooth to the naked eye, they are actually quite rough at the microscopic level. When you set the block down on the table, the little peaks and valleys get squished together, and some of them may actually weld together. The
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weight of the heavier block causes it to squish together more, so it is even harder to slide. Different materials have different microscopic structures; for instance, it is harder to slide rubber against rubber than it is to slide steel against steel. The type of material determines the coefficient of friction, the ratio of the force required to slide the block to the block's weight. If the coefficient were 1.0 in our example, then it would take 100 pounds of force to slide the 100-pound (45 kg) block, or 400 pounds (180 kg) of force to slide the 400-pound block. If the coefficient were 0.1, then it would take 10 pounds of force to slide to the 100-pound block or 40 pounds of force to slide the 400pound block. So the amount of force it takes to move a given block is proportional to that block's weight. The more weight, the more force required. This concept applies for devices like brakes and clutches, where a pad is pressed against a spinning disc. The more force that presses on the pad, the greater the stopping force.
Clutch For other uses, see Clutch (disambiguation).
Clutch for a drive shaft: The clutch disc (center) spins with the flywheel (left). To disengage, the lever is pulled (black arrow), causing a white pressure plate (right) to disengage the green clutch disc from turning the drive shaft, which turns within the thrust-bearing ring of the lever. Never will all 3 rings connect, with no gaps.
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Rear side of a Ford V6 engine, looking at the clutch housing on the flywheel
Single, dry, clutch friction disc. The splined hub is attached to the disc with springs to damp chatter. A clutch is a mechanical device, by convention understood to be rotating, which provides driving force to another mechanism when required, typically by connecting the driven mechanism to the driving mechanism. Clutches and brakes are similar; if the driven member of a clutch is fixed to the mechanism frame, it serves as a brake. Clutches are useful in devices that have two rotating shafts. In these devices, one shaft is typically attached to a motor or other power unit (the driving member), and the other shaft (the driven member) provides output power for work to be done. In a drill, KOM/AJM/MECH/N.P.R.C.E.T Page 73
for instance, one shaft is driven by a motor, and the other drives a drill chuck. The clutch connects the two shafts so that they can either be locked together and spin at the same speed (engaged), or be decoupled and spin at different speeds (disengaged).
Multiple plate clutch This type of clutch has several driving members interleaved with several driven members. It is used in race cars including F1, Indy car, World rally and even most club racing, motorcycles, automatic transmissions and in some diesel locomotives with mechanical transmissions. It is also used in some electronically controlled allwheel drive systems. Vehicular There are different designs of vehicle clutch, but most are based on one or more friction discs, pressed tightly together or against a flywheel using springs. The friction material varies in composition depending on whether the clutch is dry or wet, and on other considerations. Friction discs once contained asbestos, but this has been largely eliminated. Clutches found in heavy duty applications such as trucks and competition cars use ceramic clutches that have a greatly increased friction coefficient. However, these have a "grabby" action and are unsuitable for road cars. The spring pressure is released when the clutch pedal is depressed thus either pushing or pulling the diaphragm of the pressure plate, depending on type. However, raising the engine speed too high while engaging the clutch will cause excessive clutch plate wear. Engaging the clutch abruptly when the engine is turning at high speed causes a harsh, jerky start. This kind of start is necessary and desirable in drag racing and other competitions, where speed is more important than comfort. Wet vs. dry A "wet clutch" is immersed in a cooling lubricating fluid, which also keeps the surfaces clean and gives smoother performance and longer life. Wet clutches, however, tend to lose some energy to the liquid. A "dry clutch", as the name implies, is not bathed in fluid. Since the surfaces of a wet clutch can be slippery (as with a KOM/AJM/MECH/N.P.R.C.E.T Page 74
motorcycle clutch bathed in engine oil), stacking multiple clutch disks can compensate for the lower coefficient of friction and so eliminate slippage under power when fully engaged. The Hele-Shaw clutch was a wet clutch that relied entirely on viscous effects, rather than on friction. Automobiles
This plastic pilot shaft guide tool is used to align the clutch disk as the spring-loaded pressure plate is installed. The transmission's drive splines and pilot shaft have an identical shape. A number of such devices fit various makes and models of drivetrains In a car the clutch is operated by the left-most pedal using a hydraulic or cable connection from the pedal to the clutch mechanism. On older cars the clutch would be operated by a mechanical linkage. Even though the clutch may physically be located very close to the pedal, such remote means of actuation are necessary to eliminate the effect of vibrations and slight engine movement, engine mountings being flexible by design. With a rigid mechanical linkage, smooth engagement would be nearimpossible, because engine movement inevitably occurs as the drive is "taken up." No pressure on the pedal means that the clutch plates are engaged (driving), while pressing the pedal disengages the clutch plates, allowing the driver to shift gears or coast. A manual transmission contains cogs for selecting gears. These cogs have matching teeth, called dog teeth, which means that the rotation speeds of the two parts have a synchronizer, a device that uses frictional contact to bring the two parts to the same speed, and a locking mechanism called a blocker ring to prevent engagement of the teeth (full movement of the shift lever into gear) until the speeds are synchronized. Push/Pull
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Clutches can be classified as Push Type Or Pull Type depending on the location of the pressure plate fulcrum points. In a pull type clutch, the action of pressing the pedal pulls the release bearing, pulling on the diaphragm spring and disengaging the vehicle drive. The opposite is true with a push type, the release bearing is pushed into the clutch disengaging the vehicle drive. In this instance, the release bearing can be known as a thrust bearing (as per the image above). FACTS Various materials have been used for the disc friction facings, including asbestos in the past. Nowadays, however, an organic resin and copper wire facing or a Ceramic material. A typical coefficient of friction used on a disc friction surface is 0.35 for an organic and 0.25 for ceramic. Ceramic materials can be used in heavy applications such as trucks carrying large loads or racing however, since the material is harder than the organic material it increases flywheel and pressure plate wear. As well as the dampened disc centres, which reduce driveline vibration, predampeners are used to reduce gear rattle at idle due to changing the natural frequency of the disc. These are weaker springs which will be compressed solely by the radial vibrations from an idling engine. They are fully compressed and no longer in use once drive is taken up by the main dampener springs. A clamp load of 33Kn is normal for a single plate 430 whereas a 400 Twin for the Mercedes application offers a clamp load of a mere 23,000N. Bursts speeds are typically around 5,000rpm with the weakest point being the facing rivet. For trucks. With regards to the manufacture of diaphragm springs, heat treatment is crucial. Laser welding is becoming more common as a method of attaching the drive plate to the disc ring with the laser typically being between 2-3KW and a feed rate 1m/minute. Modern clutch development focuses its attention on the simplification of the overall assembly and/or manufacturing methods for example drive straps are now commonly employed to transfer torque as well as lift the pressure plate upon disengagement of vehicle drive. Drive straps are the smaller [Design Experience 2008present] KOM/AJM/MECH/N.P.R.C.E.T Page 76
Non-powertrain in automobiles
There are other clutches found in a car. For example, a belt-driven engine cooling fan may have a clutch that is heat-activated. The driving and driven elements are separated by a silicone-based fluid and a valve controlled by a bimetallic spring. When the temperature is low, the spring winds and closes the valve, which allows the fan to spin at about 20% to 30% of the shaft speed. As the temperature of the spring rises, it unwinds and opens the valve, allowing fluid past the valve which allows the fan to spin at about 60% to 90% of shaft speed depending on whether it's a regular or heavy-duty clutch. There are also electronically engaged clutches (such as for an air conditioning compressor) that use magnetic force to lock the driving and driven shafts together. Motorcycles On most motorcycles, the clutch is operated by the clutch lever, located on the left handlebar. No pressure on the lever means that the clutch plates are engaged (driving), while pulling the lever back towards the rider will disengage the clutch plates through cable or hydraulic actuation, allowing the rider to shift gears. Motorcycle clutches are usually made up of a stack of alternating plain steel and friction plates. One type of plate has lugs on its inner diameter that key it to the engine crankshaft, while the other type of plate has lugs on its outer diameter that key it to a basket that turns the transmission input shaft. The plates are forced together by a set of coil springs or a diaphragm spring plate when the clutch is engaged. Racing motorcycles often use slipper clutches to eliminate the effects of engine braking, which, being applied only to the rear wheel, can lead to instability. Centrifugal Some cars and mopeds have a centrifugal clutch, using centrifugal effects to automatically engage the clutch, when the engine is accelerated above certain rpm, see Saxomat and Variomatic.
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Mopeds also use centrifugal clutches. On the flat they may be pedalled manually, on approaching a hill the engine speed is increased, engaging the clutch to assist with the climb. Other clutches Dog clutches: Described above. Positive engagement, non-slip. Partial engagement under any significant load is destructive. Cone clutches: Friction clutches; distinguished by conical friction surfaces. The cone's taper meant that a given amount of movement of the actuator made the surfaces approach (or recede) much more slowly than in a disc clutch. As well, a given amount of actuating force created more pressure on the mating surfaces. Torque limiter, slip clutch, or Safety clutch:: This device allows a rotating shaft to "slip" when higher than normal resistance is encountered on a machine. An example of a safety clutch is the one mounted on the driving shaft of a large grass mower. The clutch will "slip" or "give" if the blades hit a rock, stump, or other immobile object. Motor-driven mechanical calculators had these, between the drive motor and gear train, to limit damage when the mechanism jammed. (Motors had high stall torque.) Carefully-designed types disengage (but continue to transmit torque) in such tools as controlled-torque screwdrivers. Overrunning clutch or freewheel: If some external torque makes the driven member rotate faster than the driver, the clutch effectively disengages. Such a clutch was an essential part of the Borg-Warner Overdrive in cars. Typical bicycles have these, so that the rider can stop pedaling and coast. If one member oscillates, this type converts that motion into intermittent rotary motion. Some types are ratchets with the pawl mounted on a moving member; among others are (silent) wrap-spring types, such as the brake for a film camera's winding knob that keeps it from being turned backwards. Centrifugal clutch and semi-centrifugal clutch: When the driving shaft is running slowly, the clutch is disengaged; it engages when the driven member speeds up. One example is in engine-driven radio-controlled model cars. KOM/AJM/MECH/N.P.R.C.E.T Page 78
Hydraulic clutch: The driving and driven members are not in physical contact; coupling is hydrodynamic. Electromagnetic clutch: Typically, a clutch that is engaged by an electromagnet that is usually an integral part of the clutch assembly. However, magnetic particle clutches have a space between driving and driven members that also serve as pole pieces of an electromagnet. Applying DC causes the particles to clump together and adhere to the operating surfaces. Engagement and slippage are notably smooth. Double Dry Clutch Single-revolution clutch: When inactive, it is disengaged, and the driven member is stationary. When "tripped", it locks up solidly (typically in milliseconds or tens of ms) and rotates the driven member just one full turn. If the trip mechanism is operated when the clutch would otherwise disengage, the clutch remains engaged. Variants include half-revolution (and other fractional-revolution) types. These were an essential part of printing telegraphs, such as the Teletype page printers, as well as electric typewriters, notably the IBM Selectric. They were also found in motor-driven mechanical calculators; the Marchant had several of them. They are also used in farm machinery and industry. Typically, these were a variety of dog clutch. Wrap-spring clutches: These have a helical spring wound with square-crosssection wire. In simple form, the spring is fastened at one end to the driven member; its other end is unattached. The spring fits closely around a cylindrical driving member. If the driving member rotates in the direction that would unwind the spring, the spring expands minutely and slips, although with some drag. Rotating the driving member the other way makes the spring wrap itself tightly around the driving surface, and the clutch locks up. Single-revolution clutches in teleprinters were of this type. Basically, the spring was kept expanded (details below) and mostly out of contact with the driving sleeve, but nevertheless close to it. One end of the spring was attached to a sleeve surrounding the spring. The other end of the spring was attached to the driven member, inside which the drive shaft could rotate freely. The sleeve had a projecting tooth, like a ratchet tooth. A spring-loaded pawl pressed KOM/AJM/MECH/N.P.R.C.E.T Page 79
against the sleeve and kept it from rotating. The wrap spring's torque kept the sleeve's tooth pressing against the pawl. To engage the clutch, an electromagnet attracted the pawl away from the sleeve. The wrap spring's torque rotated the sleeve, which permitted the spring to contract and wrap tightly around the driving sleeve. Load torque tightened the wrap, so it didn't slip once engaged. If the pawl were held away from the sleeve, the clutch would continue to drive the load without slipping. When the clutch was to disengage, power was disconnected from the electromagnet, and the pawl moved close to the sleeve. When the sleeve's tooth contacted the pawl, the sleeve and the load's inertia unwrapped the spring to disengage the clutch. Considering that the drive motors in some of these (such as teleprinters for news wire services) ran 24 hours a day for years, the spring could not be allowed to stay in close contact with the driving cylinder; wear would be excessive. The other end of the spring was fastened to a thick disc attached to the driven member. When the clutch locked up, the driven mechanism coasted, and its inertia rotated the disc until a tooth on it engaged a pawl that kept it from reversing. Together with the restraint at the other end of the spring, created by the trip pawl and sleeve tooth, this kept the spring expanded to minimize contact with the driving cylinder. These clutches were lubricated with conventional oil, but the wrap was so effective that the lubricant did not defeat the grip. These clutches had long operating lives, cycling for tens, maybe hundreds of millions of cycles without need of maintenance other than occasional lubrication with recommended oil. "Cascaded-Pawl" single-revolution clutches: These superseded wrap-spring single-revolution clutches in page printers (such as teleprinters), including the Model 28 Teletype (and its successors using the same design principles). As well, the IBM Selectric typewriter had several of them. These were typically disc-shaped assemblies mounted on the drive shaft. Inside the hollow disc-shaped housing were two or three freely-floating pawls arranged so that, when the clutch was tripped, the load torque on the first pawl KOM/AJM/MECH/N.P.R.C.E.T Page 80
to engage created force to keep the second pawl engaged, which in turn kept the third one engaged. The clutch did not slip, once locked up. This sequence happened quite fast, on the order of milliseconds. The first pawl had a projection that engaged a trip lever. If the lever engaged the pawl, the clutch was disengaged. When the trip lever moved out of the way, the first pawl engaged, creating the cascaded lockup just described. As the clutch rotated, it would stay locked up if the trip lever were out of the way, but if it engaged, it would quickly unlock the clutch. "Kickback" clutch-brakes: These mechanisms were found in some types of synchronous-motor-driven electric clocks. Many different types of synchronous clock motors were used, including the pre-World War II Hammond manual-start clocks. Some types of self-starting synchronous motors always started when power was applied, but, in detail, their behavior was chaotic, and they were equally likely to start rotating in the wrong direction. Coupled to the rotor by one (or possibly two) stages of reduction gearing was a wrap-spring clutch-brake. The spring did not rotate. One end was fixed, the other free. It rode freely but closely on the rotating member, part of the clock's gear train. The clutch-brake locked up when rotated backwards, but also had some spring action. The inertia of the rotor going backwards engaged the clutch and "wound" the spring. As it "unwound", it re-started the motor in the correct direction. Some designs had no explicit spring as such; it was simply a compliant mechanism. The mechanism was lubricated; wear did not seem to be a problem.
35. Surface contacts: Basic laws of friction Pivot and collar, introduction and types. Problem on flat pivot, Problems on conical pivot. 36. Sliding and Rolling friction: Sliding contact bearings Rolling contact bearings Problems in bearings KOM/AJM/MECH/N.P.R.C.E.T Page 81
37. Friction drives:
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Friction drives Positive drives and Slip drives Speed ratio 38. Friction in screw threads: Friction in screw and nut Friction in screw jack Problems in screw jack 39. Friction clutches: CLUTCH FRICTION
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Single plate clutches and Multi-plate clutches Uniform wear theory and Uniform pressure theory Problems in clutches
40. Belt and rope drives: Pulleys
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BELT DRIVES
V Belt Drives
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Timing Belts
Poly V Belt Drives
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ROPE DRIVES
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Belt drives, Open belt drives and Crossed belt drives Length of the belt and Angle of lap Power transmitted by a belt drive Problems in belt drives 41. Friction aspects in Brakes:
BRAKES
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Brakes, Types Mechanical brakes, band brakes Braking torque calculations Self locking brakes Problems in brakes 42. Friction in vehicle propulsion and braking: Vehicle dynamics Vehicle propulsions Braking aspects in vehicles
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QUESTION BANK
Subject Name: Kinematics of Machinery
UNIT- I (Basics of Mechanism)
PART-A (2 Marks) 1. Define degree of freedom (or) what is mean by mobility? 2. How to determine the given assemblies of links forms the kinamatic chain or not? 3. What is pantograph? 4. Compare machine and structure? 5. Give some examples for kinamatic pairs. 6. Discuss Elliptical trammel. 7. What is meant by Transmission angle? 8. What is mechanical advantage in a mechanism? 9. State the Kutzback criterion. 10. Difference between mechanism and machine. 11. Write down the grashofs law for four bar mechanism. PART-B (16 Marks) 1. a) Explain different types of Link. (8) b) Classify and explain the Kinematic pair. (8) 2. a) Explain any two inversion of four bar chain. (8) b) Explain the first inversion of Single Slider Crank Chain. (8) 3. a) Explain first inversion of Double Slider crank chain. (8) b) Explain third inversion of double slider crank chain. (8) 4. a) Explain the offset slider crank mechanism. (8) b) Explain Straight line mechanism with neat sketch (8) 5. a)With the help of a neat sketch explain the working of Oldhams coupling. (8) b) Explain steering gear mechanism with neat sketch (8) 6. With the help of a neat sketch explain the working of Whitworth quick return mechanism. (16) 7. With the help of a neat sketch explain the working of Single slider and double slider crank chain mechanism. (16) KOM/AJM/MECH/N.P.R.C.E.T Page 96
UNIT II (Kinematics)
PART-A (2 Marks) 1. Define instantaneous center and instantaneous axis. 2. A pin joins two links A and B, A rotates with _A angular velocity and B rotates with _B angular velocity in opposite direction. What is rubbing velocity of that pin? 3. What is meant by the efficiency of a mechanism? 4. How to represent the direction of linear velocity of any point on a link with respect to another point on the same link? 5. What is the magnitude of linear velocity of a point B on a link AB relative to A? 6. What is the expression for coriolis component of acceleration? 7. What are the properties of instantaneous center? 8. How many instantaneous centers are possible in a four bar chain mechanism? 9. Radial component of acceleration is ___________to the velocity of the component and tangential component is perpendicular to _______________. 10. Define Kennedys theorem. PART-B (16 Marks) 1. The Crank of a slider crank mechanisms rotates clockwise at a Constant speed of 600 r.p.m. The crank is 125 mm and connecting rod is 500 mm long. Determine 1. Linear velocity and acceleration of the mid Point of the connecting rod, and 2. Angular velocity and angular acceleration of the connecting rod, at a crank angle of 45 from inner dead centre position. (16) 2. In a four link mechanism, the dimensions of the links are AB=200 mm, BC=400mm, CD=450 mm and AD=600mm. At the instant when DAB=90, the link AB has angular velocity of 36 rad/s in the clockwise direction. Determine (i) The velocity of point C, (ii) The velocity of point E on the link BC When BE =200 mm (iii) the angular velocities of links BC and CD, iv) acceleration of link of link BC.(16) 3. The dimensions of the various links of a mechanism, as shown in fig. are as follows: OA=300 mm; AB=1200; BC=450 mm and CD=450 mm. if the crank OA rotates at 20 r.p.m. in the anticlockwise direction and gives motion to the sliding KOM/AJM/MECH/N.P.R.C.E.T Page 97
blocks B and D, find, for given configuration: (1) Velocity of sliding at B and D, (2) Angular velocity of CD (3) Linear acceleration of D and (4) angular acceleration of CD. (16) 4 a)Derive the expressions for Velocity and acceleration of piston in reciprocating steam engine mechanism with neat sketch (8) b).Derive the expression for Coriolis component of acceleration with neat sketch (8) 5. In a slider crank mechanism, the length of the crank and the connecting rod are 100 mm and 400 mm respectively./ The crank [position is 45 from IDC, the crank shaft speed is 600 r.p.m. clockwise. Using analytical method Determine (1)Velocity and acceleration of the slider, and (2) Angular velocity and angular acceleration of the connecting rod.(16) 6. Locate all instantaneous centers of the slider crank mechanism; the length of crank OB and Connecting rod AB are 125 mm and 500 mm respectively. The crank speed is 600 rpm clockwise. When the crank has turned 45 from the IDC. Determine (i)velocity of . slider A (ii)Angular Velocity of connecting rod AB. (16) UNIT III (Kinematics of Cam)
PART-A (2 Marks) 1. What is a cam? 2. Give some examples for cams 3. What is the maximum acceleration of a follower moving with cycloidal motion? 4. Define tangent cam? 5. What are the different motions of the follower? 6. Where are the roller follower extensively used? 7. Define pressure angle with respect to cams. 8. Define undercutting in cam. How it occurs? 9. Define Lift (or) Stroke in cam. 10. What do you know about Nomogram? 11. How can you prevent undercutting in cam ? 12. What do you know about gravity cam? PART-B (16 Marks) 1. A cam is to give the following motion to a knife edged follower: KOM/AJM/MECH/N.P.R.C.E.T Page 98
(a) Outstroke during 60 of cam rotation (b) Dwell for the next 45 of cam rotation (c) Return stroke during next 90 of cam rotation and (d) Dwell for the remaining of cam rotation The stroke of the follower is 40 mm and the minimum radius of the cam is 50 mm. The follower moves with uniform velocity during both the outstroke and return strokes. Draw the profile of the cam when (a) the axis of the follower passes through the axis of the cam shaft, and (b) the axis of the follower is offset by 20 mm from the axis of the cam shaft. (16) 2. Draw the profile of a cam operating a Knife-edged follower from the following data: (a) Follower to move outward through 40 mm during 60 of a cam rotation; (b) Follower to dwell for the next 45 (c) Follower to return its original position during next 90 (d)Follower to dwell for the rest of cam rotation. The displacement of the follower is to take place with simple harmonic motion during both the outward and return strokes. The least radius of the cam is 50mm. If the cam rotates at 300 r.p.m., determine the maximum velocity and acceleration of the follower during the outward stroke and return stroke. (16) 3. A cam, with a minimum radius of 50 mm, rotating clockwise at a uniform speed, is required to giver a knife-edged follower the motion as described below: (a) To move outwards through 40 mm during 100 rotation of the cam; (b) to dwell for next 80 (c) To return to its starting position during next 90 and (d) To dwell for the rest period of revolution. Draw the profile of the cam (i) When the line of stroke of the follower passes through the centre of the cam shaft and (ii) When the line of stroke of the follower is to take place with Uniform acceleration and uniform retardation. Determine the maximum velocity and acceleration of the follower when the cam shaft rotates at 900 r.p.m. (16) 4. Draw the profile of a cam operating a roller reciprocating follower and with the following data: Minimum radius of cam =25 mm; lift=30mm; Roller diameter= 15mm. The cam lifts the follower for 120 with SHM, followed by a dwell period of 30. Then the follower lowers down during 150 of cam rotation with uniform acceleration and retardation followed by a dwell period. If the cam rotates at a uniform speed of 150 RPM. KOM/AJM/MECH/N.P.R.C.E.T Page 99
Calculate the maximum velocity and acceleration of follower during the descent period. (16) 5. It is required to set out the profile of a cam to give the following motion to the reciprocating follower with a flat mushroom contact surface: (i) Follower to have a stroke of 20 mm during 120 of cam rotation, (ii) Follower to dwell for 30 of cam rotation, (iii) Follower to return to its initial position during 120 of cam rotation, (iv) Follower to dwell for remaining 90 of cam rotation. The minimum radius of the cam is 25 mm. The out stroke of the follower is performed with SHM and return stroke with equal uniform acceleration and retardation. (16) 6. A tangent cam to drive a roller follower through a total lift of 12.5 mm for a cam rotation of 75.The cam speed is 600 rpm . The distance between cam centre and follower centre at full lift is 45 mm and the roller is 20 mm in diameter. Find the cam proportions and plot displacement, velocity and acceleration for one full cycle. (16)
UNIT-IV (Gears)
PART-A (2 Marks) 1. What are the standard interchangeable tooth profiles. 2. What are the methods to avoid interference? 3. What you meant by non-standard gear teeth? 4. Define cycloidal tooth profile and involute tooth profile. 5. Define circular pitch and diametral pitch in spur gears. 6. Define Backlash. 7. State the methods to find the velocity ratio of epicyclic gear train. 8. Mention two methods to transmit power between two wheels when the distance between them Is great? 9. What are the externally applied torques used to keep the gear train in equilibrium ? 10.Where the epicyclic gear trains are used? PART-B (16 Marks) 1. a) Two mating spur gear with module pitch of 6.5 mm have 19 ad 47 teeth of 20 pressure angle and 6.5 mm addendum. Determine the number of pair of teeth and angle turned through by the larger wheel for one pair of teeth in contact. Determine KOM/AJM/MECH/N.P.R.C.E.T Page 100
also the sliding velocity at the instant (i)engagement commences (ii) engagement terminates. When the pitch line velocity is 1.2 m/s. (8) b) The number of teeth on each of the two spur gears in mesh is 40. The teeth have 20 involute profile and the module is 6mm. If the arc of contact is 1.75 times the circular pitch. Find the addendum. (8) 2. a) Two 20 involute spur gears have a module of 10 mm. The addendum is one module. The larger gear has 50 teeth and pinion 13 teeth. Does the interference occur? If it occurs, to what value should the pressure angle be changed to eliminate interference? (8) b) Two mating involute spur gears 20 pressure angle have a gear ratio of 2. the number of teeth on the pinion is 20 and its speed is 250 rpm. The module pitch of the teeth is 12 mm. if the addendum on each wheel wheel recess on each side are half the maximum possible length each, find (1) the addendum for pinion and gear wheel (2) the length of arc of contact (3 the maximum velocity of sliding during approach and recess. Assume pinion to be driver. (8) 3.a) A pair of spur gear with involute teeth is to give a gear ratio of 4:1. The arc of approach is not be less than the circular pitch and the smaller wheel is the driver. The angle of pressure is 14.5 What is the least number of teeth can be used on each wheel? What is the addendum of the wheel in terms of circular pitch? (8) b). A pair 20 full depth involute spur gear having 30 and 50 teeth respectively module 4 mm arc in mesh, the smaller gear rotates at 1000 rpm. Determine (a) Sliding velocities at engagement and disengagement of a pair of teeth and (b) Contact ratio. (8) 3. In an epicyclic gear train the internal wheels A and B and compound wheels C and D rotate independently about axis O. The wheels E and F rotate on pins fixed to the arm G. E gears with KOM/AJM/MECH/N.P.R.C.E.T Page 101
A and C . Wheel F gear with B and D. All the wheels have the same module and the number of teeth are: TC =28 TD=26; TE = TF=18. (1) Sketch the arrangement, (2) Find the number of teeth on A and B, (3)If the arm G makes 100 rpm clockwise and A is fixed, find the speed of B , and (4) If the arm G makes 100 rpm clockwise and wheel A makes 10 rpm counter clockwise; Find the speed of wheel B. (16) 4. Two gear wheels mesh externally and are to give a velocity ratio of 3 to 1. The teeth are of involute form; module=6mm, addendum=one module, pressure angle= 20. The pinion rotates at 90 rpm. Determine (1) the number of teeth on the pinion to avoid interference on it and the corresponding number of teeth on the wheel, (2) The length of path and arc of contact, (3) the number of pairs of teeth in contact. (16) 5. The arm of an epicyclic gear train rotates at 100 rpm in the anticlock wise direction. The arm carries two wheels A and B having 36 and 45 teeth respectively. The wheel A is fixed and the arm rotates about the centre of wheel A. Find the speed of wheel B. What will be the speed of B, if the wheel A instead of being fixed, makes 200 rpm (clockwise). (16) 6. In a reverted epicyclic train, the arm F carries two wheels A and D and a compound wheel B-C. Wheel A meshes with wheel B and Wheel D meshes with wheel C. Ther number of teeth on wheel A, D and C are 80, 48, and 72. Find the speed and direction of wheel D , when wheel A is fixed and arm F makes 200 rpm clockwise. (16) 7. An epicyclic train is composed of a fixed annular wheel A having 150 teeth. Meshing with A is a wheel B which drives wheel D through an idle wheel C, D being concentric with A. Wheels B and C are carried on arm which revolves clockwise at 100 rpm about the axis of A or D. If the wheels B and D are having 25 teeth and 40 KOM/AJM/MECH/N.P.R.C.E.T Page 102
teeth respectively, find the number of teeth of C and the speed and sense of rotation of C. (16) 8. The sun planet gear of an epicyclic gear train, the annular D has 100 internal teeth, the sun gear A has 50 external teeth and planet gear B has 25 external teeth. The gear B meshes with gear D and gear A. The gear B is carried on arm E, which rotates about the centre of annular gear D. If the gear D is fixed and arm rotates at 20 rpm, then find the speeds of gear A and B. (16) UNIT-V (Friction) PART-A (2 Marks) 1. What is the efficiency of inclined plane ? 2. What is the difference between cone clutch and centrifugal clutch. 3. What is the centrifugal effect on belts? 4. What are the disadvantage of V-belt drive over flat belt ? 5. What is the condition of transmission of optimum or maximum power in belt drive? 6. List out the commonly used breaks. 7. What do you mean by a brake ? 8. Explain self energizing 9. When is the Intensity of pressure acting brake shoe is assumed to be uniform? 10. Why self-locking screw have lesser efficiency ? PART-B (16 Marks) 1. a) For a flat belt, prove that T1/T2=e_ Where T1 and T2= Tension in the tight and slack sides of the belt, _= Angle of contact between the belt and the pulley, and = Coefficient of friction between the belt and the pulley. (8) b) An open belt running over two pulley of 1.5 m and 1.0 m diameters connects two parallel shafts 4.8 m apart. The initial ten in the belt is 3000 N. The smaller pulley is rotating at 600 rpm. The mass of belt is 0.6703 kg/m length. The coefficient of friction between the belt and pulleys is 0.3. Find (1) the exact length of the belt required (2) the power transmitted taking c.f tension into account.(8) 2.a) A multiplate disc clutch transmits 55 KW of power at 1800 rpm. Coefficient of friction for the friction surfaces is 0.1. Axial intensity at pressure is not to exceed 160 KN/m2. The internal radius is 80 mm and is 0.7 times the external radius. Find the number of plates needed to transmit the required torque (8) b) A rope drive is required to transmit 230 KW from a pulley of 1m diameter running at 450 rpm. The safe pull in each rope is 800 N and the mass of the rope is 0.4 kg per KOM/AJM/MECH/N.P.R.C.E.T Page 103
meter length. The angle of lap and groove angle 1600 and 450 respectively. If coefficient of friction is 0.3, find the number of ropes required. (8) 3.The mean diameter of the screw jack having pitch of 10 mm is 50 mm. A load of 20 KN is lifted through a distance of 170 mm. Find the work done in lifting the load and efficiency of the screw jack when (i) the load rotates with the screw, and (ii) the load rests on the loose head which does not rotate with screw. The external and internal diameter of the bearing surface of the loose head is 60 mm and 10mm respectively. The coefficient of friction for the screw as well as the bearing surface may be taken as 0.08. (16) 4.a).A leather belt is required to transmit 7.5 kw from a pulley 1.2 m in diameter, running at 250 rpm. The angle entranced is 1650 and the coefficient of friction between the belt6 and the pulley is 0.3. If safe working stress for the leather belt is 1.5 MPa, density of leather is 1 kg/ m3 end thickness of belt is 10 mm. Determine the width of the belt taking C.F tension into account. (8) b).Two pulley one 450 mm diameter and other 200mm dia are on parallel shaft 2.1 m apart and are connected by a cross belt. The larger pulley rotates at 225 rpm. The maximum permissible tension in the belt is 1 KN and the coefficient of friction between the belt and the pulley is 0.25. Find the length of the belt required and the power can be transmitted. (8) 5.Two shaft whose centers are 1m apart are connected by a V belt drive. The driving pulley is supplied with 100 KW and has an effective diameter of 300 mm. It runs at 375 rpm. The angle of groove on the pulley is 400 The permissible tension in 400 mm2 cross sectional area of the belt is 2.1 MPa. The density of the belt is 1100 kg/ mm3 coefficient of friction is 0.28. Estimate number of belts required. (16)
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University Question Bank Instructions: (Given by University Examination question paper) 1. Answer ALL questions. 2. Sketches should be drawn neatly. 3. Give brief procedure for graphical constructions. 4. Answers without units and with wrong units will carry less marks. 5. Symbols used in the solutions should be explained at least once for each answer. 6. Answers without substituting the data in the equations will carry zero marks 7. A3 size drawing sheet will be supplied on request. Use both sides of the drawing sheet, if necessary. 8. Fold the drawing sheet to the size of the answer sheet and attach it.
2 Marks Questions T8247, NOVEMBER 2006 1. Differentiate between machine and mechanism. 2. Write down Kutzhback criterion to find the mobility of a planar mechanism. 3. Define transmission angle and its significance. 4. How will you determine the magnitude and direction of coriolis component of acceleration? 5. List the classifications of cam followers based on shape. 6. What are the essential design features of high speed cams? 7. Define (a) Module (b) Diametral Pitch of gears. 8. What is under cutting of gears? 9. Distinguish between sliding and rolling friction. 10. State the condition for transmission of maximum power in belt drives.
T8248, NOVEMBER 2006 11. What is Kutzbach criterion for planar mechanism? KOM/AJM/MECH/N.P.R.C.E.T Page 105
12. Sketch an exact straight line mechanism, with link proportions. 13. Explain normal component of acceleration. 14. State Corioli's law. 15. What are the classifications of cams based on contact surfaces? 16. State the basic requirements for high speed cams. 17. Define module of gears and its relation to circular pitch. 18. Explain briefly the use of differential in an automobile. 19. What are timing belts? 20. Explain briefly significance of friction in braking.
C3298, MAY 2007 21. Enumerate the difference between a Machine and a Structure. 22. List out the inversions of a double slider crank chain. 23. Define rubbing velocity. 24. Define Corioli's component of acceleration. 25. State the expressions for maximum velocity and acceleration of a follower moves with Cycloidal motion. 26. What is prime circle of a cam? What is the radial distance between the prime circle and base circle for a cam with knife edge follower? 27. What is axial pitch of a helical gear? 28. List out the applications of epicyclic gear train. 29. What is the condition of maximum efficiency of a Screw jack? 30. What are the advantages of wire ropes over fabric ropes?
R3456, NOVEMBER 2007 31. Define Degree of Freedom and give the DOF for a shaft in a circular hole. 32. State Grashofs law for a four bar linkage. 33. What is Corioli's component of acceleration? 34. State the Freudenstein's equation for a four-bar mechanism. 35. What is a circular arc cam? 36. State the expressions for maximum velocity and acceleration of a follower moves with cycloidal motion. 37. Differentiate diametral pitch and circular pitch of a friction wheel. 38. What is reverted gear train? KOM/AJM/MECH/N.P.R.C.E.T Page 106
39. Diagrammatically represent the forces acting on a body when it slides either up or down on an inclined plane with out considering the effect of friction. 40. List out any four desirable characteristics of brake lining material.
T3348, APRIL 2008 41. Define degree of freedom. 42. Define Grashoffs law. 43. Explain the coriolis component of acceleration. 44. What is higher pair? 45. Define pitch curve of the cam. 46. Define undercutting in Gears. 47. Define interference in Gears. 48. Define pressure angle and explain the effect of different pressure angle. 49. What is creep in the case of belt? 50. Which type of screw thread is preferable in power transmission?
16 Marks Questions T8247, NOVEMBER 2006 1. (i) Describe Whitworth's quick return mechanism. (6) (ii) Distance between two parallel shafts connected by oldhams coupling is 25 mm. Determine maximum speed of sliding of tongue of intermediate piece in the slot in the flange if driving shaft is run at 250 rpm. (4) (iii) Discuss the application of Grashoffs law in identifying the input and output motions of four-bar mechanism. (6)
2. (i) Define and explain inversion of mechanisms. (ii) Sketch and explain oldhams coupling. (6)
(4)
(iii) Design a four-bar crank rocker quick return mechanism to give a time ratio of 1.25 with rocker swing angle as 75 clockwise. Assume the output link (rocker) length as 50 mm and in the left extreme position it is vertical. KOM/AJM/MECH/N.P.R.C.E.T Page 107
(6)
3. (i) A four bar mechanism DABC has the following dimensions : DA = 300 mm; CB = AB = 360 mm; DC = 600 mm. Link DC is fixed and angle ADC is Driving link DA turns clockwise at 100 rpm. Constant driving torque is 50 N-m. Determine the following: (1) Velocity of point B (2) Angular velocity of driven link CB (3) Mechanical advantage of mechanism in this position (4) Resisting torque. (12) (ii) Sketch a four-bar crank rocker mechanism in (1) Maximum transmission angle position and (2) toggle position where mechanical advantage is infinity. (4)
4. (i) Find the number of instantaneous centres for a six link mechanism. State the use of instantaneous centre method in kinematic analysis. (4) (ii) Crank of a slider crank mechanism rotates clockwise at a constant speed of 300 rpm, crank and connecting rod are of lengths 150 mm and 600 respectively. Determine the following; at a crank angle of 45 from inner dead centre position (1) Linear velocity and acceleration of the midpoint of connecting rod (2) Angular velocity and angular acceleration of the connecting rod. (12)
5. (i) Explain the following terms : (1) Prime circle (2) Pressure Angle related to cams. (4) (ii) Draw the profile of a disc cam to give uniform motion and uniform velocity during outstroke of 25 mm to a knife edge follower during first half revolution. Return of cam is also of similar uniform motion with uniform velocity during remaining half revolution. Minimum radius of the cam is 25 mm. Assume that the axis of knife edge follower passes through cam axis. (12)
6. (i) Briefly explain the features of mushroom followers. (4) (ii) Draw the profile of a cam to give following motion to a flat faced reciprocating KOM/AJM/MECH/N.P.R.C.E.T Page 108
follower. (1) Follower to have a stroke of 20 mm during 120 of cam rotation. (2) Follower to dwell for 30 of cam rotation (3) Follower to return to initial position during 120 of cam rotation. (4) Follower to dwell for remaining 90 of cam rotation. The base circle radius is 40 mm and the follower axis coincides with cam axis of rotation. (12)
7. (i) Discuss the advantages of involute gear tooth profile. (4) (ii) Describe the advantages and applications of helical, bevel and worm gears. (6) (iii) In an epicyclic gear train, the sum gear A and the planet gear B are having 36 and 45 teeth respectively. If the arm rotates at 150 rpm counter clockwise about center of A which is fixed, determine speed of gear B. If the arm is locked and gear A rotates at 300 rpm what is the speed of gear B? (6)
8. (i) A pinion having 25 teeth drives a gear of 60 teeth. Tooth profile is involute with pressure angle of 20, module of 8 mm and addendum of 1 module. Determine: (1) Length of path of contact (2) Length of arc of contact and (3)contact ratio. (6) (ii) Design a compound gear train for an exact train ratio of 180 : 1. Minimum teeth on any gear shall be 12 to avoid interference and Maximum gear ratio in any one stage is 10 : 1. Also sketch the arrangement. (6) (iii) Discuss the necessity of differentials in automobiles. (4)
9. (i) Discuss the advantages of V belts. (6) (ii) A rope drive transmits 600 kW from a pulley of effective diameter 4 m, which runs at 90 rpm. Angle of lap is 160; angle of groove is 45; co-efficient of friction is 0.28; mass of rope is 1.5 kg/m and allowable tension per rope is 2400 N. Determine the number of ropes required. (6) KOM/AJM/MECH/N.P.R.C.E.T Page 109
(iii) Describe the features of internal expanding brakes used in automobiles. (4)
10. (i) Following data are for a screw jack. Screw pitch is 12.5 mm; mean diameter of screw is 50 mm; co-efficient of friction is 0.13. Determine torques to raise and lower 20 kN load and efficiency of jack. (6) (ii) Discuss the functions of clutches in automobiles. (4) (iii) Derive the expression to determine the ratio of tensions in a flat belt drive. (6) T8248, NOVEMBER 2006 11. (i) What is meant by interference in gears? What are the measures to eliminate the same? (4) (ii) An epicyclic train has a pinion A having 15 teeth, centrally located and rigidly connected to shaft of driving motor. Another gear B having 20 teeth is gearing with A and also with annular fixed wheel D. Gear C is integral with B and meshes with another annular wheel E which is keyed to the shaft of driven unit. The arm rotates about driving shaft and carries compound gear B, C. Sketch the arrangement and determine speed of machine for a motor speed of 1000 rpm. Also determine torque on machine shaft for a motor torque of 100 N-m. (12)
12. Two mating gears have 20 and 40 involute teeth of module 10 mm and 20 pressure angle. The addendum on each wheel is to be made of such a length that the line of contact on each side of the pitch point has half the maximum possible length. Determine the addendum height for each gear wheel, length of the path of contact, arc of contact and contact ratio.
13. (i) Explain the inversions of four bar chain, with neat sketches. (8) (ii) Explain with neat sketches the following: (1) Offset slider mechanism, (2) An indexing mechanism. KOM/AJM/MECH/N.P.R.C.E.T Page 110
(8)
14. (i) Explain the inversions of single slider crank chains, with neat sketches. (10) (ii) Explain mechanical advantage and transmission angle related to four-bar mechanisms. (6) 15. (i) Compare instantaneous center method and velocity polygon method for velocity analysis of mechanisms. (4) (ii) A four bar linkage has following dimensions: Crank AO2 = 150 mm; Link AB = 450 mm; Link BO4 = 300 mm; Link O2O4 = 200 mm. Link O2O4 is fixed. Find the angular acceleration of links AB and BO4 when the crank is rotating with a constant angular velocity of 200 rad/s counter clockwise and also positioned of 45 to horizontal. (12)
16. (i) State the properties of relative velocities of points on kinematic links. (4) (ii) In a small steam engine running at 600 rad/min counter clockwise, length of crank is 80 mm and ratio of connecting rod length to crank radius is 3. For the position when crank makes 45 to horizontal, determine acceleration of piston. Find also total acceleration of a point X on connecting rod 80 from crank pin. (12)
17. Draw the profile of disc cam to give uniform acceleration and retardation out stroke of 25 to a knife edge follower during first half of revolution. Return of cam also takes place with uniform motion during remaining half of cam revolution. Assume minimum radius of cam as 25 mm.
18. Draw the profile of a cam to give following motion to a reciprocating follower with a flat face: (i) Follower to have a stroke of 20 mm during 120 of cam rotation. (ii) Follower to dwell for 30 of cam rotation. (iii) Follower to return to its initial position during 120 of cam rotation. (iv) Follower to dwell for remaining 90 of cam rotation. Minimum radius of cam = 25 mm. Out stroke and return stroke of the KOM/AJM/MECH/N.P.R.C.E.T Page 111
follower are simple harmonic. 19. (i) Pitch of 50 mm diameter threaded screw of a screw jack is 12.5 mm. Coefficient of friction between screw and nut is 0.10. Determine the torque to raise a load of 25 kN rotating with the screw. Also find the torque required to lower the load and efficiency of screw jack. (4) (ii) 100 kW is to be transmitted by a rope drive through a 160 cm diameter 45 grooved pulley running at 200 rpm. Angle of overlap 140 and coefficient of friction between pulley and rope is 0.25. Mass of rope is 0.7 kg/m and it can withstand a tension of 800 N. Considering centrifugal tension, find the following: (i) Number of ropes required, (ii) Initial tension in the rope. (12) 20. (i) Explain the following: (1) Crowning of pulleys (3) (2) Self-locking of brakes (3) (3) Uses of brakes in automobiles. (2) (ii) A 10 kW engine develops a maximum torque of 100 N-m and is driving a car having a single plate clutch of two active surfaces. Axial pressure is not to exceed 0.85 bar. External diameter of friction plate is 1.25 times internal diameter. Assume uniform wear and co-efficient of friction = 0.3. Determine dimension of friction plate and axial force exerted by the springs. (8)
C3298, MAY 2007 21. (i) Define transmission angle of a four bar linkage. What is the effect of transmission angle on mechanical advantage? (4) (ii) Briefly explain various types of constrained motions. (4)
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(iii) Illustrate a crank and slotted lever mechanism as an inversion of single slider crank chain. Deduce an expression for length of stroke in terms of link lengths. (8)
22. Analytically perform the displacement analysis of a four bar mechanism.
23. The driving crank AD of the quick-return mechanism, as shown in figure, revolves at a uniform speed of 200 r.p.m. Find the velocity and acceleration of the tool-box R, in the position shown, when the crank makes an angle of 60with the vertical line of centers PA. What is the acceleration of sliding of the block at B along the slotted lever PQ?
24. For the toggle mechanism as shown in figure, the slider D is constrained to move along horizontal direction. The crank rotates at 180 rpm. The dimensions of various links are as follows. OA = 180 mm ; CB = 240 mm; AB = 360 mm; BD = 540 mm. For the given configuration determine the velocity of the slider and angular velocities of links AB, BC and BD. Also determine the linear acceleration of the slider D.
Page 113
25. A cam with a minimum radius of 25 mm, rotating in clockwise direction with a uniform speed of 100 rpm is to be designed to give the motion for a roller follower as follows. (i) To raise through 50 mm during 120 rotation of cam with SHM. (ii) Fully raised through next 30. (iii) To lower during next 60 with UAUR. (iv) Dwell for the remaining period. Draw the profile of the cam when the line of stroke of the follower is offset by 15 mm from the axis of the camshaft.
26. Construct a tangent cam and mention the important terminologies on it. Also derive the expressions for displacement, velocity, acceleration of a reciprocating roller follower when the roller has contact with the nose.
27. (i) An epicyclic gear train is shown in the figure. How many revolutions does the arm makes, (1) when A makes one revolution in clockwise and D makes a revolution in the opposite sense (2) when A makes one revolution in clockwise and D remains stationary. The number of teeth in gears A and D are 40 and 90 respectively. (10) (ii) What is reverted gear train? Explain the arrangement of various gears in a reverted gear train and express the characteristic equations used to define their operation. (6)
28. (i) State and prove law of gearing (4) (ii) A pair of involute spur gears with 16 pressure angle and pitch of module 6 mm is in mesh. The number of teeth in pinion is 16 and its rotational speed is 240 rpm. The gear ratio is 1.75. In order to avoid the interference, determine (1) addenda KOM/AJM/MECH/N.P.R.C.E.T Page 114
on pinion and wheel (2) length of path of contact (3) maximum velocity of sliding on either side of pitch point. (12)
29. (i) A square threaded bolt of root diameter 22.5 mm and pitch 5 mm is tightened by screwing a nut whose mean diameter of bearing surface is 50 mm. If the coefficient of friction between nut and bolt is 0.1 and nut and bearing surface is 0.16, determine the force required at the end of spanner 500 mm long when the load on the bolt is 10 kN. (8)
(ii) A leather faced conical clutch has a cone angle of 30. If the intensity of pressure between the contact surfaces is limited to 0.35 N/mm2 and the breadth of the conical surface is not to exceed of the mean radius. Determine the dimensions of the contact surfaces to transmit 22.5 kW at 2000 rpm. Assume uniform wear rate and = 0.15. (8)
30. (i) Derive the expression for Frictional torque on cone clutch based on uniform pressure theory. (6) (ii) The brake whose dimensions are shown in figure has a
co-efficient of friction of 0.3 and is to have a maximum pressure of 1000 kPa against the friction material. (1) Using an actuating force of 1750 N, determine the face width of the Shoes (both shoes have same width) and (2) What torque will the brake absorb? (10)
Page 115
R3456, NOVEMBER 2007 31. (i) Define transmission angle of a four bar linkage. What is the effect of transmission angle on mechanical advantage? (4) (ii) State and prove Kutchbach criterion for the following kinematic chains: Three bar chain, Four bar chain, Cam with knife edge follower. (6) (iii) Explain any two inversions of a four bar kinematic chain. (6)
32. Derive the displacement, velocity and acceleration equation of a slider crank mechanism.
33. For the toggle mechanism as shown in figure, the slider D is constrained to move along horizontal direction. The crank rotates at 180 rpm. The dimensions of various links are as follows. OA = 180 mm; CB = 240 mm; AB = 360 mm; BD = 540 mm. For the given configuration determine (i) the velocity and acceleration of the slider (ii) angular velocity and angular acceleration of links AB, BC and BD.
34. In a Whitworth quick return mechanism, as shown in figure, crank OA rotates at 30 rpm in clockwise direction. The dimensions of various links are OA = 150 mm, OC = 100 mm, CD = 125 mm and DR = 500 mm. Determine the acceleration of the sliding block R and the angular acceleration of the slotted lever BD.
Page 116
35. A cam drives a flat reciprocating follower in the following manner: (i) Follower moves outwards through a distance of 20 mm with simple harmonic motion during the first 120 rotation of the cam. (ii) Follower dwells during next 30 of cam rotation. (iii) Follower moves inwards with simple harmonic motion for the next 120 of cam rotation. (iv) The follower dwells for the remaining period. Draw the profile of the cam, when the minimum radius of cam is 25 mm. Also calculate the maximum velocity and acceleration during outward and inward motion of the follower when the cam rotates with 200 rpm.
36. Construct a tangent cam and mention the important terminologies on it. Also derive the expression for displacement, velocity, acceleration of a reciprocating roller follower when the roller has contact with the nose.
37. (i) Two involute gears of 20 pressure angle are in mesh. The number of teeth on pinion is 20 and the gear ratio is 2. If the pitch expressed in module is 5 mm, and the pitch line speed is 1.2 m/s, determine the angle turned through by pinion, when one pair of teeth is in mesh. Also calculate the maximum velocity of sliding. Take addendum as one module. (8)
(ii) Derive an expression for the minimum number of teeth required on the pinion in order to avoid interference in involute gear teeth. (8) 38. (i) What are the special advantages of an epicyclic gear train? (4) (ii) An epicyclic gear train for electric motor is shown in figure. The wheel S has 15 teeth and is fixed to the motor shaft running at 1450 rpm. The planet P has 45 teeth, gears with fixed annulus E and rotates on a spindle carried by an arm A which is fixed to the output shaft. If the motor transmits 1.5 kW, determine the torque KOM/AJM/MECH/N.P.R.C.E.T Page 117
required to fix the annulus.
(12)
39. (i) A square threaded bolt of root diameter 22.5 mm and pitch 5 mm is tightened by screwing a nut whose mean diameter of bearing surface is 50 mm. If the coefficient of friction between nut and bolt is 0.1 and nut and bearing surface is 0.16, determine the force required at the end of spanner 500 mm long when the load on the bolt is 10 kN. (8)
(ii) From the first principles, derive an expression for the frictional torque of a cone clutch under uniform wear consideration. (8)
40. (i) Determine the width of a 9.75 mm thick leather belt required to transmit 15 kW from a motor running at 900 rpm. The diameter of the driving pulley is 300 mm. The driven pulley runs at 300 rpm and the distance between the centers of two pulleys is 3 m. The density of the leather can be taken as 1000 kg/mm3. Take = 0.3 and maximum allowable shear in the leather = 2.5 MPa and the drive is open type. (8) (ii) A band brake acts on the 3/4th of circumference of a drum of 450 mm diameter which is keyed to the shaft. The band brake provides a braking torque of 225 N-m. One end of the band is attached to a fulcrum pin of the lever and the other end to a pin 100 mm from the fulcrum. If the operating force is applied at 500 mm from the fulcrum and the coefficient of friction is 0.25, find the operating force when the drum rotates in anticlockwise direction. T3348, APRIL 2008 41. The crank of a slider crank mechanism is 15 cm and the connecting rod is 60 cm long. The crank makes 300 rpm in the clockwise direction. When it has turned 45 KOM/AJM/MECH/N.P.R.C.E.T Page 118 (8)
from the inner dead centre position determine: (i) Velocity of slider, (ii) Angular velocity of connecting rod, (iii) Linear velocity of the mid point of the connecting rod.
42. In a four bar mechanism, the crank rotates at 36 rad/s. The lengths of the links are AB = 200 mm; BC = 400 mm; CD = 450 mm and AD = 60 mm. AD is the fixed link. At the instant when is at right angle to AD, determine the velocity of (i) the mid point of the link BC (ii) a point on link CD, 100 mm from the pin connecting the links CD and AD.
43. What is the importance of finding acceleration of various points in a mechanism? Name the two different methods of finding acceleration in a mechanism.
44. What do you mean by Coriolis component of acceleration? When will it exist? Prove that the component of acceleration is 2v where, v = linear velocity of the slider, = angular velocity of the crank.
45. From the following data draw the profile of a cam in which the follower moves with SHM during ascent while it moves with uniformly accelerated and decelerated motion during descent. Least radius of the cam = 50 mm; Angle of ascent = 48; Angle of dwell= 42; Angle of descent= 60; Lift of the follower= 40 mm; Diameter of the roller= 30 mm. If the cam rotates at 360 rpm anticlockwise find the maximum velocity and acceleration of the follower during descent.
46. A symmetrical tangent cam with a least radius of 25 mm operates a roller follower of radius 10 mm. The angle of ascent is 60 and total lift is15 mm. If the speed of the cam is 400 rpm, then calculate : The principal dimensions of the cam, ie., the distance between the cam centre and nose centre; nose radius and angle of control of cam with straight flank.
47. What do you mean by pitch point, circular pitch, module, addendum and pressure angle? Explain in detail.
48. State and prove the law of gear tooth action for constant velocity ratio and show how the involute teeth profile satisfies the condition. Derive an expression for the KOM/AJM/MECH/N.P.R.C.E.T Page 119
velocity of sliding between a pair of involute teeth. State the advantages of involute profile as a gear tooth profile.
49. An open belt drive connects two pulleys 120 cm and 50 cm diameters on parallel shafts 4 m apart. The maximum tension in the belt is 1855 N. The coefficient of friction is 0.3. The driver pulley of diameter 120 cm runs at 200 rpm. Calculate: (i) the power transmitted (ii) the torque on each of the two shafts. 50. A car moving along a level road is having the following data: Wheel base of car = 2.85 m; Height of CG from road surface = 600 mm; Perpendicular distance of CG from rear axle = 1.2 m; Speed = 60 km/h; = 0.1; Find the minimum distance in which the car may be stopped when brakes are applied (i) to the rear wheels (ii) to all the four wheels.
REFERENCES: 1. Rattan S.S., Theory of Machines, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Ltd., New Delhi, 1998. 2. Shigley J.E. and Uicker J.J., Theory of Machines and Mechanisms, McGrawHill, Inc. 1995. 3. Khurmi R.S. and Gupta J.K., Theory of Machines, Eurasia Publishing House, New Delhi,2006 4. Thomas Bevan, Theory of Machines, CBS Publishers and Distributors, 1984. 5. Ghosh A. and Mallick A.K., Theory of Mechanisms and Machines, Affiliated East-West Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 1988. 6. Rao J.S. and Dukkipati R.V., Mechanism and Machine Theory, Wiley-Eastern Ltd., New Delhi, 1992.
ALL THE BEST KOM/AJM/MECH/N.P.R.C.E.T Page 120

Kinematics of Machinery

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N.P.R.

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

AN ISO 9001:2008 Certified Institution

ME1202 KINEMATICS OF MACHINERY 3104 UNIT I BASICS OF MECHANISMS 7

Articulated connecting rods in a WW1 aero-engine

BMW 132 radial engine rods

Completely Constrained Motion

Partially Constrained Motion

Incompletely Constrained Motion

1) Reciprocating engine mechanism (1 inversion)

2) Oscillating cylinder engine mechanism (2 inversion)

3) Crank and slotted lever mechanism (2 inversion)

4) Whitworth quick return motion mechanism (3 inversion)

5) Rotary engine mechanism (3 inversion)

6) Bull engine mechanism (4 inversion)

Time to cutting = 360 -2 = 180 Time of return 2 = = . 360

Oldham Coupling. Below is exploded view of an Oldham Coupling.

Gears are used to change speed in rotational movement.

RACK AND PINION KOM/AJM/MECH/N.P.R.C.E.T

WORM GEAR Page 53

Path of action Line of action

Lines of contact (helical gear)

Length of action Limit diameter

Pitch Circular pitch, p

Base pitch relationshipsPrincipal pitches

Clutch For other uses, see Clutch (disambiguation).

37. Friction drives:

40. Belt and rope drives: Pulleys

Poly V Belt Drives

22. Analytically perform the displacement analysis of a four bar mechanism.

required to fix the annulus.

ALL THE BEST KOM/AJM/MECH/N.P.R.C.E.T Page 120

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