PHYSICS OF MOTION

A book by H. S. Ahamad

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Contents
Articles
Physics Acceleration Force Cross product Torque Center of mass Uniform circular motion Angular acceleration Angular velocity Centripetal force Right-hand rule Coriolis effect Angular momentum Rotation Rigid body Moment of inertia Radius of gyration Rotational energy Rotation around a fixed axis Parallel axis theorem Perpendicular axis theorem List of moment of inertia tensors List of moments of inertia Simple harmonic motion Pendulum Precession Larmor precession Thomas precession Gyroscope Orbit 1 13 16 38 50 58 69 72 73 77 90 93 111 119 123 128 135 137 138 144 146 147 148 151 157 181 186 187 190 196

References
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Physics

Physics
Physics (Greek: physis meaning "nature") is a natural science; it is the study of matter[1] and its motion through spacetime and all that derives from these, such as energy and force.[2] More broadly, it is the general analysis of nature, conducted in order to understand how the world and universe behave.[3] [4] Physics is one of the oldest academic disciplines, perhaps the oldest through its inclusion of astronomy.[5] Over the last two millennia, physics had been considered synonymous with philosophy, chemistry, and certain branches of mathematics and biology, but during the Scientific Revolution in the 16th century, it emerged to become a unique modern science in its own right.[6] However, in some subject areas such as in mathematical physics and quantum chemistry, the boundaries of physics remain difficult to distinguish. Physics is both significant and influential, in part because advances in its understanding have often translated into new technologies, but also because new ideas in physics often resonate with the other sciences, mathematics and philosophy. For example, advances in the understanding of electromagnetism or nuclear physics led directly to the development of new products which have dramatically transformed modern-day society (e.g., television, computers, domestic appliances, and nuclear weapons); advances in thermodynamics led to the development of motorized transport; and advances in mechanics inspired the development of calculus.

Scope and aims

Physics covers a wide range of phenomena, from the smallest sub-atomic particles (such as quarks, neutrinos and electrons), to the largest galaxies. Included in this are the very most basic objects from which all other things are composed, and therefore physics is sometimes said to be the "fundamental science".[7] Physics aims to describe the various phenomena that occur in nature in terms of simpler phenomena. Thus, physics aims to both connect the things we see around us to root causes, and then to try to connect these causes together in the hope of finding an ultimate reason for why nature is as it is.

For example, the ancient Chinese observed that certain rocks (lodestone) were attracted to one another by some invisible force. This effect was later called magnetism, and was first rigorously studied in the 17th century. A little earlier than the Chinese, the ancient Greeks knew of other objects such as amber, that when rubbed with fur would cause a similar invisible attraction between the two. This was also first studied rigorously in the 17th century, and came to be called electricity. Thus, physics had come to understand two observations of nature in terms of some root cause (electricity and magnetism). However, further work in the 19th century revealed that these two forces were just two different aspects of one force electromagnetism. This process of "unifying" forces continues today (see section Current research for more information).

This parabola-shaped lava flow illustrates Galileo's law of falling bodies as well as blackbody radiation the temperature is discernible from the color of the blackbody.

Physics

The scientific method

Physics uses the scientific method to test the validity of a physical theory, using a methodical approach to compare the implications of the theory in question with the associated conclusions drawn from experiments and observations conducted to test it. Experiments and observations are to be collected and matched with the predictions and hypotheses made by a theory, thus aiding in the determination or the validity/invalidity of the theory. Theories which are very well supported by data and have never failed any competent empirical test are often called scientific laws, or natural laws. Of course, all theories, including those called scientific laws, can always be replaced by more accurate, generalized statements if a disagreement of theory with observed data is ever found.[8]

Theory and experiment

The culture of physics has a higher degree of separation between theory and experiment than many other sciences. Since the twentieth century, most individual physicists have specialized in either theoretical physics or experimental physics. In contrast, almost all the successful theorists in biology and chemistry (e.g. American quantum chemist and biochemist Linus Pauling) have also been experimentalists, although this is changing as of late. Theorists seek to develop mathematical models that both agree with existing experiments and successfully predict future results, while experimentalists devise and perform experiments to test theoretical predictions and explore new phenomena. Although theory and experiment are developed separately, they are strongly dependent upon each other. Progress in physics frequently comes about when experimentalists make a discovery that existing theories cannot explain, or when new theories generate experimentally testable predictions, which inspire new experiments. It is also worth noting there are some physicists who work at the interplay of theory and experiment who are called phenomenologists. Phenomenologists look at the complex phenomena observed in experiment and work to relate them to fundamental theory. Theoretical physics has historically taken inspiration from philosophy and metaphysics; electromagnetism was unified this way.[9] Beyond the known universe, the field of theoretical physics also deals with Lightning is an electric current hypothetical issues,[10] such as parallel universes, a multiverse, and higher dimensions. Theorists invoke these ideas in hopes of solving particular problems with existing theories. They then explore the consequences of these ideas and work toward making testable predictions. Experimental physics informs, and is informed by, engineering and technology. Experimental physicists involved in basic research design and perform experiments with equipment such as particle accelerators and lasers, whereas those involved in applied research often work in industry, developing technologies such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and transistors. Feynman has noted that experimentalists may seek areas which are not well explored by theorists.

The astronaut and Earth are both in free-fall

Physics

Relation to mathematics and the other sciences

In the Assayer (1622), Galileo noted that mathematics is the language in which Nature expresses its laws.[11] Most experimental results in physics are numerical measurements, and theories in physics use mathematics to give numerical results to match these measurements. Physics relies upon mathematics to provide the logical framework in which physical laws may be precisely formulated and predictions quantified. Whenever analytic solutions of equations are not feasible, numerical analysis and simulations may be utilized. Thus, scientific computation is an integral part of physics, and the field of computational physics is an active area of research. A key difference between physics and mathematics is that since physics is ultimately concerned with descriptions of the material world, it tests its theories by comparing the predictions of its theories with data procured from observations and experimentation, whereas mathematics is concerned with abstract patterns, not limited by those observed in the real world. The distinction, however, is not always clear-cut. There is a large area of research intermediate between physics and mathematics, known as mathematical physics. Physics is also intimately related to many other sciences, as well as applied fields like engineering and medicine. The principles of physics find applications throughout the other natural sciences as some phenomena studied in physics, such as the conservation of energy, are common to all material systems. Other phenomena, such as superconductivity, stem from these laws, but are not laws themselves because they only appear in some systems. Physics is often said to be the "fundamental science" (chemistry is sometimes included), because each of the other disciplines (biology, chemistry, geology, material science, engineering, medicine etc.) deals with particular types of material systems that obey the laws of physics.[7] For example, chemistry is the science of collections of matter (such as gases and liquids formed of atoms and molecules) and the processes known as chemical reactions that result in the change of chemical substances. The structure, reactivity, and properties of a chemical compound are determined by the properties of the underlying molecules, which may be well-described by areas of physics such as quantum mechanics, or quantum chemistry, thermodynamics, and electromagnetism.

Philosophical implications
Physics in many ways stems from ancient Greek philosophy. From Thales' first attempt to characterize matter, to Democritus' deduction that matter ought to reduce to an invariant state, the Ptolemaic astronomy of a crystalline firmament, and Aristotle's book Physics, different Greek philosophers advanced their own theories of nature. Well into the 18th century, physics was known as "Natural philosophy". By the 19th century physics was realized as a positive science and a distinct discipline separate from philosophy and the other sciences. Physics, as with the rest of science, relies on philosophy of science to give an adequate description of the scientific method.[12] The scientific method employs a priori reasoning as well as a posteriori reasoning and the use of Bayesian inference to measure the validity of a given theory.[13]

Truth is ever to be found in the simplicity, and not in the multiplicity and confusion of things.

Isaac Newton

The development of physics has answered many questions of early philosophers, but has also raised new questions. Study of the philosophical issues surrounding physics, the philosophy of physics, involves issues such as the nature of space and time, determinism, and metaphysical outlooks such as empiricism, naturalism and realism.[14]

Physics Many physicists have written about the philosophical implications of their work, for instance Laplace, who championed causal determinism,[15] and Erwin Schrdinger, who wrote on Quantum Mechanics.[16] The mathematical physicist Roger Penrose has been called a Platonist by Stephen Hawking,[17] a view Penrose discusses in his book, The Road to Reality.[18] Hawking refers to himself as an "unashamed reductionist" and takes issue with Penrose's views.[19]

History
Since antiquity, people have tried to understand the behavior of the natural world. One great mystery was the predictable behavior of celestial objects such as the Sun and the Moon. Several theories were proposed, the majority of which were disproved. The Greek philosophers Thales (ca. 624 BCca. 546 BC), and Leucippus (first half of 5th century BC) refused to accept various supernatural, religious or mythological explanations for natural phenomena, proclaiming that every event had a natural cause. Early physical theories were largely couched in philosophical terms, and never verified by systematic experimental testing as is popular today. Many of the commonly accepted works of Ptolemy and Aristotle are not always found to match everyday observations. Even so, many Greek, Chinese, and Indian philosophers and astronomers gave many correct descriptions in atomism and Aristotle astronomy, and the Greek thinker Archimedes derived many correct quantitative descriptions of mechanics and hydrostatics. A more experimental physics began taking shape among medieval Muslim physicists, while modern physics largely took shape among early modern European physicists.

Core theories of physics

While physics deals with a wide variety of systems, there are certain theories that are used by all physicists. Each of these theories were experimentally tested numerous times and found correct as an approximation of Nature (within a certain domain of validity). For instance, the theory of classical mechanics accurately describes the motion of objects, provided they are much larger than atoms and moving at much less than the speed of light. These theories continue to be areas of active research; for instance, a remarkable aspect of classical mechanics known as chaos was discovered in the 20th century, three centuries after the original formulation of classical mechanics by Isaac Newton (16421727). These central theories are important tools for research into more specialized topics, and any physicist, regardless of his or her specialization, is expected to be literate in them. These include classical mechanics, quantum mechanics, thermodynamics and statistical mechanics, electromagnetism, and special relativity.

Physics

Research fields
Contemporary research in physics can be broadly divided into condensed matter physics; atomic, molecular, and optical physics; particle physics; astrophysics; geophysics and biophysics. Some physics departments also support research in Physics education. Since the twentieth century, the individual fields of physics have become increasingly specialized, and today most physicists work in a single field for their entire careers. "Universalists" such as Albert Einstein (18791955) and Lev Landau (19081968), who worked in multiple fields of physics, are now very rare.[20] Condensed matter Condensed matter physics is the field of physics that deals with the macroscopic physical properties of matter. In particular, it is concerned with the "condensed" phases that appear whenever the number of constituents in a system is extremely large and the interactions between the constituents are strong. The most familiar examples of condensed phases are solids and liquids, which arise from the bonding and electromagnetic force between Velocity-distribution data of a gas of rubidium atoms, confirming the discovery of a new atoms. More exotic condensed phases phase of matter, the BoseEinstein condensate include the superfluid and the Bose-Einstein condensate found in certain atomic systems at very low temperature, the superconducting phase exhibited by conduction electrons in certain materials, and the ferromagnetic and antiferromagnetic phases of spins on atomic lattices. Condensed matter physics is by far the largest field of contemporary physics. Historically, condensed matter physics grew out of solid-state physics, which is now considered one of its main subfields. The term condensed matter physics was apparently coined by Philip Anderson when he renamed his research group previously solid-state theory in 1967. In 1978, the Division of Solid State Physics at the American Physical Society was renamed as the Division of Condensed Matter Physics.[21] Condensed matter physics has a large overlap with chemistry, materials science, nanotechnology and engineering. Atomic, molecular, and optical physics Atomic, molecular, and optical physics (AMO) is the study of matter-matter and light-matter interactions on the scale of single atoms or structures containing a few atoms. The three areas are grouped together because of their interrelationships, the similarity of methods used, and the commonality of the energy scales that are relevant. All three areas include both classical and quantum treatments; they can treat their subject from a microscopic view (in contrast to a macroscopic view). Atomic physics studies the electron shells of atoms. Current research focuses on activities in quantum control, cooling and trapping of atoms and ions, low-temperature collision dynamics, the collective behavior of atoms in weakly interacting gases (Bose-Einstein Condensates and dilute Fermi degenerate systems), precision measurements of fundamental constants, and the effects of electron correlation on structure and dynamics. Atomic physics is

Physics influenced by the nucleus (see, e.g., hyperfine splitting), but intra-nuclear phenomenon such as fission and fusion are considered part of high energy physics. Molecular physics focuses on multi-atomic structures and their internal and external interactions with matter and light. Optical physics is distinct from optics in that it tends to focus not on the control of classical light fields by macroscopic objects, but on the fundamental properties of optical fields and their interactions with matter in the microscopic realm. High energy/particle physics Particle physics is the study of the elementary constituents of matter and energy, and the interactions between them. It may also be called "high energy physics", because many elementary particles do not occur naturally, but are created only during high energy collisions of other particles, as can be detected in particle accelerators. Currently, the interactions of elementary particles are described by the Standard Model. The model accounts for the 12 known particles of matter that interact via the strong, weak, and electromagnetic fundamental forces. Dynamics are described in terms of matter particles exchanging messenger particles that carry the forces. These messenger particles are known as gluons; W and W+ and Z bosons; and the photons, respectively. The Standard Model also predicts a particle known as the Higgs boson, the existence of which has not yet been verified. Astrophysics Astrophysics and astronomy are the application of the theories and methods of physics to the study of stellar structure, stellar evolution, the origin of the solar system, and related problems of cosmology. Because astrophysics is a broad subject, astrophysicists typically apply many disciplines of physics, including mechanics, electromagnetism, statistical mechanics, thermodynamics, quantum mechanics, relativity, nuclear and particle physics, and atomic and molecular physics. The discovery by Karl Jansky in 1931 that radio signals were emitted by celestial bodies initiated the science of radio astronomy. Most recently, the frontiers of astronomy have been expanded by space exploration. Perturbations and interference from the earths atmosphere make space-based observations necessary for infrared, ultraviolet, gamma-ray, and X-ray astronomy.

A simulated event in the CMS detector of the Large Hadron Collider, featuring a possible appearance of the Higgs boson.

The deepest visible-light image of the universe, the Hubble Ultra Deep Field

Physical cosmology is the study of the formation and evolution of the universe on its largest scales. Albert Einsteins theory of relativity plays a central role in all modern cosmological theories. In the early 20th century, Hubble's discovery that the universe was expanding, as shown by the Hubble diagram, prompted rival explanations known as

Physics the steady state universe and the Big Bang. The Big Bang was confirmed by the success of Big Bang nucleosynthesis and the discovery of the cosmic microwave background in 1964. The Big Bang model rests on two theoretical pillars: Albert Einstein's general relativity and the cosmological principle. Cosmologists have recently established a precise model of the evolution of the universe, which includes cosmic inflation, dark energy and dark matter.

Fundamental physics
While physics aims to discover universal laws, its theories lie in explicit domains of applicability. Loosely speaking, the laws of classical physics accurately describe systems whose important length scales are greater than the atomic scale and whose motions are much slower than the speed of light. Outside of this domain, observations do not match their predictions. Albert Einstein The basic domains of physics contributed the framework of special relativity, which replaced notions of absolute time and space with spacetime and allowed an accurate description of systems whose components have speeds approaching the speed of light. Max Planck, Erwin Schrdinger, and others introduced quantum mechanics, a probabilistic notion of particles and interactions that allowed an accurate description of atomic and subatomic scales. Later, quantum field theory unified quantum mechanics and special relativity. General relativity allowed for a dynamical, curved spacetime, with which highly massive systems and the large-scale structure of the universe can be well described. General relativity has not yet been unified with the other fundamental descriptions.

Physics

Application and influence

Applied physics is a general term for physics research which is intended for a particular use. An applied physics curriculum usually contains a few classes in an applied discipline, like geology or electrical engineering. It usually differs from engineering in that an applied physicist may not be designing something in particular, but rather is using physics or conducting physics research with the aim of developing new technologies or solving a problem. The approach is similar to that of applied mathematics. Applied physicists can also be interested in the use of physics for scientific research. For instance, people working on accelerator physics might seek to build better particle detectors for research in theoretical physics. Physics is used heavily in engineering. For example, Statics, a subfield of mechanics, is used in the building of bridges and other structures. The understanding and use of acoustics results in better concert halls; similarly, the use of optics creates better optical devices. An understanding of physics makes for more realistic flight simulators, video games, and movies, and is often critical in forensic investigations.

Archimedes' screw uses simple machines to lift liquids.

With the standard consensus that the laws of physics are universal and do not change with time, physics can be used to study things that would ordinarily be mired in uncertainty. For example, in the study of the origin of the Earth, one can reasonably model Earth's mass, temperature, and rate of rotation, over time. It also allows for simulations in engineering which drastically speed up the development of a new technology. But there is also considerable interdisciplinarity in the physicist's methods, and so many other important fields are influenced by physics: e.g. presently the fields of econophysics plays an important role, as well as sociophysics.

Current research
Research in physics is continually progressing on a large number of fronts. In condensed matter physics, an important unsolved theoretical problem is that of high-temperature superconductivity. Many condensed matter experiments are aiming to fabricate workable spintronics and quantum computers. In particle physics, the first pieces of experimental evidence for physics beyond the Standard Model have begun to appear. Foremost Feynman diagram signed by R. P. Feynman among these are indications that neutrinos have non-zero mass. These experimental results appear to have solved the long-standing solar neutrino problem, and the physics of massive neutrinos remains an area of active theoretical and experimental research. In the next several years, particle accelerators will begin probing energy scales in the TeV range, in which experimentalists are hoping to find evidence[22] for the Higgs boson and supersymmetric particles.

Physics

Theoretical attempts to unify quantum mechanics and general relativity into a single theory of quantum gravity, a program ongoing for over half a century, have not yet been decisively resolved. The current leading candidates are M-theory, superstring theory and loop quantum gravity. Many astronomical and cosmological phenomena have yet to be satisfactorily explained, including the existence of ultra-high energy cosmic rays, the baryon asymmetry, the acceleration of the universe and the anomalous rotation rates of galaxies.

Although much progress has been made in high-energy, quantum, and astronomical physics, many everyday phenomena involving complexity, chaos, or turbulence are still poorly understood. Complex problems that seem like they could be solved by a clever application of dynamics and mechanics remain unsolved; examples include the formation of sandpiles, nodes in trickling water, the shape of water droplets, mechanisms of surface tension catastrophes, and self-sorting in shaken heterogeneous collections. These complex phenomena have received growing attention since the 1970s for several reasons, including the availability of modern mathematical methods and computers, which enabled complex systems to be modeled in new ways. Complex physics has become part of increasingly interdisciplinary research, as exemplified by the study of turbulence in aerodynamics and the observation of pattern formation in biological systems. In 1932, Horace Lamb said:

A typical event studied and described by the science of physics: a magnet levitating above a superconductor demonstrates the Meissner effect.

I am an old man now, and when I die and go to heaven there are two matters on which I hope for enlightenment. One is quantum electrodynamics, and the other is the turbulent motion of fluids. And about the former I am rather optimistic.

[23]

Horace Lamb

See also
General Glossary of classical physics List of elementary physics formulae Index of physics articles Perfection in physics and chemistry Philosophy of physics List of important publications in physics Physics (Aristotle) an early book on physics, which attempted to analyze and define motion from a philosophical point of view Unsolved problems in physics Related fields Astronomy Chemistry Engineering Mathematics Science

Physics Interdisciplinary fields incorporating physics Biophysics Econophysics Geophysics Neurophysics Psychophysics

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Further reading
Popular reading Feynman, Richard (1994). Character of Physical Law. Random House. ISBN 0-679-60127-9. Greene, Brian (2000). The Elegant Universe: Superstrings, Hidden Dimensions, and the Quest for the Ultimate Theory. Vintage. ISBN 0-375-70811-1. Hawking, Stephen (1988). A Brief History of Time. Bantam. ISBN 0-553-10953-7. Kaku, Michio (1995). Hyperspace: A Scientific Odyssey Through Parallel Universes, Time Warps, and the 10th Dimension. Anchor. ISBN 0-385-47705-8. Leggett, Anthony (1988). The Problems of Physics. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-289186-3. Kakalios, James (2005). The physics of superheroes. Gotham books. ISBN 1-592-40242-9. Rogers, Eric (1960). Physics for the Inquiring Mind: The Methods, Nature, and Philosophy of Physical Science. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-08016-X. Walker, Jearl (1977). The Flying Circus of Physics. Wiley. ISBN 0-471-02984-X. Fontanella, John (2006). The Physics of Basketball. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-801-88513-2. General textbooks Crowell, Benjamin (2001). Simple Nature [24]. Feynman, Richard; Leighton, Robert; Sands, Matthew (1989). Feynman Lectures on Physics. Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-201-51003-0. Feynman, Richard. Exercises for Feynman Lectures Volumes 1-3. Caltech. ISBN 2-35648-789-1. Knight, Randall (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers: A Strategic Approach. Benjamin Cummings. ISBN 0-8053-8685-8. Halliday, David; Resnick, Robert; Walker, Jearl. Fundamentals of Physics 8th ed. ISBN 978-0-471-75801-3. Hewitt, Paul (2001). Conceptual Physics with Practicing Physics Workbook (9th ed.). Addison Wesley. ISBN 0-321-05202-1. Giancoli, Douglas (2005). Physics: Principles with Applications (6th ed.). Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-060620-0. Schiller, Christoph (2007). Motion Mountain: The Free Physics Textbook [25]. Serway, Raymond A.; Jewett, John W. (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers (6th ed.). Brooks/Cole. ISBN 0-534-40842-7. Tipler, Paul (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Mechanics, Oscillations and Waves, Thermodynamics (5th ed.). W. H. Freeman. ISBN 0-7167-0809-4. Tipler, Paul (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Electricity, Magnetism, Light, and Elementary Modern Physics (5th ed.). W. H. Freeman. ISBN 0-7167-0810-8. Wilson, Jerry; Buffa, Anthony (2002). College Physics (5th ed.). Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-067644-6. Verma, H. C. (2005). Concepts of Physics. Bharti Bhavan. ISBN 81-7709-187-5.

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External links
General HyperPhysics website [26] HyperPhysics, a physics and astronomy mind-map from Georgia State University PhysicsCentral [27] Web portal run by the American Physical Society [28] Physics.org [29] Web portal run by the Institute of Physics [30] The Skeptic's Guide to Physics [31] Usenet Physics FAQ [32] A FAQ compiled by sci.physics and other physics newsgroups Website of the Nobel Prize in physics [33] World of Physics [34] An online encyclopedic dictionary of physics Nature: Physics [35] Physics [36] announced July 17, 2008 by the American Physical Society Physics/Publications [37] at the Open Directory Project Physicsweb.org [38] Physics Central [39] - includes articles on astronomy, particle physics, and mathematics. The Vega Science Trust [40] - science videos, including physics Video: Physics "Lightning" Tour with Justin Morgan [41]

52-part video course: The Mechanical Universe...and Beyond [42] Note: also available at 01 - Introduction Physics [43] at Google Video (Adobe Flash video) Encyclopedia of Physics [44] at Scholarpedia de Haas, Paul, "Historic Papers in Physics (20th Century)" [45] Organizations AIP.org [46] Website of the American Institute of Physics APS.org [47] Website of the American Physical Society IOP.org [48] Website of the Institute of Physics PlanetPhysics.org [49] Royal Society [50] Although not exclusively a physics institution, it has a strong history of physics SPS National [51] Website of the Society of Physics Students

pcd:Fisike

References
[1] R. P. Feynman, R. B. Leighton, M. Sands (1963), The Feynman Lectures on Physics, ISBN 0-201-02116-1 Hard-cover. p.1-1 Feynman begins with the atomic hypothesis, as his most compact statement of all scientific knowledge: "If, in some cataclysm, all of scientific knowledge were to be destroyed, and only one sentence passed on to the next generations ..., what statement would contain the most information in the fewest words? I believe it is ... that all things are made up of atoms little particles that move around in perpetual motion, attracting each other when they are a little distance apart, but repelling upon being squeezed into one another. ..." vol. I p. I2 [2] James Clerk Maxwell (1878), Matter and Motion (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=noRgWP0_UZ8C& printsec=titlepage& dq=matter+ and+ motion& source=gbs_summary_r& cad=0). New York: D. Van Nostrand. p.1: "Nature of Physical Science Physical science is that department of knowledge which relates to the order of nature." | accessdate=2008-11-04 [3] H.D. Young & R.A. Freedman, University Physics with Modern Physics: 11th Edition: International Edition (2004), Addison Wesley. Chapter 1, section 1.1, page 2 has this to say: "Physics is an experimental science. Physicists observe the phenomena of nature and try to find patterns and principles that relate these phenomena. These patterns are called physical theories or, when they are very well established and of broad use, physical laws or principles." Steve Holzner, Physics for Dummies (2006), Wiley. Chapter 1, page 7 says: "Physics is the study of your world and the world and universe around you." See Amazon Online Reader: Physics For Dummies (For Dummies(Math & Science)) (http:/ / www. amazon. com/ gp/ reader/ 0764554336), retrieved 24 Nov 2006 [4] Note: The term 'universe' is defined as everything that physically exists: the entirety of space and time, all forms of matter, energy and momentum, and the physical laws and constants that govern them. However, the term 'universe' may also be used in slightly different contextual senses, denoting concepts such as the cosmos or the philosophical world.

Physics
[5] Evidence exists that the earliest civilizations dating back to beyond 3000BC, such as the Sumerians, Ancient Egyptians, and the Indus Valley Civilization, all had a predictive knowledge and a very basic understanding of the motions of the Sun, Moon, and stars. [6] Francis Bacon's 1620 Novum Organum was critical in the development of scientific method. [7] The Feynman Lectures on Physics Volume I. Feynman, Leighton and Sands. ISBN 0-201-02115-3 See Chapter 3 : "The Relation of Physics to Other Sciences" for a general discussion. For the philosophical issue of whether other sciences can be "reduced" to physics, see reductionism and special sciences). [8] Some principles, such as Newton's laws of motion, are still generally called "laws" even though they are now known to be limiting cases of newer theories. Thus, for example, in Thomas Brody (1993, Luis de la Pea and Peter Hodgson, eds.) The Philosophy Behind Physics ISBN 0-387-55914-0, pp 1824 (Chapter 2), explains the 'epistemic cycle' in which a student of physics discovers that physics is not a finished product but is instead the process of creating [that product]. [9] See, for example, the influence of Kant and Ritter on Oersted. [10] Concepts which are denoted hypothetical can change with time. For example, the atom of nineteenth century physics was denigrated by some, including Ernst Mach's critique of Ludwig Boltzmann's formulation of statistical mechanics. By the end of World War II, the atom was no longer deemed hypothetical. [11] "Philosophy is written in that great book which ever lies before our eyes. I mean the universe, but we cannot understand it if we do not first learn the language and grasp the symbols in which it is written. This book is written in the mathematical language, and the symbols are triangles, circles and other geometrical figures, without whose help it is humanly impossible to comprehend a single word of it, and without which one wanders in vain through a dark labyrinth." Galileo (1623), The Assayer, as quoted by G. Toraldo Di Francia (1976), The Investigation of the Physical World ISBN 0-521-29925-X p.10 [12] Rosenberg, Alex (2006). Philosophy of Science. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-34317-8. See Chapter 1 for a discussion on the necessity of philosophy of science. [13] Peter Godfrey-Smith (2003), Chapter 14 "Bayesianism and Modern Theories of Evidence" Theory and Reality: an introduction to the philosophy of science ISBN 0-226-30063-3 [14] Peter Godfrey-Smith (2003), Chapter 15 "Empiricism, Naturalism, and Scientific Realism?" Theory and Reality: an introduction to the philosophy of science ISBN 0-226-30063-3 [15] See Laplace, Pierre Simon, A Philosophical Essay on Probabilities, translated from the 6th French edition by Frederick Wilson Truscott and Frederick Lincoln Emory, Dover Publications (New York, 1951) [16] See "The Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics" Ox Bow Press (1995) ISBN 1881987094. and "My View of the World" Ox Bow Press (1983) ISBN 0918024307. [17] Stephen Hawking and Roger Penrose (1996), The Nature of Space and Time ISBN 0-691-05084-8 p.4 "I think that Roger is a Platonist at heart but he must answer for himself." [18] Roger Penrose, The Road to Reality ISBN 0-679-45443-8 [19] Penrose, Roger; Abner Shimony, Nancy Cartwright, Stephen Hawking (1997). The Large, the Small and the Human Mind. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-78572-3. [20] Yet, universalism is encouraged in the culture of physics. For example, the World Wide Web, which was innovated at CERN by Tim Berners-Lee, was created in service to the computer infrastructure of CERN, and was/is intended for use by physicists worldwide. The same might be said for arXiv.org [21] "Division of Condensed Matter Physics Governance History" (http:/ / dcmp. bc. edu/ page. php?name=governance_history). . Retrieved 2007-02-13. [22] 584 co-authors "Direct observation of the strange 'b' baryon " Fermilab-Pub-07/196-E, June 12, 2007 http:/ / arxiv. org/ abs/ 0706.

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1690v2 finds a mass of 5.774 GeV for the [23] Goldstein, Sydney (1969). "Fluid Mechanics in the First Half of this Century". Annual Reviews in Fluid Mechanics 1: 128. doi: 10.1146/annurev.fl.01.010169.000245 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1146/ annurev. fl. 01. 010169. 000245). [24] http:/ / www. lightandmatter. com/ html_books/ 0sn/ [25] http:/ / www. motionmountain. net/ [26] http:/ / hyperphysics. phy-astr. gsu. edu/ Hbase/ hframe. html [27] http:/ / www. physicscentral. com/ [28] http:/ / www. aps. org/ [29] http:/ / www. physics. org/ [30] http:/ / www. iop. org/ [31] http:/ / musr. physics. ubc. ca/ ~jess/ hr/ skept/ [32] http:/ / math. ucr. edu/ home/ baez/ physics/ [33] http:/ / nobelprize. org/ nobel_prizes/ physics/ [34] http:/ / scienceworld. wolfram. com/ physics/ [35] http:/ / www. nature. com/ naturephysics [36] http:/ / physics. aps. org/ [37] http:/ / www. dmoz. org/ / Science/ Physics/ Publications/ / [38] http:/ / physicsweb. org [39] http:/ / physlib. com/

Physics
[40] [41] [42] [43] [44] [45] [46] [47] [48] [49] [50] [51] http:/ / www. vega. org. uk/ http:/ / www. archive. org/ details/ JustinMorganPhysicsLightningTour/ http:/ / www. learner. org/ resources/ series42. html http:/ / video. google. com/ videoplay?docid= http:/ / www. scholarpedia. org/ article/ Encyclopedia_of_physics http:/ / home. tiscali. nl/ physis/ HistoricPaper/ http:/ / www. aip. org/ index. html http:/ / www. aps. org http:/ / www. iop. org http:/ / planetphysics. org/ http:/ / www. royalsoc. ac. uk http:/ / www. spsnational. org

13

Acceleration
For the waltz composed by Johann Strauss, see Accelerationen. In physics, and more specifically kinematics, acceleration is the change in velocity over time.[1] Because velocity is a vector, it can change in two ways: a change in magnitude and/or a change in direction. In one dimension, i.e. a line, acceleration is the rate at which something speeds up or slows down. However, as a vector quantity, acceleration is also the rate at which direction changes.[2] [3] Acceleration has the dimensions LT2. In SI units, acceleration is measured in metres per second squared (m/s2). In common speech, the term acceleration commonly is used for an increase in speed (the magnitude of velocity); a decrease in speed is called deceleration. In physics, a change in the direction of velocity also is an acceleration: for rotary motion, the change in direction of velocity results in centripetal (toward the center) acceleration; where as the rate of change of speed is a tangential acceleration.

Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity. At any point on a trajectory, the magnitude of the acceleration is given by the rate of change of velocity in both magnitude and direction at that point. The true acceleration at time t is found in the limit as time interval t 0.

In classical mechanics, for a body with constant mass, the acceleration of the body is proportional to the resultant (total) force acting on it (Newton's second law):

Acceleration

14

Components of acceleration for a planar curved motion. The tangential component at is due to the change in speed of traversal, and points along the curve in the direction of the velocity vector. The centripetal component ac is due to the change in direction of the velocity vector and is normal to the trajectory, pointing toward the center of curvature of the path.

where F is the resultant force acting on the body, m is the mass of the body, and a is its acceleration.

Average and instantaneous acceleration

Average acceleration is the change in velocity (v) divided by the change in time (t). Instantaneous acceleration is the acceleration at a specific point in time.

Tangential and centripetal acceleration

The velocity of a particle moving on a curved path as a function of time can be written as:

with v(t) equal to the speed of travel along the path, and

a unit vector tangent to the path pointing in the direction of motion at the chosen moment in time. Taking into account both the changing speed v(t) and the changing direction of ut, the acceleration of a particle moving on a curved path on a planar surface can be written using the chain rule of differentiation as:

where un is the unit (outward) normal vector to the particle's trajectory, and R is its instantaneous radius of curvature based upon the osculating circle at time t. These components are called the tangential acceleration and the radial

Acceleration acceleration, respectively. The negative of the radial acceleration is the centripetal acceleration, which points inward, toward the center of curvature. Extension of this approach to three-dimensional space curves that cannot be contained on a planar surface leads to the Frenet-Serret formulas.[4] [5]

15

Relation to relativity
After completing his theory of special relativity, Albert Einstein realized that forces felt by objects undergoing constant proper acceleration are actually feeling themselves being accelerated, so that, for example, a car's acceleration forwards would result in the driver feeling a slight pressure between herself and her seat. In the case of gravity, which Einstein concluded is not actually a force, this is not the case; acceleration due to gravity is not felt by an object in free-fall. This was the basis for his development of general relativity, a relativistic theory of gravity.

See also
Uniform acceleration Angular acceleration Gravitational acceleration Coordinate vs. physical acceleration Derivatives of position Equations of Motion Proper Acceleration 0 to 60 mph Shock (mechanics) Specific force

External links
Acceleration and Free Fall [6] - a chapter from an online textbook Science aid: Movement [7] Science.dirbix: Acceleration [8] Acceleration Calculator [9] Motion Characteristics for Circular Motion [10] Practical Guide to Accelerometers [11] Acceleration Converter [12] Converts common acceleration units. Acceleration Calculator [13] Simple acceleration unit converter

References
[1] [2] [3] [4] Crew, Henry (2008). The Principles of Mechanics. BiblioBazaar, LLC. pp.43. ISBN 0559368712. Bondi, Hermann (1980). Relativity and Common Sense. Courier Dover Publications. pp.3. ISBN 0486240215. Lehrman, Robert L. (1998). Physics the Easy Way. Barron's Educational Series. pp.27. ISBN 0764102362. Larry C. Andrews & Ronald L. Phillips (2003). Mathematical Techniques for Engineers and Scientists (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=MwrDfvrQyWYC& pg=PA164& dq=particle+ "planar+ motion"& lr=& as_brr=0& sig=ACfU3U2LpH6ofhuuC2UiED0pf38wbspY8A#PPA164,M1). SPIE Press. p.164. ISBN 0819445061. . [5] Ch V Ramana Murthy & NC Srinivas (2001). Applied Mathematics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Q0Pvv4vWOlQC& pg=PA337& vq=frenet& dq=isbn=8121920825& source=gbs_search_s& sig=ACfU3U3S5vGMS-NnraAEmpBf6B9bB2wK6A). New Delhi: S. Chand & Co.. p.337. ISBN 81-219-2082-5. . [6] [7] [8] [9] http:/ / www. lightandmatter. com/ html_books/ 1np/ ch03/ ch03. html http:/ / www. scienceaid. co. uk/ physics/ forces/ motion. html http:/ / science. dirbix. com/ physics/ acceleration http:/ / www. ajdesigner. com/ constantacceleration/ cavelocitya. php

Acceleration
[10] [11] [12] [13] http:/ / www. glenbrook. k12. il. us/ gbssci/ phys/ Class/ circles/ u6l1b. html http:/ / www. sensr. com/ pdf/ practical-guide-to-accelerometers. pdf http:/ / www. convertbuster. com/ Tools/ AccelerationConverter/ tabid/ 103/ Default. aspx http:/ / www. unitjuggler. com/ convert-acceleration-from-ms2-to-fts2. html

16

Force
See also Force (disambiguation). In physics, the concept of force is used to describe an influence which causes a free massive body to undergo an acceleration. Forces which do not act uniformly on all parts of a body will also cause mechanical stresses.[1] Force can also be described by intuitive concepts such as a push or pull that can cause an object with mass to change its velocity (which includes to begin moving from a state of rest), i.e., to accelerate, or which can cause a flexible object to deform. Related concepts to accelerating forces include thrust - any force which increases the velocity of the object, drag - any force which decreases the velocity of any object, and torque - the tendency of a force to cause changes in rotational speed about an axis. Alternatively, mechanical stress is a Forces are often described as pushes or pulls. They can be due to phenomena such as gravity, magnetism, or anything else that might cause a mass to accelerate. technical term for the efforts which cause deformation of matter, be it solid, liquid, or gaseous. While mechanical stress can remain embedded in a solid object, gradually deforming it, mechanical stress in a fluid determines changes in its pressure and volume.[2] [3] An applied force has both magnitude and direction, making it a vector quantity. Newton's second law states that an object with a constant mass will accelerate in proportion to the net force acting upon and in inverse proportion to its mass. Equivalently, the net force, on an object equals the rate at which its momentum changes.[4] Philosophers in antiquity have used the concept of force in the study of stationary and moving objects. Aristotle attempted to define this concept in detail but incorporated fundamental misunderstandings that lasted many centuries. Archimedes developed a better understanding of force by observing simple machines, but many in his time still believed Aristotle's concept of force.[5] When the Age of Enlightenment began, Sir Isaac Newton corrected these misunderstandings with mathematical insight that remained unchanged for nearly three hundred years.[3] By the early 20th century, Einstein developed the theory of Special Relativity to correctly predict how forces increase exponentially for particles approaching the speed of light. With modern insights into quantum mechanics and technology that can accelerate particles close to the speed of light, particle physics has devised a Standard Model to describe forces between particles smaller than atoms. The Standard Model predicts that exchange particles called gauge bosons are the fundamental means by which forces are emitted and absorbed. Only four main interactions are known: in order of decreasing strength, they are: strong,

Force electromagnetic, weak, and gravitational.[2] High-energy particle physics observations made during the 1970s and 1980s confirmed that the weak and electromagnetic forces are expressions of a more fundamental electroweak interaction.[6]

17

Pre-Newtonian concepts
Since antiquity, the concept of force has been recognized as integral to the functioning of each of the simple machines. The mechanical advantage given by a simple machine allowed for less force to be used in exchange for that force acting over a greater distance. Analysis of the characteristics of forces ultimately culminated in the work of Archimedes who was especially famous for formulating a treatment of buoyant forces inherent in fluids.[5] Aristotle provided a philosophical discussion of the concept of a force as an integral part of Aristotelian cosmology. In Aristotle's view, the natural world held four elements that existed in "natural states". Aristotle believed that it was the natural state of objects with mass on Earth, such as the elements water and earth, to be motionless on the ground and that they tended towards that state if left alone. He distinguished between the innate tendency of objects to find their "natural place" (e.g., for heavy bodies to fall), which led Aristotle famously described a force as to "natural motion", and unnatural or forced motion, which required anything which causes an object to [7] continued application of a force. This theory, based on the everyday undergo "unnatural motion" experience of how objects move, such as the constant application of a force needed to keep a cart moving, had conceptual trouble accounting for the behavior of projectiles, such as the flight of arrows. The place where forces were applied to projectiles was only at the start of the flight, and while the projectile sailed through the air, no discernible force acts on it. Aristotle was aware of this problem and proposed that the air displaced through the projectile's path provided the needed force to continue the projectile moving. This explanation demands that air is needed for projectiles and that, for example, in a vacuum, no projectile would move after the initial push. Additional problems with the explanation include the fact that air resists the motion of the projectiles.[8] These shortcomings would not be fully explained and corrected until the seventeenth century work of Galileo Galilei, who was influenced by the late medieval idea that objects in forced motion carried an innate force of impetus. Galileo constructed an experiment in which stones and cannonballs were both rolled down an incline to disprove the Aristotelian theory of motion early in the seventeenth century. He showed that the bodies were accelerated by gravity to an extent which was independent of their mass and argued that objects retain their velocity unless acted on by a force, for example friction.[9]

Force

18

Newtonian mechanics
Sir Isaac Newton sought to describe the motion of all objects using the concepts of inertia and force, and in doing so, he found that they obey certain conservation laws. In 1687, Newton went on to publish his thesis Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica.[3] [10] In this work, Newton set out three laws of motion that to this day are the way forces are described in physics.[10]

Newton's first law

Newton's first law of motion states that objects continue to move in a state of constant velocity unless acted upon by an external net force or resultant force.[10] This law is an extension of Galileo's insight that constant velocity was associated with a lack of net force (see a more detailed description of this below). Newton proposed that every object with mass has an innate inertia that functions as the fundamental equilibrium "natural state" in place of the Aristotelian idea of the "natural state of rest". That is, the first law contradicts the intuitive Aristotelian belief that a net force is required to keep an object moving with constant velocity. By making rest physically indistinguishable from non-zero constant velocity, Newton's first law directly connects inertia with the concept of relative velocities. Specifically, in systems where objects are moving with different velocities, it is impossible to determine which object is "in motion" and which object is "at rest". In other words, to phrase matters more technically, the laws of physics are the same in every inertial frame of reference, that is, in all frames related by a Galilean transformation. For example, while traveling in a moving vehicle at a constant velocity, the laws of physics do not change from being at rest. A person can throw a ball straight up in the air and catch it as it falls down without worrying about applying a force in the direction the vehicle is moving. This is true even though another person who is observing the moving vehicle pass by also observes the ball follow a curving parabolic path in the same direction as the motion of the vehicle. It is the inertia of the ball associated with its constant velocity in the direction of the vehicle's motion that ensures the ball continues to move forward even as it is thrown up and falls back down. From the perspective of the person in the car, the vehicle and every thing inside of it is at rest: It is the outside world that is moving with a constant speed in the opposite direction. Since there is no experiment that can distinguish whether it is the vehicle that is at rest or the outside world that is at rest, the two situations are considered to be physically indistinguishable. Inertia therefore applies equally well to constant velocity motion as it does to rest. The concept of inertia can be further generalized to explain the tendency of objects to continue in many different forms of constant motion, even those that are not strictly constant velocity. The rotational inertia of planet Earth is what fixes the constancy of the length of a day and the length of a year. Albert Einstein extended the principle of inertia further when he explained that reference frames subject to constant acceleration, such as those free-falling toward a gravitating object, were physically equivalent to inertial reference frames. This is why, for example, astronauts experience weightlessness when in free-fall orbit around the Earth, and why Newton's Laws of Motion are more easily discernible in such environments. If an astronaut places an object with mass in mid-air next to herself, it will remain stationary with respect to the astronaut due to its inertia. This is the same thing that would occur if the astronaut and the object were in intergalactic space with no net force of gravity acting on their shared reference frame. This principle of equivalence was one of the foundational underpinnings for the development of the general theory of relativity.[11]

Force

19

Newton's second law

A modern statement of Newton's second law is a vector differential equation:[12]

Though Sir Isaac Newton's most famous equation is \scriptstyle{\vec{F}=m\vec{a}}, he actually wrote down a different form for his second law of motion that did not use differential calculus.

where

is the momentum of the system, and

is the net (vector sum) force. In equilibrium, there is zero net force

by definition, but (balanced) forces may be present nevertheless. In contrast, the second law states an unbalanced force acting on an object will result in the object's momentum changing over time.[10] By the definition of momentum,

where m is the mass and is the velocity. The product rule shows that . For closed systems (systems of constant total mass), the time derivative of mass is zero and the equation becomes . By substituting the definition of acceleration, the algebraic version of this common simplification of Newton's second law is derived: It is sometimes called the "second most famous formula in physics".[13] Newton never explicitly stated the formula in the reduced form above. Newton's second law asserts the proportionality of acceleration and mass to force. Accelerations can be defined through kinematic measurements. However, while kinematics are well-described through reference frame analysis in advanced physics, there are still deep questions that remain as to what is the proper definition of mass. General relativity offers an equivalence between space-time and mass, but lacking a coherent theory of quantum gravity, it is unclear as to how or whether this connection is relevant on microscales. With some justification, Newton's second

Force law can be taken as a quantitative definition of mass by writing the law as an equality; the relative units of force and mass then are fixed. The use of Newton's second law as a definition of force has been disparaged in some of the more rigorous textbooks,[2] [14] because it is essentially a mathematical truism. The equality between the abstract idea of a "force" and the abstract idea of a "changing momentum vector" ultimately has no observational significance because one cannot be defined without simultaneously defining the other. What a "force" or "changing momentum" is must either be referred to an intuitive understanding of our direct perception, or be defined implicitly through a set of self-consistent mathematical formulas. Notable physicists, philosophers and mathematicians who have sought a more explicit definition of the concept of "force" include Ernst Mach, Clifford Truesdell and Walter Noll.[15] Newton's second law can be used to measure the strength of forces. For instance, knowledge of the masses of planets along with the accelerations of their orbits allows scientists to calculate the gravitational forces on planets.

20

Newton's third law

Newton's third law is a result of applying symmetry to situations where forces can be attributed to the presence of different objects. For any two objects (call them 1 and 2), Newton's third law states that any force that is applied to object 1 due to the action of object 2 is automatically accompanied by a force applied to object 2 due to the action of object 1[16] This law implies that forces always occur in action-and-reaction pairs.[10] If object 1 and object 2 are considered to be in the same system, then the net force on the system due to the interactions between objects 1 and 2 is zero since

This means that in a closed system of particles, there are no internal forces that are unbalanced. That is, action-and-reaction pairs of forces shared between any two objects in a closed system will not cause the center of mass of the system to accelerate. The constituent objects only accelerate with respect to each other, the system itself remains unaccelerated. Alternatively, if an external force acts on the system, then the center of mass will experience an acceleration proportional to the magnitude of the external force divided by the mass of the system.[2] Combining Newton's second and third laws, it is possible to show that the linear momentum of a system is conserved. Using

and integrating with respect to time, the equation:

is obtained. For a system which includes objects 1 and 2,

which is the conservation of linear momentum.[17] Using the similar arguments, it is possible to generalizing this to a system of an arbitrary number of particles. This shows that exchanging momentum between constituent objects will not affect the net momentum of a system. In general, as long as all forces are due to the interaction of objects with mass, it is possible to define a system such that net momentum is never lost nor gained.[2]

Force

21

Descriptions
Since forces are perceived as pushes or pulls, this can provide an intuitive understanding for describing forces.[3] As with other physical concepts (e.g. temperature), the intuitive understanding of forces is quantified using precise operational definitions that are consistent with direct observations and compared to a standard measurement scale. Through experimentation, it is determined that laboratory measurements of forces are fully consistent with the conceptual definition of force offered by Newtonian mechanics. Forces act in a particular direction and have sizes dependent upon how strong the push or pull is. Because of these characteristics, forces are classified as "vector quantities". This means that forces follow a different set of mathematical rules than physical quantities that do not have direction (denoted scalar quantities). For example, when determining what happens when two forces act on the same object, it is necessary to know both the magnitude and the direction of both forces to calculate the result. If both of these pieces of information are not known for each Free-body diagrams of an object on a flat surface and an inclined plane. force, the situation is ambiguous. For example, if you Forces are resolved and added together to determine their magnitudes know that two people are pulling on the same rope and the resultant. with known magnitudes of force but you do not know which direction either person is pulling, it is impossible to determine what the acceleration of the rope will be. The two people could be pulling against each other as in tug of war or the two people could be pulling in the same direction. In this simple one-dimensional example, without knowing the direction of the forces it is impossible to decide whether the net force is the result of adding the two force magnitudes or subtracting one from the other. Associating forces with vectors avoids such problems. Historically, forces were first quantitatively investigated in conditions of static equilibrium where several forces canceled each other out. Such experiments demonstrate the crucial properties that forces are additive vector quantities: they have magnitude and direction.[3] When two forces act on an object, the resulting force, the resultant, can be determined by following the parallelogram rule of vector addition: the addition of two vectors represented by sides of a parallelogram, gives an equivalent resultant vector which is equal in magnitude and direction to the transversal of the parallelogram.[2] . The magnitude of the resultant varies from the difference of the magnitudes of the two forces to their sum, depending on the angle between their lines of action. Free-body diagrams can be used as a convenient way to keep track of forces acting on a system. Ideally, these diagrams are drawn with the angles and relative magnitudes of the force vectors preserved so that graphical vector addition can be done to determine the resultant.[18] As well as being added, forces can also be resolved into independent components at right angles to each other. A horizontal force pointing northeast can therefore be split into two forces, one pointing north, and one pointing east. Summing these component forces using vector addition yields the original force. Resolving force vectors into components of a set of basis vectors is often a more mathematically clean way to describe forces than using

Force magnitudes and directions.[19] This is because, for orthogonal components, the components of the vector sum are uniquely determined by the scalar addition of the components of the individual vectors. Orthogonal components are independent of each other because forces acting at ninety degrees to each other have no effect on the magnitude or direction of the other. Choosing a set of orthogonal basis vectors is often done by considering what set of basis vectors will make the mathematics most convenient. Choosing a basis vector that is in the same direction as one of the forces is desirable, since that force would then have only one non-zero component. Orthogonal force vectors can be three-dimensional with the third component being at right-angles to the other two.[2]

22

Equilibria
Equilibrium occurs when the resultant force acting on a point particle is zero (that is, the vector sum of all forces is zero). When dealing with an extense body, it is also necessary that the net torque in it is 0. There are two kinds of equilibrium: static equilibrium and dynamic equilibrium. Static equilibrium Static equilibrium was understood well before the invention of classical mechanics. Objects which are at rest have zero net force acting on them.[20] The simplest case of static equilibrium occurs when two forces are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction. For example, an object on a level surface is pulled (attracted) downward toward the center of the Earth by the force of gravity. At the same time, surface forces resist the downward force with equal upward force (called the normal force). The situation is one of zero net force and no acceleration.[3] Pushing against an object on a frictional surface can result in a situation where the object does not move because the applied force is opposed by static friction, generated between the object and the table surface. For a situation with no movement, the static friction force exactly balances the applied force resulting in no acceleration. The static friction increases or decreases in response to the applied force up to an upper limit determined by the characteristics of the contact between the surface and the object.[3] A static equilibrium between two forces is the most usual way of measuring forces, using simple devices such as weighing scales and spring balances. For example, an object suspended on a vertical spring scale experiences the force of gravity acting on the object balanced by a force applied by the "spring reaction force" which equals object's weight. Using such tools, some quantitative force laws were discovered: that the force of gravity is proportional to volume for objects of constant density (widely exploited for millennia to define standard weights); Archimedes' principle for buoyancy; Archimedes' analysis of the lever; Boyle's law for gas pressure; and Hooke's law for springs. These were all formulated and experimentally verified before Isaac Newton expounded his three laws of motion.[2]
[3]

Force Dynamical equilibrium Dynamical equilibrium was first described by Galileo who noticed that certain assumptions of Aristotelian physics were contradicted by observations and logic. Galileo realized that simple velocity addition demands that the concept of an "absolute rest frame" did not exist. Galileo concluded that motion in a constant velocity was completely equivalent to rest. This was contrary to Aristotle's notion of a "natural state" of rest that objects with mass naturally approached. Simple experiments showed that Galileo's understanding of the equivalence of constant velocity and rest to be correct. For example, if a mariner dropped a cannonball from the crow's nest of a ship moving at a constant velocity, Aristotelian physics would have the cannonball fall straight down while the ship moved beneath it. Thus, in an Aristotelian universe, the falling cannonball would land behind the foot of the mast of a Galileo Galilei was the first to point out moving ship. However, when this experiment is actually conducted, the the inherent contradictions contained in cannonball always falls at the foot of the mast, as if the cannonball knows to Aristotle's description of forces. travel with the ship despite being separated from it. Since there is no forward horizontal force being applied on the cannonball as it falls, the only conclusion left is that the cannonball continues to move with the same velocity as the boat as it falls. Thus, no force is required to keep the cannonball moving at the constant forward velocity.[9] Moreover, any object traveling at a constant velocity must be subject to zero net force (resultant force). This is the definition of dynamical equilibrium: when all the forces on an object balance but it still moves at a constant velocity. A simple case of dynamical equilibrium occurs in constant velocity motion across a surface with kinetic friction. In such a situation, a force is applied in the direction of motion while the kinetic friction force exactly opposes the applied force. This results in a net zero force, but since the object started with a non-zero velocity, it continues to move with a non-zero velocity. Aristotle misinterpreted this motion as being caused by the applied force. However, when kinetic friction is taken into consideration it is clear that there is no net force causing constant velocity motion.[2]

23

Special relativity
In the special theory of relativity mass and energy are equivalent (as can be seen by calculating the work required to accelerate an object). When an object's velocity increases so does its energy and hence its mass equivalent (inertia). It thus requires more force to accelerate it the same amount than it did at a lower velocity. Newton's second law remains valid due to the fact that it is a mathematical definition.[21] But in order to be conserved, relativistic momentum must be redefined as:

where is the velocity and is the speed of light. The relativistic expression relating force and acceleration for a particle with constant non-zero rest mass in the direction is: moving

Force

24

where the Lorentz factor

[22]

Relativistic force does not produce a constant acceleration, but an ever decreasing acceleration as the object approaches the speed of light. Note that is undefined for an object with a non zero rest mass at the speed of light, and the theory yields no prediction at that speed. One can however restore the form of

for use in relativity through the use of four-vectors. This relation is correct in relativity when m is the invariant mass, and is the four-acceleration.
[23]

is the four-force,

Feynman diagrams
In modern particle physics, forces and the acceleration of particles are explained as the exchange of momentum-carrying gauge bosons. With the development of quantum field theory and general relativity, it was realized that "force" is a redundant concept arising from conservation of momentum (4-momentum in relativity and momentum of virtual particles in quantum electrodynamics). The conservation of momentum, from Noether's theorem, can be directly derived from the symmetry of space and so is usually considered more fundamental than the concept of a force. Thus the currently known fundamental forces are considered more accurately to be "fundamental interactions".[6] When particle A emits (creates) or absorbs (annihilates) particle B, a force accelerates particle A in response to the momentum of A Feynman diagram for the decay of a neutron into a proton. The W particle B, thereby conserving momentum as a whole. boson is between two vertices indicating a repulsion. This description applies for all forces arising from fundamental interactions. While sophisticated mathematical descriptions are needed to predict, in full detail, the nature of such interactions, there is a conceptually simple way to describe such interactions through the use of Feynman diagrams. In a Feynman diagram, each matter particle is represented as a straight line (see world line) traveling through time which normally increases up or to the right in the diagram. Matter and anti-matter particles are identical except for their direction of propagation through the Feynman diagram. World lines of particles intersect at interaction vertices, and the Feynman diagram represents any force arising from an interaction as occurring at the vertex with an associated instantaneous change in the direction of the particle world lines. Gauge bosons are emitted away from the vertex as wavy lines (similar to waves) and, in the case of virtual particle exchange, are absorbed at an adjacent vertex.[24] The utility of Feynman diagrams is that other types of physical phenomena that are part of the general picture of fundamental interactions but are conceptually separate from forces can also be described using the same rules. For example, a Feynman diagram can describe in succinct detail how a neutron decays into an electron, proton, and neutrino, an interaction mediated by the same gauge boson that is responsible for the weak nuclear force.[24]

Force

25

Fundamental models
All the forces in the universe are based on four fundamental forces. The strong and weak forces act only at very short distances, and are responsible for the interactions between subatomic particles including nucleons and compound nuclei. The electromagnetic force acts between electric charges and the gravitational force acts between masses. All other forces are based on the existence of the four fundamental interactions. For example, friction is a manifestation of the electromagnetic force acting between the atoms of two surfaces, and the Pauli Exclusion Principle,[25] which does not allow atoms to pass through each other. The forces in springs, modeled by Hooke's law, are also the result of electromagnetic forces and the Exclusion Principle acting together to return the object to its equilibrium position. Centrifugal forces are acceleration forces which arise simply from the acceleration of rotating frames of reference.[2] The development of fundamental theories for forces proceeded along the lines of unification of disparate ideas. For example, Isaac Newton unified the force responsible for objects falling at the surface of the Earth with the force responsible for the orbits of celestial mechanics in his universal theory of gravitation. Michael Faraday and James Clerk Maxwell demonstrated that electric and magnetic forces were unified through one consistent theory of electromagnetism. In the twentieth century, the development of quantum mechanics led to a modern understanding that the first three fundamental forces (all except gravity) are manifestations of matter (fermions) interacting by exchanging virtual particles called gauge bosons.[26] This standard model of particle physics posits a similarity between the forces and led scientists to predict the unification of the weak and electromagnetic forces in electroweak theory subsequently confirmed by observation. The complete formulation of the standard model predicts an as yet unobserved Higgs mechanism, but observations such as neutrino oscillations indicate that the standard model is incomplete. A grand unified theory allowing for the combination of the electroweak interaction with the strong force is held out as a possibility with candidate theories such as supersymmetry proposed to accommodate some of the outstanding unsolved problems in physics. Physicists are still attempting to develop self-consistent unification models that would combine all four fundamental interactions into a theory of everything. Einstein tried and failed at this endeavor, but currently the most popular approach to answering this question is string theory.[6]

Force

26

Gravity
What we now call gravity was not identified as a universal force until the work of Isaac Newton. Before Newton, the tendency for objects to fall towards the Earth was not understood to be related to the motions of celestial objects. Galileo was instrumental in describing the characteristics of falling objects by determining that the acceleration of every object in free-fall was constant and independent of the mass of the object. Today, this acceleration due to gravity towards the surface of the Earth is usually designated as and has a magnitude of about 9.81 meters per second squared (this measurement is taken from sea level and may vary depending on location), and points toward the center of the Earth.[27] This observation means that the force of gravity on an object at the Earth's surface is directly proportional to the object's mass. Thus an object that has a mass of will experience a force:

An initially stationary object which is allowed to fall freely under gravity drops a distance which is proportional to the square of the elapsed time. An image was taken 20 flashes per second. During the first 1/20th of a second the ball drops one unit of distance (here, a unit is about 12mm); by 2/20ths it has dropped a total of 4 units; by 3/20ths, 9 units and so on.

In free-fall, this force is unopposed and therefore the net force on the object is its weight. For objects not in free-fall, the force of gravity is opposed by the reactions of their supports. For example, a person standing on the ground experiences zero net force, since his weight is balanced by a normal force exerted by the ground.[2] Newton's contribution to gravitational theory was to unify the motions of heavenly bodies, which Aristotle had assumed were in a natural state of constant motion, with falling motion observed on the Earth. He proposed a law of gravity that could account for the celestial motions that had been described earlier using Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion.[28] Newton came to realize that the effects of gravity might be observed in different ways at larger distances. In particular, Newton determined that the acceleration of the Moon around the Earth could be ascribed to the same

Force force of gravity if the acceleration due to gravity decreased as an inverse square law. Further, Newton realized that the acceleration due to gravity is proportional to the mass of the attracting body.[28] Combining these ideas gives a formula that relates the mass ( ) and the radius ( ) of the Earth to the gravitational acceleration:

27

where the vector direction is given by

, the unit vector directed outward from the center of the Earth.[10] is used to describe the relative strength of gravity. This constant has

In this equation, a dimensional constant

come to be known as Newton's Universal Gravitation Constant,[29] though its value was unknown in Newton's lifetime. Not until 1798 was Henry Cavendish able to make the first measurement of using a torsion balance; this was widely reported in the press as a measurement of the mass of the Earth since knowing the could allow one to solve for the Earth's mass given the above equation. Newton, however, realized that since all celestial bodies followed the same laws of motion, his law of gravity had to be universal. Succinctly stated, Newton's Law of Gravitation states that the force on a spherical object of mass due to the gravitational pull of mass is

where

is the distance between the two objects' centers of mass and

is the unit vector pointed in the direction

away from the center of the first object toward the center of the second object.[10] This formula was powerful enough to stand as the basis for all subsequent descriptions of motion within the solar system until the twentieth century. During that time, sophisticated methods of perturbation analysis[30] were invented to calculate the deviations of orbits due to the influence of multiple bodies on a planet, moon, comet, or asteroid. The formalism was exact enough to allow mathematicians to predict the existence of the planet Neptune before it was observed.[31] It was only the orbit of the planet Mercury that Newton's Law of Gravitation seemed not to fully explain. Some astrophysicists predicted the existence of another planet (Vulcan) that would explain the discrepancies; however, despite some early indications, no such planet could be found. When Albert Einstein finally formulated his theory of general relativity (GR) he turned his attention to the problem of Mercury's orbit and found that his theory added a correction which could account for the discrepancy. This was the first time that Newton's Theory of Gravity had been shown to be less correct than an alternative.[32] Since then, and so far, general relativity has been acknowledged as the theory which best explains gravity. In GR, gravitation is not viewed as a force, but rather, objects moving freely in gravitational fields travel under their own inertia in straight lines through curved space-time defined as the shortest space-time path between two space-time events. From the perspective of the object, all motion occurs as if there were no gravitation whatsoever. It is only when observing the motion in a global sense that the curvature of space-time can be observed and the force is inferred from the object's curved path. Thus, the straight line path in space-time is seen as a curved line in space, and it is called the ballistic trajectory of the object. For example, a basketball thrown from the ground moves in a parabola, as it is in a uniform gravitational field. Its space-time trajectory (when the extra ct dimension is added) is almost a straight line, slightly curved (with the radius of curvature of the order of few light-years). The time derivative of the changing momentum of the object is what we label as "gravitational force".[2]

Electromagnetic forces
The electrostatic force was first described in 1784 by Coulomb as a force which existed intrinsically between two charges.[33] The properties of the electrostatic force were that it varied as an inverse square law directed in the radial direction, was both attractive and repulsive (there was intrinsic polarity), was independent of the mass of the charged objects, and followed the law of superposition. Coulomb's Law unifies all these observations into one succinct statement.[34]

Force Subsequent mathematicians and physicists found the construct of the electric field to be useful for determining the electrostatic force on an electric charge at any point in space. The electric field was based on using a hypothetical "test charge" anywhere in space and then using Coulomb's Law to determine the electrostatic force.[35] Thus the electric field anywhere in space is defined as

28

where

is the magnitude of the hypothetical test charge.

Meanwhile, the Lorentz force of magnetism was discovered to exist between two electric currents. It has the same mathematical character as Coulomb's Law with the proviso that like currents attract and unlike currents repel. Similar to the electric field, the magnetic field can be used to determine the magnetic force on an electric current at any point in space. In this case, the magnitude of the magnetic field was determined to be

where

is the magnitude of the hypothetical test current and

is the length of hypothetical wire through which the

test current flows. The magnetic field exerts a force on all magnets including, for example, those used in compasses. The fact that the Earth's magnetic field is aligned closely with the orientation of the Earth's axis causes compass magnets to become oriented because of the magnetic force pulling on the needle. Through combining the definition of electric current as the time rate of change of electric charge, a rule of vector multiplication called Lorentz's Law describes the force on a charge moving in an magnetic field.[35] The connection between electricity and magnetism allows for the description of a unified electromagnetic force that acts on a charge. This force can be written as a sum of the electrostatic force (due to the electric field) and the magnetic force (due to the magnetic field). Fully stated, this is the law:

where

is the electromagnetic force,

is the magnitude of the charge of the particle, ).

is the electric field,

is

the velocity of the particle which is crossed with the magnetic field (

The origin of electric and magnetic fields would not be fully explained until 1864 when James Clerk Maxwell unified a number of earlier theories into a succinct set of four equations. These "Maxwell Equations" fully described the sources of the fields as being stationary and moving charges, and the interactions of the fields themselves. This led Maxwell to discover that electric and magnetic fields could be "self-generating" through a wave that traveled at a speed which he calculated to be the speed of light. This insight united the nascent fields of electromagnetic theory with optics and led directly to a complete description of the electromagnetic spectrum.[36] However, attempting to reconcile electromagnetic theory with two observations, the photoelectric effect, and the nonexistence of the ultraviolet catastrophe, proved troublesome. Through the work of leading theoretical physicists, a new theory of electromagnetism was developed using quantum mechanics. This final modification to electromagnetic theory ultimately led to quantum electrodynamics (or QED), which fully describes all electromagnetic phenomena as being mediated by wave particles known as photons. In QED, photons are the fundamental exchange particle which described all interactions relating to electromagnetism including the electromagnetic force.[37] It is a common misconception to ascribe the stiffness and rigidity of solid matter to the repulsion of like charges under the influence of the electromagnetic force. However, these characteristics actually result from the Pauli Exclusion Principle. Since electrons are fermions, they cannot occupy the same quantum mechanical state as other electrons. When the electrons in a material are densely packed together, there are not enough lower energy quantum mechanical states for them all, so some of them must be in higher energy states. This means that it takes energy to pack them together. While this effect is manifested macroscopically as a structural "force", it is technically only the result of the existence of a finite set of electron states.

Force

29

Nuclear forces
There are two "nuclear forces" which today are usually described as interactions that take place in quantum theories of particle physics. The strong nuclear force[38] is the force responsible for the structural integrity of atomic nuclei while the weak nuclear force[39] is responsible for the decay of certain nucleons into leptons and other types of hadrons.[2] The strong force is today understood to represent the interactions between quarks and gluons as detailed by the theory of quantum chromodynamics (QCD).[40] The strong force is the fundamental force mediated by gluons, acting upon quarks, antiquarks, and the gluons themselves. The strong interaction is the most powerful of the four fundamental forces. The strong force only acts directly upon elementary particles. However, a residual of the force is observed between hadrons (the best known example being the force that acts between nucleons in atomic nuclei) as the nuclear force. Here the strong force acts indirectly, transmitted as gluons which form part of the virtual pi and rho mesons which classically transmit the nuclear force (see this topic for more). The failure of many searches for free quarks has shown that the elementary particles affected are not directly observable. This phenomenon is called colour confinement. The weak force is due to the exchange of the heavy W and Z bosons. Its most familiar effect is beta decay (of neutrons in atomic nuclei) and the associated radioactivity. The word "weak" derives from the fact that the field strength is some 1013 times less than that of the strong force. Still, it is stronger than gravity over short distances. A consistent electroweak theory has also been developed which shows that electromagnetic forces and the weak force are indistinguishable at a temperatures in excess of approximately 1015Kelvin. Such temperatures have been probed in modern particle accelerators and show the conditions of the universe in the early moments of the Big Bang.

Non-fundamental forces
Some forces are consequences of fundamental. In such situations, idealized models can be utilized to gain physical insight.

Normal force
The normal force is the repulsive force of interaction between atoms at close contact. When their electron clouds overlap, Pauli repulsion (due to fermionic nature of electrons) follows resulting in the force which acts normal to the surface interface between two objects.[41] The normal force, for example, is responsible for the structural integrity of tables and floors as well as being the force that responds whenever an external force pushes on a solid object. An example of the normal force in action is the impact force on an object crashing into an immobile surface.[2]

FN represents the normal force exerted on the object.

Friction
Friction is a surface force that opposes motion. The frictional force is directly related to the normal force which acts to keep two solid objects separated at the point of contact. There are two broad classifications of frictional forces: static friction and kinetic friction. The static friction force ( ) will exactly oppose forces applied to an object parallel to a surface contact up to the ) multiplied by the normal force ( ). In other words the limit specified by the coefficient of static friction ( .

magnitude of the static friction force satisfies the inequality:

Force The kinetic friction force ( magnitude of the force equals: , where is the coefficient of kinetic friction. For most surface interfaces, the coefficient of kinetic friction is less than the coefficient of static friction.[2] ) is independent of both the forces applied and the movement of the object. Thus, the

30

Tension
Tension forces can be modeled using ideal strings which are massless, frictionless, unbreakable, and unstretchable. They can be combined with ideal pulleys which allow ideal strings to switch physical direction. Ideal strings transmit tension forces instantaneously in action-reaction pairs so that if two objects are connected by an ideal string, any force directed along the string by the first object is accompanied by a force directed along the string in the opposite direction by the second object.[42] By connecting the same string multiple times to the same object through the use of a set-up that uses movable pulleys, the tension force on a load can be multiplied. For every string that acts on a load, another factor of the tension force in the string acts on the load. However, even though such machines allow for an increase in force, there is a corresponding increase in the length of string that must be displaced in order to move the load. These tandem effects result ultimately in the conservation of mechanical energy since the work done on the load is the same no matter how complicated the machine.[2] [43]

Elastic force
An elastic force acts to return a spring to its natural length. An ideal spring is taken to be massless, frictionless, unbreakable, and infinitely stretchable. Such springs exert forces that push when contracted, or pull when extended, in proportion to the displacement of the spring from its equilibrium position.[44] This linear relationship was described by Robert Hooke in 1676, for whom Hooke's law is named. If is the displacement, the force exerted by an ideal spring equals:

Fk is the force that responds to the load on the spring.

where

is the spring constant (or force constant), which is particular to the spring. The minus sign accounts for the

tendency of the elastic force to act in opposition to the applied load.[2]

Force

31

Continuum mechanics
Newton's laws and Newtonian mechanics in general were first developed to describe how forces affect idealized point particles rather than three-dimensional objects. However, in real life, matter has extended structure and forces that act on one part of an object might affect other parts of an object. For situations where lattice holding together the atoms in an object is able to flow, contract, expand, or otherwise change shape, the theories of continuum mechanics describe the way forces affect the material. For example, in extended fluids, differences in pressure result in forces being directed along the pressure gradients as follows:

When the drag force (

) associated

with air resistance becomes equal in magnitude to the force of gravity on a falling object ( ), the object reaches a state of dynamical equilibrium at terminal velocity.

where

is the volume of the object in the fluid and

is the scalar function that describes the pressure at all

locations in space. Pressure gradients and differentials result in the buoyant force for fluids suspended in gravitational fields, winds in atmospheric science, and the lift associated with aerodynamics and flight.[2] A specific instance of such a force that is associated with dynamic pressure is fluid resistance: a body force that resists the motion of an object through a fluid due to viscosity. For so-called "Stokes' drag" the force is approximately proportional to the velocity, but opposite in direction:

where: is a constant that depends on the properties of the fluid and the dimensions of the object (usually the cross-sectional area), and is the velocity of the object.[2] More formally, forces in continuum mechanics are fully described by a stress tensor with terms that are roughly defined as

where

is the relevant cross-sectional area for the volume for which the stress-tensor is being calculated. This

formalism includes pressure terms associated with forces that act normal to the cross-sectional area (the matrix diagonals of the tensor) as well as shear terms associated with forces that act parallel to the cross-sectional area (the off-diagonal elements). The stress tensor accounts for forces that cause all deformations including also tensile stresses and compressions.

Force

32

Fictitious forces
There are forces which are frame dependent, meaning that they appear due to the adoption of non-Newtonian (that is, non-inertial) reference frames. Such forces include the centrifugal force and the Coriolis force.[45] These forces are considered fictitious because they do not exist in frames of reference that are not accelerating.[2] In general relativity, gravity becomes a fictitious force that arises in situations where spacetime deviates from a flat geometry. As an extension, Kaluza-Klein theory and string theory ascribe electromagnetism and the other fundamental forces respectively to the curvature of differently scaled dimensions, which would ultimately imply that all forces are fictitious.

Rotations and torque

Forces that cause extended objects to rotate are associated with torques. Mathematically, the torque on a particle is defined as the cross-product:

Relationship between force (F), torque (), and momentum vectors (p and L) in a rotating system.

where is the particle's position vector relative to a pivot is the force acting on the particle. Torque is the rotation equivalent of force in the same way that angle is the rotational equivalent for position, angular velocity for velocity, and angular momentum for momentum. All the formal treatments of Newton's Laws that applied to forces equivalently apply to torques. Thus, as a consequence of Newton's First Law of Motion, there exists rotational inertia that ensures that all bodies maintain their angular momentum unless acted upon by an unbalanced torque. Likewise, Newton's Second Law of Motion can be used to derive an alternative definition of torque:

where is the moment of inertia of the particle is the angular acceleration of the particle. This provides a definition for the moment of inertia which is the rotational equivalent for mass. In more advanced treatments of mechanics, the moment of inertia acts as a tensor that, when properly analyzed, fully determines the characteristics of rotations including precession and nutation. Equivalently, the differential form of Newton's Second Law provides an alternative definition of torque:
[46]

where

is the angular momentum of the particle.

Newton's Third Law of Motion requires that all objects exerting torques themselves experience equal and opposite torques,[47] and therefore also directly implies the conservation of angular momentum for closed systems that

Force experience rotations and revolutions through the action of internal torques.

33

Centripetal force
For an object accelerating in circular motion, the unbalanced force acting on the object equals:[48]

where is the mass of the object, is the velocity of the object and is the distance to the center of the circular path and is the unit vector pointing in the radial direction outwards from the center. This means that the unbalanced centripetal force felt by any object is always directed toward the center of the curving path. Such forces act perpendicular to the velocity vector associated with the motion of an object, and therefore do not change the speed of the object (magnitude of the velocity), but only the direction of the velocity vector. The unbalanced force that accelerates an object can be resolved into a component that is perpendicular to the path, and one that is tangential to the path. This yields both the tangential force which accelerates the object by either slowing it down or speeding it up and the radial (centripetal) force which changes its direction.[2]

Kinematic integrals
Forces can be used to define a number of physical concepts by integrating with respect to kinematic variables. For example, integrating with respect to time gives the definition of impulse[49]

which, by Newton's Second Law, must be equivalent to the change in momentum (yielding the Impulse momentum theorem). Similarly, integrating with respect to position gives a definition for the work done by a force:[50]

which is equivalent to changes in kinetic energy (yielding the work energy theorem).[50] Power P is the rate of change dW/dt of the work W, as the trajectory is extended by a position change interval dt:
[51]

in a time

with

the velocity.

Potential energy
Instead of a force, often the mathematically related concept of a potential energy field can be used for convenience. For instance, the gravitational force acting upon an object can be seen as the action of the gravitational field that is present at the object's location. Restating mathematically the definition of energy (via the definition of work), a potential scalar field is defined as that field whose gradient is equal and opposite to the force produced at every point: Forces can be classified as conservative or nonconservative. Conservative forces are equivalent to the gradient of a potential while non-conservative forces are not.[2]

Force

34

Conservative forces
A conservative force that acts on a closed system has an associated mechanical work that allows energy to convert only between kinetic or potential forms. This means that for a closed system, the net mechanical energy is conserved whenever a conservative force acts on the system. The force, therefore, is related directly to the difference in potential energy between two different locations in space,[52] and can be considered to be an artifact of the potential field in the same way that the direction and amount of a flow of water can be considered to be an artifact of the contour map of the elevation of an area.[2] Conservative forces include gravity, the electromagnetic force, and the spring force. Each of these forces has models which are dependent on a position often given as a radial vector emanating from spherically symmetric potentials.[53] Examples of this follow: For gravity:

where

is the gravitational constant, and

is the mass of object n.

For electrostatic forces:

where

is electric permittivity of free space, and

is the electric charge of object n.

For spring forces: is the spring constant.[2]

where

Nonconservative forces
For certain physical scenarios, it is impossible to model forces as being due to gradient of potentials. This is often due to macrophysical considerations which yield forces as arising from a macroscopic statistical average of microstates. For example, friction is caused by the gradients of numerous electrostatic potentials between the atoms, but manifests as a force model which is independent of any macroscale position vector. Nonconservative forces other than friction include other contact forces, tension, compression, and drag. However, for any sufficiently detailed description, all these forces are the results of conservative ones since each of these macroscopic forces are the net results of the gradients of microscopic potentials.[2] The connection between macroscopic non-conservative forces and microscopic conservative forces is described by detailed treatment with statistical mechanics. In macroscopic closed systems, nonconservative forces act to change the internal energies of the system, and are often associated with the transfer of heat. According to the Second Law of Thermodynamics, nonconservative forces necessarily result in energy transformations within closed systems from ordered to more random conditions as entropy increases.[2]

Force

35

Units of measurement
The SI unit of force is the newton (symbol N), which is the force required to accelerate a one kilogram mass at a rate of one meter per second squared, or kgms2.[54] The corresponding CGS unit is the dyne, the force required to accelerate a one gram mass by one centimeter per second squared, or gcms2. A newton is thus equal to 100,000dyne. The gravitational foot-pound-second English unit of force is the pound-force (lbf), defined as the force exerted by gravity on a pound-mass in the standard gravitational field of 9.80665ms2.[54] The pound-force provides an alternative unit of mass: one slug is the mass that will accelerate by one foot per second squared when acted on by one pound-force.[54] An alternative unit of force in a different foot-pound-second system, the absolute fps system, is the poundal, defined as the force required to accelerate a one pound mass at a rate of one foot per second squared.[54] The units of slug and poundal are designed to avoid a constant of proportionality in Newton's second law. The pound-force has a metric counterpart, less commonly used than the newton: the kilogram-force (kgf) (sometimes kilopond), is the force exerted by standard gravity on one kilogram of mass.[54] The kilogram-force leads to an alternate, but rarely used unit of mass: the metric slug (sometimes mug or hyl) is that mass which accelerates at 1ms2 when subjected to a force of 1kgf. The kilogram-force is not a part of the modern SI system, and is generally deprecated; however it still sees use for some purposes as expressing jet thrust, bicycle spoke tension, torque wrench settings and engine output torque. Other arcane units of force include the sthne which is equivalent to 1000N and the kip which is equivalent to 1000lbf.

Units of force
newton (SI unit) 1N 1 dyn 1 kgm/s = 105 N dyne kilogram-force, kilopond 0.10197 kp 1.0197106 kp gn(1 kg) 0.45359 kp 0.014098 kp pound-force poundal

= 105 dyn 1 gcm/s

0.22481 lbf

7.2330 pdl

2.2481106 lbf 7.2330105 pdl 2.2046 lbf gn(1 lb) 0.031081 lbf 70.932 pdl 32.174 pdl 1 lbft/s

1 kp 1 lbf 1 pdl

= 9.80665 N 4.448222 N 0.138255 N

= 980665 dyn 444822 dyn 13825 dyn

The value of gn as used in the official definition of the kilogram-force is used here for all gravitational units.

References
Corbell, H.C.; Philip Stehle (1994). Classical Mechanics p 28,. New York: Dover publications. ISBN 0-486-68063-0. Cutnell, John d.; Johnson, Kenneth W. (2004). Physics, Sixth Edition. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons Inc.. ISBN 041-44895-8. Feynman, R. P., Leighton, R. B., Sands, M. (1963). Lectures on Physics, Vol 1. Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-201-02116-1. Halliday, David; Robert Resnick; Kenneth S. Krane (2001). Physics v. 1. New York: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-471-32057-9. Parker, Sybil (1993). Encyclopedia of Physics, p 443,. Ohio: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-051400-3. Sears F., Zemansky M. & Young H. (1982). University Physics. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-201-07199-1.

Force Serway, Raymond A. (2003). Physics for Scientists and Engineers. Philadelphia: Saunders College Publishing. ISBN 0-534-40842-7. Tipler, Paul (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Mechanics, Oscillations and Waves, Thermodynamics (5th ed.). W. H. Freeman. ISBN 0-7167-0809-4. Verma, H.C. (2004). Concepts of Physics Vol 1. (2004 Reprint ed.). Bharti Bhavan. ISBN 81-7709-187-5.

36

External links
Video lecture on Newton's three laws [55] by Walter Lewin from MIT OpenCourseWare A Java simulation on vector addition of forces [56] Force Unit Converter [57]

References
[1] "glossary" (http:/ / eobglossary. gsfc. nasa. gov/ Library/ glossary. php3?mode=alpha& seg=f& segend=h). Earth Observatory. NASA. . Retrieved 2008-04-09. "Force: Any external agent that causes a change in the motion of a free body, or that causes stress in a fixed body." [2] e.g. Feynman, R. P., Leighton, R. B., Sands, M. (1963). Lectures on Physics, Vol 1. Addison-Wesley.; Kleppner, Daniel; Robert Kolenkow (1973). An Introduction to Mechanics. McGraw-Hill. pp.133134. ISBN 0070350485.. [3] University Physics, Sears, Young & Zemansky, pp1838 [4] See for example pages 9-1 and 9-2 of Feynman, Leighton and Sands (1963). [5] Heath,T.L.. "The Works of Archimedes (1897). The unabridged work in PDF form (19MB)" (http:/ / www. archive. org/ details/ worksofarchimede029517mbp). Archive.org. . Retrieved 2007-10-14. [6] Weinberg, S. (1994). Dreams of a Final Theory. Vintage Books USA. ISBN 0-679-74408-8 [7] Land, Helen The Order of Nature in Aristotle's Physics: Place and the Elements (1998) [8] Hetherington, Norriss S. (1993). Cosmology: Historical, Literary, Philosophical, Religious, and Scientific Perspectives. Garland Reference Library of the Humanities. p.100. ISBN 0815310854. [9] Drake, Stillman (1978). Galileo At Work. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-16226-5 [10] Newton, Isaac (1999). The Principia Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-08817-4. This is a recent translation into English by I. Bernard Cohen and Anne Whitman, with help from Julia Budenz. [11] DiSalle, Robert (2002-03-30). "Space and Time: Inertial Frames" (http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ entries/ spacetime-iframes/ ). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. . Retrieved 2008-03-24. [12] Newton's Principia Mathematica actually used a finite difference version of this equation based upon impulse. See Impulse. [13] For example, by Rob Knop PhD in his Galactic Interactions blog on February 26, 2007 at 9:29 a.m. (http:/ / scienceblogs. com/ interactions/ 2007/ 02/ the_greatest_mystery_in_all_of. php) [14] One exception to this rule is: Landau, L. D.; Akhiezer, A. I.; Lifshitz, A. M. (1967). General Physics; mechanics and molecular physics (First English ed.). Oxford: Pergamon Press. ISBN 0080033040. Translated by: J. B. Sykes, A. D. Petford, and C. L. Petford. Library of Congress Catalog Number 67-30260. In section 7, pages 1214, this book defines force as dp/dt. [15] e.g. W. Noll, On the Concept of Force, in part B of Walter Noll's website. (http:/ / www. math. cmu. edu/ ~wn0g/ noll). [16] Henderson, Tom (1996-2007). "Lesson 4: Newton's Third Law of Motion" (http:/ / www. glenbrook. k12. il. us/ gbssci/ phys/ Class/ newtlaws/ u2l4a. html). The Physics Classroom. . Retrieved 2008-01-04. [17] Dr. Nikitin (2007). "Dynamics of translational motion" (http:/ / physics-help. info/ physicsguide/ mechanics/ translational_dynamics. shtml). . Retrieved 2008-01-04. [18] "Introduction to Free Body Diagrams" (http:/ / eta. physics. uoguelph. ca/ tutorials/ fbd/ intro. html). Physics Tutorial Menu. University of Guelph. . Retrieved 2008-01-02. [19] Henderson, Tom (2004). "The Physics Classroom" (http:/ / www. glenbrook. k12. il. us/ GBSSCI/ PHYS/ Class/ vectors/ u3l1b. html). The Physics Classroom and Mathsoft Engineering & Education, Inc.. . Retrieved 2008-01-02. [20] "Static Equilibrium" (http:/ / www. uvi. edu/ Physics/ SCI3xxWeb/ Structure/ StaticEq. html). Physics Static Equilibrium (forces and torques). University of the Virgin Islands. . Retrieved 2008-01-02. [21] Cutnell. Physics, Sixth Edition. John Wiley & Sons Inc. pp.855876. ISBN 047123124X. [22] "Seminar: Visualizing Special Relativity" (http:/ / www. anu. edu. au/ Physics/ Searle/ Obsolete/ Seminar. html). THE RELATIVISTIC RAYTRACER. . Retrieved 2008-01-04. [23] Wilson, John B.. "Four-Vectors (4-Vectors) of Special Relativity: A Study of Elegant Physics" (http:/ / SciRealm. com/ 4Vectors. html). The Science Realm: John's Virtual Sci-Tech Universe. . Retrieved 2008-01-04. [24] Shifman, Mikhail (1999). ITEP LECTURES ON PARTICLE PHYSICS AND FIELD THEORY. World Scientific. ISBN 981-02-2639-X. [25] Nave, R. "Pauli Exclusion Principle" (http:/ / hyperphysics. phy-astr. gsu. edu/ hbase/ pauli. html). HyperPhysics***** Quantum Physics. . Retrieved 2008-01-02. [26] "Fermions & Bosons" (http:/ / particleadventure. org/ frameless/ fermibos. html). The Particle Adventure. . Retrieved 2008-01-04.

Force
[27] Cook, A. H. (16-160-1965). "A New Absolute Determination of the Acceleration due to Gravity at the National Physical Laboratory" (http:/ / www. nature. com/ nature/ journal/ v208/ n5007/ abs/ 208279a0. html). Nature 208: 279. doi: 10.1038/208279a0 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1038/ 208279a0). . Retrieved 2008-01-04. [28] University Physics, Sears, Young & Zemansky, pp5982 [29] "Sir Isaac Newton: The Universal Law of Gravitation" (http:/ / csep10. phys. utk. edu/ astr161/ lect/ history/ newtongrav. html). Astronomy 161 The Solar System. . Retrieved 2008-01-04. [30] Watkins, Thayer. "Perturbation Analysis, Regular and Singular" (http:/ / www. sjsu. edu/ faculty/ watkins/ perturb. htm). Department of Economics. San Jos State University. . [31] Kollerstrom, Nick (2001). "Neptune's Discovery. The British Case for Co-Prediction." (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20051111190351/ http:/ / www. ucl. ac. uk/ sts/ nk/ neptune/ index. htm). University College London. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. ucl. ac. uk/ sts/ nk/ neptune/ index. htm) on 2005-11-11. . Retrieved 2007-03-19. [32] Einstein, Albert (1916). "The Foundation of the General Theory of Relativity" (http:/ / www. alberteinstein. info/ gallery/ gtext3. html) (PDF). Annalen der Physik 49: 769822. . Retrieved 2006-09-03. [33] Cutnell. Physics, Sixth Edition. John Wiley & Sons Inc. p.519. ISBN 047123124X. [34] Coulomb, Charles (1784). "Recherches thoriques et exprimentales sur la force de torsion et sur l'lasticit des fils de metal". Histoire de lAcadmie Royale des Sciences: 229269. [35] Feynman, Leighton and Sands (2006). The Feynman Lectures on Physics The Definitive Edition Volume II. Pearson Addison Wesley. ISBN 0-8053-9047-2. [36] Duffin, William (1980). Electricity and Magnetism, 3rd Ed.. McGraw-Hill. pp.364383. ISBN 0-07-084111-X. [37] For a complete library on quantum mechanics see Quantum_mechanics#References [38] Cutnell. Physics, Sixth Edition. John Wiley & Sons Inc. p.940. ISBN 047123124X. [39] Cutnell. Physics, Sixth Edition. John Wiley & Sons Inc. p.951. ISBN 047123124X. [40] Stevens, Tab (10/07/2003). "Quantum-Chromodynamics: A Definition - Science Articles" (http:/ / www. physicspost. com/ science-article-168. html). . Retrieved 2008-01-04. [41] Cutnell. Physics, Sixth Edition. John Wiley & Sons Inc. p.93. ISBN 047123124X. [42] "Tension Force" (http:/ / www. mtsu. edu/ ~phys2010/ Lectures/ Part_2__L6_-_L11/ Lecture_9/ Tension_Force/ tension_force. html). Non-Calculus Based Physics I. . Retrieved 2008-01-04. [43] Fitzpatrick, Richard (2006-02-02). "Strings, pulleys, and inclines" (http:/ / farside. ph. utexas. edu/ teaching/ 301/ lectures/ node48. html). . Retrieved 2008-01-04. [44] "Elasticity, Periodic Motion" (http:/ / hyperphysics. phy-astr. gsu. edu/ hbase/ permot2. html). HyperPhysics. Georgia State University. . Retrieved 2008-01-04. [45] Mallette, Vincent (1982-2008). "Inwit Publishing, Inc. and Inwit, LLC -- Writings, Links and Software Distributions - The Coriolis Force" (http:/ / www. algorithm. com/ inwit/ writings/ coriolisforce. html). Publications in Science and Mathematics, Computing and the Humanities. Inwit Publishing, Inc.. . Retrieved 2008-01-04. [46] "Newton's Second Law for Rotation" (http:/ / hyperphysics. phy-astr. gsu. edu/ HBASE/ n2r. html). HyperPhysics***** Mechanics ***** Rotation. . Retrieved 2008-01-04. [47] Fitzpatrick, Richard (2007-01-07). "Newton's third law of motion" (http:/ / farside. ph. utexas. edu/ teaching/ 336k/ lectures/ node26. html). . Retrieved 2008-01-04. [48] Nave, R. "Centripetal Force" (http:/ / hyperphysics. phy-astr. gsu. edu/ hbase/ cf. html). HyperPhysics***** Mechanics ***** Rotation. . [49] Hibbeler, Russell C. (2010), Engineering Mechanics, 12th edition, Pearson Prentice Hall, p.222, ISBN 0-13-607791-9 [50] Feynman, Leighton & Sands (1963), vol. 1, p. 13-3. [51] Feynman, Leighton & Sands (1963), vol. 1, p. 13-2. [52] Singh, Sunil Kumar (2007-08-25). "Conservative force" (http:/ / cnx. org/ content/ m14104/ latest/ ). Connexions. . Retrieved 2008-01-04. [53] Davis, Doug. "Conservation of Energy" (http:/ / www. ux1. eiu. edu/ ~cfadd/ 1350/ 08PotEng/ ConsF. html). General physics. . Retrieved 2008-01-04. [54] Wandmacher, Cornelius; Johnson, Arnold (1995). Metric Units in Engineering. ASCE Publications. p.15. ISBN 0784400709. [55] http:/ / ocw. mit. edu/ OcwWeb/ Physics/ 8-01Physics-IFall1999/ VideoLectures/ detail/ Video-Segment-Index-for-L-6. htm [56] http:/ / phy. hk/ wiki/ englishhtm/ Vector. htm [57] http:/ / www. lorenz-messtechnik. de/ english/ company/ force_unit_calculation. php

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Cross product

38

Cross product
In mathematics, the cross product is a binary operation on two vectors in a three-dimensional Euclidean space that results in another vector which is perpendicular to the plane containing the two input vectors. The algebra defined by the cross product is neither commutative nor associative. It contrasts with the dot product which produces a scalar result. In many engineering and physics problems, it is desirable to be able to construct a perpendicular vector from two existing vectors, and the cross product provides a means for doing so. The cross product is also useful as a measure of "perpendicularness"the magnitude of the cross product of two vectors is equal to the product of their magnitudes if they are perpendicular and scales down to zero when they are parallel. The cross product is also known as the vector product, or Gibbs vector product. The cross product is only defined in three or seven dimensions. Like the dot product, it depends on the metric of Euclidean space. Unlike the dot product, it also depends on the choice of orientation or "handedness". Certain features of the cross product can be generalized to other situations. For arbitrary choices of orientation, the cross product must be regarded not as a vector, but as a pseudovector. For arbitrary choices of metric, and in arbitrary dimensions, the cross product can be generalized by the exterior product of vectors, defining a two-form instead of a vector.

The cross-product in respect to a right-handed coordinate system

Cross product

39

Definition
The cross product of two vectors a and b is denoted by a b. In physics, sometimes the notation ab is used,[1] though this is avoided in mathematics to avoid confusion with the exterior product. In a three-dimensional Euclidean space, with a right-handed coordinate system, a b is defined as a vector c that is perpendicular to both a and b, with a direction given by the right-hand rule and a magnitude equal to the area of the parallelogram that the vectors span. The cross product is defined by the formula[2]

Finding the direction of the cross product by the right-hand rule

where is the measure of the smaller angle between a and b (0 180), a and b are the magnitudes of vectors a and b, and is a unit vector perpendicular to the plane containing a and b in the direction given by the right-hand rule as illustrated. If the vectors a and b are collinear (i.e., the angle between them is either 0 or 180), by the above formula, the cross product of a and b is the zero vector 0. The direction of the vector is given by the right-hand rule, where one simply points the forefinger of the right hand in the direction of a and the middle finger in the direction of b. Then, the vector is coming out of the thumb (see the picture on the right). Using this rule implies that the cross-product is anti-commutative, i.e., b a = -(a b). By pointing the forefinger toward b first, and then pointing the middle finger toward a, the thumb will be forced in the opposite direction, reversing the sign of the product vector. Using the cross product requires the handedness of the coordinate system to be taken into account (as explicit in the definition above). If a left-handed coordinate system is used, the direction of the vector is given by the left-hand rule and points in the opposite direction. This, however, creates a problem because transforming from one arbitrary reference system to another (e.g., a mirror image transformation from a right-handed to a left-handed coordinate system), should not change the direction of . The problem is clarified by realizing that the cross-product of two vectors is not a (true) vector, but rather a pseudovector. See cross product and handedness for more detail.

Computing the cross product

Coordinate notation
The unit vectors i, j, and k from the given orthogonal coordinate system satisfy the following equalities: ij=kjk=iki=j Together with the skew-symmetry and bilinearity of the cross product, these three identities are sufficient to determine the cross product of any two vectors. In particular, the following identities are also seen to hold j i = k k j = i i k = j i i = j j = k k = 0. With these rules, the coordinates of the cross product of two vectors can be computed easily, without the need to determine any angles: Let

Cross product a = a1i + a2j + a3k = (a1, a2, a3) and b = b1i + b2j + b3k = (b1, b2, b3). The cross product can be calculated by distributive cross-multiplication: a b = (a1i + a2j + a3k) (b1i + b2j + b3k) a b = a1i (b1i + b2j + b3k) + a2j (b1i + b2j + b3k) + a3k (b1i + b2j + b3k) a b = (a1i b1i) + (a1i b2j) + (a1i b3k) + (a2j b1i) + (a2j b2j) + (a2j b3k) + (a3k b1i) + (a3k b2j) + (a3k b3k). Since scalar multiplication is commutative with cross multiplication, the right hand side can be regrouped as a b = a1b1(i i) + a1b2(i j) + a1b3(i k) + a2b1(j i) + a2b2(j j) + a2b3(j k) + a3b1(k i) + a3b2(k j) + a3b3(k k). This equation is the sum of nine simple cross products. After all the multiplication is carried out using the basic cross product relationships between i, j, and k defined above, a b = a1b1(0) + a1b2(k) + a1b3(j) + a2b1(k) + a2b2(0) + a2b3(i) + a3b1(j) + a3b2(i) + a3b3(0). This equation can be factored to form a b = (a2b3 a3b2) i + (a3b1 a1b3) j + (a1b2 a2b1) k = (a2b3 a3b2, a3b1 a1b3, a1b2 a2b1).

40

Matrix notation
The definition of the cross product can also be represented by the determinant of a matrix:

This determinant can be computed using Sarrus' rule. Consider the table

From the first three elements on the first row draw three diagonals sloping downward to the right (for example, the first diagonal would contain i, a2, and b3), and from the last three elements on the first row draw three diagonals sloping downward to the left (for example, the first diagonal would contain i, a3, and b2). Then multiply the elements on each of these six diagonals, and negate the last three products. The cross product would be defined by the sum of these products:

Cross product

41

Properties
Geometric meaning
The magnitude of the cross product can be interpreted as the positive area of the parallelogram having a and b as sides (see Figure 1):

Figure 1: The area of a parallelogram as a cross product

Figure 2: The volume of a parallelepiped using dot and cross-products; dashed lines show the projections of c onto a b and of a onto b c, a first step in finding dot-products.

Indeed, one can also compute the volume V of a parallelepiped having a, b and c as sides by using a combination of a cross product and a dot product, called scalar triple product (see Figure 2):

Figure 2 demonstrates that this volume can be found in two ways, showing geometrically that the identity holds that a "dot" and a "cross" can be interchanged without changing the result. That is:

Because the magnitude of the cross product goes by the sine of the angle between its arguments, the cross product can be thought of as a measure of "perpendicularness" in the same way that the dot product is a measure of "parallelness". Given two unit vectors, their cross product has a magnitude of 1 if the two are perpendicular and a magnitude of zero if the two are parallel.

Cross product

42

Algebraic properties
The cross product is anticommutative, a b = b a, distributive over addition, a (b + c) = (a b) + (a c), and compatible with scalar multiplication so that (ra) b = a (rb) = r(a b). It is not associative, but satisfies the Jacobi identity: a (b c) + b (c a) + c (a b) = 0. It does not obey the cancellation law: If a b = a c and a 0 then: (a b) (a c) = 0 and, by the distributive law above: a (b c) = 0 Now, if a is parallel to (b c), then even if a 0 it is possible that (b c) 0 and therefore that b c. However, if both a b = a c and a b = a c, then it can be concluded that b = c. Indeed, a (b - c) = 0, and a (b - c) = 0 so that b - c is both parallel and perpendicular to the non-zero vector a. This is only possible if b - c = 0. The distributivity, linearity and Jacobi identity show that R3 together with vector addition and cross product forms a Lie algebra. In fact, the Lie algebra is that of the real orthogonal group in 3 dimensions, SO(3). Further, two non-zero vectors a and b are parallel if and only if a b = 0. It follows from the geometrical definition above that the cross product is invariant under rotations about the axis defined by ab. There is also this property relating cross products and the triple product: (a b) (a c) = (a (b c)) a. The cross product obeys this identity under matrix transformations:

where

is a 3 by 3 matrix and

is the transpose of the inverse

The cross product of two vectors in 3-D always lies in the null space of the matrix with the vectors as rows. In other words

Cross product

43

Triple product expansion

The triple product expansion, also known as Lagrange's formula, is a formula relating the cross product of three vectors (called the vector triple product) with the dot product: a (b c) = b(a c) c(a b). The mnemonic "BAC minus CAB" is used to remember the order of the vectors in the right hand member. This formula is used in physics to simplify vector calculations. A special case, regarding gradients and useful in vector calculus, is given below.

This is a special case of the more general Laplace-de Rham operator The following identity also relates the cross product and the dot product:

This is a special case of the multiplicativity of Lagrange's identity.

of the norm in the quaternion algebra, and a restriction to

Alternative ways to compute the cross product

Quaternions
The cross product can also be described in terms of quaternions, and this is why the letters i, j, k are a convention for the standard basis on : it is thought of as the imaginary quaternions. For instance, the above given cross product relations among i, j, and k agree with the multiplicative relations among the quaternions i, j, and k. In general, if a vector [a1, a2, a3] is represented as the quaternion a1i + a2j + a3k, the cross product of two vectors can be obtained by taking their product as quaternions and deleting the real part of the result. The real part will be the negative of the dot product of the two vectors. Alternatively and more straightforwardly, using the above identification of the 'purely imaginary' quaternions with , the cross product may be thought of as half of the commutator of two quaternions.

Conversion to matrix multiplication

A cross product between two vectors (which can only be defined in three-dimensional space) can be rewritten in terms of pure matrix multiplication as the product of a skew-symmetric matrix and a vector, as follows:

where

Also, if is itself a cross product:

then

Cross product

44

This notation provides another way of generalizing cross product to the higher dimensions by substituting pseudovectors (such as angular velocity or magnetic field) with such skew-symmetric matrices. It is clear that such physical quantities will have n(n-1)/2 independent components in n dimensions, which coincides with number of dimensions for three-dimensional space, and this is why vectors can be used (and most often are used) to represent such quantities. This notation is also often much easier to work with, for example, in epipolar geometry. From the general properties of the cross product follows immediately that and and from fact that is skew-symmetric it follows that

The above-mentioned triple product expansion (bac-cab rule) can be easily proven using this notation. The above definition of means that there is a one-to-one mapping between the set of 33 skew-symmetric matrices, also known as the Lie algebra of SO(3), and the operation of taking the cross product with some vector .

Index notation
The cross product can alternatively be defined in terms of the Levi-Civita symbol,

where the indices correspond, as in the previous section, to orthogonal vector components. This characterization of the cross product is often expressed more compactly using the Einstein summation convention as

in which repeated indices are summed from 1 to 3. Note that this representation is another form of the skew-symmetric representation of the cross product:

In classical mechanics: representing the cross-product with the Levi-Civita symbol can cause mechanical-symmetries to be obvious when physical-systems are isotropic in space. (Quick example: consider a particle in a Hooke's Law potential in three-space, free to oscillate in three dimensions; none of these dimensions are "special" in any sense, so symmetries lie in the cross-product-represented angular-momentum which are made clear by the abovementioned Levi-Civita representation).

Mnemonic
The word xyzzy can be used to remember the definition of the cross product. If

where:

then:

Cross product

45

The second and third equations can be obtained from the first by simply vertically rotating the subscripts, x y z x. The problem, of course, is how to remember the first equation, and two options are available for this purpose: either to remember the relevant two diagonals of Sarrus's scheme (those containing i), or to remember the xyzzy sequence. Since the first diagonal in Sarrus's scheme is just the main diagonal of the above-mentioned three letters of the word xyzzy can be very easily remembered. matrix, the first

Applications
Computational geometry
The cross product can be used to calculate the normal for a triangle or polygon, an operation frequently performed in computer graphics. In computational geometry of the plane, the cross product is used to determine the sign of the acute angle defined by three points , and . It corresponds to the direction of the cross product of the two coplanar vectors defined by the pairs of points and , i.e., by the sign of the expression . In the "right-handed" coordinate system, if the result is 0, the points are collinear; if it is positive, the three points constitute a negative angle of rotation around from to , otherwise a positive angle. From another point of view, the sign of tells whether lies to the left or to the right of line .

Mechanics
Moment of a force applied at point B around point A is given as:

Other
The cross product occurs in the formula for the vector operator curl. It is also used to describe the Lorentz force experienced by a moving electrical charge in a magnetic field. The definitions of torque and angular momentum also involve the cross product. The trick of rewriting a cross product in terms of a matrix multiplication appears frequently in epipolar and multi-view geometry, in particular when deriving matching constraints.

Cross product

46

Cross product as an exterior product

The cross product can be viewed in terms of the exterior product. This view allows for a natural geometric interpretation of the cross product. In exterior calculus the exterior product (or wedge product) of two vectors is a bivector. A bivector is an oriented plane element, in much the same way that a vector is an oriented line element. Given two vectors a and b, one can view the bivector ab as the oriented parallelogram spanned by a and b. The cross product is then obtained by taking the Hodge dual of the bivector ab, identifying 2-vectors with vectors:
The cross product in relation to the exterior product. In red are the unit normal vector, and the "parallel" unit bivector.

This can be thought of as the oriented multi-dimensional element "perpendicular" to the bivector. Only in three dimensions is the result an oriented line element a vector whereas, for example, in 4 dimensions the Hodge dual of a bivector is two-dimensional another oriented plane element. So, in three dimensions only is the cross product of a and b the vector dual to the bivector ab: it is perpendicular to the bivector, with orientation dependent on the coordinate system's handedness, and has the same magnitude relative to the unit normal vector as ab has relative to the unit bivector; precisely the properties described above.

Cross product and handedness

When measurable quantities involve cross products, the handedness of the coordinate systems used cannot be arbitrary. However, when physics laws are written as equations, it should be possible to make an arbitrary choice of the coordinate system (including handedness). To avoid problems, one should be careful to never write down an equation where the two sides do not behave equally under all transformations that need to be considered. For example, if one side of the equation is a cross product of two vectors, one must take into account that when the handedness of the coordinate system is not fixed a priori, the result is not a (true) vector but a pseudovector. Therefore, for consistency, the other side must also be a pseudovector. More generally, the result of a cross product may be either a vector or a pseudovector, depending on the type of its operands (vectors or pseudovectors). Namely, vectors and pseudovectors are interrelated in the following ways under application of the cross product: vector vector = pseudovector vector pseudovector = vector pseudovector pseudovector = pseudovector Because the cross product may also be a (true) vector, it may not change direction with a mirror image transformation. This happens, according to the above relationships, if one of the operands is a (true) vector and the other one is a pseudovector (e.g., the cross product of two vectors). For instance, a vector triple product involving three (true) vectors is a (true) vector. A handedness-free approach is possible using exterior algebra.

Cross product

47

Generalizations
There are several ways to generalize the cross product to the higher dimensions.

Lie algebra
The cross product can be seen as one of the simplest Lie products, and is thus generalized by Lie algebras, which are axiomatized as binary products satisfying the axioms of multilinearity, skew-symmetry, and the Jacobi identity. Many Lie algebras exist, and their study is a major field of mathematics, called Lie theory. For example, the Heisenberg algebra gives another Lie algebra structure on In the basis the product is

Using octonions
A cross product for 7-dimensional vectors can be obtained in the same way by using the octonions instead of the quaternions. The nonexistence of such cross products of two vectors in other dimensions is related to the result that the only normed division algebras are the ones with dimension 1, 2, 4, and 8.

Wedge product
In general dimension, there is no direct analogue of the binary cross product. There is however the wedge product, which has similar properties, except that the wedge product of two vectors is now a 2-vector instead of an ordinary vector. As mentioned above, the cross product can be interpreted as the wedge product in three dimensions after using Hodge duality to identify 2-vectors with vectors. The wedge product and dot product can be combined to form the Clifford product.

Multilinear algebra
In the context of multilinear algebra, the cross product can be seen as the (1,2)-tensor (a mixed tensor) obtained from the 3-dimensional volume form,[3] a (0,3)-tensor, by raising an index. In detail, the 3-dimensional volume form defines a product by taking the determinant of the matrix given by these 3 vectors. By duality, this is equivalent to a function (fixing any two inputs gives a function by evaluating on the third input) and in the presence of an inner product (such as the dot product; more generally, a non-degenerate bilinear form), we have an isomorphism and thus this yields a map which is the cross product: a (0,3)-tensor (3 vector inputs, scalar output) has been transformed into a (1,2)-tensor (2 vector inputs, 1 vector output) by "raising an index". Translating the above algebra into geometry, the function "volume of the parallelepiped defined by " (where the first two vectors are fixed and the last is an input), which defines a function , can be represented uniquely as the dot product with a vector: this vector is the cross product From this perspective, the cross product is defined by the scalar triple product, In the same way, in higher dimensions one may define generalized cross products by raising indices of the n-dimensional volume form, which is a -tensor. The most direct generalizations of the cross product are to define either: a -tensor, which takes as input vectors, and gives as output 1 vector an -ary vector-valued product, or a -tensor, which takes as input 2 vectors and gives as output skew-symmetric tensor of rank n2 a binary product with rank n2 tensor values. One can also define -tensors for other k. These products are all multilinear and skew-symmetric, and can be defined in terms of the determinant and parity.

Cross product The -ary product can be described as follows: given as: which can be computed as the Gram determinant vectors in define their generalized

48

cross product

perpendicular to the hyperplane defined by the magnitude is the volume of the parallelotope defined by the of the oriented so that is positively oriented.

This is the unique multilinear, alternating product which evaluates to for cyclic permutations of indices.

and so forth

In coordinates, one can give a formula for this n-ary analogue of the cross product in Rn+1 by:

This formula is identical in structure to the determinant formula for the normal cross product in R3 except that the row of basis vectors is the last row in the determinant rather than the first. The reason for this is to ensure that the ordered vectors (v1,...,vn,(v1,...,vn)) have a positive orientation with respect to (e1,...,en+1). If n is even, this modification leaves the value unchanged, so this convention agrees with the normal definition of the binary product. In the case that n is odd, however, the distinction must be kept. This n-ary form enjoys many of the same properties as the vector cross product: it is alternating and linear in its arguments, it is perpendicular to each argument, and its magnitude gives the hypervolume of the region bounded by the arguments. And just like the vector cross product, it can be defined in a coordinate independent way as the Hodge dual of the wedge product of the arguments.

History
In 1773, Joseph Louis Lagrange introduced the component form of both the dot and cross products in order to study the tetrahedron in three dimensions.[4] In 1843 the Irish mathematical physicist Sir William Rowan Hamilton introduced the quaternion product, and with it the terms "vector" and "scalar". Given two quaternions [0, u] and [0, v], where u and v are vectors in R3, their quaternion product can be summarized as [uv, uv]. James Clerk Maxwell used Hamilton's quaternion tools to develop his famous electromagnetism equations, and for this and other reasons quaternions for a time were an essential part of physics education. However, Oliver Heaviside in England and Josiah Willard Gibbs in Connecticut felt that quaternion methods were too cumbersome, often requiring the scalar or vector part of a result to be extracted. Thus, about forty years after the quaternion product, the dot product and cross product were introducedto heated opposition. Pivotal to (eventual) acceptance was the efficiency of the new approach, allowing Heaviside to reduce the equations of electromagnetism from Maxwell's original 20 to the four commonly seen today. Largely independent of this development, and largely unappreciated at the time, Hermann Grassmann created a geometric algebra not tied to dimension two or three, with the exterior product playing a central role. William Kingdon Clifford combined the algebras of Hamilton and Grassmann to produce Clifford algebra, where in the case of three-dimensional vectors the bivector produced from two vectors dualizes to a vector, thus reproducing the cross product. The cross notation, which began with Gibbs, inspired the name "cross product". Originally appearing in privately published notes for his students in 1881 as Elements of Vector Analysis, Gibbs's notationand the namelater reached a wider audience through Vector Analysis (Gibbs/Wilson), a textbook by a former student. Edwin Bidwell Wilson rearranged material from Gibbs's lectures, together with material from publications by Heaviside, Fpps, and Hamilton. He divided vector analysis into three parts:

Cross product First, that which concerns addition and the scalar and vector products of vectors. Second, that which concerns the differential and integral calculus in its relations to scalar and vector functions. Third, that which contains the theory of the linear vector function. Two main kinds of vector multiplications were defined, and they were called as follows: The direct, scalar, or dot product of two vectors The skew, vector, or cross product of two vectors Several kinds of triple products and products of more than three vectors were also examined. The above mentioned triple product expansion was also included.

49

See also
Multiple cross products Products involving more than three vectors. Dot product Cartesian product A product of two sets. (the symbol) Bivector Pseudovector

Notes
[1] Jeffreys, H and Jeffreys, BS (1999). Methods of mathematical physics (http:/ / worldcat. org/ oclc/ 41158050?tab=details). Cambridge University Press. . [2] Wilson 1901 [3] By a volume form one means a function that takes in n vectors and gives out a scalar, the volume of the parallelotope defined by the vectors: This is an n-ary multilinear skew-symmetric form. In the presence of a basis, such as on this is given by the determinant, but in an abstract vector space, this is added structure. In terms of G-structures, a volume form is an -structure. [4] Lagrange, JL (1773). "Solutions analytiques de quelques problmes sur les pyramides triangulaires". Oeuvres. vol 3.

References
Cajori, Florian (1929), A History Of Mathematical Notations Volume II (http://www.archive.org/details/ historyofmathema027671mbp), Open Court Publishing, p.134, ISBN 978-0-486-67766-8 Wilson, Edwin Bidwell (1901), Vector Analysis: A text-book for the use of students of mathematics and physics, founded upon the lectures of J. Willard Gibbs (http://www.archive.org/details/117714283), Yale University Press

External links
Weisstein, Eric W., " Cross Product (http://mathworld.wolfram.com/CrossProduct.html)" from MathWorld. A quick geometrical derivation and interpretation of cross products (http://behindtheguesses.blogspot.com/ 2009/04/dot-and-cross-products.html) Z.K. Silagadze (2002). Multi-dimensional vector product. Journal of Physics. A35, 4949 (http://uk.arxiv.org/ abs/math.la/0204357) (it is only possible in 7-D space) Real and Complex Products of Complex Numbers (http://www.cut-the-knot.org/arithmetic/algebra/ RealComplexProducts.shtml) An interactive tutorial (http://physics.syr.edu/courses/java-suite/crosspro.html) created at Syracuse University - (requires java) W. Kahan (2007). Cross-Products and Rotations in Euclidean 2- and 3-Space. University of California, Berkeley (PDF). (http://www.cs.berkeley.edu/~wkahan/MathH110/Cross.pdf)

Torque

50

Torque
Torque, also called moment or moment of force (see the terminology below), is the tendency of a force to rotate an object about an axis,[1] fulcrum, or pivot. Just as a force is a push or a pull, a torque can be thought of as a twist. Loosely speaking, torque is a measure of the turning force on an object such as a bolt or a flywheel. For example, pushing or pulling the handle of a wrench connected to a nut or bolt produces a torque (turning force) that loosens or tightens the nut or bolt. The terminology for this concept is not straightforward: In physics, it is usually called "torque", and in mechanical engineering, it is called "moment".[2] However, in mechanical engineering, the term "torque" means something different,[3] described below. In this article, the word "torque" is always used in the physics sense, synonymous with "moment" in engineering.
Relationship between force F, torque , linear momentum p, and angular momentum L in a system which has rotation constrained in one plane only. (Forces and moments due to gravity and friction not considered.)

The symbol for torque is typically , the Greek letter tau. When it is called moment, it is commonly denoted M. The magnitude of torque depends on three quantities: First, the force applied; second, the length of the lever arm[4] connecting the axis to the point of force application; and third, the angle between the two. In symbols:

where is the torque vector and is the magnitude of the torque, r is the displacement vector (a vector from the point from which torque is measured to the point where force is applied), and r is the length (or magnitude) of the lever arm vector, F is the force vector, and F is the magnitude of the force, denotes the cross product, is the angle between the force vector and the lever arm vector. The length of the lever arm is particularly important; choosing this length appropriately lies behind the operation of levers, pulleys, gears, and most other simple machines involving a mechanical advantage. The SI unit for torque is the newton meter (Nm). In Imperial and U.S. customary units, it is measured in foot pounds (ftlbf) (also known as 'pound feet') and for smaller measurement of torque: inch pounds (inlbf) or even inch ounces (inozf). For more on the units of torque, see below.

Torque

51

Terminology
In mechanical engineering (unlike physics), the terms "torque" and "moment" are not interchangeable. "Moment" is the general term for the tendency of one or more applied forces to rotate an object about an axis (the concept which in physics is called torque).[3] "Torque" is a special case of this: If the applied force vectors add to zero (i.e., their "resultant" is zero), then the forces are called a "couple" and their moment is called a "torque".[3] For example, a rotational force down a shaft, such as a turning screw-driver, forms a couple, so the resulting moment is called a "torque". By contrast, a lateral force on a beam produces a moment (called a bending moment), but since the net force is nonzero, this bending moment is not called a "torque". This article follows physics terminology by calling all moments by the term "torque", whether or not they are associated with a couple.

History
The concept of torque, also called moment or couple, originated with the studies of Archimedes on levers. The rotational analogues of force, mass, and acceleration are torque, moment of inertia, and angular acceleration, respectively.

Definition and relation to angular momentum

A force applied at a right angle to a lever multiplied by its distance from the lever's fulcrum (the length of the lever arm) is its torque. A force of three newtons applied two meters from the fulcrum, for example, exerts the same torque as a force of one newton applied six meters from the fulcrum. The direction of the torque can be determined by using the right hand grip rule: if the fingers of the right hand curl in the direction of rotation and the thumb points along the axis of rotation, then the thumb also points in the direction of the torque.[5] More generally, the torque on a particle (which has the position r in some reference frame) can be defined as the cross product:

A particle is located at position r relative to its axis of rotation. When a force F is applied to the particle, only the perpendicular component F produces a torque. This torque =rF has magnitude =|r| |F|=|r| |F| sin and is directed outward from the page.

where r is the particle's position vector relative to the fulcrum, and F is the force acting on the particle. The magnitude of the torque is given by

where r is the distance from the axis of rotation to the particle, F is the magnitude of the force applied, and is the angle between the position and force vectors. Alternatively,

Torque where F is the amount of force directed perpendicularly to the position of the particle. Any force directed parallel to the particle's position vector does not produce a torque.[6] It follows from the properties of the cross product that the torque vector is perpendicular to both the position and force vectors. It points along the axis of rotation, and its direction is determined by the right-hand rule.[6] The torque on a body determines the rate of change of the body's angular momentum,

52

where L is the angular momentum vector and t is time. If multiple torques are acting on the body, it is instead the net torque which determines the rate of change of the angular momentum:

For rotation about a fixed axis,

where I is the moment of inertia and is the angular velocity. It follows that

where is the angular acceleration of the body, measured in rad s2.

Proof of the equivalence of definitions

The definition of angular momentum for a single particle is:

where "" indicates the vector cross product and p is the particle's linear momentum. The time-derivative of this is:

This result can easily be proven by splitting the vectors into components and applying the product rule. Now using the definitions of velocity v = dr/dt, acceleration a = dv/dt and linear momentum p = mv,

The cross product of any vector with itself is zero, so the second term vanishes. Hence with the definition of force F = ma (Newton's 2nd law),

Then by definition, torque = r F. If multiple forces are applied, Newton's second law instead reads Fnet = ma, and it follows that

The proof relies on the assumption that mass is constant; this is valid only in non-relativistic systems in which no mass is being ejected.

Torque

53

Units
Torque has dimensions of force times distance. Official SI literature suggests using the unit newton meter (Nm) or the unit joule per radian.[7] The unit newton meter is properly denoted Nm or N m.[8] This avoids ambiguityfor example, mN is the symbol for millinewton. The joule, which is the SI unit for energy or work, is dimensionally equivalent to a newton meter, but it is not used for torque. Energy and torque are entirely different concepts, so the practice of using different unit names for them helps avoid mistakes and misunderstandings.[7] The dimensional equivalence of these units, of course, is not simply a coincidence: A torque of 1 Nm applied through a full revolution will require an energy of exactly 2 joules. Mathematically,

where E is the energy, is magnitude of the torque, and is the angle moved (in radians). This equation motivates the alternate unit name joules per radian.[7] Other non-SI units of torque include "pound-force-feet", "foot-pounds-force", "inch-pounds-force", "ounce-force-inches", and "meter-kilograms-force". For all these units, the word "force" is often left out,[9] for example abbreviating "pound-force-foot" to simply "pound-foot". (In this case, it would be implicit that the "pound" is pound-force and not pound-mass.)

Special cases and other facts

Moment arm formula
A very useful special case, often given as the definition of torque in fields other than physics, is as follows:

Moment arm diagram

The construction of the "moment arm" is shown in the figure below, along with the vectors r and F mentioned above. The problem with this definition is that it does not give the direction of the torque but only the magnitude, and hence it is difficult to use in three-dimensional cases. If the force is perpendicular to the displacement vector r, the moment arm will be equal to the distance to the centre, and torque will be a maximum for the given force. The equation for the magnitude of a torque, arising from a perpendicular force:

For example, if a person places a force of 10N on a spanner (wrench) which is 0.5 m long, the torque will be 5Nm, assuming that the person pulls the spanner by applying force perpendicular to the spanner.

Torque

54

Static equilibrium
For an object to be in static equilibrium, not only must the sum of the forces be zero, but also the sum of the torques (moments) about any point. For a two-dimensional situation with horizontal and vertical forces, the sum of the forces requirement is two equations: H = 0 and V = 0, and the torque a third equation: = 0. That is, to solve statically determinate equilibrium problems in two-dimensions, we use three equations.

Net Force vs. Torque

When the net force on the system is zero, the torque measured from any point in space is the same. For example, the torque on a current-carrying loop in a uniform magnetic field is the same regardless of your point of reference.

The torque caused by the two opposing forces Fg and Fg causes a change in the angular momentum L in the direction of that torque. This causes the top to precess.

Machine torque
Torque is part of the basic specification of an engine: the power output of an engine is expressed as its torque multiplied by its rotational speed of the axis. Internal-combustion engines produce useful torque only over a limited range of rotational speeds (typically from around 1,0006,000 rpm for a small car). The varying torque output over that range can be measured with a dynamometer, and shown as a torque curve. The peak of that torque curve occurs somewhat below the overall power peak. The torque peak cannot, by definition, appear at higher rpm than the power peak. Understanding the relationship between torque, power and engine 2005"). The horizontal axis is the speed (in rpm) speed is vital in automotive engineering, concerned as it is with that the wheels are turning, and the vertical axis is transmitting power from the engine through the drive train to the the torque (in Newton metres) that the engine is capable of providing at that speed. wheels. Power is a function of torque and engine speed. The gearing of the drive train must be chosen appropriately to make the most of the motor's torque characteristics. Power at the drive wheels is equal to engine power less mechanical losses regardless of any gearing between the engine and drive wheels. Steam engines and electric motors tend to produce maximum torque close to zero rpm, with the torque diminishing as rotational speed rises (due to increasing friction and other constraints). Reciprocating steam engines can start heavy loads from zero RPM without a clutch.
Torque curve of a motorcycle ("BMW K 1200 R

Torque

55

Relationship between torque, power and energy

If a force is allowed to act through a distance, it is doing mechanical work. Similarly, if torque is allowed to act through a rotational distance, it is doing work. Mathematically, for rotation about a fixed axis through the center of mass,

where W is work, is torque, and 1 and 2 represent (respectively) the initial and final angular positions of the body.[10] It follows from the work-energy theorem that W also represents the change in the rotational kinetic energy Krot of the body, given by where I is the moment of inertia of the body and is its angular speed.[10] Power is the work per unit time, given by

where P is power, is torque, is the angular velocity, and represents the scalar product. Mathematically, the equation may be rearranged to compute torque for a given power output. Note that the power injected by the torque depends only on the instantaneous angular speed - not on whether the angular speed increases, decreases, or remains constant while the torque is being applied (this is equivalent to the linear case where the power injected by a force depends only on the instantaneous speed - not on the resulting acceleration, if any). In practice, this relationship can be observed in power stations which are connected to a large electrical power grid. In such an arrangement, the generator's angular speed is fixed by the grid's frequency, and the power output of the plant is determined by the torque applied to the generator's axis of rotation. Consistent units must be used. For metric SI units power is watts, torque is newton meters and angular speed is radians per second (not rpm and not revolutions per second). Also, the unit newton meter is dimensionally equivalent to the joule, which is the unit of energy. However, in the case of torque, the unit is assigned to a vector, whereas for energy, it is assigned to a scalar.

Conversion to other units

For different units of power, torque, or angular speed, a conversion factor must be inserted into the equation. Also, if rotational speed (revolutions per time) is used in place of angular speed (radians per time), a conversion factor of must be added because there are radians in a revolution:

where rotational speed is in revolutions per unit time. Useful formula in SI units:

where 60,000 comes from 60 seconds per minute times 1000 watts per kilowatt. Some people (e.g. American automotive engineers) use horsepower (imperial mechanical) for power, foot-pounds (lbfft) for torque and rpm (revolutions per minute) for angular speed. This results in the formula changing to:

The constant below in, ftlbf./min, changes with the definition of the horsepower; for example, using metric horsepower, it becomes ~32,550. Use of other units (e.g. BTU/h for power) would require a different custom conversion factor.

Torque

56

Derivation
For a rotating object, the linear distance covered at the circumference in a radian of rotation is the product of the radius with the angular speed. That is: linear speed = radius angular speed. By definition, linear distance=linear speed time=radius angular speed time. By the definition of torque: torque=force radius. We can rearrange this to determine force=torque radius. These two values can be substituted into the definition of power:

The radius r and time t have dropped out of the equation. However angular speed must be in radians, by the assumed direct relationship between linear speed and angular speed at the beginning of the derivation. If the rotational speed is measured in revolutions per unit of time, the linear speed and distance are increased proportionately by in the above derivation to give:

If torque is in lbfft and rotational speed in revolutions per minute, the above equation gives power in ftlbf/min. The horsepower form of the equation is then derived by applying the conversion factor 33000 ftlbf/min per horsepower:

because

Principle of Moments
The Principle of Moments, also known as Varignon's theorem (not to be confused with the geometrical theorem of the same name) states that the sum of torques due to several forces applied to a single point is equal to the torque due to the sum (resultant) of the forces. Mathematically, this follows from:

See also
Conversion of units Angular momentum Mechanical equilibrium Moment (physics) Rigid body dynamics Statics Torque converter Torque screwdriver Torque limiter Torque wrench Torque tester Torsion (mechanics) Couple (mechanics)

Torque

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External links
Power and Torque Explained [11] A clear explanation of the relationship between Power and Torque, and how they relate to engine performance. "Horsepower and Torque" [12] An article showing how power, torque, and gearing affect a vehicle's performance. "Torque vs. Horsepower: Yet Another Argument" [13] An automotive perspective a discussion of torque and angular momentum in an online textbook [14] Torque and Angular Momentum in Circular Motion [15] on Project PHYSNET [16]. An interactive simulation of torque [17] Torque Unit Converter [18] www.mechanismen.be-what is a moment (dutch) [19] .

References
[1] Serway, R. A. and Jewett, Jr. J. W. (2003). Physics for Scientists and Engineers. 6th Ed. Brooks Cole. ISBN 0-53440-842-7. [2] Physics for Engineering by Hendricks, Subramony, and Van Blerk, page 148, Web link (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=8Kp-UwV4o0gC& pg=PA148) [3] Dynamics, Theory and Applications by T.R. Kane and D.A. Levinson, 1985, pp. 90-99: Free download (http:/ / ecommons. library. cornell. edu/ handle/ 1813/ 638) [4] Tipler, Paul (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Mechanics, Oscillations and Waves, Thermodynamics (5th ed.). W. H. Freeman. ISBN 0-7167-0809-4. [5] "Right Hand Rule for Torque" (http:/ / hyperphysics. phy-astr. gsu. edu/ hbase/ tord. html). . Retrieved 2007-09-08. [6] Halliday, David; Resnick, Robert (1970). Fundamentals of Physics. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.. p.18485. [7] From the official SI website (http:/ / www. bipm. org/ en/ si/ si_brochure/ chapter2/ 2-2/ 2-2-2. html): "...For example, the quantity torque may be thought of as the cross product of force and distance, suggesting the unit newton metre, or it may be thought of as energy per angle, suggesting the unit joule per radian." [8] "SI brochure Ed. 8, Section 5.1" (http:/ / www1. bipm. org/ en/ si/ si_brochure/ chapter5/ 5-1. html). Bureau International des Poids et Mesures. 2006. . Retrieved 2007-04-01. [9] See, for example: "CNC Cookbook: Dictionary: N-Code to PWM" (http:/ / www. cnccookbook. com/ MTCNCDictNtoPWM. htm). . Retrieved 2008-12-17. [10] Kleppner, Daniel; Kolenkow, Robert (1973). An Introduction to Mechanics. McGraw-Hill. p.26768. [11] http:/ / www. epi-eng. com/ ET-PwrTrq. htm [12] http:/ / craig. backfire. ca/ pages/ autos/ horsepower [13] http:/ / kevinthenerd. googlepages. com/ torque_vs_hp. html [14] http:/ / www. lightandmatter. com/ html_books/ 2cl/ ch05/ ch05. html [15] http:/ / www. physnet. org/ modules/ pdf_modules/ m34. pdf [16] http:/ / www. physnet. org [17] http:/ / www. phy. hk/ wiki/ englishhtm/ Torque. htm [18] http:/ / www. lorenz-messtechnik. de/ english/ company/ torque_unit_calculation. php [19] http:/ / www. mechanismen. be/ theoretische_mechanica/ momenten/ momenten-theorie-1. htm

Center of mass

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Center of mass
The center of mass of a system of particles is the point at which the system's whole mass can be considered to be concentrated for the purpose of calculations. The center of mass is a function only of the positions and masses of the particles that compose the system. In the case of a rigid body, the position of its center of mass is fixed in relation to the object (but not necessarily in contact with it). In the case of a loose distribution of masses in free space, such as, say, shot from a shotgun, the position of the center of mass is a point in space among them that may not correspond to the position of any individual mass. The center of mass is often called the center of gravity but this is only true in a system where the gravitational forces are uniform. For example, on the Earth where the differences in the pull of gravity may safely be ignored. Barycenter may also refer to the center of mass although this is most commonly used when referring to the point at which the gravitational forces exerted by two objects are equal. The center of mass of a body does not always coincide with its intuitive geometric center, and one can exploit this freedom. Engineers try to design a sports car's center of mass as low as possible to make the car handle better. When high jumpers perform a "Fosbury Flop", they bend their body in such a way that it is possible for the jumper to clear the bar while his or her center of mass does not.[1] The center of momentum frame is an inertial frame defined as the inertial frame in which the center of mass of a system is at rest. A specific center of momentum frame in which the center of mass is not only at rest, but also at the origin of the coordinate system, is sometimes called the center of mass frame, or center of mass coordinate system.

Definition
The center of mass masses, : of a system of particles is defined as the average of their positions, , weighted by their

For a continuous distribution with mass density

and total mass

, the sum becomes an integral:

If an object has uniform density then its center of mass is the same as the centroid of its shape.

Examples
The center of mass of a two-particle system lies on the line connecting the particles (or, more precisely, their individual centers of mass). The center of mass is closer to the more massive object; for details, see below. The center of mass of a ring is at the center of the ring (in the air). The center of mass of a solid triangle lies on all three medians and therefore at the centroid, which is also the average of the three vertices. The center of mass of a rectangle is at the intersection of the two diagonals. In a spherically symmetric body, the center of mass is at the center. This approximately applies to the Earth: the density varies considerably, but it mainly depends on depth and less on the latitude and longitude coordinates. More generally, for any symmetry of a body, its center of mass will be a fixed point of that symmetry.

Center of mass

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History
The concept of center of mass was first introduced by the ancient Greek mathematician, physicist, and engineer Archimedes of Syracuse. Archimedes showed that the torque exerted on a lever by weights resting at various points along the lever is the same as what it would be if all of the weights were moved to a single point their center of mass. In work on floating bodies he demonstrated that the orientation of a floating object is the one that makes its center of mass as low as possible. He developed mathematical techniques for finding the centers of mass of objects of uniform density of various well-defined shapes, in particular a triangle, a hemisphere, and a frustum (of a circular paraboloid). In the Middle Ages, theories on the center of mass were further developed by Ab Rayhn Brn, Zakaria Razi (Latinized as Rhazes), Omar Khayym, and al-Khazini.[2] Newton's second law is refomulated with respect to the center of mass in Euler's first law.

Derivation of center of mass

The following equations of motion assume that there is a system of particles governed by internal and external forces. An internal force is a force caused by the interaction of the particles within the system. An external force is a force that originates from outside the system, and acts on one or more particles within the system. The external force need not be due to a uniform field. For any system with no external forces, the center of mass moves with constant velocity. This applies for all systems with classical internal forces, including magnetic fields, electric fields, chemical reactions, and so on. More formally, this is true for any internal forces that satisfy the weak form of Newton's Third Law. The total momentum for any system of particles is given by

Where M indicates the total mass, and vcm is the velocity of the center of mass. This velocity can be computed by taking the time derivative of the position of the center of mass. An analogue to Newton's Second Law is

Where F indicates the sum of all external forces on the system, and acm indicates the acceleration of the center of mass. Letting the total internal force of the system.

where

is the total mass of the system and

is a vector yet to be defined, since:

and

then

We therefore have a vectorial definition for center of mass in terms of the total forces in the system. This is particularly useful for two-body systems.

Center of mass

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Alternative derivation
Consider first two bodies, with masses m1 and m2, and position vectors r1 and r2. Write M= m1 + m2 for the total mass of the 2-body system, and R for the position vector of the center of mass. It is reasonable to require, for any system of masses, that the center of mass lie within the convex hull of the system. In particular, for a pair of mass points, this means that the tip of R must lie on the line segment joining the tips of r1 and r2. By geometry, R - r1= k(r2 - R) for some positive constant k. Taking magnitudes on both sides of this equation, we get d1= kd2, where d1 is the distance from the center of mass to body 1, and d2 is the distance from the center of mass to body 2. The constant k should obviously depend only on the masses m1 and m2, and we will examine the nature of this dependence. Assuming the total mass M is nonzero, it is clear that if m2= 0, the center of mass should coincide with body 1, and d1= 0. This means d2= D, the total distance between the two bodies, and m1= M. Symmetry demands that these relations remain true when the subscripts 1 and 2 are interchanged everywhere. The simplest model satisfying these requirements is the linear one, d1= (D/M)m2 and d2= (D/M)m1. Under this model, we have k= d1/d2= m2/m1. Therefore, after multiplying our vector equation by m1, we find that m1(R- r1)= m2(r2 R), or (m1+ m2)R= m1r1+ m2r2. Thus,

Now suppose there is a third body, of mass m3 and position r3. Temporarily break the symmetry between the three bodies, and define the 3-body center of mass as the 2-body center of mass determined by body 3 together with a single body of mass M0= m1+ m2 placed at the center of mass of bodies 1 and 2, whose position vector we now denote by R0. The formula derived above gives

Since R turns out to be symmetric in the mi and ri, it would not have mattered had we started by combining bodies 2 and 3, or bodies 1 and 3, instead of bodies 1 and 2. This kind of reasoning clearly extends to any number of masses, and yields the formula

So our simple model of the 2-body center of mass uniquely and consistently determines the corresponding formula in any number of mass points. Writing M= m1+ m2 + ... + mn, the above formula for the center of mass may be expressed in the form

Differentiating both sides yields the principle that

i.e., the sum of the momenta of a number of bodies is the momentum of their center of mass. It is this principle that gives precise expression to the intuitive notion that the system as a whole behaves like a mass of M placed at R, and justifies our simple linear model of the one-dimensional center of mass.

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Rotation and centers of mass

The center of mass is often called the center of gravity because any uniform gravitational field g acts on a system as if the mass M of the system were concentrated at the center of mass R. This is seen in at least two ways: The gravitational potential energy of a system is equal to the potential energy of a point particle having the same mass M located at R. The gravitational torque on a system equals the torque of a force Mg acting at R:

Diagram of an educational toy that balances on a point: the CM (C) settles below its support (P). Any object whose CM is below the fulcrum will not topple.

The suspending chair trick makes use of the human body's center of mass, and the fact that it's surprisingly high.

If the gravitational field acting on a body is not uniform, then the center of mass does not necessarily exhibit these convenient properties concerning gravity. As the situation is put in Feynman's influential textbook The Feynman Lectures on Physics: "The center of mass is sometimes called the center of gravity, for the reason that, in many cases, gravity may be considered uniform. ...In case the object is so large that the nonparallelism of the gravitational forces is significant, then the center where one must apply the balancing force is not simple to describe, and it departs slightly from the center of mass. That is why one must distinguish between the center of mass and the center of gravity." Many authors have been less careful, stating that when gravity is not uniform, "the center of gravity" departs from the CM. This usage seems to imply a well-defined "center of gravity" concept for non-uniform fields. Symon, in his textbook Mechanics, shows that the center of gravity of an extended body must always be defined relative to an external point, at which location resides a point mass that is exerting a gravitational force on the object in question.

Center of mass In fact, as Symon says: "For two extended bodies, no unique centers of gravity can in general be defined, even relative to each other, except in special cases, as when the bodies are far apart, or when one of them is a sphere....The general problem of determining the gravitational forces between bodies is usually best treated by means of the concepts of the field theory of gravitation..." Even when considering tidal forces on planets, it is sufficient to use centers of mass to find the overall motion. In practice, for non-uniform fields, one simply does not speak of a "center of gravity".[3]

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CM frame
The angular momentum vector for a system is equal to the angular momentum of all the particles around the center of mass, plus the angular momentum of the center of mass, as if it were a single particle of mass :

This is a corollary of the Parallel Axis Theorem.

Engineering
Aeronautical significance
The center of mass is an important point on an aircraft, which significantly affects the stability of the aircraft. To ensure the aircraft is safe to fly, it is critical that the center of mass fall within specified limits. This range varies by aircraft, but as a rule of thumb it is centered about a point one quarter of the way from the wing leading edge to the wing trailing edge (the quarter chord point). If the center of mass is ahead of the forward limit, the aircraft will be less maneuverable, possibly to the point of being unable to rotate for takeoff or flare for landing. If the center of mass is behind the aft limit, the moment arm of the elevator is reduced, which makes it more difficult to recover from a stalled condition. The aircraft will be more maneuverable, but also less stable, and possibly so unstable that it is impossible to fly.

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Barycenter in astrophysics and astronomy

The barycenter (or barycentre; from the Greek ) is the point between two objects where they balance each other. For example, it is the center of mass where two or more celestial bodies orbit each other. When a moon orbits a planet, or a planet orbits a star, both bodies are actually orbiting around a point that lies outside the center of the primary (the larger body). For example, the moon does not orbit the exact center of the Earth, but a point on a line between the Earth and the Moon approximately 1,710km below the surface of the Earth, where their respective masses balance. This is the point about which the Earth and Moon orbit as they travel around the Sun. The barycenter is one of the foci of the Motion of Barycenter of solar system relative to the Sun. elliptical orbit of each body. This is an important concept in the fields of astronomy, astrophysics, and the like (see two-body problem). In a simple two-body case, r1, the distance from the center of the primary to the barycenter is given by:

where: a is the distance between the centers of the two bodies; m1 and m2 are the masses of the two bodies. r1 is essentially the semi-major axis of the primary's orbit around the barycenterand r2= a r1 the semi-major axis of the secondary's orbit. Where the barycenter is located within the more massive body, that body will appear to "wobble" rather than following a discernible orbit. The following table sets out some examples from our solar system. Figures are given rounded to three significant figures. The last two columns show R1, the radius of the first (more massive) body, and r1/R1, the ratio of the distance to the barycenter and that radius: a value less than one shows that the barycenter lies inside the first body.

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Examples
Larger body m1 (mE=1) Smaller body m2 (mE=1) Remarks Earth 1 Moon 0.0123 384,000 4,670 6,380 0.732 a (km) r1 (km) R1 (km) r1/R1

The Earth has a perceptible "wobble". Pluto 0.0021 Charon 0.000254 (0.121mPluto) 19,600 2,110 1,150 1.83

Both bodies have distinct orbits around the barycenter, and as such Pluto and Charon were considered as a double planet by many before the redefinition of planet in August 2006. Sun 333,000 Earth 1 150,000,000 (1 AU) 449 696,000 0.000646

The Sun's wobble is barely perceptible. Sun 333,000 Jupiter 318 (0.000955mSun) 778,000,000 (5.20 AU) 742,000 696,000 1.07

The Sun orbits a barycenter just above its surface.

If m1m2which is true for the Sun and any planetthen the ratio r1/R1 approximates to:

Hence, the barycenter of the Sun-planet system will lie outside the Sun only if:

That is, where the planet is heavy and far from the Sun. If Jupiter had Mercury's orbit (57,900,000km, 0.387 AU), the Sun-Jupiter barycenter would be only 5,500km from the center of the Sun (r1/R1~ 0.08). But even if the Earth had Eris' orbit (68 AU), the Sun-Earth barycenter would still be within the Sun (just over 30,000km from the center). To calculate the actual motion of the Sun, you would need to sum all the influences from all the planets, comets, asteroids, etc. of the solar system (see n-body problem). If all the planets were aligned on the same side of the Sun, the combined center of mass would lie about 500,000km above the Sun's surface. The calculations above are based on the mean distance between the bodies and yield the mean value r1. But all celestial orbits are elliptical, and the distance between the bodies varies between the apses, depending on the eccentricity, e. Hence, the position of the barycenter varies too, and it is possible in some systems for the barycenter to be sometimes inside and sometimes outside the more massive body. This occurs where:

Note that the Sun-Jupiter system, with eJupiter= 0.0484, just fails to qualify: 1.051.07>0.954.

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Animations
Images are representative, not simulated.

Two bodies of similar mass orbiting around a common barycenter. (similar to the 90 Antiope system)

Two bodies with a difference in mass orbiting around a common barycenter, as in the Pluto-Charon system.

Two bodies with a major difference in mass orbiting around a common barycenter (similar to the Earth-Moon system)

Two bodies with an extreme difference in mass orbiting around a common barycenter (similar to the Sun-Earth system)

Two bodies with similar mass orbiting around a common barycenter with elliptic orbits (a common situation for binary stars)

Locating the center of mass

Of an arbitrary 2D physical shape
This method is useful when one wishes to find the centroid of a complex planar shape with unknown dimensions. It relies on finding the center of mass of a thin body of homogenous density having the same shape as the complex planar shape.

Step 1: An arbitrary 2D shape.

Step 2: Suspend the shape from a location near an edge. Drop a plumb line and mark on the object.

Step 3: Suspend the shape from another location not too close to the first. Drop a plumb line again and mark. The intersection of the two lines is the center of mass.

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Of an L-shaped object
This is a method of determining the center of mass of an L-shaped object.

1. Divide the shape into two rectangles, as shown in fig 2. Find the center of masses of these two rectangles by drawing the diagonals. Draw a line joining the centers of mass. The center of mass of the shape must lie on this line AB. 2. Divide the shape into two other rectangles, as shown in fig 3. Find the centers of mass of these two rectangles by drawing the diagonals. Draw a line joining the centers of mass. The center of mass of the L-shape must lie on this line CD. 3. As the center of mass of the shape must lie along AB and also along CD, it is obvious that it is at the intersection of these two lines, at O. The point O might not lie inside the L-shaped object.

Of a composite shape
This method is useful when one wishes to find the location of the centroid or center of mass of an object that is easily divided into elementary shapes, whose centers of mass are easy to find (see List of centroids). Here the center of mass will only be found in the x direction. The same procedure may be followed to locate the center of mass in the y direction.

The shape. It is easily divided into a square, triangle, and circle. Note that the circle will have negative area.

From the List of centroids, we note the coordinates of the individual centroids.

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From equation 1 above: units. The center of mass of this figure is at a distance of 8.5 units from the left corner of the figure.

By tracing around the perimeter of an object

A direct development of the planimeter known as an integraph, or integerometer (though a better term is probably moment planimeter), can be used to establish the position of the centroid or center of mass of an irregular shape. This method can be applied to a shape with an irregular, smooth or complex boundary where other methods are too difficult. It was regularly used by ship builders to ensure the ship would not capsize. See Locating the center of mass by mechanical means [4].

See also
Center of gravity of an aircraft Center of percussion Center of pressure Metacentric height Roll center Two-body problem Weight distribution

References
Feynman, Richard; Robert Leighton, Matthew Sands (1963). The Feynman Lectures on Physics. Addison Wesley. ISBN 0-201-02116-1. Goldstein, Herbert; Charles Poole, John Safko (2002). Classical Mechanics (3e ed.). Addison Wesley. ISBN 0-201-65702-3. Kleppner, Daniel; Robert Kolenkow (1973). An Introduction to Mechanics (2e ed.). McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-035048-5. Marion, Jerry; Stephen Thornton (1995). Classical Dynamics of Particles and Systems (4e ed.). Harcourt. ISBN 0-03-097302-3. Murray, Carl; Stanley Dermott (1999). Solar System Dynamics. Cambridge UP. ISBN 0-521-57295-9. Serway, Raymond A.; Jewett, John W. (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers (6th ed.). Brooks/Cole. ISBN 0-534-40842-7. Symon, Keithe R. (1971). Mechanics (3rd edition ed.). Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-201-07392-7. Tipler, Paul (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Mechanics, Oscillations and Waves, Thermodynamics (5th ed.). W. H. Freeman. ISBN 0-7167-0809-4.

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External links
Centre of mass model [5] - A Background model for segmentation of moving objects in image processing. barycenter fold [6] by Paul Niquette. Center of Gravity [7] Encyclopaedia Britannica. Locating the center of mass by mechanical means [4]. The dynamic centre of gravity [8] Engineer Xavier Borg - Blaze Labs Research Measuring Center of Gravity [9] Space Electronics, manufacturer of center of gravity measurement instruments. Motion of the Center of Mass [10] shows that the motion of the center of mass of an object in free fall is the same as the motion of a point object. The solar system's barycenter [11] Simulations showing the effect each planet contributes to the solar system's barycenter Polygon Center of Mass [12] An algorithm that would calculate the center of mass of a polygonal figure consisting of n points (x, y).

References
[1] Van Pelt, Michael (2005). Space Tourism: Adventures in Earth Orbit and Beyond. Springer. pp.185. ISBN 0387402136. [2] Salah Zaimeche PhD (2005). Merv (http:/ / www. muslimheritage. com/ uploads/ Merv. pdf), Foundation for Science Technology and Civilization. [3] Symon, K. R. (1971). Mechanics, 3rd ed., Reading: Addison-Wesley. [4] http:/ / web. mat. bham. ac. uk/ C. J. Sangwin/ Publications/ integrometer. pdf [5] http:/ / portal. acm. org/ citation. cfm?id=1247738. 1247811 [6] http:/ / niquette. com/ puzzles/ barycntp. htm [7] http:/ / www. britannica. com/ eb/ article-9037797/ centre-of-gravity [8] http:/ / www. blazelabs. com/ dynamic-cg. pdf [9] http:/ / www. space-electronics. com [10] http:/ / www. kettering. edu/ ~drussell/ Demos/ COM/ com-a. html [11] http:/ / orbitsimulator. com/ gravity/ articles/ ssbarycenter. html [12] http:/ / www. astone. com/ sky/ cntr/

Uniform circular motion

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Uniform circular motion

In physics, uniform circular motion describes the motion of a body traversing a circular path at constant speed. The distance of the body from the axis of rotation remains constant at all times. Though the body's speed is constant, its velocity is not: velocity, a vector quantity, depends on both the body's speed and its direction of travel. This changing velocity indicates the presence of an acceleration; this centripetal acceleration is of constant magnitude and directed at all times towards the axis of rotation. This acceleration is, in turn, produced by a centripetal force which is also constant in magnitude and directed towards the axis of rotation.
Figure 1: Velocity v and acceleration a in uniform circular motion at angular rate ; the speed is constant, but the velocity is always tangent to the orbit; the acceleration has constant magnitude, but always points toward the center of rotation

Velocity
Figure 1 illustrates velocity and acceleration vectors for uniform motion at four different points in the orbit. Because the velocity v is tangent to the circular path, no two velocities point in the same direction. Although the object has a constant speed, its direction is always changing. This change in velocity is caused by an acceleration a, whose magnitude is (like that of the velocity) held constant, but whose direction also is always changing. The acceleration points radially inwards (centripetally) and is perpendicular to the velocity. This acceleration is known as centripetal acceleration. For a path of radius r, when an angle is swept out, the distance traveled on the periphery of the orbit is s = r. Therefore, the speed of travel around the orbit is

Figure 2: The velocity vectors at time t and time t + dt are moved from the orbit on the left to new positions where their tails coincide, on the right. Because the velocity is fixed in magnitude at v = r , the velocity vectors also sweep out a circular path at angular rate . As dt 0, the acceleration vector a becomes perpendicular to v, which means it points toward the center of the orbit in the circle on the left. Angle dt is the very small angle between the two velocities and tends to zero as dt 0

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Figure 3: (Left) Ball in circular motion rope provides centripetal force to keep ball in circle (Right) Rope is cut and ball continues in straight line with velocity at the time of cutting the rope, in accord with Newton's law of inertia, because centripetal force is no longer there

, where the angular rate of rotation is . (By rearrangement, = v/r.) Thus, v is a constant, and the velocity vector v also rotates with constant magnitude v, at the same angular rate .

Acceleration
The left-hand circle in Figure 2 is the orbit showing the velocity vectors at two adjacent times. On the right, these two velocities are moved so their tails coincide. Because speed is constant, the velocity vectors on the right sweep out a circle as time advances. For a swept angle d = dt the change in v is a vector at right angles to v and of magnitude v d, which in turn means that the magnitude of the acceleration is given by

Centripetal force
The acceleration is due to an inward-acting force, which is known as the centripetal force (meaning "center-seeking force"). It is the force that keeps an object in uniform circular motion. From Newton's second law of motion, the centripetal force Fc for an object in uniform circular motion is related to the object's acceleration by where m is the mass of the object. Since the magnitude of the acceleration is given by a = v2/r, the magnitude of the centripetal force is given by

The centripetal force can be provided by many different things, such as tension (as in a sling), friction (as between tires and road for a turning car), or gravity (as between the Sun and the Earth). Figure 3 shows an example of the role of centripetal force in maintaining a circular orbit: a mass tied to a rope and spinning around in a horizontal circle. The tension in the rope is the centripetal force, and it is the force keeping the object in uniform circular motion.

Uniform circular motion If the rope is cut at a particular time, the ball continues to move in the direction of its velocity at the moment of cutting, traveling tangent to the circular path. In Figure 3, the rope holding the ball of mass m is cut about 34 of the way around the orbit. After the rope is cut, the tension force/centripetal force is no longer acting upon the object so there is no force holding the object in uniform circular motion. Therefore it continues going in the direction when it was last in contact with the force. This is commonly mistaken for Centrifugal Force. Consider the example of a car racing in a circular track. Similar to the tension force, the radially directed component of frictional force between the tires of the car and the road provides the centripetal force keeping the car in the circle. If the road were a frictionless plane, the car would not be able to move in uniform circular motion, and would instead travel in a straight line. For example, if there is a slick spot on the track, the car leaves the track much in the manner shown in Figure 3, accompanied by some spinning about its own axis to conserve angular momentum.

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External links
Physclips: Mechanics with animations and video clips [1] from the University of New South Wales

See also
Example: Circular motion Circular motion Centripetal force Fictional force Reactive centrifugal force Sling (weapon)

References
[1] http:/ / www. physclips. unsw. edu. au/

Angular acceleration

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Angular acceleration
Angular acceleration is the rate of change of angular velocity over time. In SI units, it is measured in radians per second squared (rad/s2), and is usually denoted by the Greek letter alpha ().[1]

Mathematical definition
The angular acceleration can be defined as either: , or , where is the angular velocity, is the linear tangential acceleration, and r is the radius of curvature.

Equations of motion
For rotational motion, Newton's second law can be adapted to describe the relation between torque and angular acceleration: , where is the total torque exerted on the body, and is the mass moment of inertia of the body.

Constant acceleration
For all constant values of the torque, , of an object, the angular acceleration will also be constant. For this special case of constant angular acceleration, the above equation will produce a definitive, constant value for the angular acceleration:

Non-constant acceleration
For any non-constant torque, the angular acceleration of an object will change with time. The equation becomes a differential equation instead of a constant value. This differential equation is known as the equation of motion of the system and can completely describe the motion of the object. It is also the best way to calculate the angular velocity.

See also
Angular momentum Angular speed Angular velocity Rotation Spin

References
[1] http:/ / theory. uwinnipeg. ca/ physics/ circ/ node3. html

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Angular velocity
In physics, the angular velocity is a vector quantity (more precisely, a pseudovector) which specifies the angular speed of an object and the axis about which the object is rotating. The SI unit of angular velocity is radians per second, although it may be measured in other units such as degrees per second, revolutions per second, degrees per hour, etc. When measured in cycles or rotations per unit time (e.g. revolutions per minute), it is often called the rotational velocity and its magnitude the rotational speed. Angular velocity is usually represented by the symbol omega ( or ). The direction of the angular velocity vector is perpendicular to the plane of rotation, in a direction which is usually specified by the right hand grip rule.[1]

The angular velocity of a particle

Two dimensions
The angular velocity of a particle in a 2-dimensional plane is the easiest to understand. As shown in the figure on the right (typically expressing the angular measures and in radians), if we draw a line from the origin (O) to the particle (P), then the velocity vector (v) of the particle will have a component along the radius (radial component, v) and a component perpendicular to the radius (cross-radial component, v ). However, it must be remembered that the velocity vector can be also decomposed into tangential and normal components. A radial motion produces no change in the distance of the particle relative to the origin, so for purposes of finding the angular velocity the parallel (radial) component can be ignored. Therefore, the rotation is completely produced by the tangential motion (like that of a particle moving along a circumference), and the angular velocity is completely determined by the perpendicular (tangential) component.

Angular velocity describes the speed of rotation and the orientation of the instantaneous axis about which the rotation occurs. The direction of the angular velocity vector will be along the axis of rotation; in this case (counter-clockwise rotation) the vector points up.

The angular velocity of the particle at P with respect to the origin O is determined by the perpendicular component of the velocity vector v.

It can be seen that the rate of change of the angular position of the particle is related to the cross-radial velocity by:[1]

Utilizing , the angle between vectors v and v, or equivalently as the angle between vectors r and v, gives:

Angular velocity

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Combining the above two equations and defining the angular velocity as =d/dt yields:

In two dimensions the angular velocity is a single number which has no direction. A single number which has no direction is either a scalar or a pseudoscalar, the difference being that a scalar does not change its sign when the x and y axes are exchanged (or inverted), while a pseudoscalar does. The angle as well as the angular velocity is a pseudoscalar. The positive direction of rotation is taken, by convention, to be in the direction towards the y axis from the x axis. If the axes are inverted, but the sense of a rotation does not, then the sign of the angle of rotation, and therefore the angular velocity as well, will change. It is important to note that the pseudoscalar angular velocity of a particle depends upon the choice of the origin.

Three dimensions
In three dimensions, the angular velocity becomes a bit more complicated. The angular velocity in this case is generally thought of as a vector, or more precisely, a pseudovector. It now has not only a magnitude, but a direction as well. The magnitude is the angular speed, and the direction describes the axis of rotation. The right-hand rule indicates the positive direction of the angular velocity pseudovector, namely: If you curl the fingers of your right hand to follow the direction of the rotation, then the direction of the angular velocity vector is indicated by your right thumb. Just as in the two dimensional case, a particle will have a component of its velocity along the radius from the origin to the particle, and another component perpendicular to that radius. The combination of the origin point and the perpendicular component of the velocity defines a plane of rotation in which the behavior of the particle (for that instant) appears just as it does in the two dimensional case. The axis of rotation is then a line normal to this plane, and this axis defined the direction of the angular velocity pseudovector, while the magnitude is the same as the pseudoscalar value found in the 2-dimensional case. Define a unit vector which points in the direction of the angular velocity pseudovector. The angular velocity may be written in a manner similar to that for two dimensions:

which, by the definition of the cross product, can be written:

For a moving frame

Euler's rotation theorem states that, in an instant, for any dt there always exists a momentary axis of rotation. Therefore, any transversal section of the body by a plane perpendicular to this axis has to behave as a two dimensional rotation. The angular speed vector will be defined over the rotation axis (eigenvector of the linear map), and such as its value is the derivative of the angle rotated with respect to time.

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Higher dimensions
In general, the angular velocity in an n-dimensional space is the time derivative of the angular displacement tensor which is a second rank skew-symmetric tensor. This tensor will have n(n-1)/2 independent components and this number is the dimension of the Lie algebra of the Lie group of rotations of an n-dimensional inner product space.[2] It turns out that in three dimensional space angular velocity can be represented by vector because number of independent components is equal to number of dimensions of space.

Angular velocity of a rigid body

In order to deal with the motion of a rigid body, it is best to consider a coordinate system that is fixed with respect to the rigid body, and to study the coordinate transformations between this coordinate and the fixed "laboratory" system. As shown in the figure on the right, the lab system's origin is at point O, the rigid body system origin is at O' and the vector from O to O' is R. A particle (i) in the rigid body is located at point P and the vector position of this particle is Ri in the lab frame, and at position ri in the body frame. It is seen that the position of the particle can be written:

Position of point P located in the rigid body (shown in blue). Ri is the position with respect to the lab frame, centered at O and ri is the position with respect to the rigid body frame, centered at O' . The origin of the rigid body frame is at vector position R from the lab frame.

The defining characteristic of a rigid body is that the distance between any two points in a rigid body is unchanging in time. This means that the length of the vector is unchanging. By Euler's rotation theorem, we may replace the vector with where is a rotation matrix and is the position of the particle at some fixed point in time, say t=0. This replacement is useful, because now it is only the rotation matrix and not the reference vector as: which is changing in time , as the rigid body rotates about point O'. The position of the particle is now written

Taking the time derivative yields the velocity of the particle:

where Vi is the velocity of the particle (in the lab frame) and V is the velocity of O' (the origin of the rigid body frame). Since is a rotation matrix its inverse is its transpose. So we substitute :

Continue by taking the time derivative of

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Applying the formula (AB)T = BTAT:

is the negative of its transpose. Therefore it is a skew symmetric 3x3 matrix. We can therefore take its dual to get a 3 dimensional vector. is called the angular velocity tensor. If we take the dual of this tensor, matrix

multiplication is replaced by the cross product. Its dual is called the angular velocity pseudovector, . Substituting into the above velocity expression:

It can be seen that the velocity of a point in a rigid body can be divided into two terms - the velocity of a reference point fixed in the rigid body plus the cross product term involving the angular velocity of the particle with respect to the reference point. This angular velocity is the "spin" angular velocity of the rigid body as opposed to the angular velocity of the reference point O' about the origin O. It is an important point that the spin angular velocity of every particle in the rigid body is the same, and that the spin angular velocity is independent of the choice of the origin of the rigid body system or of the lab system. In other words, it is a physically real quantity which is a property of the rigid body, independent of one's choice of coordinate system. The angular velocity of the reference point about the origin of the lab frame will, however, depend on these choices of coordinate system. It is often convenient to choose the center of mass of the rigid body as the origin of the rigid body system, since a considerable mathematical simplification occurs in the expression for the angular momentum of the rigid body. If the reference point is the "Instantaneous axis of rotation" the expression of velocity of a point in the rigid body will have just the angular velocity term. This is because the velocity of instantaneous axis of rotation is zero. An example of instantaneous axis of rotation is the hinge of a door. Another example is the point of contact of a pure rolling spherical rigid body.

See also
Angular frequency Angular acceleration Angular momentum Areal velocity Isometry Lie algebra Orthogonal group Rigid body dynamics Rotation group

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References
[1] Hibbeler, Russell C. (2009). Engineering Mechanics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=tOFRjXB-XvMC& pg=PA314& dq=angular+ velocity& rview=1). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall. pp.314, 153. ISBN 9780136077916. .(EM1) [2] Rotations and Angular Momentum (http:/ / math. ucr. edu/ home/ baez/ classical/ galilei2. pdf) on the Classical Mechanics page of the website of John Baez (http:/ / math. ucr. edu/ home/ baez/ README. html), especially Questions 1 and 2.

Symon, Keith (1971). Mechanics. Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA. ISBN 0-201-07392-7. Landau, L.D.; Lifshitz, E.M. (1997). Mechanics. Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 0-750-62896-0.

External links
A college text-book of physics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=QBc5AAAAMAAJ& pg=PA88& dq=angular+velocity+of+a+particle&lr=&rview=1) By Arthur Lalanne Kimball (Angular Velocity of a particle)

Centripetal force
Centripetal force is a force that makes a body follow a curved path:it is always directed orthogonal to the velocity of the body, toward the instantaneous center of curvature of the path.[1] [2] The term centripetal force comes from the Latin words centrum ("center") and petere ("tend towards", "aim at"), signifying that the force is directed inward toward the center of curvature of the path. Isaac Newton's description was: "A centripetal force is that by which bodies are drawn or impelled, or in any way tend, towards a point as to a center."[3]

Formula
The magnitude of the centripetal force on an object of mass m moving at a speed v along a path with radius of curvature r is:[4]

Figure 1: A simple example corresponding to uniform circular motion. A ball is tethered to a rotational axis and is rotating counterclockwise around the specified path at a constant angular rate . The velocity of the ball is a vector tangential to the orbit, and is continuously changing direction, a change requiring a radially inward directed centripetal force. The centripetal force is provided by the tether, which is in a state of tension.

The direction of the force is toward the center of the circle in which the object is moving, or the osculating circle, the circle that best fits the local path of the object, if the path is not circular.[5] This force is also sometimes written in terms of the angular velocity of the object about the center of the circle:

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Sources of centripetal force

For a satellite in orbit around a planet, the centripetal force is supplied by the gravitational attraction between the satellite and the planet. The gravitational force acts on each object toward the other, which is toward the center of mass of the two objects; for circular orbits, this center of gravity is the center of the circular orbits. For non-circular orbits or trajectories, only the component of gravitational force directed orthogonal to the path (toward the center of the osculating circle) is termed centripetal; the remaining component acts to speed up or slow down the satellite in its orbit.[6] Alternatively, some sources, including Newton, refer to the entire gravitational force as centripetal, though it is not strictly centripetally directed when the orbit is not circular;[7] the formulas above will not apply in such cases. For an object at the end of a rope rotating about a vertical axis, the centripetal force is the horizontal component of the tension of the rope, which acts toward the axis of rotation. For a spinning object, internal tensile stress provides the centripetal forces that make the parts of the object move together in circular motions.

Analysis of several cases

Below are three examples of increasing complexity, with derivations of the formulas governing velocity and acceleration.

Uniform circular motion

Uniform circular motion refers to the case of constant rate of rotation. Here are two approaches to describing this case. Geometric derivation The circle in the left of Figure 2 shows an object moving on a circle at constant speed at two different times in its orbit. Its position is given by the vector R and its velocity by the vector v. The velocity vector is always perpendicular to the position vector (since the velocity vector is always tangent to the circle of motion). Since R moves in a circle, so does v. The circular motion of the velocity is shown in the circle on the right of Figure 2, along with its acceleration a. Just as velocity is the rate of change of position, acceleration is the rate of change of velocity. Since the position and velocity vectors move in tandem, they go around their circles in the same time T. That time equals the distance traveled divided by the velocity

Figure 2: Left circle: The particle's orbit particle moves in a circle and velocity is tangent to orbit; Right circle: a "velocity circle"; velocity vectors are brought together so tails coincide: because velocity is a constant in uniform motion, the tip of the velocity vector describes a circle, and acceleration is tangent to the velocity circle. That means the acceleration is radially inward in the left-hand circle showing the orbit.

and, by analogy,

Setting these two equations equal and solving for |a|, we get

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The angular rate of rotation in radians per second is:

Comparing the two circles in Figure 2 also shows that the acceleration points toward the center of the R circle. For example, in the left circle in Figure 2, the position vector R pointing at 12 o'clock has a velocity vector v pointing at 9 o'clock, which (switching to the circle on the right) has an acceleration vector a pointing at 6 o'clock. So the acceleration vector is opposite to R and toward the center of the R circle. Derivation using vectors Figure 3 shows the vector relationships for uniform circular motion. The rotation itself is represented by the vector , which is normal to the plane of the orbit (using the right-hand rule) and has magnitude given by:

Figure 3: Vector relationships for uniform circular motion; vector representing the rotation is normal to the plane of the orbit with polarity determined by the right-hand rule and magnitude d /dt.

with the angular position at time t. In this subsection, d/dt is assumed constant, independent of time. The distance traveled of the particle in time dt along the circular path is

which, by properties of the vector cross product, has magnitude rd and is in the direction tangent to the circular path. Consequently,

In other words,

Differentiating with respect to time,

Lagrange's formula states:

Applying Lagrange's formula with the observation that r(t) = 0 at all times,

In words, the acceleration is pointing directly opposite to the radial displacement r at all times, and has a magnitude:

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where vertical bars |...| denote the vector magnitude, which in the case of r(t) is simply the radius R of the path. This result agrees with the previous section if the substitution is made for rate of rotation in terms of the period of rotation T:

When the rate of rotation is made constant in the analysis of nonuniform circular motion, that analysis agrees with this one. A merit of the vector approach is that it is manifestly independent of any coordinate system. Example: The banked turn Figure 4 shows a ball in circular motion on a banked curve. The curve is banked at an angle from the horizontal, and the surface of the road is considered to be slippery. The object is to find what angle the bank must have so the ball does not slide off the road.[8] Intuition tells us that on a flat curve with no banking at all, the ball will simply slide off the road; while with a very steep banking, the ball will slide to the center unless it travels the curve rapidly.

Apart from any acceleration that might occur in the direction of the path, the right side of Figure 4 indicates the forces on the ball. There are two forces; one is the force of gravity vertically downward through the center of mass of the ball mg where m is the mass of the ball and g is the gravitational acceleration; the second is the upward normal force exerted by the road perpendicular to the road surface man. The centripetal force demanded by the curved motion also is shown in Figure 4. This centripetal force is not a third force applied to the ball, but rather must be provided by the net force on the ball resulting from vector addition of the normal force and the force of gravity. The curved motion is maintained so long as this net force provides the centripetal force requisite to the motion. The horizontal net force on the ball is the horizontal component of the force from the road, which has magnitude |Fh| = m|an|sin. The vertical component of the force from the road must counteract the gravitational force, that is |Fv| = m|an|cos = m|g|. Accordingly one finds the net horizontal force to be:

Figure 4: Left panel: Ball on a banked circular track moving with constant speed v; Right panel: Forces on the ball. The resultant or net force on the ball found by vector addition of the normal force exerted by the road and vertical force due to gravity must equal the centripetal force dictated by the need to travel a circular path.

On the other hand, at velocity |v| on a circular path of radius R, kinematics says that the force needed to turn the ball continuously into the turn is the radially inward centripetal force Fc of magnitude:

Consequently the ball is in a stable path when the angle of the road is set to satisfy the condition:

or,

Centripetal force As the angle of bank approaches 90, the tangent function approaches infinity, allowing larger values for |v|2/R. In words, this equation states that for faster speeds (bigger |v|) the road must be banked more steeply (a larger value for ), and for sharper turns (smaller R) the road also must be banked more steeply, which accords with intuition. When the angle does not satisfy the above condition, the horizontal component of force exerted by the road does not provide the correct centripetal force, and an additional frictional force tangential to the road surface is called upon to provide the difference. If friction cannot do this (that is, the coefficient of friction is exceeded), the ball slides to a different radius where the balance can be realized.[9] [10] These ideas apply to air flight as well. See the FAA pilot's manual.[11]

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Nonuniform circular motion

As a generalization of the uniform circular motion case, suppose the angular rate of rotation is not constant. The acceleration now has a tangential component, as shown in Figure 5. This case is used to demonstrate a derivation strategy based upon a polar coordinate system. Let r(t) be a vector that describes the position of a point mass as a function of time. Since we are assuming circular motion, let r(t) = Rur, Figure 5: Velocity and acceleration for where R is a constant (the radius of the circle) and ur is the unit vector nonuniform circular motion: the velocity vector is pointing from the origin to the point mass. The direction of ur is tangential to the orbit, but the acceleration vector described by , the angle between the x-axis and the unit vector, is not radially inward because of its tangential measured counterclockwise from the x-axis. The other unit vector for component a that increases the rate of rotation: d / dt = | a| / R. polar coordinates, u is perpendicular to ur and points in the direction of increasing . These polar unit vectors can be expressed in terms of Cartesian unit vectors in the x and y directions, denoted i and j respectively:[12] ur = cos i + sin j and u = -sin i + cos j. We differentiate to find velocity:

where is the angular velocity d/dt. This result for the velocity matches expectations that the velocity should be directed tangential to the circle, and that the magnitude of the velocity should be R. Differentiating again, and noting that

we find that the acceleration, a is:

Thus, the radial and tangential components of the acceleration are:

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and where |v| = R is the magnitude of the velocity (the speed). These equations express mathematically that, in the case of an object that moves along a circular path with a changing speed, the acceleration of the body may be decomposed into a perpendicular component that changes the direction of motion (the centripetal acceleration), and a parallel, or tangential component, that changes the speed.

General planar motion

Polar coordinates The above results can be derived perhaps more simply in polar coordinates, and at the same time extended to general motion within a plane, as shown next. Polar coordinates in the plane employ a radial unit vector u and an angular unit vector u, as shown in Figure 6.[13] A particle at position r is described by:

Figure 6: Polar unit vectors at two times t and t + dt for a particle with trajectory r ( t ); on the left the unit vectors u and u at the two times are moved so their tails all meet, and are shown to trace an arc of a unit radius circle. Their rotation in time dt is d, just the same angle as the rotation of the trajectory r ( t ).

where the notation is used to describe the distance of the path from the origin instead of R to emphasize that this distance is not fixed, but varies with time. The unit vector u travels with the particle and always points in the same direction as r(t). Unit vector u also travels with the particle and stays orthogonal to u. Thus, u and u form a local Cartesian coordinate system attached to the particle, and tied to the path traveled by the particle.[14] By moving the unit vectors so their tails coincide, as seen in the circle at the left of Figure 6, it is seen that u and u form a right-angled pair with tips on the unit circle that trace back and forth on the perimeter of this circle with the same angle (t) as r(t). When the particle moves, its velocity is

To evaluate the velocity, the derivative of the unit vector u is needed. Because u is a unit vector, its magnitude is fixed, and it can change only in direction, that is, its change du has a component only perpendicular to u. When the trajectory r(t) rotates an amount d, u, which points in the same direction as r(t), also rotates by d. See Figure 6. Therefore the change in u is or

Centripetal force In a similar fashion, the rate of change of u is found. As with u, u is a unit vector and can only rotate without changing size. To remain orthogonal to u while the trajectory r(t) rotates an amount d, u, which is orthogonal to r(t), also rotates by d. See Figure 6. Therefore, the change du is orthogonal to u and proportional to d (see Figure 6):

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Figure 6 shows the sign to be negative: to maintain orthogonality, if du is positive with d, then du must decrease. Substituting the derivative of u into the expression for velocity:

To obtain the acceleration, another time differentiation is done:

Substituting the derivatives of u and u, the acceleration of the particle is:[15]

As a particular example, if the particle moves in a circle of constant radius R, then d/dt = 0, v = v, and:

These results agree with those above for nonuniform circular motion. See also the article on non-uniform circular motion. If this acceleration is multiplied by the particle mass, the leading term is the centripetal force and the negative of the second term related to angular acceleration is sometimes called the Euler force.[16] For trajectories other than circular motion, for example, the more general trajectory envisioned in Figure 6, the instantaneous center of rotation and radius of curvature of the trajectory are related only indirectly to the coordinate system defined by u and u and to the length |r(t)| = . Consequently, in the general case, it is not straightforward to disentangle the centripetal and Euler terms from the above general acceleration equation.[17] [18] To deal directly with this issue, local coordinates are preferable, as discussed next.

Centripetal force Local coordinates By local coordinates is meant a set of coordinates that travel with the particle, [19] and have orientation determined by the path of the particle.[20] Unit vectors are formed as shown in Figure 7, both tangential and normal to the path. This coordinate system sometimes is referred to as intrinsic or path coordinates[21] [22] or nt-coordinates, for normal-tangential, referring to these unit vectors. These coordinates are a very special example of a more general concept of local coordinates from the theory of differential forms.[23] Distance along the path of the particle is the arc length s, considered to be a known function of time.
Figure 7: Local coordinate system for planar motion on a curve. Two different positions are shown for distances s and s + ds along the curve. At each position s, unit vector un points along the outward normal to the curve and unit vector ut is tangential to the path. The radius of curvature of the path is as found from the rate of rotation of the tangent to the curve with respect to arc length, and is the radius of the osculating circle at position s. The unit circle on the left shows the rotation of the unit vectors with s.

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A center of curvature is defined at each position s located a distance (the radius of curvature) from the curve on a line along the normal un (s). The required distance (s) at arc length s is defined in terms of the rate of rotation of the tangent to the curve, which in turn is determined by the path itself. If the orientation of the tangent relative to some starting position is (s), then (s) is defined by the derivative d/ds:

The radius of curvature usually is taken as positive (that is, as an absolute value), while the curvature is a signed quantity. A geometric approach to finding the center of curvature and the radius of curvature uses a limiting process leading to the osculating circle.[24] [25] See Figure 7. Using these coordinates, the motion along the path is viewed as a succession of circular paths of ever-changing center, and at each position s constitutes non-uniform circular motion at that position with radius . The local value of the angular rate of rotation then is given by:

with the local speed v given by:

As for the other examples above, because unit vectors cannot change magnitude, their rate of change is always perpendicular to their direction (see the left-hand insert in Figure 7):[26]

Consequently, the velocity and acceleration are:[25] [27] [28]

and using the chain-rule of differentiation: with the tangential acceleration In this local coordinate system the acceleration resembles the expression for nonuniform circular motion with the local radius (s), and the centripetal acceleration is identified as the second term.[29]

Centripetal force Extension of this approach to three dimensional space curves leads to the Frenet-Serret formulas.[30] [31] Alternative approach Looking at Figure 7, one might wonder whether adequate account has been taken of the difference in curvature between (s) and (s + ds) in computing the arc length as ds = (s)d. Reassurance on this point can be found using a more formal approach outlined below. This approach also makes connection with the article on curvature. To introduce the unit vectors of the local coordinate system, one approach is to begin in Cartesian coordinates and describe the local coordinates in terms of these Cartesian coordinates. In terms of arc length s let the path be described as:[32]

85

Then an incremental displacement along the path ds is described by:

where primes are introduced to denote derivatives with respect to s. The magnitude of this displacement is ds, showing that:[33] (Eq. 1) This displacement is necessarily tangent to the curve at s, showing that the unit vector tangent to the curve is:

while the outward unit vector normal to the curve is

Orthogonality can be verified by showing the vector dot product is zero. The unit magnitude of these vectors is a consequence of Eq. 1. Using the tangent vector, the angle of the tangent to the curve, say , is given by: and The radius of curvature is introduced completely formally (without need for geometric interpretation) as:

The derivative of can be found from that for sin:

Now:

in which the denominator is unity. With this formula for the derivative of the sine, the radius of curvature becomes:

where the equivalence of the forms stems from differentiation of Eq. 1:

With these results, the acceleration can be found:

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as can be verified by taking the dot product with the unit vectors ut(s) and un(s). This result for acceleration is the same as that for circular motion based on the radius . Using this coordinate system in the inertial frame, it is easy to identify the force normal to the trajectory as the centripetal force and that parallel to the trajectory as the tangential force. From a qualitative standpoint, the path can be approximated by an arc of a circle for a limited time, and for the limited time a particular radius of curvature applies, the centrifugal and Euler forces can be analyzed on the basis of circular motion with that radius. This result for acceleration agrees with that found earlier. However, in this approach the question of the change in radius of curvature with s is handled completely formally, consistent with a geometric interpretation, but not relying upon it, thereby avoiding any questions Figure 7 might suggest about neglecting the variation in . Example: circular motion To illustrate the above formulas, let x, y be given as:

Then:

which can be recognized as a circular path around the origin with radius . The position s = 0 corresponds to [, 0], or 3 o'clock. To use the above formalism the derivatives are needed:

With these results one can verify that:

The unit vectors also can be found:

which serve to show that s = 0 is located at position [, 0] and s = /2 at [0, ], which agrees with the original expressions for x and y. In other words, s is measured counterclockwise around the circle from 3 o'clock. Also, the derivatives of these vectors can be found:

To obtain velocity and acceleration, a time-dependence for s is necessary. For counterclockwise motion at variable speed v(t):

where v(t) is the speed and t is time, and s(t = 0) = 0. Then:

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where it already is established that = . This acceleration is the standard result for non-uniform circular motion.

See also
Fictitious force Centrifugal force Circular motion Coriolis force Reactive centrifugal force Example: circular motion Frenet-Serret formulas Orthogonal coordinates Statics Kinetics Kinematics Applied mechanics Analytical mechanics Dynamics (physics) Classical mechanics Mechanics of planar particle motion

Further reading
Serway, Raymond A.; Jewett, John W. (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers (6th ed.). Brooks/Cole. ISBN 0-534-40842-7. Tipler, Paul (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Mechanics, Oscillations and Waves, Thermodynamics (5th ed.). W. H. Freeman. ISBN 0-7167-0809-4. Centripetal force [34] vs. Centrifugal force [35], from an online Regents Exam physics tutorial by the Oswego City School District

External links
Notes from University of Winnipeg [36] Notes from Physics and Astronomy HyperPhysics at Georgia State University [37]; see also home page [38] Notes from Britannica [39] Notes from PhysicsNet [40] NASA notes by David P. Stern [41] Notes from U Texas [42]. Analysis of smart yo-yo [43] The Inuit yo-yo [44] Kinematic Models for Design Digital Library (KMODDL) [45] Movies and photos of hundreds of working mechanical-systems models at Cornell University. Also includes an e-book library [46] of classic texts on mechanical design and engineering.

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References
[1] Russelkl C Hibbeler (2009). "Equations of Motion: Normal and tangential coordinates" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=tOFRjXB-XvMC& pg=PA131). Engineering Mechanics: Dynamics (12 ed.). Prentice Hall. p.131. ISBN 0136077919. . [2] Paul Allen Tipler, Gene Mosca (2003). Physics for scientists and engineers (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=2HRFckqcBNoC& pg=PA129) (5th ed.). Macmillan. p.129. ISBN 0716783398. . [3] Felix Klein, Arnold Sommerfeld (2008). The Theory of the Top (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=xdxGF918uI8C& pg=PA232) (Reprint with translators' notes of 1897 ed.). Boston, Mass.: Birkhuser. p.232. ISBN 0817647201. . [4] Chris Carter (2001). Facts and Practice for A-Level: Physics. S.l.: Oxford Univ Press. p.30. ISBN 9780199147687. [5] Eugene Lommel and George William Myers (1900). Experimental physics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=4BMPAAAAYAAJ& pg=PA63& dq=centripetal-force+ osculating-circle& lr=& as_brr=3& ei=gmNASs2tCYXWlQTXieiADw). K. Paul, Trench, Trbner & Co. p.63. . [6] Johnnie T. Dennis (2003). The Complete Idiot's Guide to Physics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=P1hL1EwElX4C& pg=PA91& dq=centripetal+ component+ gravity& lr=& as_brr=3& ei=VWpASuruKY-gkQTc7bzxDg). Alpha Books. p.91. ISBN 9781592570812. . [7] George Bernard Benedek and Felix Villars (2000). Physics, with Illustrative Examples from Medicine and Biology: Mechanics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=GeALYXiy9sMC& pg=PA52& dq=gravity+ "centripetal+ force"+ intitle:mechanics& lr=& as_brr=3& ei=W7EtSqu7Bo62zATZnrSOBw). Springer. p.52. ISBN 9780387987699. . [8] Lawrence S. Lerner (1997). Physics for Scientists and Engineers (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=kJOnAvimS44C& pg=PA129& dq=centripetal+ "banked+ curve"& lr=& as_brr=0& sig=0ueAq7G5l2R3ausiXue0CPW_1dM#PPA128,M1). Boston: Jones & Bartlett Publishers. p.128. ISBN 0867204796. . [9] Arthur Beiser (2004). Schaum's Outline of Applied Physics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=soKguvJDgmsC& pg=PA103& dq=friction+ "banked+ turn"& lr=& as_brr=0& sig=hMYfCzJHm6Ni4Noq5v5NRvvPSyQ). New York: McGraw-Hill Professional. p.103. ISBN 0071426116. . [10] Alan Darbyshire (2003). Mechanical Engineering: BTEC National Option Units (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=fzfXLGpElZ0C& pg=PA57& dq=centripetal+ "banked+ curve"& lr=& as_brr=0& sig=hbaHu8Xt_uTGvd5b1DG01vCYFF8#PPA56,M1). Oxford: Newnes. p.56. ISBN 0750657618. . [11] Federal Aviation Administration (2007). Pilot's Encyclopedia of Aeronautical Knowledge (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=m5V04SXE4zQC& pg=PT33& lpg=PT33& dq=+ "angle+ of+ bank"& source=web& ots=iYTi_mZAra& sig=ytjcmr9RStdIdgZzaiBJJ-wxjts& hl=en#PPT32,M1). Oklahoma City OK: Skyhorse Publishing Inc.. Figure 3-21. ISBN 1602390347. . [12] Note: unlike the Cartesian unit vectors i and j, which are constant, in polar coordinates the direction of the unit vectors ur and u depend on , and so in general have non-zero time derivatives. [13] Although the polar coordinate system moves with the particle, the observer does not. The description of the particle motion remains a description from the stationary observer's point of view. [14] Notice that this local coordinate system is not autonomous; for example, its rotation in time is dictated by the trajectory traced by the particle. Note also that the radial vector r(t) does not represent the radius of curvature of the path. [15] John Robert Taylor (2005). Classical Mechanics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=P1kCtNr-pJsC& printsec=index& dq=isbn=189138922X& lr=& as_brr=0& source=gbs_toc_s& cad=1#PPA29,M1). Sausalito CA: University Science Books. p.2829. ISBN 189138922X. . [16] Cornelius Lanczos (1986). The Variational Principles of Mechanics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=ZWoYYr8wk2IC& pg=PA103& dq="Euler+ force"& lr=& as_brr=0& sig=UV46Q9NIrYWwn5EmYpPv-LPuZd0#PPA103,M1). New York: Courier Dover Publications. p.103. ISBN 0486650677. . [17] See, for example, Howard D. Curtis (2005). Orbital Mechanics for Engineering Students (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=6aO9aGNBAgIC& pg=PA193& dq=orbit+ "coordinate+ system"& lr=& as_brr=0& sig=p5hZldx_U1CnV0Ggc29YBLgLj9k#PPA5,M1). Butterworth-Heinemann. p.5. ISBN 0750661690. . [18] S. Y. Lee (2004). Accelerator physics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=VTc8Sdld5S8C& pg=PA37& dq=orbit+ "coordinate+ system"& lr=& as_brr=0& sig=h5GU58FVOzEGclxsJkYQuVvtWkU) (2nd ed.). Hackensack NJ: World Scientific. p.37. ISBN 981256182X. . [19] The observer of the motion along the curve is using these local coordinates to describe the motion from the observer's frame of reference, that is, from a stationary point of view. In other words, although the local coordinate system moves with the particle, the observer does not. A change in coordinate system used by the observer is only a change in their description of observations, and does not mean that the observer has changed their state of motion, and vice versa. [20] Zhilin Li & Kazufumi Ito (2006). The immersed interface method: numerical solutions of PDEs involving interfaces and irregular domains (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=_E084AX-iO8C& pg=PA16& dq="local+ coordinates"& lr=& as_brr=0& sig=ACfU3U2p_S2c7vRzd1vabU9WhIBJXk8ESw). Philadelphia: Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics. p.16. ISBN 0898716098. . [21] K L Kumar (2003). Engineering Mechanics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=QabMJsCf2zgC& pg=PA339& dq="path+ coordinates"& lr=& as_brr=0& sig=ACfU3U1ZlP_syppme85cv4pimhLxyUOLug). New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill. p.339. ISBN 0070494738. .

Centripetal force
[22] Lakshmana C. Rao, J. Lakshminarasimhan, Raju Sethuraman & SM Sivakuma (2004). Engineering Dynamics: Statics and Dynamics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=F7gaa1ShPKIC& pg=PA134& dq="path+ coordinates"& lr=& as_brr=0& sig=ACfU3U0PT2mGvAHroVJFVXGB46y6zLWaGA#PPA132,M1). Prentice Hall of India. p.133. ISBN 8120321898. . [23] Shigeyuki Morita (2001). Geometry of Differential Forms (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=5N33Of2RzjsC& pg=PA1& dq="local+ coordinates"& lr=& as_brr=0& sig=ACfU3U3dnL01bMDu8d0GCmCC9eI717lsPA). American Mathematical Society. p.1. ISBN 0821810456. . [24] The osculating circle at a given point P on a curve is the limiting circle of a sequence of circles that pass through P and two other points on the curve, Q and R, on either side of P, as Q and R approach P. See the online text by Lamb: Horace Lamb (1897). An Elementary Course of Infinitesimal Calculus (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=eDM6AAAAMAAJ& pg=PA406& dq="osculating+ circle"& lr=& as_brr=0). University Press. p.406. ISBN 1108005349. . [25] Guang Chen & Fook Fah Yap (2003). An Introduction to Planar Dynamics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=xt09XiZBzPEC& pg=PA34& dq=motion+ "center+ of+ curvature"& lr=& as_brr=0& sig=ACfU3U2lKY09hG88_XSHtU9H_xuaXXdGlA) (3rd ed.). Central Learning Asia/Thomson Learning Asia. p.34. ISBN 9812435689. . [26] R. Douglas Gregory (2006). Classical Mechanics: An Undergraduate Text (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=uAfUQmQbzOkC& pg=RA1-PA18& dq=particle+ curve+ normal+ tangent& lr=& as_brr=0& sig=ACfU3U3_WR6_esuEz-mUMmOXuZabQY6Now#PRA1-PA20,M1). Cambridge University Press. p.20. ISBN 0521826780. . [27] Edmund Taylor Whittaker & William McCrea (1988). A Treatise on the Analytical Dynamics of Particles and Rigid Bodies: with an introduction to the problem of three bodies (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=epH1hCB7N2MC& pg=PA20& vq=radius+ of+ curvature& dq=particle+ movement+ "radius+ of+ curvature"+ acceleration+ -soap& lr=& as_brr=0& source=gbs_search_s& sig=ACfU3U3cKHnTYJNja9o0t_Iw2VeRSGEWCg) (4rth ed.). Cambridge University Press. p.20. ISBN 0521358833. . [28] Jerry H. Ginsberg (2007). Engineering Dynamics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=je0W8N5oXd4C& pg=PA723& dq=osculating+ "planar+ motion"& lr=& as_brr=0& sig=ACfU3U0Yuca2DhshUowHlkVtw_bRSR-qww#PPA33,M1). Cambridge University Press. p.33. ISBN 0521883032. . [29] Joseph F. Shelley (1990). 800 solved problems in vector mechanics for engineers: Dynamics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=ByNrVgf041MC& pg=PA46& dq=particle+ movement+ "radius+ of+ curvature"+ acceleration+ -soap& lr=& as_brr=0& sig=ACfU3U3xRX2OpTCS7_OF87Yi07fQmymg7A#PPA47,M1). McGraw-Hill Professional. p.47. ISBN 0070566879. . [30] Larry C. Andrews & Ronald L. Phillips (2003). Mathematical Techniques for Engineers and Scientists (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=MwrDfvrQyWYC& pg=PA164& dq=particle+ "planar+ motion"& lr=& as_brr=0& sig=ACfU3U2LpH6ofhuuC2UiED0pf38wbspY8A#PPA164,M1). SPIE Press. p.164. ISBN 0819445061. . [31] Ch V Ramana Murthy & NC Srinivas (2001). Applied Mathematics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Q0Pvv4vWOlQC& pg=PA337& vq=frenet& dq=isbn=8121920825& source=gbs_search_s& sig=ACfU3U3S5vGMS-NnraAEmpBf6B9bB2wK6A). New Delhi: S. Chand & Co.. p.337. ISBN 81-219-2082-5. . [32] The article on curvature treats a more general case where the curve is parametrized by an arbitrary variable (denoted t), rather than by the arc length s. [33] Ahmed A. Shabana, Khaled E. Zaazaa, Hiroyuki Sugiyama (2007). Railroad Vehicle Dynamics: A Computational Approach (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=YgIDSQT0FaUC& pg=RA1-PA207& dq="generalized+ coordinate"& lr=& as_brr=0& sig=ACfU3U2tosoLUEAUNkGu2x8TTtuxLfeLGQ#PRA1-PA91,M1). CRC Press. p.91. ISBN 1420045814. . [34] http:/ / regentsprep. org/ Regents/ physics/ phys06/ bcentrif/ default. htm [35] http:/ / regentsprep. org/ Regents/ physics/ phys06/ bcentrif/ centrif. htm [36] http:/ / theory. uwinnipeg. ca/ physics/ circ/ node6. html [37] http:/ / hyperphysics. phy-astr. gsu. edu/ HBASE/ cf. html#cf [38] http:/ / hyperphysics. phy-astr. gsu. edu/ HBASE/ hframe. html [39] http:/ / www. britannica. com/ eb/ topic-102869/ centripetal-acceleration [40] http:/ / www. ac. wwu. edu/ ~vawter/ PhysicsNet/ Topics/ RotationalKinematics/ CentripetalForce. html [41] http:/ / www-istp. gsfc. nasa. gov/ stargaze/ Scircul. htm [42] http:/ / farside. ph. utexas. edu/ teaching/ 301/ lectures/ node87. html [43] http:/ / gicl. cs. drexel. edu/ wiki/ Smart_Yo-yo [44] http:/ / www. fofweb. com/ onfiles/ SEOF/ Science_Experiments/ 6-17. pdf [45] http:/ / kmoddl. library. cornell. edu/ index. php [46] http:/ / kmoddl. library. cornell. edu/ e-books. php

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Right-hand rule

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Right-hand rule
In mathematics and physics, the right-hand rule is a common mnemonic for understanding notation conventions for vectors in 3 dimensions. It was invented for use in electromagnetism by British physicist Zachariah William Cole in the late 1800s.[1] [2] When choosing three vectors that must be at right angles to each other, there are two distinct solutions, so when expressing this idea in mathematics, one must remove the ambiguity of which solution is meant. There are variations on the mnemonic depending on context, but all variations are related to the one idea of choosing a convention.

The left-handed orientation is shown on the left, and the right-handed on the right.

Direction associated with an ordered pair of directions

One form of the right-hand rule is used in situations in which an ordered operation must be performed on two vectors a and b that has a result which is a vector c perpendicular to both a and b. The most common example is the vector cross product. The right-hand rule imposes the following procedure for choosing one of the two directions.

Use of right hand.

With the thumb, index, and middle fingers at right angles to each other (with the index finger pointed straight), the middle finger points in the direction of c when the thumb represents a and the index finger represents b. Other (equivalent) finger assignments are possible. For example, the first (index) finger can represent a, the first vector in the product; the second (middle) finger, b, the second vector; and the thumb, c, the product.[3]

Direction associated with a rotation

A different form of the right-hand rule is used in situations where a vector must be assigned to the rotation of a body, a magnetic field or a fluid.[4] Alternatively, when a rotation is specified by a vector, and it is necessary to understand the way in which the rotation occurs, the right-hand rule is applicable. In this form, the fingers of the right hand are curled to match the curvature and direction of the motion or the magnetic field. The thumb indicates the direction of the vector.

Vector assigned to a rotation.

Applications

Right-hand rule The first form of the rule is used to determine the direction of the cross product of two vectors. This leads to widespread use in physics, wherever the cross product occurs. A list of physical quantities whose directions are related by the right-hand rule is given below. (Some of these are related only indirectly to cross products, and use the second form.) The angular velocity of a rotating object and the rotational velocity of any point on the object A torque, the force that causes it, and the position of the point of application of the force A magnetic field, the position of the point where it is determined, and the electric current (or change in electric flux) that causes it A magnetic field in a coil of wire and the electric current in the wire The force of a magnetic field on a charged particle, the magnetic field itself, and the velocity of the object The vorticity at any point in the field of flow of a fluid The induced current from motion in a magnetic field (known as Fleming's right hand rule) Fleming's left hand rule is a rule for finding the direction of the thrust on a conductor carrying a current in a magnetic field.

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Left handedness
In certain situations, it may be useful to use the opposite convention, where one of the vectors is reversed and so creates a left-handed triad instead of a right-handed triad. An example of this situation is for left-handed materials. Normally, for an electromagnetic wave, the electric and magnetic fields, and the direction of propagation of the wave obey the right-hand rule. However, left-handed materials have special properties - the negative refractive index. It makes the direction of propagation point in the opposite direction.

Fleming's left hand rule

De Graaf's translation of Fleming's left-hand rule - which uses thrust, field and current - and the right-hand rule, is the FBI rule. The FBI rule changes Thrust into F (Lorentz force), B (direction of the magnetic field) and I (current). The FBI rule is easily remembered by US citizens because of the commonly known abbreviation for the Federal Bureau of Investigation.

Symmetry
Vector a, x or I Right-Hand Thumb Right-Hand Right-Hand Left-Hand Thumb Left-Hand Left-Hand

Fingers or Palm First or Index Thumb

Fingers or Palm First or Index Thumb Fingers or Palm

b, y or B First or Index

Fingers or Palm Fingers or Palm First or Index Thumb First or Index Thumb

c, z or F Fingers or Palm First or Index

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See also
Chirality (mathematics) Right hand grip rule Curl (mathematics) Pseudovector Improper rotation Reflection (mathematics) Fleming's left hand rule Vorticity ISO 2

External links
Right and Left Hand Rules - Interactive Java Tutorial [5] National High Magnetic Field Laboratory A demonstration of the right-hand rule at physics.syr.edu [6] Definition at mathworld.wolfram.com [7]

References
[1] Cole, Zachariah William (1902). Magnets and Electric Currents, 2nd Edition (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=ASUYAAAAYAAJ& pg=PA173). London: E.& F. N. Spon. pp.173174. . [2] "Right and left hand rules" (http:/ / www. magnet. fsu. edu/ education/ tutorials/ java/ handrules/ index. html). Tutorials, Magnet Lab U.. National High Magnetic Field Laboratory. . Retrieved 2008-04-30. [3] PHYS345 Introduction to the Right Hand Rule (http:/ / www. physics. udel. edu/ ~watson/ phys345/ Fall1998/ class/ 1-right-hand-rule. html), George Watson, University of Delaware, 1998 [4] Wilson, Adam (2008). "Hand Rules" (http:/ / www. ece. unb. ca/ Courses/ EE2683/ AW/ hand_rules. pdf). Course outline, EE2683 Electric Circuits and Machines. Faculty of Engineering, Univ. of New Brunswick. . Retrieved 2008-08-11. [5] http:/ / www. magnet. fsu. edu/ education/ tutorials/ java/ handrules/ index. html [6] http:/ / physics. syr. edu/ courses/ video/ RightHandRule/ index2. html [7] http:/ / mathworld. wolfram. com/ Right-HandRule. html

Coriolis effect

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Coriolis effect
In physics, the Coriolis effect is an apparent deflection of moving objects when they are viewed from a rotating reference frame. For example, consider two children on opposite sides of a spinning roundabout (carousel), who are throwing a ball to each other. From the children's point of view, the ball's path is curved sideways by the Coriolis effect. From the thrower's perspective, the deflection is to the right with anticlockwise carousel rotation (viewed from above). Deflection is to the left with clockwise rotation. Newton's laws of motion govern the motion of an object in an inertial frame of reference. When transforming Newton's laws to a rotating frame of reference, the Coriolis force appears, along with the centrifugal force. If the rotation speed of the frame is not constant, the Euler force will also appear. All three forces are proportional to the mass of the object. The Coriolis force is proportional to the speed of rotation and the centrifugal force is proportional to its square. The Coriolis force acts in a direction perpendicular to the rotation axis and to the velocity of the body in the rotating frame and is proportional to the object's speed in the rotating frame. The centrifugal force acts outwards in the radial direction and is proportional to the distance of the body from the axis of the rotating frame. These three additional forces are termed either inertial forces, fictitious forces or pseudo forces.[1] These names are used in a technical sense, to mean simply that these forces vanish in an inertial frame of reference.

Figure 1: In the inertial frame of reference (upper part of the picture), the black object moves in a straight line, without significant friction with the disc. However, the observer (red dot) who is standing in the rotating (non-inertial) frame of reference (lower part of the picture) sees the object as following a curved path.

The mathematical expression for the Coriolis force appeared in an 1835 paper by a French scientist Gaspard-Gustave Coriolis in connection with hydrodynamics, and also in the tidal equations of Pierre-Simon Laplace in 1778. Early in the 20th century, the term Coriolis force began to be used in connection with meteorology. Perhaps the most commonly encountered rotating reference frame is the Earth. Moving objects on the surface of the Earth experience a Coriolis force, and appear to veer to the right in the northern hemisphere, and to the left in the southern. Exactly on the equator, motion east or west, remains (precariously) along the line of the equator. Initial motion of a pendulum in any other direction will lead to a motion in a loop. Movements of air in the atmosphere and water in the ocean are notable examples of this behavior: rather than flowing directly from areas of high pressure to low pressure, as they would on a non-rotating planet, winds and currents tend to flow to the right of this direction north of the equator, and to the left of this direction south of the equator. This effect is responsible for the rotation of large cyclones (see Coriolis effects in meteorology).

History
Gaspard-Gustave Coriolis published a paper in 1835 on the energy yield of machines with rotating parts, such as waterwheels.[2] This paper considered the supplementary forces that are detected in a rotating frame of reference. Coriolis divided these supplementary forces into two categories. The second category contained a force that arises from the cross product of the angular velocity of a coordinate system and the projection of a particle's velocity into a plane perpendicular to the system's axis of rotation. Coriolis referred to this force as the "compound centrifugal force" due to its analogies with the centrifugal force already considered in category one.[3] [4] By the early 20th

Coriolis effect century the effect was known as the "acceleration of Coriolis".[5] By 1919 it was referred by to as "Coriolis' force"[6] and by 1920 as "Coriolis force".[7] In 1856, William Ferrel proposed the existence of a circulation cell in the mid-latitudes with air being deflected by the Coriolis force to create the prevailing westerly winds.[8] Understanding the kinematics of how exactly the rotation of the Earth affects airflow was partial at first.[9] Late in the 19th century, the full extent of the large scale interaction of pressure gradient force and deflecting force that in the end causes air masses to move along isobars was understood.

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Formula
In non-vector terms: at a given rate of rotation of the observer, the magnitude of the Coriolis acceleration of the object is proportional to the velocity of the object and also to the sine of the angle between the direction of movement of the object and the axis of rotation. The vector formula for the magnitude and direction of the Coriolis acceleration is

where (here and below) v is the velocity of the particle in the rotating system, and is the angular velocity vector which has magnitude equal to the rotation rate and is directed along the axis of rotation of the rotating reference frame, and the symbol represents the cross product operator. The equation may be multiplied by the mass of the relevant object to produce the Coriolis force: . See fictitious force for a derivation. The Coriolis effect is the behavior added by the Coriolis acceleration. The formula implies that the Coriolis acceleration is perpendicular both to the direction of the velocity of the moving mass and to the frame's rotation axis. So in particular: if the velocity is parallel to the rotation axis, the Coriolis acceleration is zero. if the velocity is straight inward to the axis, the acceleration is in the direction of local rotation. if the velocity is straight outward from the axis, the acceleration is against the direction of local rotation. if the velocity is in the direction of local rotation, the acceleration is outward from the axis. if the velocity is against the direction of local rotation, the acceleration is inward to the axis.

The vector cross product can be evaluated as the determinant of a matrix:

where the vectors i, j, k are unit vectors in the x, y and z directions.

Causes
The Coriolis effect exists only when using a rotating reference frame. In the rotating frame it behaves exactly like a real force (that is to say, it causes acceleration and has real effects). However, Coriolis force is a consequence of inertia, and is not attributable to an identifiable originating body, as is the case for electromagnetic or nuclear forces, for example. From an analytical viewpoint, to use Newton's second law in a rotating system, Coriolis force is mathematically necessary, but it disappears in a non-accelerating, inertial frame of reference. For a mathematical formulation see Mathematical derivation of fictitious forces. A denizen of a rotating frame, such as an astronaut in a rotating space station, very probably will find the interpretation of everyday life in terms of the Coriolis force accords more simply with intuition and experience than

Coriolis effect a cerebral reinterpretation of events from an inertial standpoint. For example, nausea due to an experienced push may be more instinctively explained by Coriolis force than by the law of inertia.[10] [11] See also Coriolis effect (perception). In meteorology, a rotating frame (the Earth) with its Coriolis force proves a more natural framework for explanation of air movements than a hypothetical, non-rotating, inertial frame without Coriolis forces.[12] [13] In long-range gunnery, sight corrections for the Earth's rotation are based upon Coriolis force.[14] These examples are described in more detail below. The acceleration entering the Coriolis force arises from two sources of change in velocity that result from rotation: the first is the change of the velocity of an object in time. The same velocity (in an inertial frame of reference where the normal laws of physics apply) will be seen as different velocities at different times in a rotating frame of reference. The apparent acceleration is proportional to the angular velocity of the reference frame (the rate at which the coordinate axes change direction), and to the component of velocity of the object in a plane perpendicular to the axis of rotation. This gives a term . The minus sign arises from the traditional definition of the cross product (right hand rule), and from the sign convention for angular velocity vectors. The second is the change of velocity in space. Different positions in a rotating frame of reference have different velocities (as seen from an inertial frame of reference). In order for an object to move in a straight line it must therefore be accelerated so that its velocity changes from point to point by the same amount as the velocities of the frame of reference. The effect is proportional to the angular velocity (which determines the relative speed of two different points in the rotating frame of reference), and to the component of the velocity of the object in a plane perpendicular to the axis of rotation (which determines how quickly it moves between those points). This also gives a term .

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Length scales and the Rossby number

The time, space and velocity scales are important in determining the importance of the Coriolis effect. Whether rotation is important in a system can be determined by its Rossby number, which is the ratio of the velocity, , of a system to the product of the Coriolis parameter, . The Rossby number is the ratio of inertial to Coriolis forces. A small Rossby number signifies a system which is strongly affected by Coriolis forces, and a large Rossby number signifies a system in which inertial forces dominate. For example, in tornadoes, the Rossby number is large, in low-pressure systems it is low and in oceanic systems it is of the order of unity. As a result, in tornadoes the Coriolis force is negligible, and balance is between pressure and centrifugal forces. In low-pressure systems, centrifugal force is negligible and balance is between Coriolis and pressure forces. In the oceans all three forces are comparable.[15] An atmospheric system moving at U = 10 m/s occupying a spatial distance of L = 1000km, has a Rossby number of approximately 0.1. A man playing catch may throw the ball at U = 30 m/s in a garden of length L = 50 m. The Rossby number in this case would be about = 6000. Needless to say, one does not worry about which hemisphere one is in when playing catch in the garden. However, an unguided missile obeys exactly the same physics as a baseball, but may travel far enough and be in the air long enough to notice the effect of Coriolis. Long-range shells in the Northern Hemisphere landed close to, but to the right of, where they were aimed until this was noted. (Those fired in the southern hemisphere landed to the left.) In fact, it was this effect that first got the attention of Coriolis himself.[16] [17] [18] , and the length scale, , of the motion:

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Applied to Earth
Rotating sphere
Consider a location with latitude on a sphere that is rotating around the north-south axis.[19] A local coordinate system is set up with the axis horizontally due east, the axis horizontally due north and the axis vertically upwards.The rotation vector, velocity of movement and Coriolis acceleration expressed in this local coordinate system (listing components in the order East (e), North (n) and Upward (u)) are:

Figure 2: Coordinate system at latitude with x-axis east, y-axis north and z-axis upward (that is, radially outward from center of sphere).

When considering atmospheric or oceanic dynamics, the vertical velocity is small and the vertical component of the Coriolis acceleration is small compared to gravity. For such cases, only the horizontal (East and North) components matter. The restriction of the above to the horizontal plane is (setting vu=0): where is called the Coriolis parameter. and ) a movement due east results in an

By setting vn = 0, it can be seen immediately that (for positive

acceleration due south. Similarly, setting ve = 0, it is seen that a movement due north results in an acceleration due east. In general, observed horizontally, looking along the direction of the movement causing the acceleration, the acceleration always is turned 90 to the right and of the same size regardless of the horizontal orientation. That is:[20]
[21]

On a merry-go-round in the night Coriolis was shaken with fright Despite how he walked 'Twas like he was stalked By some fiend always pushing him right David Morin, Eric Zaslow, E'beth Haley, John Golden, and Nathan Salwen

Coriolis effect As a different case, consider equatorial motion setting = 0. In this case, is parallel to the North or n-axis, and:

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Accordingly, an eastward motion (that is, in the same direction as the rotation of the sphere) provides an upward acceleration known as the Etvs effect, and an upward motion produces an acceleration due west.

The Sun and distant stars

The motion of the Sun as seen from Earth is dominated by the Coriolis and centrifugal forces. For ease of explanation consider the situation of a distant star (with mass m) located over the equator, at position , perpendicular to the rotation vector so . It is observed to rotate in the opposite direction as the Earth's rotation once a day, making its velocity centrifugal forces is: . The fictitious force consisting of Coriolis and

This can be recognised as the centripetal force that will keep the star in a circular movement around the observer. The general situation for a star, not above the equator is more complicated. Just as for air flows on Earth's surface, on the northern hemisphere a star's trajectory will be deflected to the right. After rising at a certain angle, it will bend to the right, culminate and start setting.

Meteorology
Perhaps the most important instance of the Coriolis effect is in the large-scale dynamics of the oceans and the atmosphere. In meteorology and ocean science, it is convenient to use a rotating frame of reference where the Earth is stationary. The fictitious centrifugal and Coriolis forces must then be introduced. Their relative importance is determined by the Rossby number. Tornadoes have a high Rossby number, so Coriolis forces are unimportant, and are not discussed here.[22] As discussed next, low-pressure areas are phenomena where Coriolis forces are significant. Flow around a low-pressure area If a low-pressure area forms in the atmosphere, air will tend to counter-clockwise due to balance between the Coriolis force flow in towards it, but will be deflected perpendicular to its and the pressure gradient force. velocity by the Coriolis acceleration. A system of equilibrium can then establish itself creating circular movement, or a cyclonic flow. Because the Rossby number is low, the force balance is largely between the pressure gradient force acting towards the low-pressure area and the Coriolis force acting away from the center of the low pressure.
Figure 12: This low pressure system over Iceland spins

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Instead of flowing down the gradient, large scale motions in the atmosphere and ocean tend to occur perpendicular to the pressure gradient. This is known as geostrophic flow.[23] On a non-rotating planet fluid would flow along the straightest possible line, quickly eliminating pressure gradients. Note that the geostrophic balance is thus very different from the case of "inertial motions" (see below) which explains why mid-latitude cyclones are larger by an order of magnitude than inertial circle flow would be. This pattern of deflection, and the direction of movement, is called Buys-Ballot's law. In the atmosphere, the pattern of flow is called a cyclone. In the Northern Hemisphere the direction of movement around a low-pressure area is counterclockwise. In the Southern Hemisphere, the direction of movement is clockwise because the rotational dynamics is a mirror image there. At high altitudes, outward-spreading air rotates in the opposite direction.[24] Cyclones rarely form along the equator due to the weak Coriolis effect present in this region. Inertial circles An air or water mass moving with speed subject only to the Coriolis force travels in a circular trajectory called an 'inertial circle'. Since the force is directed at right angles to the motion of the particle, it will move with a constant speed, and perform a complete circle with frequency . The magnitude of the Coriolis force also determines the radius of this circle: . On the Earth, a typical mid-latitude value for is 104 s1; hence for a typical atmospheric speed of 10 m/s the radius is 100km, with a period of about 14hours. In the ocean, where a typical speed is closer to 10cm/s, the radius of an inertial circle is 1km. These inertial circles are clockwise in the northern hemisphere (where trajectories are bent to the right) and anti-clockwise in the southern hemisphere. If the rotating system is a parabolic turntable, then is

Figure 13: Schematic representation of flow around a low-pressure area in the Northern hemisphere. The Rossby number is low, so the centrifugal force is negligible. The pressure-gradient force is represented by blue arrows, the Coriolis acceleration (always perpendicular to the velocity) by red arrows

Figure 14: Schematic representation of inertial circles of air masses in the absence of other forces, calculated for a wind speed of approximately 50 to 70 m/s. Note that the rotation is exactly opposite of that normally experienced with air masses in weather systems around depressions.

constant and the trajectories are exact circles. On a rotating planet, varies with latitude and the paths of particles do not form exact circles. Since the parameter

varies as

the sine of the latitude, the radius of the oscillations associated with a given speed are smallest at the poles (latitude = 90), and increase toward the equator.[25]

Coriolis effect Other terrestrial effects The Coriolis effect strongly affects the large-scale oceanic and atmospheric circulation, leading to the formation of robust features like jet streams and western boundary currents. Such features are in geostrophic balance, meaning that the Coriolis and pressure gradient forces balance each other. Coriolis acceleration is also responsible for the propagation of many types of waves in the ocean and atmosphere, including Rossby waves and Kelvin waves. It is also instrumental in the so-called Ekman dynamics in the ocean, and in the establishment of the large-scale ocean flow pattern called the Sverdrup balance.

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Etvs effect
The practical impact of the Coriolis effect is mostly caused by the horizontal acceleration component produced by horizontal motion. There are other components of the Coriolis effect. Eastward-traveling objects will be deflected upwards (feel lighter), while westward-traveling objects will be deflected downwards (feel heavier). This is known as the Etvs effect. This aspect of the Coriolis effect is greatest near the equator. The force produced by this effect is similar to the horizontal component, but the much larger vertical forces due to gravity and pressure mean that it is generally unimportant dynamically. In addition, objects traveling upwards or downwards will be deflected to the west or east respectively. This effect is also the greatest near the equator. Since vertical movement is usually of limited extent and duration, the size of the effect is smaller and requires precise instruments to detect.

Draining in bathtubs and toilets

Coriolis rotation can conceivably play a role on scales as small as a bathtub. It is a commonly held myth that the every-day rotation of a bathtub or toilet vortex is due to whether one is in the northern or southern hemisphere. An article in Nature, by Ascher Shapiro, describes an experiment in which all other forces to the system are removed by filling a 6ft. tank with water and allowing it to settle for 24 hrs (to remove any internal velocity), in a room where the temperature has stabilized (temperature differences in the room can introduce forces inside the fluid). The drain plug is then very slowly removed, and tiny pieces of floating wood are used to observe rotation. During the first 12 to 15 mins, no rotation is observed. Then, a vortex appears and consistently begins to rotate in a counter-clockwise direction (the experiment was performed in the Northern hemisphere, in Boston, MA). This is repeated and the results averaged to make sure the effect is real. The Coriolis effect does indeed play a role in vortex rotation for draining liquids that have come to rest for a long time. ["Bath-Tub Vortex", Nature. Dec 15th, 1962. Vol 195, No. 4859, p.1080-1081] [26] In reality, this experiment shows that the Coriolis effect is a few orders of magnitude smaller than various random influences on drain direction, such as the geometry of the container and the direction in which water was initially added to it. In the above experiment, if the water settles for 2 hrs or less (instead of 24), then the vortex can be seen to rotate in either direction. Most toilets flush in only one direction, because the toilet water flows into the bowl at an angle.[27] If water shot into the basin from the opposite direction, the water would spin in the opposite direction.[28] The idea that toilets and bathtubs drain differently in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres has been popularized by several television programs, including The Simpsons episode "Bart vs. Australia" and the The X-Files episode "Die Hand Die Verletzt".[29] Several science broadcasts and publications, including at least one college-level physics textbook, have also stated this.[30] Some sources that incorrectly attribute draining direction to the Coriolis force also get the direction wrong, claiming that water would turn clockwise into drains in the Northern Hemisphere.[30] The Rossby number can also tell us about the bathtub. If the length scale of the tub is about L = 1 m, and the water moves towards the drain at about U = 60cm/s, then the Rossby number is about 6 000. Thus, the bathtub is, in terms of scales, much like a game of catch, and rotation is unlikely to be important. The dominant physical process that creates the rapid vortex close to the plug hole is the conservation of angular momentum. The radius of rotation

Coriolis effect decreases as water approaches the plug hole so the rate of rotation increases, equivalent to bringing your arms and legs in while spinning on a chair.

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Ballistic missiles and satellites

Ballistic missiles and satellites appear to follow curved paths when plotted on common world maps mainly because the earth is spherical and the shortest distance between two points on the Earth's surface (called a great circle) is usually not a straight line on those maps. Every two-dimensional (flat) map necessarily distorts the Earth's curved (three-dimensional) surface in some way. Typically (as in the commonly used Mercator projection, for example), this distortion increases with proximity to the poles. In the northern hemisphere for example, a ballistic missile fired toward a distant target using the shortest possible route (a great circle) will appear on such maps to follow a path north of the straight line from target to destination, and then curve back toward the equator. This occurs because the latitudes, which are projected as straight horizontal lines on most world maps, are in fact circles on the surface of a sphere, which get smaller as they get closer to the pole. Being simply a consequence of the sphericity of the Earth, this would be true even if the Earth didn't rotate. The Coriolis effect is of course also present, but its effect on the plotted path is much smaller. The Coriolis effects became important in external ballistics for calculating the trajectories of very long-range artillery shells. The most famous historical example was the Paris gun, used by the Germans during World War I to bombard Paris from a range of about 120km (75mi).

Special cases
Cannon on turntable
Figure 1 is an animation of the classic illustration of Coriolis force. Another visualization of the Coriolis and centrifugal forces is this animation clip [31]. Figure 3 is a graphical version. Here is a question: given the radius of the turntable R, the rate of angular rotation , and the speed of the cannonball (assumed constant) v, what is the correct angle to aim so as to hit the target at the edge of the turntable?

The inertial frame of reference provides one way to handle the question: calculate the time to interception, which is tf = R / v . Then, the turntable revolves an angle tf in this time. If the cannon is pointed an angle = tf = R / v, then the cannonball arrives at the periphery at position number 3 at the same time as the target. No discussion of Coriolis force can arrive at this solution as simply, so the reason to treat this problem is to demonstrate Coriolis formalism in an easily visualized situation.

Figure 3: Cannon at the center of a rotating turntable. To hit the target located at position 1 on the perimeter at time t = 0s, the cannon must be aimed ahead of the target at angle . That way, by the time the cannonball reaches position 3 on the periphery, the target also will be at that position. In an inertial frame of reference, the cannonball travels a straight radial path to the target (curve yA). However, in the frame of the turntable, the path is arched (curve yB), as also shown in the figure.

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The trajectory in the inertial frame (denoted A) is a straight line radial path at angle . The position of the cannonball in ( x, y ) coordinates at time t is:

Figure 4: Successful trajectory of cannonball as seen from the turntable for three angles of launch . Plotted points are for the same equally spaced times steps on each curve. Cannonball speed v is held constant and angular rate of rotation is varied to achieve a successful "hit" for selected . For example, for a radius of 1 m and a cannonball speed of 1 m/s, the time of flight tf = 1 s, and tf = and have the same numerical value if is expressed in radians. The wider spacing of the plotted points as the target is approached show the speed of the cannonball is accelerating as seen on the turntable, due to fictitious Coriolis and centrifugal forces.

Figure 5: Acceleration components at an earlier time (top) and at arrival time at the target (bottom)

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Figure 6: Coriolis acceleration, centrifugal acceleration and net acceleration vectors at three selected points on the trajectory as seen on the turntable.

In the turntable frame (denoted B), the x- y axes rotate at angular rate , so the trajectory becomes:

and three examples of this result are plotted in Figure 4. To determine the components of acceleration, a general expression is used from the article fictitious force:

in which the term in vB is the Coriolis acceleration and the term in ( rB) is the centrifugal acceleration. The results are (let = t):

producing a centrifugal acceleration:

Also:

producing a Coriolis acceleration:

Figure 5 and Figure 6 show these accelerations for a particular example.

Coriolis effect It is seen that the Coriolis acceleration not only cancels the centrifugal acceleration, but together they provide a net "centripetal", radially inward component of acceleration (that is, directed toward the center of rotation):[32]

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and an additional component of acceleration perpendicular to rB (t): The "centripetal" component of acceleration resembles that for circular motion at radius rB, while the perpendicular component is velocity dependent, increasing with the radial velocity v and directed to the right of the velocity. The situation could be described as a circular motion combined with an "apparent Coriolis acceleration" of 2v. However, this is a rough labeling: a careful designation of the true centripetal force refers to a local reference frame that employs the directions normal and tangential to the path, not coordinates referred to the axis of rotation. These results also can be obtained directly by two time differentiations of rB (t). Agreement of the two approaches demonstrates that one could start from the general expression for fictitious acceleration above and derive the trajectories of Figure 4. However, working from the acceleration to the trajectory is more complicated than the reverse procedure used here, which, of course, is made possible in this example by knowing the answer in advance. As a result of this analysis an important point appears: all the fictitious accelerations must be included to obtain the correct trajectory. In particular, besides the Coriolis acceleration, the centrifugal force plays an essential role. It is easy to get the impression from verbal discussions of the cannonball problem, which are focussed on displaying the Coriolis effect particularly, that the Coriolis force is the only factor that must be considered;[33] emphatically, that is not so.[34] A turntable for which the Coriolis force is the only factor is the parabolic turntable. A somewhat more complex situation is the idealized example of flight routes over long distances, where the centrifugal force of the path and aeronautical lift are countered by gravitational attraction.[35] [36]

Tossed ball on a rotating carousel

Figure 7 illustrates a ball tossed from 12:00 o'clock toward the center of a counterclockwise rotating carousel. On the left, the ball is seen by a stationary observer above the carousel, and the ball travels in a straight line to the center, while the ball-thrower rotates counterclockwise with the carousel. On the right the ball is seen by an observer rotating with the carousel, so the ball-thrower appears to stay at 12:00 o'clock. The figure shows how the trajectory of the ball as seen by the rotating observer can be constructed.

On the left, two arrows locate the ball relative to the ball-thrower. One of these arrows is from the thrower to the center of the carousel (providing the ball-thrower's line of sight), and the other points from the center of the carousel to the ball.(This arrow gets shorter as the ball approaches the center.) A shifted version of the two arrows is shown dotted. On the right is shown this same dotted pair of arrows, but now the pair are rigidly rotated so the arrow corresponding to the line of sight of the ball-thrower toward the center of the carousel is aligned with 12:00 o'clock. The other arrow of the pair locates the ball relative to the center of the carousel, providing the position of the ball as seen by the rotating observer. By following this procedure for several positions, the trajectory in the rotating frame of

Figure 7: A carousel is rotating counterclockwise. Left panel: a ball is tossed by a thrower at 12:00 o'clock and travels in a straight line to the center of the carousel. While it travels, the thrower circles in a counterclockwise direction. Right panel: The ball's motion as seen by the thrower, who now remains at 12:00 o'clock, because there is no rotation from their viewpoint.

Coriolis effect reference is established as shown by the curved path in the right-hand panel. The ball travels in the air, and there is no net force upon it. To the stationary observer the ball follows a straight-line path, so there is no problem squaring this trajectory with zero net force. However, the rotating observer sees a curved path. Kinematics insists that a force (pushing to the right of the instantaneous direction of travel for a counterclockwise rotation) must be present to cause this curvature, so the rotating observer is forced to invoke a combination of centrifugal and Coriolis forces to provide the net force required to cause the curved trajectory.

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Bounced ball
Figure 8 describes a more complex situation where the tossed ball on a turntable bounces off the edge of the carousel and then returns to the tosser, who catches the ball. The effect of Coriolis force on its trajectory is shown again as seen by two observers: an observer (referred to as the "camera") that rotates with the carousel, and an inertial observer. Figure 8 shows a bird's-eye view based upon the same ball speed on forward and return paths. Within each circle, plotted Figure 8: Bird's-eye view of carousel. The carousel rotates clockwise. Two dots show the same time points. In the left viewpoints are illustrated: that of the camera at the center of rotation rotating with panel, from the camera's viewpoint at the the carousel (left panel) and that of the inertial (stationary) observer (right panel). center of rotation, the tosser (smiley face) Both observers agree at any given time just how far the ball is from the center of and the rail both are at fixed locations, and the carousel, but not on its orientation. Time intervals are 1/10 of time from launch to bounce. the ball makes a very considerable arc on its travel toward the rail, and takes a more direct route on the way back. From the ball tosser's viewpoint, the ball seems to return more quickly than it went (because the tosser is rotating toward the ball on the return flight). On the carousel, instead of tossing the ball straight at a rail to bounce back, the tosser must throw the ball toward the right of the target and the ball then seems to the camera to bear continuously to the left of its direction of travel to hit the rail (left because the carousel is turning clockwise). The ball appears to bear to the left from direction of travel on both inward and return trajectories. The curved path demands this observer to recognize a leftward net force on the ball. (This force is "fictitious" because it disappears for a stationary observer, as is discussed shortly.) For some angles of launch, a path has portions where the trajectory is approximately radial, and Coriolis force is primarily responsible for the apparent deflection of the ball (centrifugal force is radial from the center of rotation, and causes little deflection on these segments). When a path curves away from radial, however, centrifugal force contributes significantly to deflection. The ball's path through the air is straight when viewed by observers standing on the ground (right panel). In the right panel (stationary observer), the ball tosser (smiley face) is at 12 o'clock and the rail the ball bounces from is at position one (1). From the inertial viewer's standpoint, positions one (1), two (2), three (3) are occupied in sequence. At position 2 the ball strikes the rail, and at position 3 the ball returns to the tosser. Straight-line paths are followed because the ball is in free flight, so this observer requires that no net force is applied. A video clip of the tossed ball and other experiments are found at youtube: coriolis effect (2-11) [37], University of Illinois WW2010 Project [38] (some clips repeat only a fraction of a full rotation), and youtube [39].

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Visualization of the Coriolis effect

To demonstrate the Coriolis effect, a parabolic turntable can be used. On a flat turntable, the inertia of a co-rotating object would force it off the edge. But if the surface of the turntable has the correct parabolic bowl shape (see Figure 9) and is rotated at the correct rate, the force components shown in Figure 10 are arranged so the component of gravity tangential to the bowl surface will exactly equal the centripetal force necessary to keep the object rotating at its velocity and radius of curvature (assuming no friction). (See banked turn.) This carefully contoured surface allows the Coriolis force to be displayed in isolation.[40] [41]

Figure 9: A fluid assuming a parabolic shape as it is rotating

Discs cut from cylinders of dry ice can be used as pucks, moving around almost frictionlessly over the surface of the parabolic turntable, allowing effects of Coriolis on dynamic phenomena to show themselves. To get a view of the motions as seen from the reference frame rotating with the turntable, a video camera is attached to the turntable so as to co-rotate with the turntable, with results as shown in Figure 11. In the left panel of Figure 11, which is the viewpoint of a stationary observer, the gravitational force in the inertial frame pulling the object toward the center (bottom ) of the dish is proportional to the distance of the object from the center. A centripetal force of this form Figure 10: The forces at play in the case of a causes the elliptical motion. In the right panel, which shows the curved surface. viewpoint of the rotating frame, the inward gravitational force in the Red: gravity Green : the normal force rotating frame (the same force as in the inertial frame) is balanced by Blue : the resultant centripetal force. the outward centrifugal force (present only in the rotating frame). With these two forces balanced, in the rotating frame the only unbalanced force is Coriolis (also present only in the rotating frame), and the motion is an inertial circle. Analysis and observation of circular motion in the rotating frame is a simplification compared to analysis or observation of elliptical motion in the inertial frame. Because this reference frame rotates several times a minute, rather than only once a day like the Earth, the Coriolis acceleration produced is many times larger, and so easier to observe on small time and spatial scales, than is the Coriolis acceleration caused by the rotation of the Earth. In a manner of speaking, the Earth is analogous to such a turntable.[42] The rotation has caused the planet to settle on a spheroid shape, such that the normal force, the gravitational force and the centrifugal force exactly balance each other on a "horizontal" surface. (See equatorial bulge.) The Coriolis effect caused by the rotation of the Earth can be seen indirectly through the motion of a Foucault pendulum.

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Coriolis effects in other areas

Coriolis flow meter
A practical application of the Coriolis effect is the mass flow meter, an instrument that measures the mass flow rate and density of a fluid flowing through a tube. The operating principle involves inducing a vibration of the tube through which the fluid passes. The vibration, though it is not completely circular, provides the rotating reference frame which gives rise to the Coriolis effect. While specific methods vary according to the design of the flow meter, sensors monitor and analyze changes in frequency, phase shift, and amplitude of the vibrating flow tubes. The changes observed represent the mass flow rate and density of the fluid.

Figure 11: Object moving frictionlessly over the surface of a very shallow parabolic dish. The object has been released in such a way that it follows an ellipse-shaped trajectory. Left: The inertial point of view. Right: The co-rotating point of view.

Molecular physics
In polyatomic molecules, the molecule motion can be described by a rigid body rotation and internal vibration of atoms about their equilibrium position. As a result of the vibrations of the atoms, the atoms are in motion relative to the rotating coordinate system of the molecule. Coriolis effects will therefore be present and will cause the atoms to move in a direction perpendicular to the original oscillations. This leads to a mixing in molecular spectra between the rotational and vibrational levels.

Insect flight
Flies (Diptera) and moths (Lepidoptera) utilize the Coriolis effect when flying: their halteres, or antennae in the case of moths, oscillate rapidly and are used as vibrational gyroscopes.[43] See Coriolis effect in insect stability.[44] In this context, the Coriolis effect has nothing to do with the rotation of the Earth.

See also
Analytical mechanics Applied mechanics Centrifugal force Centripetal force Classical mechanics Dynamics (physics) Earth's rotation Equatorial Rossby wave Frenet-Serret formulas Geostrophic wind Gyroscope Kinetics (physics) Mass flow meter Mechanics of planar particle motion Reactive centrifugal force Secondary flow Statics Uniform circular motion

Centrifugal force (rotating reference frame)

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References
[1] Bhatia, V.B. (1997). Classical Mechanics: With introduction to Nonlinear Oscillations and Chaos. Narosa Publishing House. p.201. ISBN 81-7319-105-0. [2] G-G Coriolis (1835). "Sur les quations du mouvement relatif des systmes de corps". J. de l'Ecole royale polytechnique 15: 144154. [3] Dugas, Ren and J. R. Maddox (1988). A History of Mechanics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=vPT-JubW-7QC& pg=PA374). Courier Dover Publications: pg 374. ISBN 0486656322 [4] Bartholomew Price (1862). A Treatise on Infinitesimal Calculus : Vol. IV. The dynamics of material systems (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=qrMA0R_0TPEC& pg=PA420& dq=coriolis+ centrifugal+ force+ date:0-1920& lr=& as_brr=1& as_pt=ALLTYPES& ei=OX5dSdfPE4XEkASg3bn5BQ#PPA418,M1). Oxford : University Press. pp.418420. . [5] Arthur Gordon Webster (1912). The Dynamics of Particles and of Rigid, Elastic, and Fluid Bodies (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=zXkRAAAAYAAJ& pg=PA320& dq=coriolis+ centrifugal+ force+ date:0-1920& lr=& as_brr=1& as_pt=ALLTYPES& ei=OX5dSdfPE4XEkASg3bn5BQ). B. G. Teubner. p.320. . [6] Willibald Trinks (1919). Governors and the Governing of Prime Movers (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=v1RDAAAAIAAJ& pg=PA209& dq=coriolis-force+ date:0-1920& lr=& as_brr=1& as_pt=ALLTYPES& ei=2YhdSb_dKozukgS3zaXTBA#PPA210,M1). D. Van Nostrand Company. p.209. . [7] Edwin b. Wilson (1920). James McKeen Cattell. ed. "Space, Time, and Gravitation" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=xYUZAAAAYAAJ& pg=PA226& dq=coriolis-force+ date:0-1920& lr=& as_brr=1& as_pt=ALLTYPES& ei=2YhdSb_dKozukgS3zaXTBA). The Scientific Monthly (American Association for the Advancement of Science) 10: 226. . [8] William Ferrel (Nov. 1856). "An Essay on the Winds and the Currents of the Ocean" (http:/ / www. aos. princeton. edu/ WWWPUBLIC/ gkv/ history/ ferrel-nashville56. pdf). Nashville Journal of Medicine and Surgery xi (4): 719. . Retrieved on 2009-01-01. [9] Anders O. Persson. The Coriolis Effect:Four centuries of conflict between common sense and mathematics, Part I: A history to 1885 (http:/ / www. aos. princeton. edu/ WWWPUBLIC/ gkv/ history/ persson_on_coriolis05. pdf). . [10] Sheldon M. Ebenholtz (2001). Oculomotor Systems and Perception (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=1W7ePrvrRyYC& pg=PA151& dq=nausea+ Coriolis& lr=& as_brr=0& sig=iRxVjBDpQb0s10KW1pVEvyGq3sU). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521804590. . [11] George Mather (2006). Foundations of perception (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=LYA9faq3lt4C& pg=PA73& dq=nausea+ Coriolis& lr=& as_brr=0& sig=Izy98Cn_a904vysVnnTarv_XSoo). Taylor & Francis. ISBN 0863778356. . [12] Roger Graham Barry, Richard J. Chorley (2003). Atmosphere, Weather and Climate (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=MUQOAAAAQAAJ& pg=PA115& dq=Coriolis+ + "low+ pressure"& lr=& as_brr=0& sig=ACfU3U2KRehZqWtLiiGi6hvfN3iVBEDxqw#PPA113,M1). Routledge. p.113. ISBN 0415271711. . [13] MIT essays (http:/ / ocw. mit. edu/ ans7870/ resources/ price/ index. htm) by James F. Price, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (2006). See in particular 4.3 in the Coriolis lecture (http:/ / ocw. mit. edu/ ans7870/ resources/ price/ essay2. pdf) [14] The claim is made that in the Falklands in WW I, the British failed to correct their sights for the southern hemisphere, and so missed their targets. John Robert Taylor (2005). Classical Mechanics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=P1kCtNr-pJsC& pg=PA364). University Science Books. p.364; Problem 9.28. ISBN 189138922X. .. For set up of the calculations, seeDonald E. Carlucci, Sidney S. Jacobson (2007). Ballistics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=pX9Tzs7VuSoC& pg=PA225). CRC Press. p.225. ISBN 1420066188. . [15] Lakshmi H. Kantha & Carol Anne Clayson (2000). Numerical Models of Oceans and Oceanic Processes (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Gps9JXtd3owC& pg=PA103& dq=Coriolis+ cyclostrophic+ "low+ pressure+ "& lr=& as_brr=0& sig=ACfU3U2D17cQw-EqXGqYCoF5R_h44zwYpQ). Academic Press. p.103. ISBN 0124340687. . [16] Stephen D. Butz (2002). Science of Earth Systems (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=JB4ArbvXXDEC& pg=PA304& dq=Coriolis+ "artillery+ "& lr=& as_brr=0& sig=qyq8mmGuUQSHSEPuuW9Q6gDpQRY#PPA305,M1). Thomson Delmar Learning. p.305. ISBN 0766833917. . [17] James R. Holton (2004). An Introduction to Dynamic Meteorology (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=fhW5oDv3EPsC& pg=PA18& dq=Coriolis+ "artillery+ "& lr=& as_brr=0& sig=XolqFkAk7whMwGvYJQk21ZE9z7c). Academic Press. p.18. ISBN 0123540151. . [18] Donald E. Carlucci & Sidney S. Jacobson (2007). Ballistics: Theory and Design of Guns and Ammunition (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=pX9Tzs7VuSoC& pg=PA224& dq=artillery+ Coriolis+ example& lr=& as_brr=0& sig=8oNcRBNDeBFxL3bYGDDe1YUBpUk#PPA225,M1). CRC Press. p.224226. ISBN 1420066188. . [19] William Menke & Dallas Abbott (1990). Geophysical Theory (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=XP3R_pVnOoEC& pg=PA120& dq=spheres+ rotating+ + Coriolis& lr=& as_brr=0& sig=LGf9nJ0SKd47ey-CAYPZBo0xCY0#PPA125,M1). Columbia University Press. p.124126. ISBN 0231067925. . [20] David Morin, Eric Zaslow, Elizabeth Haley, John Goldne, and Natan Salwen (2 December, 2005). "Limerick May the Force Be With You" (http:/ / www. phys. canterbury. ac. nz/ newsletter/ 2005/ nl20051202. pdf). Weekly Newsletter Volume 22, No 47. Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Canterbury. . Retrieved 2009-01-01. [21] David Morin (2008). Introduction to classical mechanics: with problems and solutions (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Ni6CD7K2X4MC& pg=PA466& dq=Coriolis+ carousel& lr=& as_brr=0& sig=jha8GCqJh5TwRPPbtFfajFrzcKY#PPA466,M1). Cambridge University Press. p.466. ISBN 0521876222. . [22] James R. Holton (2004). p. 64 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=fhW5oDv3EPsC& pg=PA64& dq=tornado+ rossby& lr=& as_brr=0& sig=ACfU3U3_xIjuaBO-7JXZguecMx9a58Xd3A) (An Introduction to Dynamic Meteorology ed.). Burlington, MA: Elsevier Academic Press. ISBN 0123540151. .

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[23] Roger Graham Barry & Richard J. Chorley (2003). Atmosphere, Weather and Climate (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=MUQOAAAAQAAJ& pg=PA115& dq=Coriolis+ + "low+ pressure"& lr=& as_brr=0& sig=ACfU3U2KRehZqWtLiiGi6hvfN3iVBEDxqw#PPA115,M1). Routledge. p.115. ISBN 0415271711. . [24] Cloud Spirals and Outflow in Tropical Storm Katrina (http:/ / earthobservatory. nasa. gov/ Newsroom/ NewImages/ images. php3?img_id=17026) from Earth Observatory (NASA) [25] John Marshall & R. Alan Plumb (2007). p. 98 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=aTGYbmVaA_gC& pg=PA98& vq=inertial+ circle& dq=Coriolis+ "parabolic+ turntable"& lr=& as_brr=0& source=gbs_search_s& sig=ACfU3U2t-wW4ciZh-91PmB428QrXfQT-Jg). Amsterdam: Elsevier Academic Press. ISBN 0125586914. . [26] (Vorticity, Part 1) (http:/ / web. mit. edu/ fluids/ www/ Shapiro/ ncfmf. html) [27] "Who Knew? The No-Spin Zone" (http:/ / sciencereview. berkeley. edu/ articles/ issue9/ who-knew. pdf)from Berkeley Science Review (PDF) [28] "Flush Bosh" (http:/ / www. snopes. com/ science/ coriolis. asp)fromsnopes.com [29] "X-Files coriolis error leaves viewers wondering" (http:/ / www. encyclopedia. com/ doc/ 1G1-16836639. html) from Skeptical Inquirer [30] "Bad Coriolis" (http:/ / www. ems. psu. edu/ ~fraser/ Bad/ BadCoriolis. html) from Penn State College of Earth and Mineral Sciences [31] http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=49JwbrXcPjc [32] Here the description "radially inward" means "toward the axis of rotation". That direction is not toward the center of curvature of the path, however, which is the direction of the true centripetal force. Hence, the quotation marks on "centripetal". [33] George E. Owen (2003). Fundamentals of Scientific Mathematics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=9dRxGCktg7QC& pg=PA22& dq=Coriolis+ carousel& lr=& as_brr=0& sig=a2n5yMAC_3u7QCrcldHIrb2R_1U#PPA23,M1) (original edition published by Harper & Row, New York, 1964 ed.). Courier Dover Publications. p.23. ISBN 0486428087. . [34] Morton Tavel (2002). Contemporary Physics and the Limits of Knowledge (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=SELS0HbIhjYC& pg=PA88& dq=Coriolis+ carousel& lr=& as_brr=0& sig=jqFpIAojj3cz_fHcrBMnDNz38dU). Rutgers University Press. p.88. ISBN 0813530776. . [35] James R Ogden & M Fogiel (1995). High School Earth Science Tutor (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=fFmqhNXixLUC& pg=PA167& dq=airplane+ Coriolis& lr=& as_brr=0& sig=oHkHJGwukRlnBHS0PMEDaDz8LaM#PPA167,M1). Research & Education Assoc.. p.167. ISBN 0878919759. . [36] James Greig McCully (2006). Beyond the moon: A Conversational, Common Sense Guide to Understanding the Tides (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=RijQELAGnEIC& pg=PA76& dq=airplane+ Coriolis& lr=& as_brr=0& sig=zew-P2KGA8-NMxFn0Sn23zI_x2Y#PPA75,M1). World Scientific. p.7476. ISBN 9812566430. . [37] http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=mcPs_OdQOYU [38] http:/ / ww2010. atmos. uiuc. edu/ (Gh)/ guides/ mtr/ fw/ crls. rxml [39] http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=LAX3ALdienQ& feature=related [40] When a container of fluid is rotating on a turntable, the surface of the fluid naturally assumes the correct parabolic shape. This fact may be exploited to make a parabolic turntable by using a fluid that sets after several hours, such as a synthetic resin. For a video of the Coriolis effect on such a parabolic surface, see Geophysical fluid dynamics lab demonstration (http:/ / www-paoc. mit. edu/ labweb/ lab5/ gfd_v. htm) John Marshall, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. [41] For a java applet of the Coriolis effect on such a parabolic surface, see Brian Fiedler (http:/ / mensch. org/ physlets/ inosc. html) School of Meteorology at the University of Oklahoma. [42] John Marshall & R. Alan Plumb (2007). Atmosphere, Ocean, and Climate Dynamics: An Introductory Text (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=aTGYbmVaA_gC& pg=PA101& dq=Coriolis+ "parabolic+ turntable"& lr=& as_brr=0& sig=ACfU3U36psyPl8H5G3iCFMbay9XDg6rUiA#PPA101,M1). Academic Press. p.101. ISBN 0125586914. . [43] "Antennae as Gyroscopes", Science, Vol. 315, 9 Feb 2007, p. 771 [44] Halteres for the micromechanical flying insect (Wu, W.C.; Wood, R.J.; Fearing, R.S.) Dept. of Electr. Eng. & Comput. Sci., California Univ., Berkeley, CA; This paper appears in: Robotics and Automation, 2002. Proceedings. ICRA '02. IEEE International Conference on Publication Date: 2002 Volume: 1, On page(s): 60- 65 vol.1 ISBN 0-7803-7272-7 Date Published in Issue: 2002-08-07 00:46:34.0 (http:/ / ieeexplore. ieee. org/ xpl/ freeabs_all. jsp?arnumber=1013339)

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Further reading: physics and meteorology

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Coriolis, G.G., 1832: Mmoire sur le principe des forces vives dans les mouvements relatifs des machines. Journal de l'cole Polytechnique, Vol 13, 268302. ( Original article (http:/ / www. aos. princeton. edu/ WWWPUBLIC/ gkv/ history/ Coriolis-1831. pdf) [in French], PDF-file, 1.6 MB, scanned images of complete pages.) Coriolis, G.G., 1835: Mmoire sur les quations du mouvement relatif des systmes de corps. Journal de l'cole Polytechnique, Vol 15, 142154 ( Original article (http:/ / www. aos. princeton. edu/ WWWPUBLIC/ gkv/ history/ Coriolis-1835. pdf) [in French] PDF-file, 400 KB, scanned images of complete pages.) Gill, AE Atmosphere-Ocean dynamics, Academic Press, 1982.

Durran, D. R., and S. K. Domonkos, 1996: An apparatus for demonstrating the inertial oscillation (http:/ / www. atmos. washington. edu/ ~durrand/ pdfs/ inertial_osc. pdf), Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 77, 557559. Marion, Jerry B. 1970, Classical Dynamics of Particles and Systems, Academic Press.

Persson, A., 1998 (http:/ / www. aos. princeton. edu/ WWWPUBLIC/ gkv/ history/ Persson98. pdf) How do we Understand the Coriolis Force? Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 79, 13731385. Symon, Keith. 1971, Mechanics, Addison-Wesley

Robert Ehrlich (1990). Turning the World Inside Out and 174 Other Simple Physics Demonstrations (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=ehSTsNS9qB4C& pg=PA80& dq=centrifugal+ turntable& lr=& as_brr=0#PPA80,M1). Princeton University Press. p.Rolling a ball on a rotating turntable; p. 80 ff. ISBN 0691023956. Durran, D. R. (http:/ / www. atmos. washington. edu/ ~durrand/ ), 1993: Is the Coriolis force really responsible for the inertial oscillation? (http:/ / www. atmos. washington. edu/ ~durrand/ pdfs/ Coriolis_BAMS. pdf), Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 74, 21792184; Corrigenda. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 75, 261

Phillips, Norman A. (http:/ / www. fi. edu/ tfi/ exhibits/ bower/ 03/ earth. html), 2000 An Explication of the Coriolis Effect (http:/ / www. met. utah. edu/ reichler/ 6010/ Coriolis/ Phillips. pdf), Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society: Vol. 81, No. 2, pp.299303. Akira Kageyama & Mamoru Hyodo: Eulerian derivation of the Coriolis force (http:/ / arxiv. org/ abs/ physics/ 0509004v2) James F. Price: A Coriolis tutorial (http:/ / www. whoi. edu/ science/ PO/ people/ jprice/ class/ aCt. pdf) Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute (2003) MIT essays (http:/ / ocw. mit. edu/ ans7870/ resources/ price/ index. htm) by James F. Price, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (2006)

Further reading: historical

Grattan-Guinness, I., Ed., 1994: Companion Encyclopedia of the History and Philosophy of the Mathematical Sciences. Vols. I and II. Routledge, 1840 pp. 1997: The Fontana History of the Mathematical Sciences. Fontana, 817 pp.710 pp. Khrgian, A., 1970: Meteorology A Historical Survey. Vol. 1. Keter Press, 387 pp. Kuhn, T. S., 1977: Energy conservation as an example of simultaneous discovery. The Essential Tension, Selected Studies in Scientific Tradition and Change, University of Chicago Press, 66104. Kutzbach, G., 1979: The Thermal Theory of Cyclones. A History of Meteorological Thought in the Nineteenth Century. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 254 pp.

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External links
The definition of the Coriolis effect from the Glossary of Meteorology (http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/ glossary/search?id=coriolis-force1) The Coriolis Effect (http://met.no/english/topics/nomek_2005/coriolis.pdf) PDF-file. 17 pages. A general discussion by Anders Persson of various aspects of the coriolis effect, including Foucault's Pendulum and Taylor columns. Anders Persson The Coriolis Effect: Four centuries of conflict between common sense and mathematics, Part I: A history to 1885 (http://www.meteohistory.org/2005historyofmeteorology2/01persson.pdf) History of Meteorology 2 (2005) 10 Coriolis Effect Videos and Games (http://weather.about.com/od/weathertutorials/tp/coriolisvideos.htm)from the About.com Weather Page Coriolis Force (http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/physics/CoriolisForce.html) - from ScienceWorld Coriolis Effect and Drains (http://www.newton.dep.anl.gov/askasci/phy00/phy00733.htm) An article from the NEWTON web site hosted by the Argonne National Laboratory. Catalog of Coriolis videos (http://www.imaginascience.com/articles/sciencesphysiques/mecanique/coriolis/ coriolis4.php) Do bathtubs drain counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere? (http://www.straightdope.com/classics/ a1_161.html) by Cecil Adams. Bad Coriolis. (http://www.ems.psu.edu/~fraser/Bad/BadCoriolis.html) An article uncovering misinformation about the Coriolis effect. By Alistair B. Fraser, Emeritus Professor of Meteorology at Pennsylvania State University The Coriolis Effect: A (Fairly) Simple Explanation (http://stratus.ssec.wisc.edu/courses/gg101/coriolis/ coriolis.html), an explanation for the layperson Coriolis Effect: A graphical animation (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mcPs_OdQOYU), an visual earth animation with precise explanation Observe an animation of the Coriolis effect over Earth's surface (http://www.classzone.com/books/ earth_science/terc/content/visualizations/es1904/es1904page01.cfm?chapter_no=visualization) Animation clip (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=49JwbrXcPjc) showing scenes as viewed from both an inertial frame and a rotating frame of reference, visualizing the Coriolis and centrifugal forces. Vincent Mallette The Coriolis Force @ INWIT (http://www.inwit.com/inwit/writings/coriolisforce.html) NASA notes (http://pwg.gsfc.nasa.gov/stargaze/Srotfram.htm)

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Angular momentum
In physics, angular momentum is a conserved vector quantity that is useful in describing the overall rotational state of a physical system. The angular momentum L of a particle with respect to some point of origin is

This gyroscope remains upright while spinning due to its angular momentum.

where r is the particle's position from the origin, p = mv is its linear momentum, and denotes the cross product. The angular momentum of a system of particles (e.g. a rigid body) is the sum of angular momenta of the individual particles. For a rigid body rotating around an axis of symmetry (e.g. the fins of a ceiling fan), the angular momentum can be expressed as the product of the body's moment of inertia I (a measure of an object's resistance to changes in its rotation rate) and its angular velocity :

In this way, angular momentum is sometimes described as the rotational analog of linear momentum. Angular momentum is conserved in a system where there is no net external torque, and its conservation helps explain many diverse phenomena. For example, the increase in rotational speed of a spinning figure skater as the skater's arms are contracted is a consequence of conservation of angular momentum. The very high rotational rates of neutron stars can also be explained in terms of angular momentum conservation. Moreover, angular momentum conservation has numerous applications in physics and engineering (e.g. the gyrocompass).

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Angular momentum in classical mechanics

Definition
The angular momentum L of a particle about a given origin is defined as:

Relationship between force (F), torque (), and momentum vectors (p and L) in a rotating system

where r is the position vector of the particle relative to the origin, p is the linear momentum of the particle, and denotes the cross product. As seen from the definition, the derived SI units of angular momentum are newton metre seconds (Nms or kgm2s-1) or joule seconds. Because of the cross product, L is a pseudovector perpendicular to both the radial vector r and the momentum vector p and it is assigned a sign by the right-hand rule. For an object with a fixed mass that is rotating about a fixed symmetry axis, the angular momentum is expressed as the product of the moment of inertia of the object and its angular velocity vector:

where I is the moment of inertia of the object (in general, a tensor quantity), and is the angular velocity. Angular momentum is also known as moment of momentum.

Angular momentum of a collection of particles

If a system consists of several particles, the total angular momentum about an origin can be obtained by adding (or integrating) all the angular momenta of the constituent particles. Angular momentum can also be calculated by multiplying the square of the displacement r, the mass of the particle and the angular velocity.

Angular momentum simplified using the centre of mass

It is very often convenient to consider the angular momentum of a collection of particles about their centre of mass, since this simplifies the mathematics considerably. The angular momentum of a collection of particles is the sum of the angular momentum of each particle:

where

is the distance of particle i from the reference point,

is its mass, and

is its velocity. The center of

mass is defined by:

where the total mass of all particles is given by

It follows that the velocity of the centre of mass is

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If we define as the displacement of particle i from the centre of mass, and respect to the centre of mass, then we have and and also and so that the total angular momentum with respect to the center is

as the velocity of particle i with

The first term is just the angular momentum of the centre of mass. It is the same angular momentum one would obtain if there were just one particle of mass M moving at velocity V located at the centre of mass. The second term is the angular momentum that is the result of the particles moving relative to their center of mass. This second term can be even further simplified if the particles form a rigid body, in which case it is the product of moment of inertia and angular velocity of the spinning motion (as above). The same result is true if the discrete point charges discussed above are replaced by a continuous distribution of matter.

Fixed axis of rotation

For many applications where one is only concerned about rotation around one axis, it is sufficient to discard the pseudovector nature of angular momentum, and treat it like a scalar where it is positive when it corresponds to a counter-clockwise rotation, and negative clockwise. To do this, just take the definition of the cross product and discard the unit vector, so that angular momentum becomes:

where r,p is the angle between r and p measured from r to p; an important distinction because without it, the sign of the cross product would be meaningless. From the above, it is possible to reformulate the definition to either of the following:

where

is called the lever arm distance to p.

The easiest way to conceptualize this is to consider the lever arm distance to be the distance from the origin to the line that p travels along. With this definition, it is necessary to consider the direction of p (pointed clockwise or counter-clockwise) to figure out the sign of L. Equivalently:

where rotation.

is the component of p that is perpendicular to r. As above, the sign is decided based on the sense of

For an object with a fixed mass that is rotating about a fixed symmetry axis, the angular momentum is expressed as the product of the moment of inertia of the object and its angular velocity vector:

where I is the moment of inertia of the object (in general, a tensor quantity) and is the angular velocity. As the kinetic energy K of a massive rotating body is given by

it is proportional to the square of the angular velocity.

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Conservation of angular momentum

In a closed system angular momentum is constant. This conservation law mathematically follows from continuous directional symmetry of space (no direction in space is any different from any other direction). See Noether's theorem.[1] The time derivative of angular momentum is called torque:

The torque caused by the two opposing forces Fg and -Fg causes a change in the angular momentum L in the direction of that torque (since torque is the time derivative of angular momentum). This causes the top to precess.

(The cross-product of velocity and momentum is zero, because these vectors are parallel.) So requiring the system to be "closed" here is mathematically equivalent to zero external torque acting on the system:

where is any torque applied to the system of particles. It is assumed that internal interaction forces obey Newton's third law of motion in its strong form, that is, that the forces between particles are equal and opposite and act along the line between the particles. In orbits, the angular momentum is distributed between the spin of the planet itself and the angular momentum of its orbit: ; If a planet is found to rotate slower than expected, then astronomers suspect that the planet is accompanied by a satellite, because the total angular momentum is shared between the planet and its satellite in order to be conserved. The conservation of angular momentum is used extensively in analyzing what is called central force motion. If the net force on some body is directed always toward some fixed point, the center, then there is no torque on the body with respect to the center, and so the angular momentum of the body about the center is constant. Constant angular momentum is extremely useful when dealing with the orbits of planets and satellites, and also when analyzing the Bohr model of the atom. The conservation of angular momentum explains the angular acceleration of an ice skater as she brings her arms and legs close to the vertical axis of rotation. By bringing part of mass of her body closer to the axis she decreases her body's moment of inertia. Because angular momentum is constant in the absence of external torques, the angular velocity (rotational speed) of the skater has to increase.

Angular momentum The same phenomenon results in extremely fast spin of compact stars (like white dwarfs, neutron stars and black holes) when they are formed out of much larger and slower rotating stars (indeed, decreasing the size of object 104 times results in increase of its angular velocity by the factor 108). The conservation of angular momentum in EarthMoon system results in the transfer of angular momentum from Earth to Moon (due to tidal torque the Moon exerts on the Earth). This in turn results in the slowing down of the rotation rate of Earth (at about 42 nsec/day), and in gradual increase of the radius of Moon's orbit (at ~4.5 cm/year rate).

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Angular momentum in relativistic mechanics

In modern (late 20th century) theoretical physics, angular momentum is described using a different formalism. Under this formalism, angular momentum is the 2-form Noether charge associated with rotational invariance (As a result, angular momentum is not conserved for general curved spacetimes, unless it happens to be asymptotically rotationally invariant). For a system of point particles without any intrinsic angular momentum, it turns out to be

(Here, the wedge product is used.).

Angular momentum in quantum mechanics

In quantum mechanics, angular momentum is quantized that is, it cannot vary continuously, but only in "quantum leaps" between certain allowed values. The orbital angular momentum of a subatomic particle, that is due to its motion through space, is always a whole-number multiple of ("h-bar," known as the reduced Planck's constant), defined as Planck's constant divided by 2. Furthermore, experiments show that most subatomic particles have a permanent, built-in angular momentum, which is not due to their motion through space. This spin angular momentum comes in units of . For example, an electron standing at rest has an angular momentum of .

Basic definition
The classical definition of angular momentum as and depends on six numbers: , , , , , . Translating this into quantum-mechanical terms, the Heisenberg uncertainty principle tells us that it is not

possible for all six of these numbers to be measured simultaneously with arbitrary precision. Therefore, there are limits to what can be known or measured about a particle's angular momentum. It turns out that the best that one can do is to simultaneously measure both the angular momentum vector's magnitude and its component along one axis. Mathematically, angular momentum in quantum mechanics is defined like momentum - not as a quantity but as an operator on the wave function:

where r and p are the position and momentum operators respectively. In particular, for a single particle with no electric charge and no spin, the angular momentum operator can be written in the position basis as

where

is the vector differential operator "Del" (also called "Nabla"). This orbital angular momentum operator is

the most commonly encountered form of the angular momentum operator, though not the only one. It satisfies the following canonical commutation relations: , where lmn is the (antisymmetric) Levi-Civita symbol. From this follows

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it follows, for example,

Addition of quantized angular momenta

Given a quantized total angular momentum and , associated with its magnitude can range from to in integer steps where which is the sum of two individual quantized angular momenta

the quantum number and

are quantum numbers corresponding to the magnitudes of the individual angular momenta.

Angular momentum as a generator of rotations

If is the angle around a specific axis, for example the azimuthal angle around the z axis, then the angular momentum along this axis is the generator of rotations around this axis:

The eigenfunctions of Lz are therefore

, and since

has a period of

, ml must be an integer.

For a particle with a spin S, this takes into account only the angular dependence of the location of the particle, for example its orbit in an atom. It is therefore known as orbital angular momentum. However, when one rotates the system, one also changes the spin. Therefore the total angular momentum, which is the full generator of rotations, is Being an angular momentum, J satisfies the same commutation relations as L, as will be explained below. namely from which follows

Acting with J on the wavefunction around the z axis by an angle

of a particle generates a rotation:

is the wavefunction

rotated

. For an infinitesmal rotation by an angle

, the rotated wavefunction is

. This is similarly true for rotations around any axis. In a charged particle the momentum gets a contribution from the electromagnetic field, and the angular momenta L and J change accordingly. If the Hamiltonian is invariant under rotations, as in spherically symmetric problems, then according to Noether's theorem, it commutes with the total angular momentum. So the total angular momentum is a conserved quantity

Angular momentum Since angular momentum is the generator of rotations, its commutation relations follow the commutation relations of the generators of the three-dimensional rotation group SO(3). This is why J always satisfies these commutation relations. In d dimensions, the angular momentum will satisfy the same commutation relations as the generators of the d-dimensional rotation group SO(d). SO(3) has the same Lie algebra (i.e. the same commutation relations) as SU(2). Generators of SU(2) can have half-integer eigenvalues, and so can m . Indeed for fermions the spin S and total angular momentum J are half-integer. In fact this is the most general case: j and m are either integers or half-integers. Technically, this is because the universal cover of SO(3) is isomorphic to SU(2), and the representations of the latter are fully known. Ji span the Lie algebra and J2 is the Casimir invariant, and it can be shown that if the eigenvalues of Jz and J2 are mj and j(j+1) then mj and j are both integer multiples of one-half. j is non-negative and mj takes values between -j and j.

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Relation to spherical harmonics

Angular momentum operators usually occur when solving a problem with spherical symmetry in spherical coordinates. Then, the angular momentum in space representation is:

When solving to find eigenstates of this operator, we obtain the following

where

are the spherical harmonics.

Angular momentum in electrodynamics

When describing the motion of a charged particle in the presence of an electromagnetic field, the "kinetic momentum" p is not gauge invariant. As a consequence, the canonical angular momentum is not gauge invariant either. Instead, the momentum that is physical, the so-called canonical momentum, is

where is the electric charge, c the speed of light and A the vector potential. Thus, for example, the Hamiltonian of a charged particle of mass m in an electromagnetic field is then

where

is the scalar potential. This is the Hamiltonian that gives the Lorentz force law. The gauge-invariant

angular momentum, or "kinetic angular momentum" is given by

The interplay with quantum mechanics is discussed further in the article on canonical commutation relations.

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See also
Angular momentum coupling Areal velocity Balancing machine Control moment gyroscope Falling cat problem Moment of inertia Noether's theorem Precession Relative angular momentum Rigid rotor Rotational energy Spatial quantization Specific relative angular momentum Yrast

References
Cohen-Tannoudji, Claude; Diu, Bernard; Lalo, Franck (1977) Quantum Mechanics. John Wiley & Sons. E. U. Condon and G. H. Shortley (1935) The Theory of Atomic Spectra. Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-09209-4. Esp. chpt. 3. Edmonds, A.R. (1957) Angular Momentum in Quantum Mechanics. Princeton University Press, ISBN 0-691-07912-9. Jackson, John David (1998) Classical Electrodynamics, 3rd ed. John Wiley & Sons. Serway, Raymond A.; Jewett, John W. (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers, 6th ed.. Brooks/Cole. ISBN 0-534-40842-7. Thompson, William J. (1994) Angular Momentum: An Illustrated Guide to Rotational Symmetries for Physical Systems. Wiley. ISBN 0-471-55264. Tipler, Paul (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Mechanics, Oscillations and Waves, Thermodynamics, 5th ed.. W. H. Freeman. ISBN 0-7167-0809-4.

External links
Conservation of Angular Momentum [14] - a chapter from an online textbook Angular Momentum in a Collision Process [2] - derivation of the three dimensional case

References
[1] "The classical theory of fields", L.D. Landau and E.M. Lifshitz( Oxford, Butterworth-Heinemann, 1995) ISBN 0750627689 [2] http:/ / www. hakenberg. de/ diffgeo/ collision_resolution. htm

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Rotation
A rotation is a movement of an object in a circular motion. A two-dimensional object rotates around a center (or point) of rotation. A three-dimensional object rotates around a line called an axis. If the axis of rotation is within the body, the body is said to rotate upon itself, or spinwhich implies relative speed and perhaps free-movement with angular momentum. A circular motion about an external point, e.g. the Earth about the Sun, is called an [orbit] or more properly an orbital revolution.

A polyhedron resembling a sphere rotating around an axis.

Mathematics
Mathematically, a rotation is a rigid body movement which, unlike a translation, keeps a point fixed. This definition applies to rotations within both two and three dimensions (in a plane and in space, respectively.) A rotation in three-dimensional space keeps an entire line fixed, i.e. a rotation in three-dimensional space is a rotation around an axis. This follows from Euler's rotation theorem. All rigid body movements are rotations, translations, or combinations of the two.

Rotation of a planar figure around a point

A Rotation is simply a progressive radial orientation to a common point. That common point lies within the axis of that motion. The axis is 90 degrees perpendicular to the plane of the motion. If the axis of the rotation lay external of the body in question then the body is said to Orbit. There is no fundamental difference between a rotation and a orbit and or "spin". The key distinction is simply where the axis of the rotation lay, either within or without a body in question. This distinction is and can be demonstrated in and for both ridged and non ridged bodies.
Rotational Orbit v Spin

If a rotation around a point or axis is followed by a second rotation around the same point/axis, a third rotation results. The reverse (inverse) of a rotation is also a rotation. Thus, the rotations around a point/axis form a group. However, a rotation around a point or axis and a rotation around a different point/axis may result in something other than a rotation, e.g. a translation.

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Rotations around the x, y and z axes are called principal rotations. Rotation around any axis can be performed by taking a rotation around the x axis, followed by a rotation around the y axis, and followed by a rotation around the z axis. That is to say, any spatial rotation can be decomposed into a combination of principal rotations. In flight dynamics, the principal rotations are known as yaw, pitch, and roll (known as Tait-Bryan angles). This terminology is also used in computer graphics.
The principal axes of rotation in space

Astronomy
In astronomy, rotation is a commonly observed phenomenon. Stars, planets and similar bodies all spin around on their axes. The rotation rate of planets in the solar system was first measured by tracking visual features. Stellar rotation is measured through Doppler shift or by tracking active surface features. This rotation induces a centrifugal acceleration in the reference frame of the Earth which slightly counteracts the effect of gravity the closer one is to the equator. One effect is that an object weighs slightly less at the equator. Another is that the Earth is slightly deformed into an oblate spheroid.

Relations between rotation axis, plane of orbit and axial tilt (for Earth).

Another consequence of the rotation of a planet is the phenomenon of precession. Like a gyroscope, the overall effect is a slight "wobble" in the movement of the axis of a planet. Currently the tilt of the Earth's axis to its orbital plane (obliquity of the ecliptic) is 23.45 degrees, but this angle changes slowly (over thousands of years). (See also Precession of the equinoxes and Pole star.)

Rotation and revolution

While revolution is often used as a synonym for rotation, in many fields, particularly astronomy and related fields, revolution, often referred to as orbital revolution for clarity, is used when one body moves around another while rotation is used to mean the movement around an axis. Moons revolve around their planet, planets revolve about their star (such as the Earth around the Sun); and stars slowly revolve about their galaxial center. The motion of the components of galaxies is complex, but it usually includes a rotation component. A Rotation is simply a progressive radial orientation to a common point. That common point lay within the axis of that motion. The axis is 90 degrees perpendicular to the plane of the motion. If the axis of the rotation lay external of the body in question then the body is said to Orbit. There is no fundamental difference between a rotation and a orbit. The key distinction is simply where the axis of the rotation lay, either within or without a body in question. This distinction is and can be demonstrated in and for both ridged and non ridged bodies.

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Retrograde rotation
Most planets in our solar system, including Earth, spin in the same direction as they orbit the Sun. The exceptions are Venus and Uranus. Uranus rotates nearly on its side relative to its orbit. Current speculation is that Uranus started off with a typical prograde orientation and was knocked on its side by a large impact early in its history. Venus may be thought of as rotating slowly backwards (or being "upside down"). The dwarf planet Pluto (formerly considered a planet) is anomalous in this and other ways.

Physics
The speed of rotation is given by the angular frequency (rad/s) or frequency (turns/s, turns/min), or period (seconds, days, etc.). The time-rate of change of angular frequency is angular acceleration (rad/s), This change is caused by torque. The ratio of the two (how heavy is it to start, stop, or otherwise change rotation) is given by the moment of inertia. The angular velocity vector also describes the direction of the axis of rotation. Similarly the torque is a vector. According to the right-hand rule, the direction away from the observer is associated with clockwise rotation and the direction towards the observer with counterclockwise rotation, like a screw. A Rotation is simply a progressive radial orientation to a common point. That common point lay within the axis of that motion. The axis is 90 degrees perpendicular to the plane of the motion. If the axis of the rotation lay external of the body in question then the body is said to Orbit. There is no fundamental difference between a rotation and an orbit and/or "spin". The key distinction is simply where the axis of the rotation lay, either within or without a body in question. This distinction is and can be demonstrated in and for both ridged and non ridged bodies.
Rotational Orbit v Spin

Aviation
In flight dynamics, the principal rotations are known as pitch, roll and yaw. The term rotation is also used in aviation to refer to the upward pitch (nose moves up) of an aircraft, particularly when starting the climb after takeoff.

Amusement rides
Many amusement rides provide rotation. A Ferris wheel has a horizontal central axis, and parallel axes for each gondola, where the rotation is opposite, by gravity or mechanically. As a result at any time the orientation of the gondola is upright (not rotated), just translated. The tip of the translation vector describes a circle. A carousel provides rotation about a vertical axis. Many rides provide a combination of rotations about several axes. In Chair-O-Planes the rotation about the vertical axis is provided mechanically, while the rotation about the horizontal axis is due to the centripetal force. In roller coaster inversions the rotation about the horizontal axis is one or more full cycles, where inertia keeps people in their seats.

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Sports
Rotation, usually called spin, plays a role in many sports. Topspin and backspin in tennis. English, follow and draw in billiards and pool. Curve balls in baseball and spin bowling in cricket. Table tennis paddles are specialized to allow players to spin the ball as they hit it.

See also
Absolute rotation Balancing machine Mach's principle Rotation representation (mathematics) Rotation in living systems

External links
Product of Rotations [1] at cut-the-knot When a Triangle is Equilateral [2] at cut-the-knot Rotate Points Using Polar Coordinates [3] Rotation in Two Dimensions [4] by Sergio Hannibal Mejia after work by Roger Germundsson and Understanding 3D Rotation [5] by Roger Germundsson, Wolfram Demonstrations Project.

References
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] http:/ / www. cut-the-knot. org/ Curriculum/ Geometry/ RotationTransform. shtml http:/ / www. cut-the-knot. org/ Curriculum/ Geometry/ Connes. shtml http:/ / howtoproperly. com/ rotate-points-using-polar-coordinates http:/ / demonstrations. wolfram. com/ RotationInTwoDimensions/ http:/ / demonstrations. wolfram. com/ Understanding3DRotation/

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Rigid body
In physics, a rigid body is an idealization of a solid body of finite size in which deformation is neglected. In other words, the distance between any two given points of a rigid body remains constant in time regardless of external forces exerted on it. Even though such an object cannot physically exist due to relativity, objects can normally be assumed to be perfectly rigid if they are not moving near the speed of light. In classical mechanics a rigid body is usually considered as a continuous mass distribution, while in quantum mechanics a rigid body is usually thought of as a collection of point masses. For instance, in quantum mechanics molecules (consisting of the point masses: electrons and nuclei) are often seen as rigid bodies (see classification of molecules as rigid rotors).

The position of a rigid body is determined by the position of its center of mass and by its attitude [1] (at least six parameters in total).

Kinematics
Linear and angular position
The position of a rigid body is the position of all the particles of which it is composed. To simplify the description of this position, we exploit the property that the body is rigid, namely that all its particles maintain the same distance relative to each other. If the body is rigid, it is sufficient to describe the position of at least three non-collinear particles. This makes it possible to reconstruct the position of all the other particles, provided that their time-invariant position relative to the three selected particles is known. However, typically a different and mathematically more convenient approach is used. The position of the whole body is represented by: 1. the linear position or position of the body, namely the position of one of the particles of the body, specifically chosen as a reference point (for instance its center of mass or its centroid, or the origin of a coordinate system fixed to the body), together with 2. the angular position (or orientation) of the body. Thus, the position of a rigid body has two components: linear and angular, respectively.[2] The same is true for other kinematic and kinetic quantities describing the motion of a rigid body, such as velocity, acceleration, momentum, impulse, and kinetic energy.[3] The linear position can be represented by a vector with its tail at an arbitrary reference point in space (often the origin of a chosen coordinate system) and its tip at a point of interest on the rigid body (often its center of mass or centroid). There are several ways to numerically describe the orientation of a rigid body, including a set of three Euler angles, a quaternion, or a direction cosine matrix (also referred to as a rotation matrix). In general, when a rigid body moves, both its position and orientation vary with time. In the kinematic sense, these changes are referred to as translation and rotation, respectively. Indeed, the position of a rigid body can be viewed as a hypothetic translation and rotation (roto-translation) of the body starting from a hypothetic reference position (not necessarily coinciding with a position actually taken by the body during its motion).

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Linear and angular velocity

Velocity (also called linear velocity) and angular velocity are measured with respect to a frame of reference. The linear velocity of a rigid body is a vector quantity, equal to the time rate of change of its linear position. Thus, it is the velocity of a reference point fixed to the body. During purely translational motion (motion with no rotation), all points on a rigid body move with the same velocity. However, when motion involves rotation, the instantaneous velocity of any two points on the body will generally not be the same. Two points of a rotating body will have the same instantaneous velocity only if they happen to lay on an axis parallel to the instantaneous axis of rotation. Angular velocity is a vector quantity that describes the angular speed at which the orientation of the rigid body is changing and the instantaneous axis about which it is rotating. All points on a rigid body experience the same angular velocity at all times. During purely rotational motion, all points on the body change position except for those lying on the instantaneous axis of rotation. The relationship between orientation and angular velocity is not directly analogous to the relationship between position and velocity. Angular velocity is not the time rate of change of orientation, because there is no such concept as an orientation vector that can be differentiated to obtain the angular velocity.

Kinematical equations
Addition theorem for angular velocity
The angular velocity of a rigid body B in a reference frame N is equal to the sum of the angular velocity of a rigid body D in N and the angular velocity of B with respect D[4] : . In this case, rigid bodies and reference frames are indistinguishable and completely interchangeable.

Addition theorem for position

For any set of three points P, Q, and R, the position vector from P to R is the sum of the position vector from P to Q and the position vector from Q to R: .

Mathematical definition of velocity

The velocity of point P in reference frame N is defined using the time derivative in N of the position vector from O to P[5] :

where O is any arbitrary point fixed in reference frame N, and the N to the left of the d/dt operator indicates that the derivative is taken in reference frame N. The result is independent of the selection of O so long as O is fixed in N.

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Mathematical definition of acceleration

The acceleration of point P in reference frame N is defined using the time derivative in N of its velocity[5] : .

Velocity of two points fixed on a rigid body

For two points P and Q that are fixed on a rigid body B, where B has an angular velocity N, the velocity of Q in N can be expressed as a function of the velocity of P in N[6] : . in the reference frame

Acceleration of two points fixed on a rigid body

By differentiating the equation for the Velocity of two points fixed on a rigid body in N with respect to time, the acceleration in reference frame N of a point Q fixed on a rigid body B can be expressed as is the angular acceleration of B in the reference frame N[6] .

where

Velocity of one point moving on a rigid body

If the point R is moving in rigid body B while B moves in reference frame N, then the velocity of R in N is . where Q is the point fixed in B that is instantaneously coincident with R at the instant of interest[7] . This relation is often combined with the relation for the Velocity of two points fixed on a rigid body.

Acceleration of one point moving on a rigid body

The acceleration in reference frame N of the point R moving in body B while B is moving in frame N is given by where Q is the point fixed in B that instantaneously coincident with R at the instant of interest[7] . This equation is often combined with Acceleration of two points fixed on a rigid body.

Other quantities
If C is the origin of a local coordinate system L, attached to the body, the spatial or twist acceleration of a rigid body is defined as the spatial acceleration of C (as opposed to material acceleration above);

where represents the position of the point/particle with respect to the reference point of the body in terms of the local coordinate system L (the rigidity of the body means that this does not depend on time) is the orientation matrix, an orthogonal matrix with determinant 1, representing the orientation (angular position) of the local coordinate system L, with respect to the arbitrary reference orientation of another coordinate system G. Think of this matrix as three orthogonal unit vectors, one in each column, which define the orientation of the axes of L with respect to G. represents the angular velocity of the rigid body represents the total velocity of the point/particle represents the total acceleration of the point/particle

Rigid body represents the angular acceleration of the rigid body represents the spatial acceleration of the point/particle represents the spatial acceleration of the rigid body (i.e. the spatial acceleration of the origin of L)

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In 2D the angular velocity is a scalar, and matrix A(t) simply represents a rotation in the xy-plane by an angle which is the integral of the angular velocity over time. Vehicles, walking people, etc. usually rotate according to changes in the direction of the velocity: they move forward with respect to their own orientation. Then, if the body follows a closed orbit in a plane, the angular velocity integrated over a time interval in which the orbit is completed once, is an integer times 360. This integer is the winding number with respect to the origin of the velocity. Compare the amount of rotation associated with the vertices of a polygon.

Kinetics
Any point that is rigidly connected to the body can be used as reference point (origin of coordinate system L) to describe the linear motion of the body (the linear position, velocity and acceleration vectors depend on the choice). However, depending on the application, a convenient choice may be: the center of mass of the whole system, which generally has the simplest motion for a body moving freely in space; a point such that the translational motion is zero or simplified, e.g. on an axle or hinge, at the center of a ball and socket joint, etc. When the center of mass is used as reference point: The (linear) momentum is independent of the rotational motion. At any time it is equal to the total mass of the rigid body times the translational velocity. The angular momentum with respect to the center of mass is the same as without translation: at any time it is equal to the inertia tensor times the angular velocity. When the angular velocity is expressed with respect to a coordinate system coinciding with the principal axes of the body, each component of the angular momentum is a product of a moment of inertia (a principal value of the inertia tensor) times the corresponding component of the angular velocity; the torque is the inertia tensor times the angular acceleration. Possible motions in the absence of external forces are translation with constant velocity, steady rotation about a fixed principal axis, and also torque-free precession. The net external force on the rigid body is always equal to the total mass times the translational acceleration (i.e., Newton's second law holds for the translational motion, even when the net external torque is nonzero, and/or the body rotates). The total kinetic energy is simply the sum of translational and rotational energy.

Geometry
Two rigid bodies are said to be different (not copies) if there is no proper rotation from one to the other. A rigid body is called chiral if its mirror image is different in that sense, i.e., if it has either no symmetry or its symmetry group contains only proper rotations. In the opposite case an object is called achiral: the mirror image is a copy, not a different object. Such an object may have a symmetry plane, but not necessarily: there may also be a plane of reflection with respect to which the image of the object is a rotated version. The latter applies for S2n, of which the case n = 1 is inversion symmetry. For a (rigid) rectangular transparent sheet, inversion symmetry corresponds to having on one side an image without rotational symmetry and on the other side an image such that what shines through is the image at the top side, upside down. We can distinguish two cases:

Rigid body the sheet surface with the image is not symmetric - in this case the two sides are different, but the mirror image of the object is the same, after a rotation by 180 about the axis perpendicular to the mirror plane. the sheet surface with the image has a symmetry axis - in this case the two sides are the same, and the mirror image of the object is also the same, again after a rotation by 180 about the axis perpendicular to the mirror plane. A sheet with a through and through image is achiral. We can distinguish again two cases: the sheet surface with the image has no symmetry axis - the two sides are different the sheet surface with the image has a symmetry axis - the two sides are the same

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Configuration space
The configuration space of a rigid body with one point fixed (i.e., a body with zero translational motion) is given by the underlying manifold of the rotation group SO(3). The configuration space of a nonfixed (with non-zero translational motion) rigid body is E+(3), the subgroup of direct isometries of the Euclidean group in three dimensions (combinations of translations and rotations).

See also
angular velocity Rigid body dynamics infinitesimal rotations Euler's equations (rigid body dynamics) Euler's laws Born rigidity Rigid rotor

References
Roy Featherstone (1987). Robot Dynamics Algorithms. Springer. ISBN 0898382300. This reference effectively combines screw theory with rigid body dynamics for robotic applications. The author also chooses to use spatial accelerations extensively in place of material accelerations as they simplify the equations and allow for compact notation. JPL DARTS page has a section on spatial operator algebra (link: [8]) as well as an extensive list of references (link: [9]).

References
[1] Lorenzo Sciavicco, Bruno Siciliano (2000). "2.4.2 Roll-pitch-yaw angles" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=v9PLbcYd9aUC& pg=PA32). Modelling and control of robot manipulators (2nd ed.). Springer. p.32. ISBN 1852332212. . [2] In general, the position of a point or particle is also known, in physics, as linear position, as opposed to the angular position or orientation of a point, particle, axis or body. [3] In kinematics, linear means "along a straight or curved line" (the path of the particle in space). In mathematics, however, linear has a different meaning. In both contexts, the word "linear" is related to the word "line". In mathematics, a line is often defined as a straight curve. For those who adopt this definition, a curve can be straight, and curved lines are not supposed to exist. In kinematics, the term line is used as a synonym of the term trajectory, or path (namely, it has the same non-restricted meaning as that given, in mathematics, to the word curve). In short, both straight and curved lines are supposed to exist. In kinematics and dynamics, the following words refer to the same non-restricted meaning of the term "line": "linear" (= along a straight or curved line), "rectilinear" (= along a straight line, from Latin rectus = straight, and linere = spread), "curvilinear" (=along a curved line, from Latin curvus = curved, and linere = spread). In topology and metereology, the term "line" has the same meaning; namely, a contour line is a curve.

Rigid body
[4] Kane, Thomas; Levinson, David (1996). "2-4 Auxiliary Reference Frames". Dynamics Online. Sunnyvale, California: OnLine Dynamics, Inc.. [5] Kane, Thomas; Levinson, David (1996). "2-6 Velocity and Acceleration". Dynamics Online. Sunnyvale, California: OnLine Dynamics, Inc.. [6] Kane, Thomas; Levinson, David (1996). "2-7 Two Points Fixed on a Rigid Body". Dynamics Online. Sunnyvale, California: OnLine Dynamics, Inc.. [7] Kane, Thomas; Levinson, David (1996). "2-8 One Point Moving on a Rigid Body". Dynamics Online. Sunnyvale, California: OnLine Dynamics, Inc.. [8] http:/ / dshell. jpl. nasa. gov/ SOA/ index. php [9] http:/ / dshell. jpl. nasa. gov/ References/ index. php

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Moment of inertia
This article is about the moment of inertia of a rotating object. For the moment of inertia dealing with bending of a plane, see second moment of area. Moment of inertia, also called mass moment of inertia, rotational inertia, or the angular mass, (SI units kgm2) is a measure of an object's resistance to changes in its rotation rate. It is the rotational analog of mass, the inertia of a rigid rotating body with respect to its rotation. The moment of inertia plays much the same role in rotational dynamics as mass does in linear dynamics, determining the relationship between angular momentum and angular velocity, torque and angular acceleration, and several other quantities. The symbol I and sometimes J are usually used to refer to the moment of inertia. While a simple scalar treatment of the moment of inertia suffices for many situations, a more advanced tensor treatment allows the analysis of such complicated systems as spinning tops and gyroscopic motion. The concept was introduced by Euler in his book a Theoria motus corporum solidorum seu rigidorum in 1730.[1] In this book, he discussed the moment of inertia and many related concepts, such as the principal axis of inertia.

Overview
The moment of inertia of an object about a given axis describes how difficult it is to change its angular motion about that axis. Therefore, it encompasses not just how much mass the object has overall, but how far each bit of mass is from the axis. The farther out the object's mass is, the more rotational inertia the object has, and the more force is required to change its rotation rate. For example, consider two hoops, A and B, made of the same material and of equal mass. Hoop A is larger in diameter but thinner than B. It requires more effort to accelerate hoop A (change its angular velocity) because its mass is distributed farther from its axis of rotation: mass that is farther out from that axis must, for a given angular velocity, move more quickly than mass closer in. So in this case, hoop A has a larger moment of inertia than hoop B. The moment of inertia of an object can change if its shape figure skater who begins a spin with arms outstretched striking example. By pulling in her arms, she reduces her inertia, causing her to spin faster (by the conservation momentum). The moment of inertia has two forms, a scalar form changes. A provides a moment of of angular

(used when the

axis of rotation is known) and a more general tensor form that does not require knowing the axis of rotation. The scalar moment of inertia (often called simply the "moment of inertia") allows a succinct analysis of many simple problems in rotational dynamics, such as objects
Divers minimizing their moments of inertia to increase their rates of rotation

Moment of inertia rolling down inclines and the behavior of pulleys. For instance, while a block of any shape will slide down a frictionless decline at the same rate, rolling objects may descend at different rates, depending on their moments of inertia. A hoop will descend more slowly than a solid disk of equal mass and radius because more of its mass is located far from the axis of rotation, and thus needs to move faster if the hoop rolls at the same angular velocity. However, for (more complicated) problems in which the axis of rotation can change, the scalar treatment is inadequate, and the tensor treatment must be used (although shortcuts are possible in special situations). Examples requiring such a treatment include gyroscopes, tops, and even satellites, all objects whose alignment can change. The moment of inertia ( ) is also called the mass moment of inertia (especially by mechanical engineers) to avoid confusion with the second moment of area, which is sometimes called the moment of inertia (especially by structural engineers). The easiest way to differentiate these quantities is through their units ( vs ). In addition, moment of inertia should not be confused with polar moment of inertia, which is a measure of an object's ability to resist torsion (twisting) only.

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Scalar moment of inertia

Definition
A simple definition of the moment of inertia (with respect to a given axis of rotation) of any object, be it a point mass or a 3D-structure, is given by:

where m is mass and r is the perpendicular distance to the axis of rotation. Detailed analysis The (scalar) moment of inertia of a point mass rotating about a known axis is defined by

The moment of inertia is additive. Thus, for a rigid body consisting of N point masses mi with distances ri to the rotation axis, the total moment of inertia equals the sum of the point-mass moments of inertia:

The mass distribution along the axis of rotation has no effect on the moment of inertia. For a solid body described by a mass density function, (r), the moment of inertia about a known axis can be calculated by integrating the square of the distance (weighted by the mass density) from a point in the body to the rotation axis:

where V is the volume occupied by the object. is the spatial density function of the object, and r = (r,,), (x,y,z), or (r,,z) is the vector (orthogonal to the axis of rotation) between the axis of rotation and the point in the body.

Moment of inertia

130

Based on dimensional analysis alone, the moment of inertia of a non-point object must take the form:

Diagram for the calculation of a disk's moment of inertia. Here c is 1/2 and is the radius used in determining the moment.

where M is the mass L is a length dimension taken from the centre of mass (in some cases, the length of the object is used instead.) c is a dimensionless constant called the inertial constant that varies with the object in consideration. Inertial constants are used to account for the differences in the placement of the mass from the center of rotation. Examples include: c = 1, thin ring or thin-walled cylinder around its center, c = 2/5, solid sphere around its center c = 1/2, solid cylinder or disk around its center. When c is 1, the length (L) is called the radius of gyration. For more examples, see the List of moments of inertia.

Parallel axis theorem

Once the moment of inertia has been calculated for rotations about the center of mass of a rigid body, one can conveniently recalculate the moment of inertia for all parallel rotation axes as well, without having to resort to the formal definition. If the axis of rotation is displaced by a distance from the center of mass axis of rotation (e.g., spinning a disc about a point on its periphery, rather than through its center,) the displaced and center-moment of inertia are related as follows:

This theorem is also known as the parallel axes rule and is a special case of Steiner's parallel-axis theorem.

Composite bodies
If a body can be decomposed (either physically or conceptually) into several constituent parts, then the moment of inertia of the body about a given axis is obtained by summing the moments of inertia of each constituent part around the same given axis.[2]

Equations involving the moment of inertia

The rotational kinetic energy of a rigid body can be expressed in terms of its moment of inertia. For a system with point masses moving with speeds , the rotational kinetic energy equals

Moment of inertia where is the common angular velocity (in radians per second). The final expression I 2 / 2 also holds for a mass density function with a generalization of the above derivation from a discrete summation to an integration. In the special case where the angular momentum vector is parallel to the angular velocity vector, one can relate them by the equation

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where L is the angular momentum and is the angular velocity. However, this equation does not hold in many cases of interest, such as the torque-free precession of a rotating object, although its more general tensor form is always correct. When the moment of inertia is constant, one can also relate the torque on an object and its angular acceleration in a similar equation:

where

is the torque and

is the angular acceleration.

Moment of inertia tensor

For the same object, different axes of rotation will have different moments of inertia about those axes. In general, the moments of inertia are not equal unless the object is symmetric about all axes. The moment of inertia tensor is a convenient way to summarize all moments of inertia of an object with one quantity. It may be calculated with respect to any point in space, although for practical purposes the center of mass is most commonly used.

Definition
For a rigid object of point masses , where , the moment of inertia tensor is given by

and

, and

. (Thus

is a symmetric tensor.) with are called the

The diagonal elements of products of inertia.

are called the principal moments of inertia; the scalars

Moment of inertia Here denotes the moment of inertia around the -axis when the objects are rotated around the x-axis,

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denotes the moment of inertia around the -axis when the objects are rotated around the -axis, and so on. These quantities can be generalized to an object with distributed mass, described by a mass density function, in a similar fashion to the scalar moment of inertia. One then has

where the object.

is their outer product, E3 is the 3 3 identity matrix, and V is a region of space completely containing

Derivation of the tensor components

The distance of a particle at from the axis of rotation passing through the origin in the direction is direction) is . By using the formula (and some simple vector algebra) it can be seen that the and, after a bit more algebra, this leads to a

moment of inertia of this particle (about the axis of rotation passing through the origin in the This is a quadratic form in tensor formula for the moment of inertia .

This is exactly the formula given below for the moment of inertia in the case of a single particle. For multiple particles we need only recall that the moment of inertia is additive in order to see that this formula is correct.

Reduction to scalar
For any axis form I as , represented as a column vector with elements ni, the scalar form I can be calculated from the tensor

The range of both summations correspond to the three Cartesian coordinates. The following equivalent expression avoids the use of transposed vectors which are not supported in maths libraries because internally vectors and their transpose are stored as the same linear array,

However it should be noted that although this equation is mathematically equivalent to the equation above for any matrix, inertia tensors are symmetrical. This means that it can be further simplified to:

Principal moments of inertia

By the spectral theorem, since the moment of inertia tensor is real and symmetric, it is possible to find a Cartesian coordinate system in which it is diagonal, having the form

where the coordinate axes are called the principal axes and the constants

and

are called the principal

moments of inertia. The unit vectors along the principal axes are usually denoted as (e1, e2, e3). This result was first shown by J. J. Sylvester(1852), and is a form of Sylvester's law of inertia.

Moment of inertia When all principal moments of inertia are distinct, the principal axes are uniquely specified. If two principal moments are the same, the rigid body is called a symmetrical top and there is no unique choice for the two corresponding principal axes. If all three principal moments are the same, the rigid body is called a spherical top (although it need not be spherical) and any axis can be considered a principal axis, meaning that the moment of inertia is the same about any axis. The principal axes are often aligned with the object's symmetry axes. If a rigid body has an axis of symmetry of order , i.e., is symmetrical under rotations of 360/m about a given axis, the symmetry axis is a principal axis. When , the rigid body is a symmetrical top. If a rigid body has at least two symmetry axes that are not parallel or perpendicular to each other, it is a spherical top, e.g., a cube or any other Platonic solid. A practical example of this mathematical phenomenon is the routine automotive task of balancing a tire, which basically means adjusting the distribution of mass of a car wheel such that its principal axis of inertia is aligned with the axle so the wheel does not wobble.

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Parallel axis theorem

Once the moment of inertia tensor has been calculated for rotations about the center of mass of the rigid body, there is a useful labor-saving method to compute the tensor for rotations offset from the center of mass. If the axis of rotation is displaced by a vector R from the center of mass, the new moment of inertia tensor equals

where m is the total mass of the rigid body, E3 is the 3 3 identity matrix, and

is the outer product.

Rotational symmetry
Using the above equation to express all moments of inertia in terms of integrals of variables either along or perpendicular to the axis of symmetry usually simplifies the calculation of these moments considerably.

Comparison with covariance matrix

The moment of inertia tensor about the center of mass of a 3 dimensional rigid body is related to the covariance matrix of a trivariate random vector whose probability density function is proportional to the pointwise density of the rigid body by:

where n is the number of points. The structure of the moment-of-inertia tensor comes from the fact that it is to be used as a bilinear form on rotation vectors in the form

Each element of mass has a kinetic energy of

The velocity of each element of mass is

where r is a vector from the center of rotation to that element of

mass. The cross product can be converted to matrix multiplication so that

and similarly

Thus

Moment of inertia plugging in the definition of the term leads directly to the structure of the moment tensor.

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See also
List of moments of inertia List of moment of inertia tensors Rotational energy Parallel axis theorem Perpendicular axis theorem Stretch rule Tire balance Poinsot's ellipsoid

References
Goldstein, H. (1980), Classical Mechanics (2nd ed.), Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0-201-02918-9. Landau, LD; Lifshitz (1976), Mechanics (3rd ed.), Pergamon Press, ISBN 0-08-021022-8 (hardcover); ISBN 0-08-029141-4 (softcover). Marion, JB; Thornton, ST. (1995), Classical Dynamics of Systems and Particles (4th ed.), Thomson, ISBN 0-03-097302-3. Sylvester, J J (1852), "A demonstration of the theorem that every homogeneous quadratic polynomial is reducible by real orthogonal substitutions to the form of a sum of positive and negative squares" [3], Philosophical Magazine IV: 138142, retrieved 2008-06-27 Symon, KR (1971), Mechanics (3rd ed.), Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0-201-07392-7. Tenenbaum, RA (2004), Fundamentals of Applied Dynamics, Springer, ISBN 0-387-00887-X.

External links
Angular momentum and rigid-body rotation in two and three dimensions [4] Lecture notes on rigid-body rotation and moments of inertia [5] The moment of inertia tensor [6] An introductory lesson on moment of inertia: keeping a vertical pole not falling down (Java simulation) [7] Tutorial on finding moments of inertia, with problems and solutions on various basic shapes [8] Measuring moment of inertia [9]

References
[1] Euler, Leonhard (1765-01-01) (in Latin). Theoria motus corporum solidorum seu rigidorum: ex primis nostrae cognitionis principiis stabilita et ad omnes motus, qui in huiusmodi corpora cadere possunt, accommodata. Auctore Leonh. Eulero. Cornell University Library. ISBN 978-1429742818. [2] "Mass moment of inertia" by Mehrdad Negahban, University of Nebraska (http:/ / em-ntserver. unl. edu/ NEGAHBAN/ EM223/ note18/ note18. htm) [3] http:/ / www. maths. ed. ac. uk/ ~aar/ sylv/ inertia. pdf [4] http:/ / www. lightandmatter. com/ html_books/ 0sn/ ch04/ ch04. html [5] http:/ / hyperphysics. phy-astr. gsu. edu/ hbase/ mi. html [6] http:/ / kwon3d. com/ theory/ moi/ iten. html [7] http:/ / www. phy. hk/ wiki/ englishhtm/ Balance. htm [8] http:/ / hypertextbook. com/ physics/ mechanics/ rotational-inertia/ [9] http:/ / www. space-electronics. com/ Products/ moment_of_inertia_instruments. php

Radius of gyration

135

Radius of gyration
Radius of gyration is the name of several related measures of the size of an object, a surface, or an ensemble of points. It is calculated as the root mean square distance of the objects' parts from either its center of gravity or an axis.

Applications in structural engineering

In structural engineering, the two-dimensional radius of gyration is used to describe the distribution of cross sectional area in a beam around its centroidal axis. The radius of gyration is given by the following formula

or

where I is the second moment of area and A is the total cross-sectional area. The gyration radius is useful in estimating the stiffness of a beam. However, if the principal moments of the two-dimensional gyration tensor are not equal, the beam will tend to buckle around the axis with the smaller principal moment. For example, a beam with an elliptical cross-section will tend to buckle about the smaller semiaxis. It also can be referred to as the radial distance from a given axis at which the mass of a body could be concentrated without altering the rotational inertia of the body about that axis. In engineering, where people deal with continuous bodies of matter, the radius of gyration is more usually calculated as an integral.

Applications in mechanics
The radius of gyration (r) about a given axis can be computed in terms of the moment of inertia I around that axis, and the total mass m;

or

It should be noted that I is a scalar, and is not the moment of inertia tensor. [1]

Molecular applications
In polymer physics, the radius of gyration is used to describe the dimensions of a polymer chain. The radius of gyration of a particular molecule at a given time is defined as:

where is the mean position of the monomers. As detailed below, the radius of gyration is also proportional to the root mean square distance between the monomers:

Radius of gyration As a third method, the radius of gyration can also be computed by summing the principal moments of the gyration tensor. Since the chain conformations of a polymer sample are quasi infinite in number and constantly change over time, the "radius of gyration" discussed in polymer physics must usually be understood as a mean over all polymer molecules of the sample and over time. That is, the radius of gyration which is measured is an average over time or ensemble:

136

where the angular brackets

denote the ensemble average.

An entropically governed polymer chain (i.e. in so called theta conditions) follows a random walk in three dimensions. The radius of gyration for this case is given by

Note that, although

represents the contour length of the polymer, a is strongly dependent of polymer stiffness,

and can vary over orders of magnitude. N is reduced accordingly. One reason that the radius of gyration is an interesting property is that it can be determined experimentally with static light scattering as well as with small angle neutron- and x-ray scattering. This allows theoretical polymer physicists to check their models against reality. The hydrodynamic radius is numerically similar, and can be measured with Size exclusion chromatography.

Derivation of identity
To show that the two definitions of are identical, we first multiply out the summand in the first definition:

Carrying out the summation over the last two terms and using the definition of

gives the formula

References
Grosberg AY and Khokhlov AR. (1994) Statistical Physics of Macromolecules (translated by Atanov YA), AIP Press. ISBN 1563960710 Flory PJ. (1953) Principles of Polymer Chemistry, Cornell University, pp. 428-429 (Appendix C o Chapter X).

References
[1] See for example Goldstein, Herbert (1950), Classical Mechanics (1st ed.), Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company equation 5-30

Rotational energy

137

Rotational energy
The rotational energy or angular kinetic energy is the kinetic energy due to the rotation of an object and is part of its total kinetic energy. Looking at rotational energy separately in an object's centre of mass frame, one gets the following dependence on the object's moment of inertia:

where is the angular speed is the moment of inertia. is the kinetic energy. The mechanical work required for / applied during rotation is the torque times the rotation angle. The instantaneous power of an angularly accelerating body is the torque times the angular frequency. Note the close relationship between the results for linear (or translational) and rotational motion; the formula for the

In the rotating system, the moment of inertia, I, takes the role of the mass, m, and the angular velocity, , takes the role of the linear velocity, v. The rotational energy of a rolling cylinder varies from one half of the translational energy (if it is massive) to the same as the translational energy (if it is hollow). As an example, let us calculate the rotational kinetic energy of the Earth. As the Earth has a period of about 23.93 hours, it has an angular velocity of 7.29105 rads1. The Earth has a moment of inertia, I = 8.041037 kgm2[1]. Therefore, it has a rotational kinetic energy of 2.141029 J. Part of it can be tapped using tidal power. This creates additional friction of the two global tidal waves, infinitesimally slowing down Earth's angular velocity . Due to conservation of angular momentum this process transfers angular momentum to the Moon's orbital motion, increasing its distance from Earth and its orbital period (see tidal locking for a more detailed explanation of this process).

See also
Flywheel Rigid rotor Rotational spectroscopy

References
[1] http:/ / scienceworld. wolfram. com/ physics/ MomentofInertiaEarth. html

Rotation around a fixed axis

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Rotation around a fixed axis

Rotation around a fixed axis is a special case of rotational motion. It does not involve rotation around more than one axis, and cannot describe such phenomena as wobbling or precession. The kinematics and dynamics of rotation around a fixed axis of a rigid object are mathematically much simpler than those for rotation of a rigid body; they are entirely analogous to those of linear motion along a single fixed direction, which is not true for rotation of a rigid body. The expressions for the kinetic energy of the object, and for the forces on the parts of the object, are also simpler for rotation around a fixed axis, than for general rotational motion. For these reasons, rotation around a fixed axis is typically taught in introductory physics courses after students have mastered linear motion; the full generality of rotational motion is not usually taught in introductory physics classes. In the beginning study of linear motion, objects are treated as point particles without structure; for such objects it does not matter where a force is applied, only that it is applied. However, for extended objects, the point of application of force does matter. In tennis, for example, if a tennis ball is struck with a strong horizontal force acting through its center of mass, it may travel a long distance before hitting the ground, far out of bounds. Instead, the same force applied in an upward, glancing stroke will yield topspin to the ball, which can cause it to land in the opponents court. The concepts of rotational equilibrium and rotational dynamics are also important in other disciplines. For example, students of architecture benefit from understanding the forces that act on buildings and biology students should understand the forces at work in muscles, bones, and joints. These forces create torques, which tell us how the forces affect an object's equilibrium and rate of rotation. [1] An object remains in a state of uniform rotational motion unless acted on by a net torque. This principle is analogous to Newtons first law of motion. Further, the angular acceleration of an object is proportional to the net torque acting on it, which is the analog of Newtons Second Law of motion. A net torque acting on an object causes a change in its rotational energy. Finally, torques applied to an object through a given time interval can change the object's angular momentum. If there are no external torques, angular momentum is conserved, a property that explains some of the mysterious and formidable properties of pulsarsremnants of supernova explosions that rotate at equatorial speeds approaching that of light.

Translation and rotation

A rigid body is an object of finite extent in which all the distances between the component particles are constant. No truly rigid body exists; external forces can deform any solid. For our purposes, then, a rigid body is a solid which requires large forces to deform it appreciably. A change in the position of a particle in three-dimensional space can be completely specified by three coordinates. A change in the position of a rigid body is more complicated to describe. It can be regarded as a combination of two distinct types of motion: translational motion and rotational motion. Purely translational motion occurs when every particle of the body has the same instantaneous velocity as every other particle; then the path traced out by any particle is exactly parallel to the path traced out by every other particle in the body. Under translational motion, the change in the position of a rigid body is specified completely by three coordinates such as x, y, and z giving the displacement of any point, such as the center of mass, fixed to the rigid body. Purely rotational motion occurs if every particle in the body moves in a circle about a single line. This line is called the axis of rotation. Then the radius vectors from the axis to all particles undergo the same angular displacement in the same time. The axis of rotation need not go through the body. In general, any rotation can be specified completely by the three angular displacements with respect to the rectangular-coordinate axes x, y, and z. Any

Rotation around a fixed axis change in the position of the rigid body is thus completely described by three translational and three rotational coordinates. Any displacement of a rigid body may be arrived at by first subjecting the body to a displacement followed by a rotation, or conversely, to a rotation followed by a displacement. We already know that for any collection of particleswhether at rest with respect to one another, as in a rigid body, or in relative motion, like the exploding fragments of a shell, the acceleration of the center of mass is given by

139

where M is the total mass of the system and acm is the acceleration of the center of mass. There remains the matter of describing the rotation of the body about the center of mass and relating it to the external forces acting on the body. The kinematics and dynamics of rotational motion around a single axis resemble the kinematics and dynamics of translational motion; rotational motion around a single axis even has a work-energy theorem analogous to that of particle dynamics.

Kinematics
Angular position
The figure shows a reference line, fixed in the body, perpendicular to the rotation axis and rotating with the body. The angular position of this line is the angle of the line relative to a fixed direction, which we take as the zero angular position. From geometry, we know that is given by

Top view of a rotating system

Here s is the length of a circular arc that extends from the x-axis (the zero angular position) to the reference line, and r is the radius of the circle. An angle defined in this way is measured in radians (rad) rather than in revolutions (rev) or degrees. The radian, being the ratio of two lengths has no dimensions. Because the circumference of a circle of radius r is 2r, there are 2 radians in a complete circle:

Thus

Rotation around a fixed axis We do not reset to zero with each complete rotation of the reference line about the rotation axis. If the reference line completes two revolutions from the zero angular position, then the angular position of the line is . [1]

140

Angular displacement
If the object in the figure rotates about the rotation axis as shown in the figure, changing the angular position of the reference line from 1 to 2, the body undergoes an angular displacement given by

Diagram of angular displacement.

This definition of angular displacement holds not only for the rigid body as a whole, but also for every particle within that body, because the particles are all locked together. If a body is in translational motion along the x-axis, its displacement x is either positive or negative, depending on whether the body is moving in the positive or negative direction of the axis. Similarly, the angular displacement of a rotating body is either positive or negative, according to the following convention: an angular displacement in the counterclockwise direction is positive, and one in the clockwise direction is negative.[1]

Angular speed and angular velocity

The average angular speed is defined as the ratio of angular displacement to the time in which it occurs:

The sign of

indicates the direction of rotation.

With differential calculus the instantaneous angular velocity (t) can be defined:

Angular velocity is the first derivative of angular position, just as velocity is the first derivative of position. The angular velocity of a particle can be related to its translational velocity v, which depends on the distance from the centre of rotation. Since = s/r and r is constant,

Thus v = r.

Rotation around a fixed axis The angular velocity is sometimes called the angular frequency. It can be deduced from the frequency, the number of rotations in a given time.

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Angular acceleration
A changing angular velocity indicates the presence of an angular acceleration, measured in rad s2. The average angular acceleration over a time interval t is given by

The instantaneous acceleration (t) is given by

Thus, the angular acceleration is the first derivative of the angular velocity, just as acceleration is the first derivative of velocity. The translational acceleration of a point on the object rotating is given by

where r is the radius or distance from the centre of rotation. This is also the tangential component of acceleration: it is tangential to the direction of motion of the point. If this component is 0, the motion is uniform circular motion, and the velocity changes in direction only. The radial acceleration (perpendicular to direction of motion) is given by

and is directed towards the center of the rotational motion.

Equations of kinematics
The five quantities angular displacement, initial angular velocity, final angular velocity, angular acceleration, and time can be related by four equations of kinematics:

The angular acceleration is caused by the torque, which can have a positive or negative value in accordance with the convention of positive and negative angular frequency. The ratio of torque and angular acceleration (how difficult it is to start, stop, or otherwise change rotation) is given by the moment of inertia.

Moment of Inertia
Increasing the mass increases the moment of inertia, symbolized by , which is sometimes called the rotational inertia of an object. But the distribution of the mass is more important, i.e. distributing the mass further from the centre of rotation increases the moment of inertia by a greater degree. The moment of inertia is measured in kilogram metre (kg m) The energy required or released during rotation is the torque times the rotation angle; the energy stored in a rotating object is one half of the moment of inertia times the square of the angular velocity. The power required for angular acceleration is the torque times the angular velocity.

Rotation around a fixed axis

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Dynamics
Torque
Torque is the twisting effect of a force F applied to a rotating object which is at position r from its axis of rotation. Mathematically,

where denotes the cross product. A net torque acting upon an object will produce an angular acceleration of the object according to

just as F = ma in linear dynamics.

Angular Momentum
The angular momentum L is a measure of the difficulty of bringing a rotating object to rest. It is given by

Angular momentum is related to angular velocity by

just as p = mv in linear dynamics. Torque and angular momentum are related according to

just as F = dp/dt in linear dynamics. In the absence of an external torque, the angular momentum of a body remains constant. The conservation of angular momentum is notably demonstrated in figure skating: when pulling the arms closer to the body during a spin, the moment of inertia is decreased, and so the angular velocity is increased.

Kinetic energy
The kinetic energy Krot due to the rotation of the body is given by just as Ktrans = 12mv2 in linear dynamics.

Vector expression
The development above is a special case of general rotational motion. In the general case, angular displacement, angular velocity, angular acceleration and torque are considered to be vectors. An angular displacement is considered to be a vector pointing along the axis, of magnitude equal to that of .A right-hand rule is used to find which way it points along the axis; if the fingers of the right hand are curled to point in the way that the object rotated, then the thumb of the right hand can be pointed in the direction of the vector. The angular velocity vector also points along the axis of rotation in the same way as the angular displacements it causes. If a disk spins counterclockwise as seen from above, its angular velocity vector points upwards. Similarly, the angular acceleration points along the axis of rotation in the same direction that the angular velocity would point if the angular acceleration were maintained for a long time. The torque vector points along the axis around which the torque tends to cause rotation. To maintain rotation around a fixed axis, the total torque vector has to be along the axis, so that it only changes the magnitude and not the direction of the angular velocity vector. In the case of a hinge, only the component of the torque vector along the axis has effect on the rotation, other forces and torques are compensated by the structure.

Rotation around a fixed axis

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Examples and applications

Constant angular speed
The simplest case of rotation around a fixed axis is that of constant angular speed. Then the total torque is zero. For the example of the Earth rotating around its axis, there is very little friction. For a fan, the motor applies a torque to compensate for friction. The angle of rotation is a linear function of time, which modulo 360 is a periodic function. An example of this is the two-body problem with circular orbits.

Centripetal force
Internal tensile stress provides the centripetal force that keeps a spinning object together. A rigid body model neglects the accompanying strain. If the body is not rigid this strain will cause it to change shape. This is expressed as the object changing shape due to the "centrifugal force". Celestial bodies rotating about each other often have elliptic orbits. The special case of a circular orbits is an example of a rotation around a fixed axis: this axis is the line through the center of mass perpendicular to the plane of motion. The centripetal force is provided by gravity, see also two-body problem. This usually also applies for a spinning celestial body, so it need not be solid to keep together, unless the angular speed is too high in relation to its density. (It will, however, tend to become oblate.) For example, a spinning celestial body of water must take at least 3 hours and 18 minutes to rotate, regardless of size, or the water will separate. If the density of the fluid is higher the time can be less. See orbital period.

See also
Fictitious force Centrifugal force Centripetal force artificial gravity by rotation axle carousel, Ferris wheel centrifuge circular motion Coriolis effect flywheel gyration revolutions per minute revolving door rigid body angular momentum rotational speed rotational symmetry spin

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Further reading
Concepts of Physics Volume 1, 1st edition Seventh reprint by Harish Chandra Verma ISBN 81-7709-187-5

References
[1] Halliday, David; Resnick, Robert; Walker, Jearl. Fundamentals of Physics Extended (7th ed.). ISBN 0471232319.

Parallel axis theorem

In physics, the parallel axis theorem or Huygens-Steiner theorem can be used to determine the moment of inertia of a rigid body about any axis, given the moment of inertia of the object about the parallel axis through the object's center of mass and the perpendicular distance between the axes. The moment of inertia about the new axis z is given by:

where: is the moment of inertia of the object about an axis passing through its centre of mass; is the object's mass; is the perpendicular distance between the two axes. This rule can be applied with the stretch rule and perpendicular axis theorem to find moments of inertia for a variety of shapes. The parallel axes rule also applies to the second moment of area (area moment of inertia) for a plane region D:

Parallel axes rule for area moment of inertia.

where: is the area moment of inertia of D relative to the parallel axis; is the area moment of inertia of D relative to its centroid; is the area of the plane region D; is the distance from the new axis z to the centroid of the plane region D. Note: The centroid of D coincides with the center of gravity (CG) of a physical plate with the same shape that has constant density.

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In classical mechanics
In classical mechanics, the Parallel axis theorem (also known as Huygens-Steiner theorem) can be generalized to calculate a new inertia tensor Jij from an inertia tensor about a center of mass Iij when the pivot point is a displacement a from the center of mass:

where

is the displacement vector from the center of mass to the new axis, and

is the Kronecker delta. We can see that, for diagonal elements (when i = j), displacements perpendicular to the axis of rotation results in the above simplified version of the parallel axis theorem.

See also
Perpendicular axis theorem Stretch rule Jakob Steiner

References
Parallel axis theorem [1]

References
[1] http:/ / scienceworld. wolfram. com/ physics/ ParallelAxisTheorem. html

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Perpendicular axis theorem

In physics, the perpendicular axis theorem (or plane figure theorem) can be used to determine the moment of inertia of a rigid object that lies entirely within a plane, about an axis at right angles to the plane, given the moments of inertia of the object about two perpendicular axes lying within the plane. The axes must all pass through a single point in the plane. Define perpendicular axes X, Y, and Z (which meet at origin O) so that the body lies in the XY plane, and the Z axis is perpendicular to the plane of the body. Let IX be the moment of inertia of the body about the X axis; IY be the moment of inertia of the body about the Y axis; and IZ be the moment of inertia of the body about the Z axis. The perpendicular axis theorem states that[1]

This rule can be applied with the parallel axis theorem and the stretch rule to find moments of inertia for a variety of shapes.

Proof
Let p be a plane thin uniform lamina. Let be a mass element with perpendicular distance perpendicular to the plane and passing through O in the plane. from an axis OZ from OX

Let OX and OY be two perpendicular axes lying in the plane. Let be the perpendicular distance of and be the perpendicular distance of from OY, both in the plane. Let

be the moment of inertia of p about OX and

be the moment of inertia of p about OY. The moment of inertia of p about OZ is given by

See also
Parallel axis theorem Stretch rule

References
[1] Paul A. Tipler (1976). "Ch. 12: Rotation of a Rigid Body about a Fixed Axis". Physics. Worth Publishers Inc.. ISBN 0-87901-041-X.

List of moment of inertia tensors

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List of moment of inertia tensors

List of 3D inertia tensors
This list of moment of inertia tensors is given for principal axes of each object.
Description Solid sphere of radius r and mass m Figure Moment of inertia tensor

Hollow sphere of radius r and mass m

Right circular cone with radius r, height h and mass m, about the apex

Solid cuboid of width w, height h, depth d, and mass m

slender rod of length l and mass m about end

Slender rod of length l and mass m about center

Solid cylinder of radius r, height h and mass m

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Thick-walled cylindrical tube with open ends, of inner radius r1, outer radius r2, length h and mass m

See also
Moment of inertia List of area moments of inertia The inertia tensor of a triangle in three-dimensional space The inertia tensor of a tetrahedron [1]

References
[1] http:/ / number-none. com/ blow/ inertia/ bb_inertia. doc

List of moments of inertia

The following is a list of moments of inertia. Mass moments of inertia have units of dimension mass length2. It is the rotational analogue to mass. It should not be confused with the second moment of area (area moment of inertia), which is used in bending calculations. The following moments of inertia assume constant density throughout the object. NOTE: The axis of rotation is taken to be through the center of mass, unless otherwise specified.
Description Thin cylindrical shell with open ends, of radius r and mass m Figure Moment(s) of inertia Comment This expression assumes the shell thickness is negligible. It is a special case of the next object for r1=r2. Also, a point mass (m) at the end of a rod of length r has this same moment of inertia and the value r is called the radius of gyration. [1] With a density of and the same geometry

Thick-walled cylindrical tube with open ends, of inner radius r1, outer radius r2, length h and mass m

or when defining the normalized thickness tn=t/r and letting r=r2, then Solid cylinder of radius r, height h and mass m This is a special case of the previous object for r1=0.

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This is a special case of the previous object for h=0.

Thin, solid disk of radius r and mass m

Thin circular hoop of radius r and mass m

This is a special case of a torus for b=0. (See below.), as well as of a thick-walled cylindrical tube with open ends, with r1=r2 and h=0. A sphere can be taken to be made up of a stack of infinitesimal thin, solid discs, where the radius differs from 0 to r. Similar to the solid sphere, only this time considering a stack of infinitesimal thin, circular hoops.

Ball (solid) of radius r and mass m

Sphere (hollow) of radius r and mass m

Ellipsoid of semiaxes a, b, and c with axis of rotation a and mass m

Right circular cone with radius r, height h and mass m

Solid cuboid of height h, width w, and depth d, and mass m

For a similarly oriented cube with sides of length , .

Thin rectangular plate of height h and of width w and mass m

Thin rectangular plate of height h and of width w and mass m (Axis of rotation at the end of the plate)

Rod of length L and mass m

This expression assumes that the rod is an infinitely thin (but rigid) wire. This is a special case of the previous object for w = L and h = 0.

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This expression assumes that the rod is an infinitely thin (but rigid) wire. This is also a special case of the thin rectangular plate with axis of rotation at the end of the plate: h = L and w = 0. About a diameter: About the vertical axis:

Rod of length L and mass m (Axis of rotation at the end of the rod)

Torus of tube radius a, cross-sectional radius b and mass m.

Plane polygon with vertices , , ..., and mass

uniformly distributed on its interior, rotating about an axis perpendicular to the plane and passing through the origin. Infinite disk with mass normally distributed on two axes around the axis of rotation (i.e.

Where :

is the mass-density

as a function of x and y.)

See also
Parallel axis theorem Perpendicular axis theorem List of area moments of inertia List of moment of inertia tensors

References
[1] Classical Mechanics - Moment of inertia of a uniform hollow cylinder (http:/ / www. livephysics. com/ problems-and-answers/ classical-mechanics/ find-moment-of-inertia-of-a-uniform-hollow-cylinder. html). LivePhysics.com. Retrieved on 2008-01-31.

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Simple harmonic motion

In physics, simple harmonic motion (SHM) is the motion of a simple harmonic oscillator, a periodic motion that is neither driven nor damped. A body in simple harmonic motion experiences a single force which is given by Hooke's law; that is, the force is directly proportional to the displacement x and points in the opposite direction. The motion is periodic: the body oscillates about an equilibrium position in a sinusoidal pattern. Each oscillation is identical, and thus the period, frequency, and amplitude of the motion are constant. If the equilibrium position is taken to be zero, the displacement x of the body at any time t is given by

where A is the amplitude, f is the frequency, and is the phase. The frequency of the motion is determined by the intrinsic properties of the system (often the mass of the body and a force constant), while the amplitude and phase are determined by the initial conditions (displacement and velocity) of the system. The kinetic and potential energies of the system are also determined by these properties and conditions. Simple harmonic motion can serve as a mathematical model of a variety of motions, such as the oscillation of a spring. Other phenomena can be approximated by simple harmonic motion, including the motion of a pendulum and molecular vibration. Simple harmonic motion provides the basis of the characterization of more complicated motions through the techniques of Fourier analysis.

Simple harmonic motion. In this moving graph, the vertical axis represents the coordinate of the particle (x in the equation), and the horizontal axis represents time (t).

Introduction
A typical example of a system that undergoes simple harmonic motion is an idealized springmass system, which is a mass attached to a spring. If the spring is unstretched, there is no net force on the mass (that is, the system is in mechanical equilibrium). However, if the mass is displaced from equilibrium, the spring will exert a restoring force, which is a force that tends to restore the mass to the equilibrium position. In the case of the springmass system, this force is the elastic force, which is given by Hooke's Law,

where F is the restoring force, x is the displacement, and k is the spring constant.

Simple harmonic motion shown both in real space and phase space. The orbit is periodic. (Here the velocity and position axes have been reversed from the standard convention in order to align the two diagrams)

Simple harmonic motion Any system that undergoes simple harmonic motion exhibits two key features. 1. When the system is displaced from equilibrium there must exist a restoring force that tends to restore it to equilibrium. 2. The restoring force must be proportional to the displacement, or approximately so. The spring-mass system satisfies both. Once the mass is displaced it experiences a restoring force, accelerating it, causing it to start going back to the equilibrium position. As it gets closer to equilibrium the restoring force decreases; at the equilibrium position the restoring force is 0. However, at x = 0, the mass has some momentum due to the impulse of the force that has acted on it; this causes the mass to shoot past the equilibrium position, in this case, compressing the spring. The restoring force then tends to slow it down, until the velocity reaches 0, whereby it will attempt to reach equilibrium position again. As long as the system does not lose energy, the mass will continue to oscillate like so; thus, the motion is termed periodic motion. Further analysis will show that in the case of the spring-mass system the motion is simple harmonic.

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Dynamics of simple harmonic motion

For oscillation in a single dimension, combining Newton's second law (F = m d2x/dt2) and Hooke's law (F = kx, as above) gives the second-order linear differential equation

where m is the mass of the body, x is its displacement from the mean position, and k is a constant. The solutions to this differential equation are sinusoidal; one solution is where A, , and are constants, and the equilibrium position is chosen to be the origin.[1] Each of these constants represents an important physical property of the motion: A is the amplitude, = 2f is the angular frequency, and is the phase.[2] Using the techniques of differential calculus, the velocity and acceleration as a function of time can be found:

Position, velocity and acceleration of a harmonic oscillator

Acceleration can also be expressed as a function of displacement: Now since ma = m2x = kx,

Then since = 2f,

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153

and since T = 1/f where T is the time period,

These equations demonstrate that period and frequency are independent of the amplitude and the initial phase of the motion.

Energy of simple harmonic motion

The kinetic energy K of the system at time t is

and the potential energy is

The total mechanical energy of the system therefore has the constant value

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Examples
Simple harmonic motion is exhibited in a variety of simple physical systems and below are some examples.

Mass on a spring
A mass m attached to a spring of spring constant k exhibits simple harmonic motion in space. The equation

An undamped spring-mass system undergoes simple harmonic motion.

shows that the period of oscillation is independent of both the amplitude and gravitational acceleration.

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155

Uniform circular motion

Simple harmonic motion can in some cases be considered to be the one-dimensional projection of uniform circular motion. If an object moves with angular velocity around a circle of radius r centered at the origin of the x-y plane, then its motion along each coordinate is simple harmonic motion with amplitude r and angular frequency .

Mass on a simple pendulum

In the small-angle approximation, the motion of a simple pendulum is approximated by simple harmonic motion. The period of a mass attached to a string of length with gravitational acceleration g is given by

The motion of an undamped Pendulum approximates to simple harmonic motion if the amplitude is very small.

This shows that the period of oscillation is independent of the amplitude and mass of the pendulum but not the acceleration due to gravity (g), therefore a pendulum of the same length on the Moon would swing more slowly due to the Moon's lower gravitational acceleration. This approximation is accurate only in small angles because of the expression for angular acceleration being proportional to the sine of position: where I is the moment of inertia; in this case I = m2. When is small, sin and therefore the expression becomes

which makes angular acceleration directly proportional to , satisfying the definition of simple harmonic motion.

Simple harmonic motion For a solution not relying on a small-angle approximation, see pendulum (mathematics).

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See also
Isochronous Uniform circular motion Complex harmonic motion Damping Harmonic oscillator

External links
Simple Harmonic Motion [3] from HyperPhysics Java simulation of spring-mass oscillator [4]

References
[1] The choice of using a cosine in this equation is arbitrary in that

is also a valid solution, since in general cos() = sin( /2). By using a trigonometric identity,

and so

is also a valid solution for appropriately chosen constants a and b. [2] The maximum displacement (that is, the amplitude), xmax, occurs when cos(t + ) = 1, and thus when xmax = A. So A is the amplitude. Since

2/ is the period T. Then since T = 1/f, = 2f is the angular velocity. [3] http:/ / hyperphysics. phy-astr. gsu. edu/ hbase/ shm. html [4] http:/ / www. phy. hk/ wiki/ englishhtm/ SpringSHM. htm

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Pendulum

"Simple gravity pendulum" assumes no air resistance and no friction.

An animation of a pendulum showing the velocity and acceleration vectors (v and A). Ornamented pendulum in a French Comtoise clock

A pendulum is a weight suspended from a pivot so it can swing freely.[1] When a pendulum is displaced from its resting equilibrium position, it is subject to a restoring force due to gravity that will accelerate it back toward the equilibrium position. When released, the restoring force combined with the pendulum's mass causes it to oscillate about the equilibrium position, swinging back and forth. The time for one complete cycle, a left swing and a right swing, is called the period. From its discovery around 1602 by Galileo Galilei the regular motion of pendulums was used for timekeeping, and was the world's most accurate timekeeping technology until the 1930s.[2] Pendulums are used to regulate pendulum clocks, and are used in scientific instruments such as accelerometers and seismometers. Historically they were used as gravimeters to measure the acceleration of gravity in geophysical surveys, and even as a standard of length. The word 'pendulum' is new Latin, from the Latin

Pendulum pendulus, meaning 'hanging'.[3] The simple gravity pendulum[4] is an idealized mathematical model of a pendulum.[5] [6] [7] This is a weight (or bob) on the end of a massless cord suspended from a pivot, without friction. When given an initial push, it will swing back and forth at a constant amplitude. Real pendulums are subject to friction and air drag, so the amplitude of their swings declines.

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Period of oscillation
The period of swing of a simple gravity pendulum depends on its length, the acceleration of gravity, and to a small extent on the maximum angle that the pendulum swings away from vertical, 0, called the amplitude.[8] It is independent of the mass of the bob. If the amplitude is limited to small swings, the period T of a simple pendulum, the time taken for a complete cycle, is:[9]

where L is the length of the pendulum and g is the local acceleration of gravity. For small swings, the period of swing is approximately the same for different size swings: that is, the period is independent of amplitude. This property, called isochronism, is the reason pendulums are so useful for timekeeping.[10] Successive swings of the pendulum, even if changing in amplitude, take the same amount of time. This formula is strictly accurate only for tiny infinitesimal swings. For larger amplitudes, the period increases gradually with amplitude so it is longer than given by equation (1). For example, at an amplitude of 0 = 23 it is 1% larger than given by (1). The true period cannot be represented by a closed formula but is given by an infinite series:[11] [12]

The difference between this true period and the period for small swings (1) above is called the circular error. Mathematically, for small swings the pendulum approximates a harmonic oscillator, and its motion approximates to simple harmonic motion:[5]

Compound pendulum
The length L of the ideal simple pendulum above, used for calculating the period, is the distance from the pivot point to the center of mass of the bob. For a real pendulum consisting of a swinging rigid body, called a compound pendulum, the length is more difficult to define. A real pendulum swings with the same period as a simple pendulum with a length equal to the distance from the pivot point to a point in the pendulum called the center of oscillation.[13] This is located under the center of mass, at a distance called the radius of gyration, that depends on the mass distribution along the pendulum. However, for the usual sort of pendulum in which most of the mass is concentrated in the bob, the center of oscillation is close to the center of mass.[14] Christiaan Huygens proved in 1673 that the pivot point and the center of oscillation are interchangeable.[15] This means if any pendulum is turned upside down and swung from a pivot at the center of oscillation, it will have the same period as before, and the new center of oscillation will be the old pivot point.

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History
One of the earliest known uses of a pendulum was in the first century seismometer device of Han Dynasty China scientist Zhang Heng.[16] Its function was to sway and activate one of a series of levers after being disturbed by the tremor of an earthquake far away.[17] Released by the lever, a small ball would fall out of the urn-shaped device into one of eight metal toad's mouths below, at the eight points of the compass, signifying the direction the earthquake was located.[17] Many sources claim that tenth century Egyptian astronomer Ibn Yunis used a pendulum for time measurement[18] [19] [20] [21] [22] , but other sources claim this was a myth started in 1684 by British historian Edward Bernard.[23] [24] During the Renaissance, large pendulums were used as sources of power for manual reciprocating machines such as saws, bellows, and pumps.[25] Leonardo da Vinci made many drawings of the motion of pendulums, though without realizing its value for timekeeping. Italian scientist Galileo Galilei was the first to study the properties of pendulums, beginning around 1602.[26] His biographer and student, Vincenzo Viviani, claimed his interest had been sparked around 1582 by the swinging motion of a chandelier in the Pisa cathedral.[27] Galileo discovered the crucial property that makes pendulums useful as timekeepers, called isochronism; the period of the pendulum is approximately independent of the amplitude or width of the swing.[28] He also found that the period is independent of the mass of the bob, and proportional to the square root of the length of the pendulum. He first employed freeswinging pendulums in simple timing applications, such as a metronome for musicians. A physician friend used it as a timer to take patients' pulse, the pulsilogium[26] . In 1641 Galileo also conceived a design for a pendulum clock.[28] [29] The pendulum was the first harmonic oscillator used by man.[28] In 1656 the Dutch scientist Christiaan Huygens built the first pendulum clock.[30] This was a great improvement over existing mechanical clocks; their best accuracy was increased from around 15 minutes a day to around 15 seconds a day.[31] Pendulums spread over Europe as existing clocks were retrofitted with them.[32] The English scientist Robert Hooke studied the conical pendulum around 1666, consisting of a pendulum that is free to swing in two dimensions, with the bob rotating in a circle or ellipse.[33] He used the motions of this device as a model to analyze the orbital motions of the planets.[34] Hooke suggested to Isaac Newton in 1679 that the components of orbital motion consisted of inertial motion along a tangent direction plus an attractive motion in the radial direction. This played a part in Newton's formulation of the law of universal gravitation.[35] [36] Robert Hooke was also responsible for suggesting as early as 1666 that the pendulum could be used to measure the force of gravity.[33] During his expedition to Cayenne, French Guiana in 1671, Jean Richer found that a pendulum clock was 212 minutes per day slower at Cayenne than at Paris. From this he deduced that the force of gravity was lower at Cayenne.[37] [38] In 1687, Isaac Newton in Principia Mathematica showed that this was because the Earth was not a true sphere but slightly oblate (flattened at the poles) from the effect of centrifugal force due to its rotation, causing gravity to increase with latitude.[39] Portable pendulums began to be taken on voyages to distant lands, as precision gravimeters to measure the acceleration of gravity g at different points on Earth, eventually resulting in accurate models of the shape of the Earth.[40] In 1673, Christiaan Huygens published his theory of the pendulum, Horologium Oscillatorium sive de motu pendulorum.[41] [42] He demonstrated that for an object to descend down a curve under gravity in the same time interval, regardless of the starting point, it must follow a cycloid curve rather than the circular arc of a pendulum.[43] This confirmed the earlier observation by Marin Mersenne that the period of a pendulum does vary with its amplitude, and that Galileo's observation of isochronism was accurate only for small swings.[44] Huygens also solved the issue of how to calculate the period of an arbitrarily shaped pendulum (called a compound pendulum), discovering the center of oscillation, and its interchangeability with the pivot point.[45]

Pendulum The existing clock movement, the verge escapement, made pendulums swing in very wide arcs of about 100.[46] Huygens showed this was a source of inaccuracy, causing the period to vary with amplitude changes caused by small unavoidable variations in the clock's drive force.[47] To make its period isochronous, Huygens mounted cycloidal-shaped metal 'cheeks' next to the pivot in his 1673 clock, that constrained the suspension cord and forced the pendulum to follow a cycloid arc.[48] This solution didn't prove as practical as simply limiting the pendulum's swing to small angles of a few degrees. The realization that only small swings were isochronous motivated the development of the anchor escapement around 1670, which reduced the pendulum swing in clocks to 46.[46] [49] During the 18th and 19th century, the pendulum clock's role as the most accurate timekeeper motivated much practical research into improving pendulums. It was found that a major source of error was that the pendulum rod expanded and contracted with changes in ambient temperature, changing the period of swing.[8] [50] This was solved with the invention of temperature compensated pendulums, the mercury pendulum in 1721[51] and the gridiron pendulum in 1726, reducing errors in precision pendulum clocks to a few seconds per week.[48] The accuracy of gravity measurements made with pendulums was limited by the difficulty of finding the location of their center of oscillation. Huygens had discovered in 1673 that a pendulum has the same period when hung from its center of oscillation as when hung from its pivot,[15] and the distance between the two points was equal to the length of a simple gravity pendulum of the same period.[13] In 1818 British Captain Henry Kater invented the reversible Kater's pendulum[52] which used this principle, making possible very accurate measurements of gravity. For the next century the reversible pendulum was the standard method of measuring absolute gravitational acceleration. In 1851, Jean Bernard Lon Foucault showed that the plane of oscillation of a pendulum, like a gyroscope, tends to stay constant regardless of the motion of the pivot, and that this could be used to demonstrate the rotation of the Earth. He suspended a pendulum free to swing in two dimensions (later named the Foucault pendulum) from the dome of the Panthon in Paris. The length of the cord was 67m. Once the pendulum was set in motion, the plane of swing was observed to precess or rotate 360 clockwise in about 32 hours.[53] This was the first demonstration of the Earth's rotation that didn't depend on astronomical observations,[54] and a 'pendulum mania' broke out, as Foucault pendulums were displayed in many cities and attracted large crowds.[55] [56] Around 1900 low thermal expansion materials began to be used for pendulum rods in the highest precision clocks and other instruments, first invar, a nickel steel alloy, and later fused quartz, which made temperature compensation trivial.[57] Precision pendulums were housed in low pressure tanks, which kept the air pressure constant to prevent changes in the period due to changes in buoyancy of the pendulum due to changing atmospheric pressure.[57] The accuracy of the best pendulum clocks topped out at around a second per year.[58] [59] The timekeeping accuracy of the pendulum was exceeded by the quartz crystal oscillator, invented in 1921, and quartz clocks, invented in 1927, replaced pendulum clocks as the world's best timekeepers,[2] although the French Time Service continued using pendulum clocks in their official time standard ensemble until 1954.[60] Pendulum gravimeters were superseded by "free fall" gravimeters in the 1950s,[61] but pendulum instruments continued to be used into the 1970s.

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Grandfather clock pendulum

Mercury pendulum

Gridiron pendulum

Ellicott pendulum, another temperature compensated type

Invar pendulum in low pressure tank in Riefler regulator clock, used as the US time standard from 1909 to 1929

Use for time measurement

For 300 years, from its discovery around 1602 until development of the quartz clock in the 1930s, the pendulum was the world's standard for accurate timekeeping.[2] [62] In addition to clock pendulums, freeswinging seconds pendulums were widely used as precision timers in scientific experiments in the 17th and 18th centuries. Pendulums require great mechanical stability: a length change of only 0.02%, 0.2 millimeters in a grandfather clock pendulum, will cause an error of a minute per week.[63]

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Clock pendulums
Pendulums in clocks (see example at right) are usually made of a weight or bob (b) suspended by a rod of wood or metal (a).[8] [64] To reduce air resistance (which accounts for most of the energy loss in clocks)[65] the bob is traditionally a smooth disk with a lens-shaped cross section, although in antique clocks it often had carvings or decorations specific to the type of clock. In quality clocks the bob is made as heavy as the suspension can support and the movement can drive, since this improves the regulation of the clock (see Accuracy below). A common weight for seconds pendulum bobs is 15lbs. (6.8kg). Instead of hanging from a pivot, clock pendulums are usually supported by a short straight spring (d) of flexible metal ribbon. This avoids the friction and 'play' caused by a pivot, and the slight bending force of the spring merely adds to the pendulum's restoring force. A few precision clocks have pivots of 'knife' blades resting on agate plates. The impulses to keep the pendulum swinging are provided by an arm hanging in back of the pendulum called the crutch, (e), which ends in a fork, (f) whose prongs embrace the pendulum rod. The crutch is pushed back and forth by the clock's escapement, (g,h). Each time the pendulum swings through its center position, it releases one tooth of the escape wheel (g). The wheel turns, and the tooth presses against one of the pallets (h), giving the pendulum a short push. The clock's wheels, geared to the escape wheel, move forward a fixed amount with each pendulum swing, advancing the clock's hands. The pendulum always has a means of adjusting the period, usually by an Pendulum and anchor escapement adjustment nut (c) under the bob which moves it up or down on the rod.[8] [66] from a grandfather clock Moving the bob up decreases the pendulum's length, causing the pendulum to swing faster and the clock to gain time. Some precision clocks have a small auxiliary adjustment weight on a threaded shaft on the bob, to allow finer adjustment. Some precision and tower clocks use a tray attached to the pendulum rod, to which small weights can be added or removed, to allow the rate to be adjusted without stopping the clock.[67] [68] The pendulum must be suspended from a rigid support.[8] [69] During operation, any elasticity in the support will allow tiny imperceptible swaying motions of the support, which disturbs the clock's period, resulting in error. Pendulum clocks should be attached firmly to a sturdy wall. The most common pendulum length in quality clocks, which is always used in grandfather clocks, is the seconds pendulum, about 1 meter (39inches) long. In mantel clocks, half-second pendulums, 25cm (10in) long, or shorter, are used. Only a few large tower clocks use longer pendulums, the 1.5 second pendulum, 2.25 m (7ft) long, or occasionally the two-second pendulum, 4 m (13ft).[8] [70]

Temperature compensation
The largest source of error in early pendulums was slight changes in length due to thermal expansion and contraction of the pendulum rod with changes in ambient temperature.[71] This was discovered when people noticed that pendulum clocks ran slower in summer, by as much as a minute per week[50] [72] (one of the first was Godefroy Wendelin, as reported by Huygens in 1658)[73] and was first studied by Jean Picard in 1669.[74] A pendulum with a steel rod will expand by about 11.3 parts per million with each degree Celsius increase (6.3in/(inF)), causing it to lose about 0.27 seconds per day, or 16 seconds per day for a 60 F (33 C) change. Wood rods expand less, losing only about 6 seconds per day for a 60 F change, which is why quality clocks often had wooden pendulum rods.

Pendulum Mercury pendulum The first device to compensate for this error was the mercury pendulum, invented by George Graham[51] in 1721.[8] [72] The liquid metal mercury expands in volume with temperature. In a mercury pendulum, the pendulum's weight (bob) is made of a container of mercury. With a temperature rise, the pendulum rod gets longer, but the mercury also expands and its surface level rises slightly in the container, moving its center of mass closer to the pendulum pivot. By using the correct height of mercury in the container these two effects will cancel, leaving the pendulum's center of mass, and its period, unchanged with temperature. Its main disadvantage was that when the temperature changed, the rod would come to the new temperature quickly but the mass of mercury might take a day or two to reach the new temperature, causing the rate to deviate during that time.[75] To improve thermal accommodation several thin containers were often used, made of metal. Mercury pendulums were the standard used in precision clocks into the 1900s.[76] Gridiron pendulum The most widely used compensated pendulum was the gridiron pendulum, invented in 1726 by John Harrison.[8] [72] [75] This consists of alternating rods of two different metals, one with lower thermal expansion (CTE), steel, and one with Mercury pendulum in Howard higher thermal expansion, zinc or brass. The rods are connected by a frame as astronomical regulator clock, 1887 shown, so that an increase in length of the zinc rods pushes the bob up, shortening the pendulum. With a temperature increase, the low expansion steel rods make the pendulum longer, while the high expansion zinc rods make it shorter. By making the rods of the correct lengths, the greater expansion of the zinc cancels out the expansion of the steel rods which have a greater combined length, and the pendulum stays the same length with temperature. Zinc-steel gridiron pendulums are made with 5 rods, but the thermal expansion of brass is closer to steel, so brass-steel gridirons usually require 9 rods. Gridiron pendulums adjust to temperature changes faster than mercury pendulums, but scientists found that friction of the rods sliding in their holes in the frame caused gridiron pendulums to adjust in a series of tiny jumps.[75] In high precision clocks this caused the clock's rate to change suddenly with each jump. Later it was found that zinc is subject to creep. For these reasons mercury pendulums were used in the highest precision clocks, but gridirons were used in quality regulator clocks. They became so associated with quality that, to this day, many ordinary clock pendulums have decorative 'fake' gridirons that don't actually have any temperature compensation function. Invar and fused quartz Around 1900 low thermal expansion materials were developed which, when used as pendulum rods, made elaborate temperature compensation unnecessary.[8] [72] These were only used in a few of the highest precision clocks before the pendulum became obsolete as a time standard. In 1896 Charles Edouard Guillaume invented the nickel-steel alloy Invar. This has a CTE of around 0.5 in/(inF), resulting in pendulum temperature errors over 71 F of only 1.3 seconds per day, and this residual error could be compensated to zero with a few centimeters of aluminum under the pendulum bob[2] [75] (this can be seen in the Riefler clock image above). Invar pendulums were first used in 1898 in the Riefler regulator clock[77] which achieved accuracy of 15 milliseconds per day. Suspension springs of Elinvar were used to eliminate temperature variation of the spring's restoring force on the pendulum. Later fused quartz was used which had even lower CTE. These materials are the choice for modern high accuracy pendulums.[78]

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Atmospheric pressure
The presence of air around the pendulum has three effects on the period:[57] [79] By Archimedes principle the effective weight of the bob is reduced by the buoyancy of the air it displaces, while the mass (inertia) remains the same, reducing the pendulum's acceleration during its swing and increasing the period. This depends on the density but not the shape of the pendulum. The pendulum carries an amount of air with it as it swings, and the mass of this air increases the inertia of the pendulum, again reducing the acceleration and increasing the period. Viscous air resistance slows the pendulum's velocity. This has a negligible effect on the period, but dissipates energy, reducing the amplitude. This reduces the pendulum's Q factor, requiring a stronger drive force from the clock's mechanism to keep it moving, which causes increased disturbance to the period. So increases in barometric pressure slow the pendulum slightly due to the first two effects, by about 0.11 seconds per day per kilopascal (0.37 seconds per day per inch of mercury or 0.015 seconds per day per torr).[57] Researchers using pendulums to measure the acceleration of gravity had to correct the period for the air pressure at the altitude of measurement, computing the equivalent period of a pendulum swinging in vacuum. A pendulum clock was first operated in a constant-pressure tank by Friedrich Tiede in 1865 at the Berlin Observatory,[80] [81] and by 1900 the highest precision clocks were mounted in tanks that were kept at a constant pressure to eliminate changes in atmospheric pressure. Alternately, in some a small aneroid barometer mechanism attached to the pendulum compensated for this effect.

Gravity
Pendulums are affected by changes in gravitational acceleration, which varies by as much as 0.5% at different locations on Earth, so pendulum clocks have to be recalibrated after a move. Even moving a pendulum clock to the top of a tall building can cause it to lose measurable time from the reduction in gravity.

Accuracy of pendulums as timekeepers

The timekeeping elements in all clocks, which include pendulums, balance wheels, the quartz crystals used in quartz watches, and even the vibrating atoms in atomic clocks, are in physics called harmonic oscillators. The reason harmonic oscillators are used in clocks is that they vibrate or oscillate at a specific resonant frequency or period and resist oscillating at other rates. However the resonant frequency is not infinitely 'sharp'. Around the resonant frequency there is a narrow natural band of frequencies (or periods), called the resonance width or bandwidth, where the harmonic oscillator will oscillate.[82] [83] In a clock, the actual frequency of the pendulum may vary randomly within this bandwidth in response to disturbances, but at frequencies outside this band, the clock will not function at all.

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Q factor
The measure of a harmonic oscillator's resistance to disturbances to its oscillation period is a dimensionless parameter called the Q factor equal to the resonant frequency divided by the bandwidth.[83] [84] The higher the Q, the smaller the bandwidth, and the more constant the frequency or period of the oscillator for a given disturbance.[85] The reciprocal of the Q is roughly proportional to the limiting accuracy achievable by a harmonic oscillator as a time standard.[86] The Q is related to how long it takes for the oscillations of an oscillator to die out. The Q of a pendulum can be measured by counting the number of oscillations it takes for the amplitude of the pendulum's swing to decay to 1/e = 36.8% of its initial swing, and multiplying by 2. In a clock, the pendulum must receive pushes from the clock's movement to keep it swinging, to replace the energy the pendulum loses to friction. These pushes, applied by a mechanism called the escapement, are the A Shortt-Synchronome free pendulum clock, the most accurate main source of disturbance to the pendulum's motion. pendulum clock ever made, at the NIST museum, Gaithersburg, MD, The Q is equal to 2 times the energy stored in the USA. It kept time with two synchronized pendulums. The master pendulum in the vacuum tank (left) swung free of virtually any pendulum, divided by the energy lost to friction during disturbance, and controlled the slave pendulum in the clock case each oscillation period, which is the same as the energy (right) which performed the impulsing and timekeeping tasks. Its added by the escapement each period. It can be seen accuracy was about a second per year. that the smaller the fraction of the pendulum's energy that is lost to friction, the less energy needs to be added, the less the disturbance from the escapement, the more 'independent' the pendulum is of the clock's mechanism, and the more constant its period is. The '\Q of a pendulum is given by:

where M is the mass of the bob, = 2/T is the pendulum's radian frequency of oscillation, and is the frictional damping force on the pendulum per unit velocity. is fixed by the pendulum's period, and M is limited by the load capacity and rigidity of the suspension. So the Q of clock pendulums is increased by minimizing frictional losses (). Precision pendulums are suspended on low friction pivots consisting of triangular shaped 'knife' edges resting on agate plates. Around 99% of the energy loss in a freeswinging pendulum is due to air friction, so mounting a pendulum in a vacuum tank can increase the Q, and thus the accuracy, by a factor of 100.[87] The Q of pendulums ranges from several thousand in an ordinary clock to several hundred thousand for precision regulator pendulums swinging in vacuum.[88] A quality home pendulum clock might have a Q of 10,000 and an accuracy of 10 seconds per month. The most accurate commercially produced pendulum clock was the Shortt-Synchronome free pendulum clock, invented in 1921.[2] [58] [89] [90] [91] Its Invar master pendulum swinging in a vacuum tank had a Q of 110,000[88] and an error rate of around a second per year.[58] This explains why pendulums are more accurate timekeepers than balance wheels, with Q around 100-300, but less accurate than quartz crystals with Q of 105106.[2] [88]

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Escapement
Pendulums (unlike, for example, quartz crystals) have a low enough Q that the disturbance caused by the impulses to keep them moving is generally the limiting factor on their timekeeping accuracy. Therefore the design of the escapement has a large effect on the accuracy of a clock pendulum. If the impulses given to the pendulum by the escapement each swing could be exactly identical, the response of the pendulum would be identical, and its period would be constant. This is not achievable; unavoidable random fluctuations in the force due to friction of the clock's pallets, lubrication variations, and changes in the torque provided by the clock's power source as it runs down, mean that the force of the impulse applied by the escapement varies. If these variations in the escapement's force cause changes in the pendulum's width of swing (amplitude), this will cause corresponding slight changes in the period, since (as discussed at top) a pendulum with a finite swing is not quite isochronous. Therefore, the goal of traditional escapement design is to apply the force with the proper profile, and at the correct point in the pendulum's cycle, so force variations have no effect on the pendulum's amplitude. This is called an isochronous escapement.

The Airy condition

In 1826 British astronomer George Airy proved what clockmakers had known for centuries; that the disturbing effect of a drive force on the period of a pendulum is smallest if given as a short impulse as the pendulum passes through its bottom equilibrium position.[2] Specifically, he proved that if a pendulum is driven by an impulse that is symmetrical about its bottom equilibrium position, the pendulum's amplitude will be unaffected by changes in the drive force; that is it will be isochronous.[92] The most accurate escapements, such as the deadbeat, approximately satisfy this condition.[93]

Gravity measurement
The presence of the acceleration of gravity g in the periodicity equation (1) for a pendulum means that the local gravitational acceleration of the Earth can be calculated from the period of a pendulum. A pendulum can therefore be used as a gravimeter to measure the local gravity, which varies by about 0.5% at different points on the surface of the Earth. The pendulum in a clock is disturbed by the pushes it receives from the clock movement, so freeswinging pendulums were used, and were the standard instruments of gravimetry up to the 1930s. The difference between clock pendulums and gravimeter pendulums is that to measure gravity, the pendulum's length as well as its period has to be measured. The period of freeswinging pendulums could be found to great precision by comparing their swing with a precision clock that had been adjusted to keep correct time by the passage of stars overhead. In the early measurements, a weight on a cord was suspended in front of the clock pendulum, and its length adjusted until the two pendulums swung in exact synchronism. Then the length of the cord was measured. From the length and the period, g could be calculated from (1).

The seconds pendulum

The seconds pendulum, a pendulum with a period of two seconds so each swing takes one second, was widely used to measure gravity, because most precision clocks had seconds pendulums. By the late 1600s, the length of the seconds pendulum became the standard measure of the strength of gravitational acceleration at a location. By 1700 its length had been measured with submillimeter accuracy at several cities in Europe. For a seconds pendulum, g is proportional to its length: .

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Early observations
1620: British scientist Francis Bacon was one of the first to propose using a pendulum to measure gravity, suggesting taking one up a mountain to see if gravity varies with altitude.[94] 1644: Even before the pendulum clock, French priest Marin Mersenne first determined the length of the seconds pendulum was 39.1 inches (993mm), by comparing the swing of a pendulum to the time it took a weight to fall a measured distance. 1669: Jean Picard determined the length of the seconds pendulum at Paris, using a 1-inch (25mm) copper ball suspended by an aloe fiber, obtaining 39.09inches (993mm).[95] 1672: The first observation that gravity varied at different points on Earth was made in 1672 by Jean Richer, who took a pendulum clock to Cayenne, French Guiana and found that it lost 212 minutes per day; its seconds pendulum had to be shortened by 114 lignes (2.6mm) shorter than at Paris, to keep correct time.[96] [97] In 1687 Isaac Newton in Principia Mathematica showed this was because the Earth had a slightly oblate shape (flattened at the poles) caused by the centrifugal force of its rotation, so gravity increased with latitude.[97] From this time on, pendulums began to be taken to distant lands to measure gravity, and tables were compiled of the length of the seconds pendulum at different locations on Earth. In 1743 Alexis Claude Clairaut created the first hydrostatic model of the Earth, Clairaut's formula,[95] which allowed the ellipticity of the Earth to be calculated from gravity measurements. Progressively more accurate models of the shape of the Earth followed. 1687: Newton experimented with pendulums (described in Principia) and found that equal length pendulums with bobs made of different materials had the same period, proving that the gravitational force on different substances was exactly proportional to their mass (inertia). 1737: French mathematician Pierre Bouguer made a sophisticated series of pendulum observations in the Andes mountains, Peru.[98] He used a copper pendulum bob in the shape of a double pointed cone suspended by a thread; the bob could be reversed to eliminate the effects of nonuniform density. He calculated the length to the center of oscillation of thread and bob combined, instead of using the center of the bob. He corrected for thermal expansion of the measuring rod and barometric pressure, giving his results for a pendulum swinging in vacuum. Bouguer swung the same pendulum at three different elevations, from sea level to the top of the high Peruvian altiplano. Gravity should fall with the inverse square of the distance from the center of the Earth. Bouguer found that it fell off slower, and correctly attributed the 'extra' gravity to the gravitational field of the huge Peruvian plateau. From the density of rock samples he calculated an estimate of the effect of the altiplano on the pendulum, and comparing this with the gravity of the Earth was able to make the first rough estimate of the density of the Earth.

1747: Daniel Bernoulli showed how to correct for the lengthening of the period due to a finite angle of swing 0 by using the first order correction 02/16, giving the period of a pendulum with an infinitesimal swing.[98]

Borda & Cassini's 1792 measurement of the length of the seconds pendulum

1792: To define a pendulum standard of length for use with the new metric system, in 1792 Jean-Charles de Borda and Jean-Dominique Cassini made a precise measurement of the seconds pendulum at Paris. They used a 112-inch (14mm) platinum ball suspended by a 12-foot (3.7m) iron wire. Their main innovation was a technique called the "method of coincidences" which allowed the period of pendulums to be compared with great precision. (Bouguer had also used this method). The time interval T between the recurring instants when the two

Pendulum pendulums swung in synchronism was timed. From this the difference between the periods of the pendulums, T1 and T2, could be calculated:

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1821: Francesco Carlini made pendulum observations on top of Mount Cenis, Italy, from which, using methods similar to Bouguer's, he calculated the density of the Earth.[99] He compared his measurements to an estimate of the gravity at his location assuming the mountain wasn't there, calculated from previous nearby pendulum measurements at sea level. His measurements showed 'excess' gravity, which he allocated to the effect of the mountain. Modeling the mountain as a segment of a sphere 11miles (18km) in diameter and 1mile (1.6km) high, from rock samples he calculated its gravitational field, and estimated the density of the Earth at 4.39 times that of water. Later recalculations by others gave values of 4.77 and 4.95, illustrating the uncertainties in these geographical methods

Kater's pendulum

A Kater's pendulum

Measuring gravity with Kater's reversible pendulum, from Kater's 1818 paper

The precision of the early gravity measurements above was limited by the difficulty of measuring the length of the pendulum, L . L was the length of an idealized simple gravity pendulum (described at top), which has all its mass concentrated in a point at the end of the cord. In 1673 Huygens had shown that the period of a real pendulum (called a compound pendulum) was equal to the period of a simple pendulum with a length equal to the distance between the pivot point and a point called the center of oscillation, located under the center of gravity, that depends on the mass distribution along the pendulum. But there was no accurate way of determining the center of oscillation in a real pendulum. To get around this problem, the early researchers above approximated an ideal simple pendulum as closely as possible by using a metal sphere suspended by a light wire or cord. If the wire was light enough, the center of oscillation was close to the center of gravity of the ball, at its geometric center. This "ball and wire" type of pendulum wasn't very accurate, because it didn't swing as a rigid body, and the elasticity of the wire caused its length to change slightly as the pendulum swung. However Huygens had also proved that in any pendulum, the pivot point and the center of oscillation were interchangeable.[15] That is, if a pendulum were turned upside down and hung from its center of oscillation, it would have the same period as it did in the previous position, and the old pivot point would be the new center of oscillation.

Pendulum British physicist and army captain Henry Kater in 1817 realized that Huygens' principle could be used to find the length of a simple pendulum with the same period as a real pendulum.[52] If a pendulum was built with a second adjustable pivot point near the bottom so it could be hung upside down, and the second pivot was adjusted until the periods when hung from both pivots were the same, the second pivot would be at the center of oscillation, and the distance between the two pivots would be the length of a simple pendulum with the same period. Kater built a reversible pendulum (shown at right) consisting of a brass bar with two opposing pivots made of short triangular "knife" blades (a) near either end. It could be swung from either pivot, with the knife blades supported on agate plates. Rather than make one pivot adjustable, he attached the pivots a meter apart and instead adjusted the periods with a moveable weight on the pendulum rod (b,c). In operation, the pendulum is hung in front of a precision clock, and the period timed, then turned upside down and the period timed again. The weight is adjusted with the adjustment screw until the periods are equal. Then putting this period and the distance between the pivots into equation (1) gives the gravitational acceleration g very accurately. Kater timed the swing of his pendulum using the "method of coincidences" and measured the distance between the two pivots with a microscope. After applying corrections for the finite amplitude of swing, the buoyancy of the bob, the barometric pressure and altitude, and temperature, he obtained a value of 39.13929inches for the seconds pendulum at London, in vacuum, at sea level, at 62 F. The largest variation from the mean of his 12 observations was 0.00028 in.[100] representing a precision of gravity measurement of 7106 (7 mGal or 70 m/s2). Kater's measurement was used as Britain's official standard of length (see below) from 1824 to 1855. Reversible pendulums (known technically as "convertible" pendulums) employing Kater's principle were used for absolute gravity measurements into the 1930s.

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Later pendulum gravimeters

The increased accuracy made possible by Kater's pendulum helped make gravimetry a standard part of geodesy. Since the exact location (latitude and longitude) of the 'station' where the gravity measurement was made was necessary, gravity measurements became part of surveying, and pendulums were taken on the great geodetic surveys of the 18th century, particularly the Great Trigonometric Survey of India. Invariable pendulums: Kater introduced the idea of relative gravity measurements, to supplement the absolute measurements made by a Kater's pendulum.[101] Comparing the gravity at two different points was an easier process than measuring it absolutely by the Kater method. All that was necessary was to time the period of an ordinary (single pivot) pendulum at the first point, then transport the pendulum to the other point and time its period there. Since the pendulum's length was constant, from (1) the ratio of the gravitational accelerations was equal to the square root of the Measuring gravity with an invariable pendulum, Madras, India, 1821 ratio of the periods, and no precision length measurements were necessary. So once the gravity had been measured absolutely at some central station, by the Kater or other accurate method, the gravity at other points could be found by swinging pendulums at the central station and then taking them to the nearby point. Kater made up a set of "invariable" pendulums, with only one knife edge pivot, which were taken to many countries after first being swung at a central station at Kew Observatory, UK. Airy's coal pit experiments: Starting in 1826, using methods similar to Bouguer, British astronomer George Airy attempted to determine the density of the Earth by pendulum gravity measurements at the top and bottom of a

Pendulum coal mine.[102] [103] The gravitational force below the surface of the Earth decreases rather than increasing with depth, because by Gauss's law the mass of the spherical shell of crust above the subsurface point does not contribute to the gravity. The 1826 experiment was aborted by the flooding of the mine, but in 1854 he conducted an improved experiment at the Harton coal mine, using seconds pendulums swinging on agate plates, timed by precision chronometers synchronized by an electrical circuit. He found the lower pendulum was slower by 2.24 seconds per day. This meant that the gravitational acceleration at the bottom of the mine, 1250ft below the surface, was 1/14,000 less than it should have been from the inverse square law; that is the attraction of the spherical shell was 1/14,000 of the attraction of the Earth. From samples of surface rock he estimated the mass of the spherical shell of crust, and from this estimated that the density of the Earth was 6.565 times that of water. Von Sterneck attempted to repeat the experiment in 1882 but found inconsistent results. Repsold-Bessel pendulum: It was time-consuming and error-prone to repeatedly swing the Kater's pendulum and adjust the weights until the periods were equal. Friedrich Bessel showed in 1835 that this was unnecessary.[104] As long as the periods were close together, the gravity could be calculated from the two periods and the center of gravity of the pendulum.[105] So the reversible pendulum didn't need to be adjustable, it could just be a bar with two pivots. Bessel also showed that if the pendulum was made symmetrical in form about its center, but was weighted internally at one end, the errors due to air drag would cancel out. Further, another error due to the finite diameter of the knife edges could be made to cancel out if they were interchanged between measurements. Bessel didn't construct such a pendulum, but in 1864 Adolf Repsold, under contract by the Swiss Geodetic Commission made a pendulum along these lines. The Repsold pendulum was about 56cm long and had a period of about 34 second. It was used extensively by European geodetic agencies, and with the Kater pendulum in the Survey of India. Similar pendulums of this type were designed by Charles Pierce and C. Defforges.

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Repsold pendulum, 1864

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Von Sterneck and Mendenhall gravimeters: In 1887 Austro-Hungarian scientist Robert von Sterneck developed a small gravimeter pendulum mounted in a temperature-controlled vacuum tank to eliminate the effects of temperature and air pressure. The pendulum had a half-second period, and was about 25cm long. It was nonreversible, so it was used for relative gravity measurements, but its small size made the apparatus small and portable. The period of the pendulum was picked off by reflecting the image of an electrical spark created by a precision chronometer off a mirror mounted at the top of the pendulum rod. The Von Sterneck instrument, and a similar instrument developed by Thomas C. Mendenhall of the US Coast and Geodetic Survey in 1890,[106] were used extensively for surveys into the 1920s.

Pendulums used in Mendenhall gravimeter, 1890

The Mendenhall pendulum was actually a more accurate timekeeper than the highest precision clocks of the time, and as the 'world's best clock' it was used by A. A. Michelson in his 1924 measurements of the speed of light on Mt. Wilson, California.[106] Double pendulum gravimeters: Starting in 1875, the increasing accuracy of pendulum measurements revealed another source of error in existing instruments: the swing of the pendulum caused a slight swaying of the tripod stand used to support portable pendulums, introducing error. In 1875 Charles S Peirce calculated that measurements of the length of the seconds pendulum made with the Repsold instrument required a correction of 0.2mm due to this error.[107] In 1880 C. Defforges used a Michelson interferometer to measure the sway of the stand dynamically, and interferometers were added to the standard Mendenhall apparatus to calculate sway corrections.[108] A method of preventing this error was first suggested in 1877 by Herv Faye and advocated by Peirce, Cellrier and Furtwangler: mount two identical pendulums on the same support, swinging with the same amplitude, 180 out of phase. The opposite motion of the pendulums would cancel out any sideways forces on the support. The idea was opposed due to its complexity, but by the turn of the century the Von Sterneck device and other instruments were modified to swing multiple pendulums simultaneously. Gulf gravimeter: One of the last and most accurate pendulum gravimeters was the apparatus developed in 1929 by the Gulf Research and Development Co.[109] [110] It used two pendulums made of fused quartz, each 10.7inches (272mm) in length with a period of 0.89 second, swinging on pyrex knife edge pivots, 180 out of phase. They were mounted in a permanently sealed temperature and humidity controlled vacuum chamber. Stray electrostatic charges on the quartz pendulums had to be discharged by exposing them to a radioactive salt before use. The period was detected by reflecting a light beam from a mirror at the top of the pendulum,
Quartz pendulums used in Gulf gravimeter, 1929

Pendulum recorded by a chart recorder and compared to a precision crystal oscillator calibrated against the WWV radio time signal. This instrument was accurate to within (0.30.5)107 (3050 microgals or 35 nm/s2).[109] It was used into the 1960s. Relative pendulum gravimeters were superseded by the simpler LaCoste zero-length spring gravimeter, invented in 1934 by Lucien LaCoste.[106] Absolute (reversible) pendulum gravimeters were replaced in the 1950s by free fall gravimeters, in which a weight is allowed to fall in a vacuum tank and its acceleration is measured by an optical interferometer.[61]

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Standard of length
Because the acceleration of gravity is constant at a given point on Earth, the period of a simple pendulum at a given location depends only on its length. Additionally, gravity varies only slightly at different locations. Almost from the pendulum's discovery until the early 19th century, this property led scientists to suggest using a pendulum of a given period as a standard of length. Until the 19th century, countries based their systems of length measurement on prototypes, metal bar primary standards, such as the standard yard in Britain kept at the Houses of Parliament, and the standard toise in France, kept at Paris. These were vulnerable to damage or destruction over the years, and because of the difficulty of comparing prototypes, the same unit often had different lengths in distant towns, creating opportunities for fraud.[111] Enlightenment scientists argued for a length standard that was based on some property of nature that could be determined by measurement, creating an indestructible, universal standard. The period of pendulums could be measured very precisely by timing them with clocks that were set by the stars. A pendulum standard amounted to defining the unit of length by the gravitational force of the Earth, for all intents constant, and the second, which was defined by the rotation rate of the Earth, also constant. The idea was that anyone, anywhere on Earth, could recreate the standard by constructing a pendulum that swung with the defined period and measuring its length. Virtually all proposals were based on the seconds pendulum, in which each swing (a half period) takes one second, which is about a meter (39inches) long, because by the late 1600s it had become a standard for measuring gravity (see previous section). By the 1700s its length had been measured with sub-millimeter accuracy at a number of cities in Europe and around the world. The initial attraction of the pendulum length standard was that it was believed (by early scientists such as Huygens and Wren) that gravity was constant over the Earth's surface, so a given pendulum had the same period at any point on Earth.[111] So the length of the standard pendulum could be measured at any location, and would not be tied to any given nation or region; it would be a truly democratic, worldwide standard. Although Richer found in 1672 that gravity varies at different points on the globe, the idea of a pendulum length standard remained popular, because it was found that gravity only varies with latitude. Gravitational acceleration increases smoothly from the equator to the poles, due to the oblate shape of the Earth. So at any given latitude (east-west line), gravity was constant enough that the length of a seconds pendulum was the same within the measurement capability of the 18th century. So the unit of length could be defined at a given latitude and measured at any point at that latitude. For example, a pendulum standard defined at 45 north latitude, a popular choice, could be measured in parts of France, Italy, Croatia, Serbia, Romania, Russia, Kazakhstan, China, Mongolia, the United States and Canada. In addition, it could be recreated at any location at which the gravitational acceleration had been accurately measured. By the mid 19th century, increasingly accurate pendulum measurements by Edward Sabine and Thomas Young revealed that gravity, and thus the length of any pendulum standard, varied measurably with local geologic features such as mountains and dense subsurface rocks.[112] So a pendulum length standard had to be defined at a single point on Earth and could only be measured there. This took much of the appeal from the concept, and efforts to adopt pendulum standards were abandoned.

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Early proposals
One of the first to suggest defining length with a pendulum was Flemish scientist Isaac Beeckman[113] who in 1631 recommended making the seconds pendulum "the invariable measure for all people at all times in all places".[114] Marin Mersenne, who first measured the seconds pendulum in 1644, also suggested it. The first official proposal for a pendulum standard was made by the British Royal Society in 1660, advocated by Christiaan Huygens and Ole Rmer, basing it on Mersenne's work,[115] and Huygens in Horologium Oscillatorum proposed a "horary foot" defined as 1/3 of the seconds pendulum. Christopher Wren was another early supporter. The idea of a pendulum standard of length must have been familiar to people as early as 1663, because Samuel Butler satirizes it in Hudibras:[116] Upon the bench I will so handle em That the vibration of this pendulum Shall make all taylors yards of one Unanimous opinion In 1671 Jean Picard proposed a pendulum defined 'universal foot' in his influential Mesure de la Terre.[117] Gabriel Mouton around 1670 suggested defining the toise either by a seconds pendulum or a minute of terrestrial degree. A plan for a complete system of units based on the pendulum was advanced in 1675 by Italian polymath Tito Livio Burratini. In France in 1747, geographer Charles Marie de la Condamine proposed defining length by a seconds pendulum at the equator; since at this location a pendulum's swing wouldn't be distorted by the Earth's rotation. British politicians James Steuart (1780) and George Skene Keith were also supporters. By the end of the 18th century, when many nations were reforming their weight and measure systems, the seconds pendulum was the leading choice for a new definition of length, advocated by prominent scientists in several major nations. In 1790, then US Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson proposed to Congress a comprehensive decimalized US 'metric system' based on the seconds pendulum at 38 North latitude, the mean latitude of the United States.[118] No action was taken on this proposal. In Britain the leading advocate of the pendulum was politician John Riggs Miller.[119] When his efforts to promote a joint BritishFrenchAmerican metric system fell through in 1790, he proposed a British system based on the length of the seconds pendulum at London. This standard was adopted in 1824 (below).

The meter
In the discussions leading up to the French adoption of the metric system in 1791, the leading candidate for the definition of the new unit of length, the meter, was the seconds pendulum at 45 North latitude. It was advocated by a group led by French politician Talleyrand and mathematician Antoine Nicolas Caritat de Condorcet. This was one of the three final options considered by the French Academy of Sciences committee. However on March 19, 1791 the committee instead chose to base the meter on the length of the meridian through Paris. A pendulum definition was rejected because of its variability at different locations, and because it defined length by a unit of time. (Ironically, since 1983 the meter has been officially defined in terms of the length of the second and the speed of light.) A possible additional reason is that the radical French Academy didn't want to base their new system on the second, a traditional and nondecimal unit from the ancien regime. Although not defined by the pendulum, the final length chosen for the meter, 107 of the pole-to-equater meridian, was very close to the length of the seconds pendulum (0.9937 m), within 0.63%. Although no reason for this particular choice was given at the time, it was probably to facilitate the use of the seconds pendulum as a secondary standard, as was proposed in the official document. So the modern world's standard unit of length is certainly closely linked historically with the seconds pendulum.

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Britain and Denmark

Britain and Denmark appear to be the only nations that (for a short time) based their units of length on the pendulum. In 1821 the Danish inch was defined as 1/38 of the length of the mean solar seconds pendulum at 45 latitude at the meridian of Skagen, at sea level, in vacuum.[120] [121] The British parliament passed the Imperial Weights and Measures Act in 1824, a reform of the British standard system which declared that if the prototype standard yard was destroyed, it would be recovered by defining the inch so that the length of the solar seconds pendulum at London, at sea level, in a vacuum, at 62 F was 39.1393inches.[122] This also became the US standard, since at the time the US used British measures. However, when the prototype yard was lost in the 1834 Houses of Parliament fire, it proved impossible to recreate it accurately from the pendulum definition, and in 1855 Britain repealed the pendulum standard and returned to prototype standards.

Other uses
Seismometers
A pendulum in which the rod is not vertical but almost horizontal was used in early seismometers for measuring earth tremors. The bob of the pendulum does not move when its mounting does, and the difference in the movements is recorded on a drum chart.

Schuler tuning
As first explained by Maximilian Schuler in a 1923 paper, a pendulum whose period exactly equals the orbital period of a hypothetical satellite orbiting just above the surface of the earth (about 84 minutes) will tend to remain pointing at the center of the earth when its support is suddenly displaced. This principle, called Schuler tuning, is used in inertial guidance systems in ships and aircraft that operate on the surface of the Earth. No physical pendulum is used, but the control system that keeps the inertial platform containing the gyroscopes stable is modified so the device acts as though it is attached to such a pendulum, keeping the platform always facing down as the vehicle moves on the curved surface of the Earth.

Coupled pendulums
In 1665 Huygens made a curious observation about pendulum clocks. Two clocks had been placed on his mantlepiece, and he noted that they had acquired an opposing motion. That is, their pendulums were beating in unison but in the opposite direction; 180 out of phase. Regardless of how the two clocks were started, he found that they would eventually return to this state, thus making the first recorded observation of a coupled oscillator.[123] The cause of this behavior was that the two pendulums were affecting each other through slight motions of the supporting mantlepiece. Many physical systems can be mathematically described as coupled oscillation. Under certain conditions these systems can also demonstrate chaotic motion.

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Religious practice
Pendulum motion appears in religious ceremonies as well. The swinging incense burner called a censer, also known as a thurible, is an example of a pendulum.[124] Pendulums are also seen at many gatherings in eastern Mexico where they mark the turning of the tides on the day which the tides are at their highest point. See also pendula for divination and dowsing.

Execution
Using the basic principal of the pendulum, the weight (bob) is replaced by an axe head. The victim is strapped to a table below, the device is activated, and the axe begins to swing back and forth through the air. With each pass, or return, the pendulum drops, gradually coming into closer proximity of the victim's torso, until finally cleaved. Because of the time required before the mortal action of the axe is complete, the pendulum is considered a method of torturing the victim before their demise.[125]

See also
Pendulum (mathematics) Pendulum clock Gridiron pendulum Simple harmonic motion Conical pendulum Spherical pendulum Double pendulum Foucault pendulum Kater's pendulum Harmonograph (a.k.a. "Lissajous pendulum") Metronome Seconds pendulum Torsional pendulum Inverted pendulum Furuta pendulum

External links
NAWCC National Association of Watch & Clock Collectors Museum [126] Graphical derivation of the time period for a simple pendulum [127] A more general explanation of pendula [128] Web-based calculator of pendulum properties from numerical inputs [129] FORTRAN code for a numerical model of a simple pendulum [130] FORTRAN code for modeling of a simple pendulum using the Euler and Euler-Cromer methods [131] Simple Pendulum Applet [132] Interrupted Pendulum [133] Java Applet

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Further reading
Michael R. Matthews, Arthur Stinner, Colin F. Gauld (2005)The Pendulum: Scientific, Historical, Philosophical and Educational Perspectives, Springer Michael R. Matthews, Colin Gauld and Arthur Stinner (2005) The Pendulum: Its Place in Science, Culture and Pedagogy. Science & Education, 13, 261-277. Matthys, Robert J. (2004). Accurate Pendulum Clocks [134]. UK: Oxford Univ. Press. ISBN 0198529716. Nelson, Robert; M. G. Olsson (February 1986). "The pendulum - Rich physics from a simple system" [135]. American Journal of Physics 54 (2): 112121. doi:10.1119/1.14703 [136]. Retrieved 2008-10-29.

References
Note: most of the sources below, including books, are viewable online through the links given.
[1] "Pendulum". Miriam Webster's Collegiate Encyclopedia. Miriam Webster. 2000. pp.1241. ISBN 0877790175. [2] Marrison, Warren (1948). "The Evolution of the Quartz Crystal Clock" (http:/ / www. ieee-uffc. org/ main/ history. asp?file=marrison). Bell System Technical Journal 27: 510588. . [3] Morris, William, Ed. (1979). The American Heritage Dictionary, New College Ed.. New York: Houghton-Mifflin. pp.969. ISBN 0395203600. [4] defined by Christiaan Huygens: Huygens, Christian (1673). "Horologium Oscillatorium" (http:/ / www. 17centurymaths. com/ contents/ huygens/ horologiumpart4a. pdf) (PDF). Some mathematical works of the 17th and 18th centuries (http:/ / www. 17centurymaths. com/ ). 17thcenturymaths.com. . Retrieved 2009-03-01., Part 4, Definition 3, translated July 2007 by Ian Bruce [5] Nave, Carl R. (2006). "Simple pendulum" (http:/ / hyperphysics. phy-astr. gsu. edu/ hbase/ pend. html). Hyperphysics (http:/ / hyperphysics. phy-astr. gsu. edu/ hbase/ hph. html). Georgia State Univ.. . Retrieved 2008-12-10. [6] Xue, Linwei (2008). "Pendulum Systems" (http:/ / www. mace. manchester. ac. uk/ project/ teaching/ civil/ structuralconcepts/ Dynamics/ pendulum/ pendulum_con. php). Seeing and Touching Structural Concepts. Civil Engineering Dept., Univ. of Manchester, UK. . Retrieved 2008-12-10. [7] Weisstein, Eric W. (2007). "Simple Pendulum" (http:/ / scienceworld. wolfram. com/ physics/ SimplePendulum. html). Eric Weisstein's world of science. Wolfram Research (http:/ / scienceworld. wolfram. com/ ). . Retrieved 2009-03-09. [8] Milham, Willis I. (1945). Time and Timekeepers. MacMillan., p.188-194 [9] Halliday, David; Robert Resnick, Jearl Walker (1997). Fundamentals of Physics, 5th Ed.. New York: John Wiley & Sons.. pp.381. ISBN 0471148547. [10] Cooper, Herbert J. (2007). Scientific Instruments (http:/ / www. google. com/ books?id=t7OoPLzXwiQC& pg=PA162). New York: Hutchinson's. pp.162. ISBN 1406768790. . [11] Nelson, Robert; M. G. Olsson (February 1986). "The pendulum - Rich physics from a simple system" (http:/ / fy. chalmers. se/ ~f7xiz/ TIF080/ pendulum. pdf). American Journal of Physics 54 (2): 112121. doi: 10.1119/1.14703 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1119/ 1. 14703). . Retrieved 2008-10-29. [12] "Clock" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=cLsUAAAAYAAJ& pg=PA538). Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Ed.. 6. The Encyclopaedia Britannica Publishing Co.. 1910. pp.538. . Retrieved 2009-03-04. includes a derivation [13] Huygens, Christian; translated July 2007 by Ian Bruce (1673). "Horologium Oscillatorium" (http:/ / www. 17centurymaths. com/ contents/ huygenscontents. html). Some mathematical works of the 17th and 18th centuries (http:/ / www. 17centurymaths. com/ ). 17thcenturymaths.com. . Retrieved 2009-03-01., Part 4, Proposition 5 [14] Glasgow, David (1885). Watch and Clock Making (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=9wUFAAAAQAAJ& pg=PA124). London: Cassel & Co.. pp.278. . [15] Huygens (1673) Horologium Oscillatorium (http:/ / www. 17centurymaths. com/ contents/ huygenscontents. html), Part 4, Proposition 20 [16] Morton, 70. [17] Needham, Volume 3, 627-629 [18] Good, Gregory (1998). Sciences of the Earth: An Encyclopedia of Events, People, and Phenomena (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=vdqXVddh0hUC& printsec=frontcover& client=opera). Routledge. pp.394. ISBN 081530062X,. . [19] Newton, Roger G. (2004). Galileo's Pendulum: From the Rhythm of Time to the Making of Matter (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=LWqwNY3qUfwC& pg=PA52). US: Harvard University Press. pp.52. ISBN 067401331X. . [20] Briffault, Robert (1928). The Making of Humanity (http:/ / www. archive. org/ stream/ makingofhumanity00brifrich/ makingofhumanity00brifrich_djvu. txt). London: George Allen & Unwin. pp.191. ISBN B00088VH2O. . [21] "Pendulum" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=icRWAAAAMAAJ& dq="Ibn+ Yunis"+ pendulum& client=opera). Encyclopedia Americana. 21. The Americana Corp.. 1967. pp.502. . Retrieved 2009-02-20. [22] Baker, Cyril Clarence Thomas (1961). Dictionary of Mathematics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=RlkYAAAAMAAJ& q=Ibn+ Yunis+ pendulum& dq=Ibn+ Yunis+ pendulum& lr=& client=opera& pgis=1). G. Newnes. pp.176. .

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[23] O'Connor, J. J.; Robertson, E. F. (November 1999). "Abu'l-Hasan Ali ibn Abd al-Rahman ibn Yunus" (http:/ / www-groups. dcs. st-and. ac. uk/ ~history/ Biographies/ Yunus. html). University of St Andrews. . Retrieved 2007-05-29. [24] King, D. A. (1979). "Ibn Yunus and the pendulum: a history of errors". Archives Internationales d'Histoire des Sciences 29 (104): 3552. [25] Matthews, Michael R. (2000). Time for science education (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=vCtYnEuW7TIC& pg=PR14& lpg=PR14). Springer. pp.87. ISBN 0306458802. . [26] Drake, Stillman (2003). Galileo at Work: His scientific biography (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=OwOlRPbrZeQC& pg=PA20). USA: Courier Dover. pp.2021. ISBN 0486495426. . [27] Murdin, Paul (2008). Full Meridian of Glory: Perilous Adventures in the Competition to Measure the Earth (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=YUHyhL8MyIQC& pg=PA41). Springer. pp.41. ISBN 0387755330. . [28] Van Helden, Albert (1995). "Pendulum Clock" (http:/ / galileo. rice. edu/ sci/ instruments/ pendulum. html). The Galileo Project (http:/ / galileo. rice. edu/ index. html). Rice Univ.. . Retrieved 2009-02-25. [29] Drake 2003 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=OwOlRPbrZeQC& pg=PA20), p.420 [30] although there are unsubstantiated references to prior pendulum clocks made by others: Usher, Abbott Payson (1988). A History of Mechanical Inventions (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=xuDDqqa8FlwC& pg=PA312& sig=J5ajZWdvRQER-CD4CFSHP2mXu6s). Courier Dover. pp.310311. ISBN 048625593X. . [31] Eidson, John C. (2006). Measurement, Control, and Communication using IEEE 1588 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=jmfkJYdEANEC& pg=PA11& lpg=PA11& dq="accuracy+ of+ clocks"& source=bl& ots=RzP8JX8o1i& sig=EPOtDEVefdgEeITLp-9H9X6OfKw). Burkhausen. pp.11. ISBN 1846282500. . [32] Milham 1945, p.145 [33] O'Connor, J.J.; E.F. Robertson (August 2002). "Robert Hooke" (http:/ / www-groups. dcs. st-and. ac. uk/ ~history/ Biographies/ Hooke. html). Biographies, MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive (http:/ / www-groups. dcs. st-and. ac. uk/ ~history/ ). School of Mathematics and Statistics, Univ. of St. Andrews, Scotland. . Retrieved 2009-02-21. [34] Nauenberg, Michael (2006). "Robert Hooke's seminal contribution to orbital dynamics". Robert Hooke: Tercentennial Studies. Ashgate Publishing. pp.1719. ISBN 075465365X. [35] Nauenberg, Michael (2004). "Hooke and Newton: Divining Planetary Motions" (http:/ / scitation. aip. org/ journals/ doc/ PHTOAD-ft/ vol_57/ iss_2/ 13_1. shtml). Physics Today 57 (2): 13. doi: 10.1063/1.1688052 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1063/ 1. 1688052). . Retrieved 2007-05-30. [36] The KGM Group, Inc. (2004). "Heliocentric Models" (http:/ / www. sciencemaster. com/ space/ item/ helio_4. php). Science Master. . Retrieved 2007-05-30. [37] Lenzen, Victor F.; Robert P. Multauf (1964). "Paper 44: Development of gravity pendulums in the 19th century" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=A1IqAAAAMAAJ& pg=RA2-PA307). United States National Museum Bulletin 240: Contributions from the Museum of History and Technology reprinted in Bulletin of the Smithsonian Institution. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press. pp.307. . Retrieved 2009-01-28. [38] Richer, Jean (1679). Observations astronomiques et physiques faites en l'isle de Caenne. Mmoires de l'Acadmie Royale des Sciences. cited in Lenzen & Multauf, 1964 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=A1IqAAAAMAAJ& pg=RA2-PA307), p.307 [39] Lenzen & Multauf, 1964 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=A1IqAAAAMAAJ& pg=RA2-PA307), p.307 [40] Poynting, John Henry; Joseph John Thompson (1907). A Textbook of Physics, 4th Ed. (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=TL4KAAAAIAAJ& pg=PA20#). London: Charles Griffin & Co.. pp.2022. . [41] Huygens, Christian; translated by Ian Bruce (July 2007). "Horologium Oscillatorium" (http:/ / www. 17centurymaths. com/ contents/ huygenscontents. html) (PDF). Some mathematical works of the 17th and 18th centuries (http:/ / www. 17centurymaths. com/ ). 17thcenturymaths.com. . Retrieved 2009-03-01. [42] The constellation of Horologium was later named in honor of this book. [43] Huygens, Horologium Oscillatorium (http:/ / www. 17centurymaths. com/ contents/ huygens/ horologiumpart2b. pdf), Part 2, Proposition 25 [44] Mahoney, Michael S. (March 19, 2007). "Christian Huygens: The Measurement of Time and of Longitude at Sea" (http:/ / www. princeton. edu/ ~mike/ articles/ huygens/ timelong/ timelong. html). Princeton University. . Retrieved 2007-05-27. [45] Bevilaqua, Fabio; Lidia Falomo, Lucio Fregonese, Enrico Gianetto, Franco Giudise, Paolo Mascheretti (2005). "The pendulum: From constrained fall to the concept of potential" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=3GV2NgDwtjMC& pg=PA195). The Pendulum: Scientific, Historical, Philosophical, and Educational Perspectives. Springer. pp.195200. ISBN 140203525X. . Retrieved 2008-02-26. gives a detailed description of Huygen's methods [46] Headrick, Michael (2002). "Origin and Evolution of the Anchor Clock Escapement" (http:/ / www. geocities. com/ mvhw/ anchor. html). Control Systems magazine, Inst. Of Electrical and Electronic Engineers 22 (2). . Retrieved 2007-06-06. [47] "...it is affected by either the intemperance of the air or any faults in the mechanism so the crutch QR is not always activated by the same force... With large arcs the swings take longer, in the way I have explained, therefore some inequalities in the motion of the timepiece exist from this cause...", Huygens, Christiaan (1658). Horologium (http:/ / www. antique-horology. org/ _Editorial/ Horologium/ Horologium. pdf). The Hague: Adrian Vlaqc. ., translation by Ernest L. Edwardes (December 1970) Antiquarian Horology, Vol.7, No.1 [48] Andrewes, W.J.H. Clocks and Watches: The leap to precision (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=F7wNQk219KMC& pg=PA126& sig=v3OGcBZ9yAuEx-hfdTfUWnBfiFQ) in Macey, Samuel (1994). Encyclopedia of Time. Taylor & Francis. pp.123125. ISBN 0815306156. [49] Usher, 1988 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=xuDDqqa8FlwC& pg=PA312& sig=J5ajZWdvRQER-CD4CFSHP2mXu6s), p.312

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[50] Beckett, Edmund (Lord Grimsthorpe) (1874). A Rudimentary Treatise on Clocks and Watches and Bells, 6th Ed. (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=OvQ3AAAAMAAJ& pg=PA50). London: Lockwood & Co.. p.50. . [51] Graham, George (1726). "A contrivance to avoid irregularities in a clock's motion occasion'd by the action of heat and cold upon the rod of the pendulum". Philos. Trans. Royal Soc. 34: 4044. doi: 10.1098/rstl.1726.0006 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1098/ rstl. 1726. 0006). cited in Day, Lance; Ian McNeil (1996). Biographical Dictionary of the History of Technology (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=UuigWMLVriMC& pg=PA300& lpg=PA300& sig=DxwzIpgWvzTO32_jPN3sicyS4Nw). Taylor & Francis. pp.300. ISBN 0415060427. . [52] Kater, Henry (1818). "An account of experiments for determining the length of the pendulum vibrating seconds in the latitude of London" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=uaQOAAAAIAAJ& pg=PA83& lpg=PA83& dq="Henry+ Kater"+ kater+ pendulum& source=web& ots=TLNlFK_vHl& sig=Iq-S7UQ4apQbADjSSQOblhe0Sfc& hl=en). Phil. Trans. R. Soc. (London) 104 (33): 109. . Retrieved 2008-11-25. [53] Rubin, Julian (September 2007). "The Invention of the Foucault Pendulum" (http:/ / www. juliantrubin. com/ bigten/ foucaultpendulum. html). Following the Path of Discovery. . Retrieved 2007-10-31. [54] Amir Aczel (2003) Leon Foucault: His life, times and achievements, in Matthews,, Michael R.; Colin F. Gauld, Arthur Stinner (2005). The Pendulum: Scientific, Historical, Educational, and Philosophical Perspectives (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=3GV2NgDwtjMC& pg=PA177& sig=3hYk1zgtE3_UIT0EFAxE7mlnLqw& hl=en& ). Springer. pp.177. ISBN 140203525X. . [55] Giovannangeli, Franoise (November 1996). "Spinning Foucault's Pendulum at the Panthon" (http:/ / www. paris. org/ Kiosque/ nov96/ foucault. html). The Paris Pages. . Retrieved 2007-05-25. [56] Tobin, William (2003). The Life and Science of Leon Foucault: The man who proved the Earth rotates (http:/ / www. google. com/ books?id=UbMRmyxCZmYC& pg=PA148). UK: Cambridge University Press. pp.148149. ISBN 0521808553. . [57] "Clock" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=cLsUAAAAYAAJ& pg=PA540). Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Ed.. 6. The Encyclopaedia Britannica Publishing Co.. 1910. pp.540541. . Retrieved 2009-03-04. [58] Jones, Tony (2000). Splitting the Second: The Story of Atomic Time (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=krZBQbnHTY0C& pg=PA30). CRC Press. pp.30. ISBN 0750306408. . [59] Kaler, James B. (2002). Ever-changing Sky: A Guide to the Celestial Sphere (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=KYLSMsduNqcC& pg=PA183). UK: Cambridge Univ. Press. pp.183. ISBN 0521499186. . [60] Audoin, Claude; Bernard Guinot, Stephen Lyle (2001). The Measurement of Time: Time, Frequency, and the Atomic Clock (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=LqdgUcm03A8C). UK: Cambridge Univ. Press. pp.83. ISBN 0521003970. . [61] Torge, Wolfgang (2001). Geodesy: An Introduction (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=pFO6VB_czRYC& pg=PA177& lpg=PA177& sig=RiPpKaR2nWkbJfmaOmY7TfhYZOo& ). Walter de Gruyter. pp.177. ISBN 3110170728. . [62] Milham 1945, p.334 [63] calculated from equation (1) [64] Glasgow, David (1885). Watch and Clock Making (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=9wUFAAAAQAAJ& pg=PA279). London: Cassel & Co.. pp.279284. . [65] Matthys, Robert J. (2004). Accurate Pendulum Clocks (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Lx0v2dhnZo8C& pg=PA4& sig=yYIWqaccL-YA2Mrigw4sFw5k-tk). UK: Oxford Univ. Press. pp.4. ISBN 0198529716. . [66] Matthys 2004 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Lx0v2dhnZo8C& pg=PA91), p.91-92 [67] Beckett 1874 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=OvQ3AAAAMAAJ& pg=PA48), p.48 [68] "Regulation" (http:/ / www. oldandsold. com/ articles02/ clocks-r. shtml). Encyclopedia of Clocks and Watches. Old and Sold antiques marketplace. 2006. . Retrieved 2009-03-09. [69] Beckett 1874 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=OvQ3AAAAMAAJ& pg=PA43), p.43 [70] Glasgow 1885 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=9wUFAAAAQAAJ& pg=PA282), p.282 [71] Matthys 2004 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Lx0v2dhnZo8C& pg=PA3& sig=yYIWqaccL-YA2Mrigw4sFw5k-tk), p.3 [72] "Clock" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=cLsUAAAAYAAJ& pg=PA539). Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Ed.. 6. The Encyclopaedia Britannica Publishing Co.. 1910. pp.539540. . Retrieved 2009-03-04. [73] Huygens, Christiaan (1658). Horologium (http:/ / www. antique-horology. org/ _Editorial/ Horologium/ Horologium. pdf). The Hague: Adrian Vlaqc. ., translation by Ernest L. Edwardes (December 1970) Antiquarian Horology, Vol.7, No.1 [74] Zupko, Ronald Edward (1990). Revolution in Measurement: Western European Weights and Measures since the Age of Science (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=twUNAAAAIAAJ& printsec=frontcover#PPA131,M1). Diane Publishing. pp.131. ISBN 0871691868. . [75] Matthys 2004 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Lx0v2dhnZo8C& pg=PA7& sig=yYIWqaccL-YA2Mrigw4sFw5k-tk), p.7-12 [76] Milham 1945, p.335 [77] Milham 1945, p.331-332 [78] Matthys 2004 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Lx0v2dhnZo8C& pg=PA153& sig=yYIWqaccL-YA2Mrigw4sFw5k-tk), Part 3, p.153-179 [79] Poynting & Thompson, 1907, p.13-14 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=TL4KAAAAIAAJ& pg=PA13#) [80] Updegraff, Milton (February 7, 1902). "On the measurement of time" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=O44CAAAAYAAJ& pg=RA1-PA219& lpg=RA1-PA219& dq=tiede+ clock+ observatory& source=bl& ots=q6fI9H-21l& sig=O6Y_1qEGot1UXoKsOCyDXxbRHo8). Science (American Assoc. for the Advancement of Science) 15 (371): 218219. . Retrieved 2009-07-13.

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[81] Dunwoody, Halsey (1917). Notes, Problems, and Laboratory Exercises in Mechanics, Sound, Light, Thermo-Mechanics and Hydraulics, 1st Ed. (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=ZDe5XCIug_0C& pg=PA87). New York: John Wiley & Sons. pp.87. . [82] "Resonance Width" (http:/ / tf. nist. gov/ general/ enc-re. htm). Glossary. Time and Frequency Division, US National Institute of Standards and Technology. 2009. . Retrieved 2009-02-21. [83] Jespersen, James; Fitz-Randolph, Jane; Robb, John (1999). From Sundials to Atomic Clocks: Understanding Time and Frequency (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Z7chuo4ebUAC& pg=PA42& dq=clock+ resonance+ pendulum& lr=& sig=iBunChocEtJoeKS5p5IgJ1oyl4U). New York: Courier Dover. pp.4150. ISBN 0486409139. . p.39 [84] Matthys, Robert J. (2004). Accurate Pendulum Clocks (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Lx0v2dhnZo8C& pg=PA27& sig=yYIWqaccL-YA2Mrigw4sFw5k-tk). UK: Oxford Univ. Press. pp.2736. ISBN 0198529716. . has an excellent comprehensive discussion of the controversy over the applicability of Q to the accuracy of pendulums. [85] "Quality Factor, Q" (http:/ / tf. nist. gov/ general/ enc-q. htm). Glossary. Time and Frequency Division, US National Institute of Standards and Technology. 2009. . Retrieved 2009-02-21. [86] Matthys, 2004, p.32, fig. 7.2 and text (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Lx0v2dhnZo8C& pg=PA32& sig=yYIWqaccL-YA2Mrigw4sFw5k-tk) [87] Matthys, 2004, p.81 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Lx0v2dhnZo8C& pg=PA81& sig=yYIWqaccL-YA2Mrigw4sFw5k-tk) [88] "Q, Quality Factor" (http:/ / www. orologeria. com/ english/ magazine/ magazine4. htm). Watch and clock magazine. Antica Orologeria Lamberlin website (http:/ / www. orologeria. com/ english/ index. htm). . Retrieved 2009-02-21. [89] Milham 1945, p.615 [90] "The Reifler and Shortt clocks" (http:/ / www. clockvault. com/ heritage/ index. htm). JagAir Institute of Time and Technology (http:/ / www. clockvault. com/ index. html). . Retrieved 2009-12-29. [91] Betts, Jonathan (May 22, 2008). "Expert's Statement, Case 6 (2008-09) William Hamilton Shortt regulator" (http:/ / www. mla. gov. uk/ what/ cultural/ export/ reviewing_cttee/ ~/ media/ Files/ word/ 2009/ RCEWA/ Cases 2008-09/ Case 6 2008-09 Regulator/ internet experts statement shortt. ashx) (DOC). Export licensing hearing, Reviewing Committee on the Export of Works of Art and Objects of Cultural Interest. UK Museums, Libraries, and Archives Council (http:/ / www. mla. gov. uk/ ). . Retrieved 2009-12-29. [92] Airy, George Biddle (November 26, 1826). "On the Disturbances of Pendulums and Balances and on the Theory of Escapements" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=xQEBAAAAYAAJ& pg=PA105). Trans. Of the Cambridge Philosophical Society (University Press) 3 (Part 1): 105. . Retrieved 2008-04-25. [93] Beckett 1874 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=OvQ3AAAAMAAJ& pg=PA75), p.75-79 [94] Baker, Lyman A. (Spring 2000). "Chancellor Bacon" (http:/ / www-personal. ksu. edu/ ~lyman/ english233/ Voltaire-Bacon. htm). English 233 - Introduction to Western Humanities. English Dept., Kansas State Univ.. . Retrieved 2009-02-20. [95] Poynting & Thompson 1907, p.9 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=TL4KAAAAIAAJ& pg=PA9) [96] Poynting, John Henry; Joseph John Thompson (1907). A Textbook of Physics, 4th Ed. (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=TL4KAAAAIAAJ& pg=PA20#). London: Charles Griffin & Co.. pp.20. . [97] Victor F., Lenzen; Robert P. Multauf (1964). "Paper 44: Development of gravity pendulums in the 19th century" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=A1IqAAAAMAAJ& pg=RA2-PA307). United States National Museum Bulletin 240: Contributions from the Museum of History and Technology reprinted in Bulletin of the Smithsonian Institution. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press. pp.307. . Retrieved 2009-01-28. [98] Poynting & Thompson, 1907, p.10 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=TL4KAAAAIAAJ& pg=PA10) [99] Poynting, John Henry (1894). The Mean Density of the Earth (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=dg0RAAAAIAAJ& pg=PA23). London: Charles Griffin. pp.2224. . [100] Cox, John (1904). Mechanics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=EXQLAAAAMAAJ& pg=PA311). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press. pp.311312. . [101] Poynting & Thomson 1904, p.23 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=TL4KAAAAIAAJ& pg=PA23) [102] Poynting, John Henry (1894). The Mean Density of the Earth (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=dg0RAAAAIAAJ& pg=PA24). London: Charles Griffin & Co.. pp.2429. . [103] "Gravitation" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=DgTALFa3sa4C& pg=PA386). Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Ed.. 7. The Encyclopaedia Britannica Co.. 1910. pp.386. . Retrieved 2009-05-28. [104] Lenzen & Multauf 1964, p.320 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=A1IqAAAAMAAJ& pg=RA2-PA320) [105] Poynting & Thompson 1907, p.18 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=TL4KAAAAIAAJ& pg=PA18) [106] "The downs and ups of gravity surveys" (http:/ / celebrating200years. noaa. gov/ foundations/ gravity_surveys/ welcome. html#at). NOAA Celebrates 200 Years. US NOAA (National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration) (http:/ / noaa. gov). 2007-07-09. . [107] Lenzen & Multauf 1964, p.324 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=A1IqAAAAMAAJ& pg=RA2-PA324) [108] Lenzen & Multauf 1964, p.329 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=A1IqAAAAMAAJ& pg=RA2-PA329) [109] Woolard, George P. (June 28-29, 1957). "Gravity observations during the IGY" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=dUIrAAAAYAAJ& pg=PA200). Geophysics and the IGY: Proceedings of the symposium at the opening of the International Geophysical Year. Washington DC: American Geophysical Union, Nat'l Academy of Sciences. pp.200. . Retrieved 2009-05-27. [110] Lenzen & Multauf 1964, p.336, fig.28 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=A1IqAAAAMAAJ& pg=RA2-PA336) [111] Michael R., Matthews (2001). "Methodology and Politics in Science: The fate of Huygens 1673 proposal of the pendulum as an international standard of length and some educational suggestions" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=6Mk3YwBe5L4C& pg=PA296).

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Science, Education, and Culture: The contribution of history and philosophy of science. Springer. pp.296. ISBN 0792369726. . [112] Renwick, James (1832). The Elements of Mechanics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=gOEJAAAAIAAJ& pg=PA286). Philadelphia: Carey & Lea. pp.286287. . [113] Alder, Ken (2003). The measure of all things: The seven-year odyssey and hidden error that transformed the world (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=jwsDERPMPhsC& pg=RA1-PT27& dq=marin+ mersenne+ second+ pendulum& as_brr=3). US: Simon and Schuster. pp.88. ISBN 0743216768. . [114] cited in Jourdan, Louis (Mon, 22 Oct 2001 06:59:02). "Re: SI and dictionaries" (http:/ / www. mail-archive. com/ usma@colostate. edu/ msg07023. html). USMA mailing list. . Retrieved 2009-01-27. [115] Agnoli, Paolo; Giulio D'Agostini (December 2004). "Why does the meter beat the second?" (http:/ / www. citebase. org/ fulltext?format=application/ pdf& identifier=oai:arXiv. org:physics/ 0412078). Arxiv database. . Retrieved 2009-01-27., p.6 [116] quoted in LeConte, John (August 1885). "The Metric System" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=sFQ4AAAAIAAJ& pg=PA178). The Overland Monthly (San Francisco: Bacon and Co.) 6 (2): 178. . Retrieved 2009-03-04. [117] Zupko, 1990, p.131 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=twUNAAAAIAAJ& pg=PA131& source=gbs_selected_pages& cad=0_1) [118] Zupko, 1990, p.140-141 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=twUNAAAAIAAJ& pg=PA131& source=gbs_selected_pages& cad=0_1) [119] Zupko, 1990, p.93 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=twUNAAAAIAAJ& pg=PA131& source=gbs_selected_pages& cad=0_1) [120] Schumacher, Heinrich (1821). "Danish standard of length" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=KwEXAAAAYAAJ& pg=PA184). The Quarterly Journal of Science, Literature and the Arts (London: The Royal Institution of Great Britain) 11 (21): 184185. . Retrieved 2009-02-17. [121] "Schumacher, Heinrich Christian" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=OlJMAAAAMAAJ& pg=PA686& lpg=PA686). The American Cyclopedia. 14. D. Appleton & Co., London. 1883. pp.686. . Retrieved 2009-02-17. [122] Trautwine, John Cresson (1907). The Civil Engineer's Pocket-Book, 18th Ed. (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=qg41AAAAMAAJ& pg=PA216). New York: John Wiley. pp.216. . [123] Toon, John (September 8, 2000). "Out of Time: Researchers Recreate 1665 Clock Experiment to Gain Insights into Modern Synchronized Oscillators" (http:/ / gtresearchnews. gatech. edu/ newsrelease/ PENDULUM. html). Georgia Tech. . Retrieved 2007-05-31. [124] An interesting simulation of thurible motion can be found at this site (http:/ / www. sciences. univ-nantes. fr/ physique/ perso/ gtulloue/ Meca/ Oscillateurs/ botafumeiro. html#manip). [125] R.D. Melville (1905), "The Use and Forms of Judicial Torture in England and Scotland," The Scottish Historical Review, vol. 2, p. 228; Geoffrey Abbott (2006) Execution: the guillotine, the Pendulum, the Thousand Cuts, the Spanish Donkey, and 66 Other Ways of Putting Someone to Death, MacMillan, ISBN 0312352220, p. 213. Both refer to the use of the pendulum (pendola)by inquisitorial tribunals. Melville, however, refers only to its use as a torture method, while Abbott suggests that the device was purposely allowed to kill the victim if he refused to confess. [126] http:/ / www. nawcc. org [127] http:/ / www. sque. co. uk/ physics/ simple-pendulum/ [128] http:/ / scienceworld. wolfram. com/ physics/ Pendulum. html [129] http:/ / www. calctool. org/ CALC/ phys/ newtonian/ pendulum [130] http:/ / www. phy. ilstu. edu/ ~mnorton/ CL-2. txt [131] http:/ / www. phy. ilstu. edu/ ~mnorton/ Cl-3. txt [132] http:/ / www. physics-lab. net/ applets/ simple-pendulum [133] http:/ / phy. hk/ wiki/ englishhtm/ Pendulum. htm [134] http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Lx0v2dhnZo8C& pg=PA27& sig=yYIWqaccL-YA2Mrigw4sFw5k-tk [135] http:/ / fy. chalmers. se/ ~f7xiz/ TIF080/ pendulum. pdf [136] http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1119%2F1. 14703

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181

Precession
Precession is a change in the orientation of the rotation axis of a rotating body. It can be defined as a change in direction of the rotation axis in which the second Euler angle (nutation) is constant. In physics, there are two types of precession: torque-free and torque-induced. In astronomy, "precession" refers to any of several slow changes in an astronomical body's rotational or orbital parameters, and especially to the Earth's precession of the equinoxes. See Precession (astronomy).

Torque-free
Torque-free precession occurs when the axis of rotation differs slightly from an axis about which the object can rotate stably: a maximum or Precession of a gyroscope minimum principal axis. Poinsot's construction is an elegant geometrical method for visualizing the torque-free motion of a rotating rigid body. For example, when a plate is thrown, the plate may have some rotation around an axis that is not its axis of symmetry. This occurs because the angular momentum (L) is constant in absence of torques. Therefore it will have to be constant in the external reference frame, but the moment of inertia tensor (I) is non-constant in this frame because of the lack of symmetry. Therefore the spin angular velocity vector ( ) about the spin axis will have to evolve in time so that the matrix product L = I . remains constant. When an object is not perfectly solid, internal vortices will tend to damp torque-free precession, and the rotation axis will align itself with one of the inertia axes of the body. The torque-free precession rate of an object with an axis of symmetry, such as a disk, spinning about an axis not aligned with that axis of symmetry can be calculated as follows:

where

is the precession rate,

is the spin rate about the axis of symmetry,

is the angle between the axis of is

symmetry and the axis about which it precesses,

is the moment of inertia about the axis of symmetry, and

moment of inertia about either of the other two perpendicular principal axes. They should be the same, due to the symmetry of the disk.[1] Another type of torque-free precession can occur when there are multiple reference frames at work. For example, the earth is subject to local torque induced precession due to the gravity of the sun and moon acting upon the earths axis, but at the same time the solar system is moving around the galactic center. Consequently, an accurate measurement of the earths axial reorientation relative to objects outside the frame of the moving galaxy (such as distant quasars commonly used as precession measurement reference points) must account for a minor amount of non-local torque-free precession, due to the solar systems motion.

Torque-induced
Torque-induced precession (gyroscopic precession) is the phenomenon in which the axis of a spinning object (e.g. a part of a gyroscope) "wobbles" when a torque is applied to it. The phenomenon is commonly seen in a spinning toy top, but all rotating objects can undergo precession. If the speed of the rotation and the magnitude of the torque are constant the axis will describe a cone, its movement at any instant being at right angles to the direction of the torque. In the case of a toy top, if the axis is not perfectly vertical the torque is applied by the force of gravity tending to tip it over.

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182

The device depicted on the right here is gimbal mounted. From inside to outside there are three axes of rotation: the hub of the wheel, the gimbal axis and the vertical pivot. To distinguish between the two horizontal axes, rotation around the wheel hub will be called 'spinning', and rotation around the gimbal axis will be called 'pitching.' Rotation around the vertical pivot axis is called 'rotation'. First, imagine that the entire device is rotating around the (vertical) pivot axis. Then, spinning of the wheel (around the wheelhub) is added. Imagine the gimbal axis to be locked, so that the wheel cannot pitch. The gimbal axis has sensors, that measure whether there is a torque around the gimbal axis.

In the picture, a section of the wheel has been named dm1. At the depicted moment in time, section dm1 is at the perimeter of the rotating motion around the (vertical) pivot axis. Section dm1 therefore has a lot of angular rotating velocity with respect to the rotation around the pivot axis, and as dm1 is forced closer to the pivot axis of the rotation (by the wheel spinning further), due to the Coriolis effect dm1 tends to move in the direction of the top-left arrow in the diagram (shown at 45) in the direction of rotation around the pivot axis. Section dm2 of the wheel starts out at the vertical pivot axis, and thus initially has zero angular rotating velocity with respect to the rotation around the pivot axis, before the wheel spins further. A force (again, a Coriolis force) would be required to increase section dm2's velocity up to the angular rotating velocity at the perimeter of the rotating motion around the pivot axis. If that force is not provided, then section dm2's inertia will make it move in the direction of the top-right arrow. Note that both arrows point in the same direction. The same reasoning applies for the bottom half of the wheel, but there the arrows point in the opposite direction to that of the top arrows. Combined over the entire wheel, there is a torque around the gimbal axis when some spinning is added to rotation around a vertical axis. It is important to note that the torque around the gimbal axis arises without any delay; the response is instantaneous. In the discussion above, the setup was kept unchanging by preventing pitching around the gimbal axis. In the case of a spinning toy top, when the spinning top starts tilting, gravity exerts a torque. However, instead of rolling over, the spinning top just pitches a little. This pitching motion reorients the spinning top with respect to the torque that is being exerted. The result is that the torque exerted by gravity - via the pitching motion - elicits gyroscopic precession (which in turn yields a counter torque against the gravity torque) rather than causing the spinning top to fall to its side. Precession or gyroscopic considerations have an effect on bicycle performance at high speed. Precession is also the mechanism behind gyrocompasses. Gyroscopic precession also plays a large role in the flight controls on helicopters. Since the driving force behind helicopters is the rotor disk (which rotates), gyroscopic precession comes into play. If the rotor disk is to be tilted forward (to gain forward velocity), its rotation requires that the downward net force on the blade be applied roughly 90 degrees (depending on blade configuration) before, or when the blade is to one side of the pilot and rotating forward. To ensure the pilot's inputs are correct, the aircraft has corrective linkages which vary the blade pitch in advance of the blade's position relative to the swashplate. Although the swashplate moves in the intuitively correct direction, the blade pitch links are arranged to transmit the pitch in advance of the blade's position.

The response of a rotating system to an applied torque. When the device swivels, and some roll is added, the wheel tends to pitch.

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183

Classical (Newtonian)
Precession is the result of the angular velocity of rotation and the angular velocity produced by the torque. It is an angular velocity about a line which makes an angle with the permanent rotation axis, and this angle lies in a plane at right angles to the plane of the couple producing the torque. The permanent axis must turn towards this line, since the body cannot continue to rotate about any line which is not a principal axis of maximum moment of inertia; that is, the permanent axis turns in a direction at right angles to that in which the torque might be expected to turn it. If the rotating body is symmetrical and its motion unconstrained, and if the torque on the spin axis is at right angles to that axis, the axis of precession will be perpendicular to both the spin axis and torque axis. Under these circumstances the angular velocity of precession is given by:

The torque caused by the two opposing forces Fg and -Fg causes a change in the angular momentum L in the direction of that torque. This causes the top to precess.

In which Is is the moment of inertia,

is the angular velocity of spin about the spin axis, and m*g*r are the force = , we find

and radius that comes from the torque.The torque vector originates at the center of mass. Using that the period of precession is given by:

In which Is is the moment of inertia, Ts is the period of spin about the spin axis, and problem is more complicated than this, however.

is the torque. In general the

Relativistic
The special and general theories of relativity give three types of corrections to the Newtonian precession, of a gyroscope near a large mass such as the earth, described above. They are: Thomas precession a special relativistic correction accounting for the observer being in a rotating non-inertial frame. de Sitter precession a general relativistic correction accounting for the schwarzschild metric of curved space near a large non-rotating mass. Lense-Thirring precession a general relativistic correction accounting for the frame dragging by the Kerr metric of curved space near a large rotating mass.

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Astronomy
In astronomy, precession refers to any of several gravity-induced, slow and continuous changes in an astronomical body's rotational axis or orbital path.

Axial precession (precession of the equinoxes)

Axial precession is the movement of the rotational axis of an astronomical body, whereby the axis slowly traces out a cone. In the case of the Earth, this type of precession is also known as the precession of the equinoxes or precession of the equator. The Earth goes through one such complete precessional cycle in a period of approximately 26,000 years, during which the positions of stars as measured in the equatorial coordinate system will slowly change; the change is actually due to the change of the coordinates. Over this cycle the Earth's north axial pole moves from where it is now, within 1 of Polaris, in a circle around the ecliptic pole, with an angular radius of about 23.5 degrees (or approximately 23 degrees 27 arcminutes [2] ). The shift is 1 degree in 72 years, where the angle is taken from the observer, not from the center of the circle.
Precessional movement.

Discovery of the precession of the equinoxes is generally attributed to the ancient Greek astronomer Hipparchus (ca. 150 B.C.). The Precession (axial rotation) was later explained by Newtonian physics. Being an oblate spheroid, the Earth has a nonspherical shape, bulging outward at the equator. The gravitational tidal forces of the Moon and Sun apply torque as they attempt to pull the equatorial bulge into the plane of the ecliptic. The portion of the precession due to the combined action of the Sun and the Moon is called lunisolar precession.

Precession of the ecliptic

The inclination of Earth's orbit drifts up and down. Relative to its present orbit this drift has a period of about 70,000 years. Relative to the invariable plane it has a 100,000 year period. The invariable plane represents the angular momentum of the solar system, and is approximately the orbital plane of Jupiter.

Perihelion precession
The orbit of a planet around the Sun is not really an ellipse but a flower-petal shape because the major axis of each planet's elliptical orbit also precesses within its orbital plane, partly in response to perturbations in the form of the changing gravitational forces exerted by other planets. This is called perihelion precession or apsidal precession. Discrepancies between the observed perihelion precession rate of the planet Mercury and that predicted by classical mechanics were prominent among the forms of experimental evidence leading to the acceptance of Einstein's Theory of Relativity (in particular, his General Theory of Relativity), which accurately predicted the anomalies.[3] [4] These periodic changes of Earth's orbital parameters, combined with the precession of the equinoxes and of the inclination of the Earth's axis on its orbit, are an important part of the astronomical theory of ice ages. See also nodal precession. For precession of the lunar orbit see lunar precession.

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185

See also
De Sitter precession Larmor precession Lense-Thirring precession Nutation Polar motion Precession (mechanical) Thomas precession Euler angles

References
[1] Boal, David (2001). "Lecture 26 - Torque-free rotation - body-fixed axes" (http:/ / www. sfu. ca/ ~boal/ 211lecs/ 211lec26. pdf). . Retrieved 2008-09-17. [2] Cook, David R. (1999). "Tilt of Earth's Axis" (http:/ / www. newton. dep. anl. gov/ askasci/ env99/ env154. htm). Environmental Earth Science Archive, Ask A Scientist. United States Department of Energy. . Retrieved 2006-05-24. [3] Max Born (1924), Einstein's Theory of Relativity (The 1962 Dover edition, page 348 lists a table documenting the observed and calculated values for the precession of the perihelion of Mercury, Venus, and Earth.) [4] An even larger value for a precession has been found, for a black hole in orbit around a much more massive black hole, amounting to 39 degrees each orbit. (http:/ / www. dailygalaxy. com/ my_weblog/ 2008/ 03/ 18-billion-suns. html)

"Moon and Spica", StarDate July 14, 2005, University of Texas McDonald Observatory, (http://stardate.org/ radio/program.php?f=detail&id=20050714)

External links
Explanation and derivation of formula for precession of a top (http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/top. html)

Larmor precession

186

Larmor precession
In physics, Larmor precession (named after Joseph Larmor) is the precession of the magnetic moments of electrons, atomic nuclei, and atoms about an external magnetic field. The magnetic field exerts a torque on the magnetic moment,

where

is the torque,

is the magnetic dipole moment,

is the angular momentum vector,

is the external

magnetic field,

is the cross product, and

is the gyromagnetic ratio which gives the proportionality constant

between the magnetic moment and the angular momentum.

Larmor frequency
The angular momentum vector Larmor frequency, precesses about the external field axis with an angular frequency known as the

where

is the angular frequency,[1]

is the gyromagnetic ratio, and

is the magnitude of the magnetic

field[2] and is the g-factor (normally 1, except for in quantum physics). Each isotope has a unique Larmor frequency for NMR spectroscopy, which is tabulated here [3].

Applications
A famous 1935 paper published by Lev Landau and Evgeny Lifshitz predicted the existence of ferromagnetic resonance of the Larmor precession, which was verified experimentally and independently by J. H. E. Griffiths (UK) and E. K. Zavoiskij (USSR) in 1946. Larmor precession is important in nuclear magnetic resonance, electron paramagnetic resonance and muon spin resonance. To calculate the spin of a particle in a magnetic field, one must also take into account Thomas precession.

Larmor precession

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See also
Rabi cycle Georgia State University HyperPhysics page on Larmor Frequency [4]

References
[1] Spin Dynamics, Malcolm H. Levitt, Wiley, 2001 [2] Louis N. Hand and Janet D. Finch. (1998). Analytical mechanics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=1J2hzvX2Xh8C& pg=PA192& lpg=PA192& dq=Larmor's+ Theorem& source=bl& ots=AWrslwM4Iw& sig=Pc_sZdUja2NZm0RvRUbRjAEH6eA& hl=en& ei=oAhcSuisApCy8AT9yZXVDQ& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=2). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. p.192. ISBN 9780521575720. . [3] http:/ / www-lcs. ensicaen. fr/ pyPulsar/ index. php/ List_of_NMR_isotopes [4] http:/ / hyperphysics. phy-astr. gsu. edu/ hbase/ nuclear/ larmor. html

Thomas precession
In physics the Thomas precession, named after Llewellyn Thomas, is a special relativistic correction that applies to the spin of an elementary particle or the rotation of a macroscopic gyroscope and relates the angular velocity of the spin of a particle following a curvilinear orbit to the angular velocity of the orbital motion. It can be understood geometrically as a consequence of the fact that the space of velocities in relativity is hyperbolic, and so parallel transport of a vector (the gyroscope's angular velocity) around a circle (its linear velocity) leaves it pointing in a different direction, or understood algebraically as being a result of the non-associativity of the relativistic velocity-addition formula. It gives a correction to the spin-orbit interaction in quantum mechanics, which takes into account the relativistic time dilation between the electron and the nucleus of an atom. The composition of two Lorentz boosts which are non-colinear, results in a Lorentz transformation that is not a pure boost but is the product of a boost and a rotation. This rotation is called Thomas rotation, Thomas-Wigner rotation or Wigner rotation. The rotation was discovered by Thomas in 1926[1] , and derived by Wigner in 1939[2] . If a sequence of non-colinear boosts returns the spatial origins of a sequence of inertial frame to the starting point, then the sequence of Wigner rotations combine to produce a net rotation called the Thomas precession[3] . Thomas precession is a kinematic effect in the flat spacetime of special relativity. In the curved spacetime of general relativity, Thomas precession combines with a geometric effect to produce de Sitter precession. Although Thomas precession (net rotation after a trajectory that returns to its starting point) is a purely a kinematic effect, it only occurs in curvilinear motion and therefore cannot be observed independently of some centripetal force causing the curvilinear motion such as that caused by an electromagnetic field, gravitational field or mechanical force so Thomas precession is always accompanied by dynamical effects.[4] That being said, a single discrete Thomas rotation (as opposed to the series of infinitesimal rotations that add up to Thomas precession) is present in non-dynamical situations whenever you have 3 or more inertial frames in non-colinear motion - see the velocity composition section below. To calculate the spin of a particle in a magnetic field, one must also take into account Larmor precession.

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History
Thomas precession in relativity was already known to Ludwik Silberstein,[5] in 1914. But the only knowledge Thomas had of relativistic precession came from de Sitter's paper on the relativistic precession of the moon, first published in a book by Eddington[6] . In 1925 Thomas relativistically recomputed the precessional frequency of the doublet separation in the fine structure of the atom. He thus found the missing factor 1/2 which came to be known as the Thomas half. This discovery of the relativistic precession of the electron spin led to the understanding of the significance of the relativistic effect. The effect was therefore named Thomas precession

Conflicting results
In a 2006 survey of the literature Malykin[4] notes that there are numerous conflicting expressions for Thomas precession. This is partly explained by the fact that different authors use "Thomas precession" to refer to different things, often without saying what they are referring to and subsequent authors then misinterpret the results and apply them to other things, but, even taking this into account, some of the expressions in the literature are just plain wrong. Malykin explains the source of some of these errors: "We emphasize that Thomas considered the rotation of the axes of the coordinate system accompanying the electron in its motion rather than the electron spin rotation. Subsequently, this led to a misunderstanding and the emergence of incorrect work on the TP problem. It is possible to introduce three different reference frames accompanying the electron motion around a circular orbit and, in the most general case, along a curvilinear trajectory: (i) a reference frame whose coordinate axes remain parallel or retain their angular position relative to the axes of a laboratory IRF, (ii) a reference frame one of whose coordinate axes is always coincident with the electron velocity vector, and (iii) a reference frame in which the electron spin vector retains its orientation relative to the coordinate axes. It is evident that the electron spin vector precesses relative to the coordinate axes of the two first systems, but the angular velocity of its precession is different in these systems. ... In several papers concerned with the TP, calculations are performed in the first approximation in v^2/c^2, where v is the speed of an elementary particle in the laboratory IRF and c is the speed of light. In this case, all authors arrive at the same expression first derived by Thomas, this being so irrespective of whether they consider the relativistic rotation of the particle spin or the relativistic rotation of the axes of the coordinate system comoving with the particle. In the most general case, however, the expressions for the TP obtained by different authors are radically different. As noted above, the problem is complicated by the fact that different authors assign different meaning to this expression: some imply the relativistic rotation of the particle spin in the laboratory IRF, some in the comoving reference frame (in this case, as noted above, the rotation law for the axes of this system may be defined in three ways), while others refer to the relativistic rotation of the axes of the coordinate system accompanying the particle in motion. ... As noted above, the expression for the TP in Thomas's first paper was obtained in the first approximation in v^2/c^2 and is always correct when this condition is fulfilled. In his subsequent work, on performing calculations for an arbitrary electron velocity v, Thomas derived an expression that correctly describes the relativistic rotation of the axes of the comoving coordinate system relative to the rest-frame (laboratory) system. However, because the majority of authors use the term TP in reference to the precession of the spin of an elementary particle, this subsequently led to several errors and misunderstandings. ... In 1952, in his famous monograph [78], the Danish scientist C Mller (1904-1980), an acknowledged expert on the theory of relativity, derived an expression for the TP that coincides, up to a sign, with the corresponding Thomas expression and is correct in the comoving frame of reference. However, it was stated in Ref. [78] that this expression was written for the laboratory IRF, which is incorrect. Mller's immense scientific prestige played a negative role in this case: since then, the majority of authors of papers, monographs, and lecture courses started using the expression for the TP from Ref. [78] or, in the derivation of suchlike expressions, tried to make them coincident with that given in Ref. [78]. ... At the same time, because the experimentally observed particle spin precession is caused by the sum of two effects, the TP and the LP, it is possible to choose different expressions for each of these effects, only provided that these expressions add up to

Thomas precession correspond to expression (14). we conclude that the preferred method is the above-discussed method of recording the TP with the aid of mechanical gyroscopes in their orbital motion because quantum mechanical effects in experiments on charged elementary particles partly complicate the interpretation of experimental data."

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Applications
In Quantum Mechanics
In quantum mechanics Thomas precession is a correction to the spin-orbit interaction, which takes into account the relativistic time dilation between the electron and the nucleus in hydrogenic atoms. Basically, it states that spinning objects precess when they accelerate in special relativity because Lorentz boosts do not commute with each other.

In a Foucault pendulum
Thomas precession gives a correction to the precession of a Foucault pendulum. For a Foucault pendulum located in the city of Nijmegen in the Netherlands the correction is:

Velocity composition
Einstein velocity addition is associative and commutative only when and are parallel. In fact,

,where gyr is the mathematical abstraction of Thomas precession into an operator called Thomas gyration and given by

for all w. The gyr operator forms the foundation of gyrovector spaces.[7]

Textbooks
Rindler, Wolfgang (2006). "9". Relativity Special, General and Cosmological (second edition ed.). Dallas: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-856732-5.

External links
Mathpages article on Thomas Precession [8] Alternate, detailed derivation of Thomas Precession [9] (by Robert Littlejohn)

References
[1] L. H. Thomas, "Motion of the spinning electron", Nature 117, 514, 1926 [2] E. P. Wigner, "On unitary representations of the inhomogeneous Lorentz group", Ann. Math. 40, 149204 (1939). [3] Relativistic velocity space, Wigner rotation and Thomas precession (http:/ / arxiv. org/ abs/ gr-qc/ 0501070v1), John A. Rhodes, Mark D. Semon (2005) [4] G B Malykin, "Thomas precession: correct and incorrect solutions", Physics-Uspekhi 49 (8) 837-853 (2006) [5] L. Silberstein, The Theory of Relativity (MacMillan London 1914), page 169 [6] A.S. Eddington, The Mathematical Theory of Relativity (Cambridge 1924) [7] A.A. Ungar, Beyond the Einstein Addition Law and its Gyroscopic Thomas Precession: The Theory of Gyrogroups and Gyrovector Spaces, Kluwer, 2002. [8] http:/ / www. mathpages. com/ rr/ s2-11/ 2-11. htm

Thomas precession
[9] http:/ / bohr. physics. berkeley. edu/ classes/ 221/ 0708/ notes/ thomprec. pdf

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Gyroscope
A gyroscope is a device for measuring or maintaining orientation, based on the principles of conservation of angular momentum.[1] A mechanical gyroscope is essentially a spinning wheel or disk whose axle is free to take any orientation. This orientation changes much less in response to a given external torque than it would without the large angular momentum associated with the gyroscope's high rate of spin. Since external torque is minimized by mounting the device in gimbals, its orientation remains nearly fixed, regardless of any motion of the platform on which it is mounted. Solid state devices also exist, such as the ring laser gyroscope.

A gyroscope

Applications of gyroscopes include navigation (INS) when magnetic compasses do not work (as in the Hubble telescope) or are not precise enough (as in ICBMs) or for the stabilization of flying vehicles like Radio-controlled helicopters or UAVs. Due to higher precision, gyroscopes are also used to maintain direction in tunnel mining [2].

Description and diagram

Within mechanical systems or devices, a conventional gyroscope is a mechanism comprising a rotor journaled to spin about one axis, the journals of the rotor being mounted in an inner gimbal or ring, the inner gimbal being journaled for oscillation in an outer gimbal which in turn is journaled for oscillation relative to a support. The outer gimbal or ring is mounted so as to pivot about an axis in its own plane determined by the support. The outer gimbal possesses one degree of rotational freedom and its axis possesses none. The inner gimbal is mounted in the outer gimbal so as to pivot about an axis in its own plane that is always perpendicular to the pivotal axis of the outer gimbal.

The axle of the spinning wheel defines the spin axis. The inner gimbal possesses two degrees of rotational freedom and its axis possesses one. The rotor is journaled to spin about an axis which is always perpendicular to the axis of the inner gimbal. So, the rotor possesses three degrees of rotational freedom and its axis possesses two. The wheel responds to a force applied about the input axis by a reaction force about the output axis. The behaviour of a gyroscope can be most easily appreciated by consideration of the front wheel of a bicycle. If the wheel is leaned away from the vertical so that the top of the wheel moves to the left, the forward rim of the wheel also turns to the left. In other words, rotation on one axis of the turning wheel produces rotation of the third axis. A gyroscope flywheel will roll or resist about the output axis depending upon whether the output gimbals are of a free- or fixed- configuration. Examples of some free-output-gimbal devices would be the attitude reference gyroscopes used to sense or measure the pitch, roll and yaw attitude angles in a spacecraft or aircraft.

Diagram of a gyro wheel. Reaction arrows about the output axis (blue) correspond to forces applied about the input axis (green), and vice versa.

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The center of gravity of the rotor can be in a fixed position. The rotor simultaneously spins about one axis and is capable of oscillating about the two other axes, and thus, except for its inherent resistance due to rotor spin, it is free to turn in any direction about the fixed point. Some gyroscopes have mechanical equivalents substituted for one or more of the elements, e.g., the spinning rotor may be suspended in a fluid, instead of being pivotally mounted in gimbals. A control moment gyroscope (CMG) is an example of a fixed-output-gimbal device that is used on spacecraft to hold or maintain a desired attitude angle or pointing direction using the gyroscopic resistance force.

Animation of a gyro wheel in action

In some special cases, the outer gimbal (or its equivalent) may be omitted so that the rotor has only two degrees of freedom. In other cases, the center of gravity of the rotor may be offset from the axis of oscillation, and thus the center of gravity of the rotor and the center of suspension of the rotor may not coincide.

History
The earliest known gyroscope was made by German Johann Bohnenberger, who first wrote about it in 1817. At first he called it the "Machine".[3] [4] Bohnenberger's gyroscope was based on a rotating massive sphere.[5] In 1832, American Walter R. Johnson developed a gyroscope that was based on a rotating disk.[6] [7] The French mathematician Pierre-Simon Laplace, working at the cole Polytechnique in Paris, recommended the machine for use as a teaching aid, and thus it came to the attention of Lon Foucault.[8] In 1852, Foucault used it in an experiment involving the rotation of the Earth.[9] [10] It was Foucault who gave the device its modern name, in an experiment to see (Greek skopeein, to see) the Earth's rotation (Greek gyros, circle or rotation), although the experiment was unsuccessful due to friction, which effectively limited each trial to 8 to 10 minutes, too short a time to observe significant movement. In the 1860s, electric motors made the concept feasible, leading to the first prototype gyrocompasses; the first functional marine gyrocompass Gyroscope invented by Lon Foucault, and built was patented in 1908 by German inventor Hermann by Dumoulin-Froment, 1852. National Anschtz-Kaempfe. The American Elmer Sperry followed with his Conservatory of Arts and Crafts museum, Paris. own design later that year, and other nations soon realized the military importance of the inventionin an age in which naval might was the most significant measure of military powerand created their own gyroscope industries. The Sperry Gyroscope Company quickly expanded to provide aircraft and naval stabilizers as well, and other gyroscope developers followed suit.[11] In 1917, the Chandler Company of Indianapolis, Indiana, created the "Chandler gyroscope," a toy gyroscope with a pull string and pedestal. It has been in continuous production ever since and is considered a classic American toy. MEMS gyroscopes take the idea of the Foucault pendulum and use a vibrating element, known as a MEMS (Micro Electro-Mechanical System). The MEMS-based gyro was initially made practical and producible by Systron Donner Inertial (SDI). Today, SDI is a large manufacturer of MEMS gyroscopes.

Gyroscope In the first several decades of the 20th century, other inventors attempted (unsuccessfully) to use gyroscopes as the basis for early black box navigational systems by creating a stable platform from which accurate acceleration measurements could be performed (in order to bypass the need for star sightings to calculate position). Similar principles were later employed in the development of inertial guidance systems for ballistic missiles.[12]

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Properties
A gyroscope exhibits a number of behaviours including precession and nutation. Gyroscopes can be used to construct gyrocompasses which complement or replace magnetic compasses (in ships, aircraft and spacecraft, vehicles in general), to assist in stability (bicycle, Hubble Space Telescope, ships, vehicles in general) or be used as part of an inertial guidance system. Gyroscopic effects are used in toys like tops,boomerangs,yo-yos, and Powerballs. Many other rotating devices, such as flywheels, behave gyroscopically although the gyroscopic effect is not used. The fundamental equation describing the behavior of the gyroscope is:
A gyroscope in operation with freedom in all three axes. The rotor will maintain its spin axis direction regardless of the orientation of the outer frame.

where the vectors and L are, respectively, the torque on the gyroscope and its angular momentum, the scalar I is its moment of inertia, the vector is its angular velocity, and the vector is its angular acceleration. It follows from this that a torque applied perpendicular to the axis of rotation, and therefore perpendicular to L, results in a rotation about an axis perpendicular to both and L. This motion is called precession. The angular velocity of precession P is given by the cross product: Precession can be demonstrated by placing a spinning gyroscope with its axis horizontal and supported loosely (frictionless toward precession) at one end. Instead of falling, as might be expected, the gyroscope appears to defy gravity by remaining with its axis horizontal, when the other end of the axis is left unsupported and the free end of the axis slowly describes a circle in a horizontal plane, the resulting precession turning. This effect is explained by the above equations. The torque on the gyroscope is supplied by a couple of forces: gravity acting downwards on the device's centre of mass, and an equal force acting upwards to support one end of the device. The rotation resulting from this torque is not downwards, as might be intuitively expected, causing the device to fall, but perpendicular to Precession on a gyroscope both the gravitational torque (horizontal and perpendicular to the axis of rotation) and the axis of rotation (horizontal and outwards from the point of support), i.e. about a vertical axis, causing the device to rotate slowly about the supporting point.

Gyroscope Under a constant torque of magnitude , the gyroscope's speed of precession P is inversely proportional to L, the magnitude of its angular momentum:

193

where is the angle between the vectors P and L. Thus if the gyroscope's spin slows down (for example, due to friction), its angular momentum decreases and so the rate of precession increases. This continues until the device is unable to rotate fast enough to support its own weight, when it stops precessing and falls off its support, mostly because friction against precession cause another precession that goes to cause the fall. By convention, these three vectors, torque, spin, and precession, are all oriented with respect to each other according to the right-hand rule. To easily ascertain the direction of gyro effect, simply remember that a rolling wheel tends, when entering a corner, to turn over to the inside.

Gyrostat
A gyrostat is a variant of the gyroscope. The first gyrostat was designed by Lord Kelvin to illustrate the more complicated state of motion of a spinning body when free to wander about on a horizontal plane, like a top spun on the pavement, or a hoop or bicycle on the road. It consists of a massive flywheel concealed in a solid casing. Its behaviour on a table, or with various modes of suspension or support, serves to illustrate the curious reversal of the ordinary laws of static equilibrium due to the gyrostatic behaviour of the interior invisible flywheel when rotated rapidly.

US patents
In the USPTO classification scheme, the generic locus for gyroscope patents is Class 74, Machine element or mechanism, and Subclass 5R. Every rotating body has gyroscopic action, but such devices are not included unless at least one axis of oscillation is present. The combinations of gyroscopes with other devices are placed in subclass 5.22. Numbers U.S. Patent 839,161 [13], "Steering apparatus for automobile torpedoes". U.S. Patent 795,045 [14], "Gyroscopic control apparatus". U.S. Patent 785,587 [15], "Mechanical speed governor". U.S. Patent 785,425 [16], "Steering mechanism for torpedoes". U.S. Patent 751,888 [17], "Governing mechanism for turbines". U.S. Patent 738,823 [18], "Electrical apparatus". U.S. Patent 730,613 [19], "Meter". U.S. Patent 662,484 [20], "Electric top for gyroscopes". U.S. Patent 648,878 [21], "Gyroscope for torpedo steering mechanism". U.S. Patent 642,704 [22], "Roller bearing car wheel". U.S. Patent 484,960 [23], "Gyroscopic top". U.S. Patent 461,948 [24], "Gyroscope or revolving toy". U.S. Patent 365,530 [25], "Lumber cart". U.S. Patent 312,692 [26], "Vehicle wheel". U.S. Patent 220,867 [27], "Engine-governor and speed-regulator". U.S. Patent 162,446 [28], "Governor for steam engine". U.S. Patent 34,298 [29], "Levelling instrument".

Reissued U.S. Patent RE024880 [30], "Rate Gyroscope with torsional suspension"

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See also
Aerotrim Anti-rolling gyro Ship gyroscopic roll stabilisers. Balancing machine Control moment gyroscope Countersteering Euler angles Eric Laithwaite Fibre optic gyroscope Gimbal lock Gyro monorail Gyrocar Gyrocompass Gyroscopic exercise tool Inertial navigation system Momentum wheel Precession Quantum gyroscope Rate integrating gyroscope Rifling Ring laser gyroscope Segway Top Vibrating structure gyroscope

Further reading
Felix Klein and Arnold Sommerfeld, "ber die Theorie des Kreisels" (Tr., About the theory of the gyroscope). Leipzig, Berlin, B.G. Teubner, 1898-1914. 4 v. illus. 25cm. Audin, M. Spinning Tops: A Course on Integrable Systems. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996.

External links
The Precession and Nutation of a Gyroscope [31] Theory and Design of Micromechanical Vibratory Gyroscopes [32] Vladislav Apostolyuk The Royal Institutions 197475 Christmas Lecture [33] Professor Eric Laithwaite

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References
[1] " Gyroscope (http:/ / demonstrations. wolfram. com/ Gyroscope/ )" by Sndor Kabai, Wolfram Demonstrations Project. [2] http:/ / discovermagazine. com/ 2009/ may/ 20-things-you-didnt-know-about-tunnels [3] Johann G. F. Bohnenberger (1817) "Beschreibung einer Maschine zur Erluterung der Gesetze der Umdrehung der Erde um ihre Axe, und der Vernderung der Lage der letzteren" [Description of a machine for the explanation of the laws of rotation of the Earth around its axis, and of the change of the orientation of the latter] Tbinger Bltter fr Naturwissenschaften und Arzneikunde, vol. 3, pages 72-83. Available on-line at: http:/ / www. ion. org/ museum/ files/ File_1. pdf . [4] The French mathematician Poisson mentions Bohnenberger's gyroscope as early as 1813: Simeon-Denis Poisson (1813) "Mmoire sur un cas particulier du mouvement de rotation des corps pesans" [Memoir on a special case of rotational movement of massive bodies], Journal de l'cole Polytechnique, vol. 9, pages 247-262. Available on-line at: http:/ / www. ion. org/ museum/ files/ File_2. pdf . [5] A photograph of Bohnenberger's gyroscope is available on-line here: http:/ / www. ion. org/ museum/ item_view. cfm?cid=5& scid=12& iid=24 . [6] Walter R. Johnson (January 1832) "Description of an apparatus called the rotascope for exhibiting several phenomena and illustrating certain laws of rotary motion," The American Journal of Science and Art, 1st series, vol. 21, no. 2, pages 265-280. Available on-line at: http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=BjwPAAAAYAAJ& pg=PA265& lpg=PR5& dq=Johnson+ rotascope& ie=ISO-8859-1& output=html . [7] Illustrations of Walter R. Johnson's gyroscope ("rotascope") appear in: Board of Regents, Tenth Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution.... (Washington, D.C.: Cornelius Wendell, 1856), pages 177-178. Available on-line at: http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=fEyT4sTd7ZkC& pg=PA178& dq=Johnson+ rotascope& ie=ISO-8859-1& output=html . [8] Wagner JF, "The Machine of Bohnenberger," The Institute of Navigation (http:/ / www. ion. org/ museum/ item_view. cfm?cid=5& scid=12& iid=24) [9] L. Foucault (1852) "Sur les phnomnes dorientation des corps tournants entrans par un axe fixe la surface de la terre," Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des sances de lAcadmie des Sciences (Paris), vol. 35, pages 424-427. Available on-line (in French): http:/ / www. bookmine. org/ memoirs/ pendule. html . Scroll down to "Sur les phnomnes dorientation ..." [10] Circa 1852, Friedrich Fessel, a German mechanic and former secondary school teacher, independently developed a gyroscope. See: (1) Julius Plcker (September 1853) "ber die Fessel'sche rotationsmachine," Annalen der Physik, vol. 166, no. 9, pages 174-177; (2) Julius Plcker (October 1853) "Noch ein wort ber die Fessel'sche rotationsmachine," Annalen der Physik, vol. 166, no. 10, pages 348-351; (3) Charles Wheatstone (1864) "On Fessel's gyroscope," Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, vol. 7, pages 43-48. Available on-line at: http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=CtGEAAAAIAAJ& pg=RA1-PA307& lpg=RA1-PA307& dq=Fessel+ gyroscope& source=bl& ots=ZP0mYYrp_d& sig=DGmUeU4MC8hAMuBtDSQn4GpAyWc& hl=en& ei=N4s9SqOaM5vKtgf62vUH& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=9 . [11] MacKenzie, Donald. Inventing Accuracy: A Historical Sociology of Nuclear Missile Guidance. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1990. pp. 3140. ISBN 0-262-13258-3 [12] MacKenzie, pp. 4042. [13] http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?vid=839,161 [14] http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?vid=795,045 [15] http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?vid=785,587 [16] http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?vid=785,425 [17] http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?vid=751,888 [18] http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?vid=738,823 [19] http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?vid=730,613 [20] http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?vid=662,484 [21] http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?vid=648,878 [22] http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?vid=642,704 [23] http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?vid=484,960 [24] http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?vid=461,948 [25] http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?vid=365,530 [26] http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?vid=312,692 [27] http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?vid=220,867 [28] http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?vid=162,446 [29] http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?vid=34,298 [30] http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?vid=RE024880 [31] http:/ / www. integerspin. co. uk/ gyro1. htm [32] http:/ / www. astrise. com/ research/ library/ memsgyro. pdf [33] http:/ / www. gyroscopes. org/ 1974lecture. asp

Orbit

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Orbit
In physics, an orbit is the gravitationally curved path of one object around a point or another body, for example the gravitational orbit of a planet around a star.[1] Historically, the apparent motions of the planets were first understood geometrically (and without regard to gravity) in terms of epicycles, which are the sums of numerous circular motions.[2] Theories of this kind predicted paths of the planets moderately well, until Johannes Kepler was able to show that the motion of the planets were in fact (at least approximately) elliptical motions.[3] In Isaac Newton's Principia (1687), Newton derived the relationships now known as Kepler's laws of planetary motion from a force-based theory of universal gravitation.[4] Albert Einstein's later general theory of relativity was able to account for gravity as due to curvature of space-time, with orbits following geodesics.

Two bodies with a slight difference in mass orbiting around a common barycenter. The relative sizes and type of orbit are similar to the PlutoCharon system.

History
In the geocentric model of the solar system, the celestial spheres model was originally used to explain the apparent motion of the planets in the sky in terms of perfect spheres or rings, but after measurements of the exact motion of the planets theoretical mechanisms such as the deferent and epicycles were later added. Although it was capable of accurately predicting the planets position in the sky, more and more epicycles were required over time, and the model became more and more unwieldy. The basis for the modern understanding of orbits was first formulated by Johannes Kepler whose results are summarised in his three laws of planetary motion. First, he found that the orbits of the planets in our solar system are elliptical, not circular (or epicyclic), as had previously been believed, and that the sun is not located at the center of the orbits, but rather at one focus.[5] Second, he found that the orbital speed of each planet is not constant, as had previously been thought, but rather that the speed of the planet depends on the planet's distance from the sun. And third, Kepler found a universal relationship between the orbital properties of all the planets orbiting the sun. For the planets, the cubes of their distances from the sun are proportional to the squares of their orbital periods. Jupiter and Venus, for example, are respectively about 5.2 and 0.723 AU distant from the sun, their orbital periods respectively about 11.86 and 0.615 years. The proportionality is seen by the fact that the ratio for Jupiter, 5.23/11.862, is practically equal to that for Venus, 0.7233/0.6152, in accord with the relationship. While the planetary bodies do have elliptical orbits about the Sun, the eccentricity of the orbits is often not large. A circle has an eccentricity of zero, Earth's orbit's eccentricity is 0.0167 meaning that the ratio of its semi-minor (b) to semi-major axis (a) is 99.99%. Mercury has the largest eccentricity of the planets with an eccentricity of 0.2056, b/a=97.86%. (Eris has an eccentricity of 0.441 and Pluto 0.249. For the values for all planets in one table, see Table of planets in the solar system.)

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Isaac Newton demonstrated that Kepler's laws were derivable from his theory of gravitation and that, in general, the orbits of bodies subject to gravity were conic sections, if the force of gravity propagated instantaneously. Newton showed that, for a pair of bodies, the orbits' sizes are in inverse proportion to their masses, and that the bodies revolve about their common center of mass. Where one body is much more massive than the other, it is a convenient approximation to take the center of mass as coinciding with the center of the more massive body.

Albert Einstein was able to show that gravity was due to curvature of space-time and was able to remove the assumption of Newton that changes propagate instantaneously. In relativity theory orbits follow geodesic trajectories which approximate very well to the Newtonian predictions. However there are differences that can be used to determine which theory describes reality more accurately. Essentially all experimental evidence that can distinguish between the theories agrees with relativity theory to within experimental measuremental accuracy, but the differences from Newtonian mechanics are usually very small (except where there are very strong gravity fields and very high speeds). However, Newtonian mechanics is still used for most purposes since Newtonian mechanics is significantly easier to use.

The lines traced out by orbits dominated by the gravity of a central source are conic sections: the shapes of the curves of intersection between a plane and a cone. Parabolic (1) and hyperbolic (3) orbits are escape orbits, whereas elliptical and circular orbits (2) are captive.

Planetary orbits
Within a planetary system; planets, dwarf planets, asteroids (a.k.a. minor planets), comets, and space debris orbit the central star in elliptical orbits. A comet in a parabolic or hyperbolic orbit about a central star is not gravitationally bound to the star and therefore is not considered part of the star's planetary system. To date, no comet has been observed in our solar system with a distinctly hyperbolic orbit. Bodies which are gravitationally bound to one of the planets in a planetary system, either natural or artificial satellites, follow orbits about that planet. Owing to mutual gravitational perturbations, the eccentricities of the orbits of the planets in our solar system vary over time. Mercury, the smallest planet in the Solar System, has the most eccentric orbit. At the present epoch, Mars has the next largest eccentricity while the smallest eccentricities are those of the orbits of Venus and Neptune. As two objects orbit each other, the periapsis is that point at which the two objects are closest to each other and the apoapsis is that point at which they are the farthest from each other. (More specific terms are used for specific bodies. For example, perigee and apogee are the lowest and highest parts of an Earth orbit, respectively.) In the elliptical orbit, the center of mass of the orbiting-orbited system will sit at one focus of both orbits, with nothing present at the other focus. As a planet approaches periapsis, the planet will increase in speed, or velocity. As a planet approaches apoapsis, the planet will decrease in velocity. See also: Kepler's laws of planetary motion Secular variations of the planetary orbits

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Understanding orbits
There are a few common ways of understanding orbits. As the object moves sideways, it falls toward the central body. However, it moves so quickly that the central body will curve away beneath it. A force, such as gravity, pulls the object into a curved path as it attempts to fly off in a straight line. As the object moves sideways (tangentially), it falls toward the central body. However, it has enough tangential velocity to miss the orbited object, and will continue falling indefinitely. This understanding is particularly useful for mathematical analysis, because the object's motion can be described as the sum of the three one-dimensional coordinates oscillating around a gravitational center. As an illustration of an orbit around a planet, the Newton's cannonball model may prove useful (see image below). This is a 'thought experiment', in which a cannon on top of a tall mountain is supposed to be able to fire a cannonball horizontally at any chosen muzzle velocity. The effects of air friction on the cannonball are ignored (or perhaps the mountain is high enough that the cannon will be above the Earth's atmosphere, which comes to the same thing.)[6] If the cannon fires its ball with a low initial velocity, the trajectory of the ball curves downward and hits the ground (A). As the firing velocity is increased, the cannonball hits the ground farther (B) away from the cannon, because while the ball is still falling towards the ground, the ground is increasingly curving away from it (see first point, above). All these motions are actually "orbits" in a technical sense they are describing a portion of an elliptical path around the center of gravity but the orbits are interrupted by striking the Earth. If the cannonball is fired with sufficient velocity, the ground curves away from the ball at least as much as the ball falls so the ball never strikes the ground. It is now in what could be called a non-interrupted, or Newton's cannonball, an illustration of how objects can "fall" in a curve. circumnavigating, orbit. For any specific combination of height above the center of gravity and mass of the planet, there is one specific firing velocity (practically unaffected by the mass of the ball where that is as usual very small relative to the Earth's mass) that produces a circular orbit, as shown in (C). As the firing velocity is increased beyond this, a range of elliptic orbits are produced; one is shown in (D). If the initial firing is above the surface of the Earth as shown, there will also be elliptical orbits at slower velocities; these will come closest to the Earth at the point half an orbit beyond, and directly opposite, the firing point. At a specific velocity called escape velocity, again dependent on the firing height and mass of the planet, an open orbit such as (E) results a parabolic trajectory. At even faster velocities the object will follow a range of hyperbolic trajectories. In a practical sense, both of these trajectory types mean the object is "breaking free" of the planet's gravity, and "going off into space". The velocity relationship of two moving objects with mass can thus be considered in four practical classes, with subtypes: 1. No orbit

Orbit 2. Suborbital trajectories Range of interrupted elliptical paths 3. Orbital trajectories (or simply "orbits") Range of elliptical paths with closest point opposite firing point Circular path Range of elliptical paths with closest point at firing point 4. Open (or escape) trajectories Parabolic paths Hyperbolic paths

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Newton's laws of motion

In many situations relativistic effects can be neglected, and Newton's laws give a highly accurate description of the motion. Then the acceleration of each body is equal to the sum of the gravitational forces on it, divided by its mass, and the gravitational force between each pair of bodies is proportional to the product of their masses and decreases inversely with the square of the distance between them. To this Newtonian approximation, for a system of two point masses or spherical bodies, only influenced by their mutual gravitation (the two-body problem), the orbits can be exactly calculated. If the heavier body is much more massive than the smaller, as for a satellite or small moon orbiting a planet or for the Earth orbiting the Sun, it is accurate and convenient to describe the motion in a coordinate system that is centered on the heavier body, and we can say that the lighter body is in orbit around the heavier. For the case where the masses of two bodies are comparable, an exact Newtonian solution is still available, and qualitatively similar to the case of dissimilar masses, by centering the coordinate system on the center of mass of the two. Energy is associated with gravitational fields. A stationary body far from another can do external work if it is pulled towards it, and therefore has gravitational potential energy. Since work is required to separate two massive bodies against the pull of gravity, their gravitational potential energy increases as they are separated, and decreases as they approach one another. For point masses the gravitational energy decreases without limit as they approach zero separation, and it is convenient and conventional to take the potential energy as zero when they are an infinite distance apart, and then negative (since it decreases from zero) for smaller finite distances. With two bodies, an orbit is a conic section. The orbit can be open (so the object never returns) or closed (returning), depending on the total energy (kinetic + potential energy) of the system. In the case of an open orbit, the speed at any position of the orbit is at least the escape velocity for that position, in the case of a closed orbit, always less. Since the kinetic energy is never negative, if the common convention is adopted of taking the potential energy as zero at infinite separation, the bound orbits have negative total energy, parabolic trajectories have zero total energy, and hyperbolic orbits have positive total energy. An open orbit has the shape of a hyperbola (when the velocity is greater than the escape velocity), or a parabola (when the velocity is exactly the escape velocity). The bodies approach each other for a while, curve around each other around the time of their closest approach, and then separate again forever. This may be the case with some comets if they come from outside the solar system. A closed orbit has the shape of an ellipse. In the special case that the orbiting body is always the same distance from the center, it is also the shape of a circle. Otherwise, the point where the orbiting body is closest to Earth is the perigee, called periapsis (less properly, "perifocus" or "pericentron") when the orbit is around a body other than Earth. The point where the satellite is farthest from Earth is called apogee, apoapsis, or sometimes apifocus or apocentron. A line drawn from periapsis to apoapsis is the line-of-apsides. This is the major axis of the ellipse, the line through its longest part.

Orbit Orbiting bodies in closed orbits repeat their path after a constant period of time. This motion is described by the empirical laws of Kepler, which can be mathematically derived from Newton's laws. These can be formulated as follows: 1. The orbit of a planet around the Sun is an ellipse, with the Sun in one of the focal points of the ellipse. Therefore the orbit lies in a plane, called the orbital plane. The point on the orbit closest to the attracting body is the periapsis. The point farthest from the attracting body is called the apoapsis. There are also specific terms for orbits around particular bodies; things orbiting the Sun have a perihelion and aphelion, things orbiting the Earth have a perigee and apogee, and things orbiting the Moon have a perilune and apolune (or, synonymously, periselene and aposelene). An orbit around any star, not just the Sun, has a periastron and an apastron. 2. As the planet moves around its orbit during a fixed amount of time, the line from Sun to planet sweeps a constant area of the orbital plane, regardless of which part of its orbit the planet traces during that period of time. This means that the planet moves faster near its perihelion than near its aphelion, because at the smaller distance it needs to trace a greater arc to cover the same area. This law is usually stated as "equal areas in equal time." 3. For a given orbit, the ratio of the cube of its semi-major axis to the square of its period is constant. Note that that while the bound orbits around a point mass, or a spherical body with an ideal Newtonian gravitational field, are all closed ellipses, which repeat the same path exactly and indefinitely, any non-spherical or non-Newtonian effects (as caused, for example, by the slight oblateness of the Earth, or by relativistic effects, changing the gravitational field's behavior with distance) will cause the orbit's shape to depart to a greater or lesser extent from the closed ellipses characteristic of Newtonian two body motion. The 2-body solutions were published by Newton in Principia in 1687. In 1912, Karl Fritiof Sundman developed a converging infinite series that solves the 3-body problem; however, it converges too slowly to be of much use. Except for special cases like the Lagrangian points, no method is known to solve the equations of motion for a system with four or more bodies. Instead, orbits with many bodies can be approximated with arbitrarily high accuracy. These approximations take two forms. One form takes the pure elliptic motion as a basis, and adds perturbation terms to account for the gravitational influence of multiple bodies. This is convenient for calculating the positions of astronomical bodies. The equations of motion of the moon, planets and other bodies are known with great accuracy, and are used to generate tables for celestial navigation. Still there are secular phenomena that have to be dealt with by post-newtonian methods. The differential equation form is used for scientific or mission-planning purposes. According to Newton's laws, the sum of all the forces will equal the mass times its acceleration (F = ma). Therefore accelerations can be expressed in terms of positions. The perturbation terms are much easier to describe in this form. Predicting subsequent positions and velocities from initial ones corresponds to solving an initial value problem. Numerical methods calculate the positions and velocities of the objects a tiny time in the future, then repeat this. However, tiny arithmetic errors from the limited accuracy of a computer's math accumulate, limiting the accuracy of this approach. Differential simulations with large numbers of objects perform the calculations in a hierarchical pairwise fashion between centers of mass. Using this scheme, galaxies, star clusters and other large objects have been simulated.

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Analysis of orbital motion

(See also Kepler orbit, orbit equation and Kepler's first law.) Note that the following is a classical (Newtonian) analysis of orbital mechanics, which assumes the more subtle effects of general relativity (like frame dragging and gravitational time dilation) are negligible. Relativistic effects cease to be negligible when near very massive bodies (as with the precession of Mercury's orbit about the Sun), or when extreme precision is needed (as with calculations of the orbital elements and time signal references for GPS satellites[7] ).

Orbit To analyze the motion of a body moving under the influence of a force which is always directed towards a fixed point, it is convenient to use polar coordinates with the origin coinciding with the center of force. In such coordinates the radial and transverse components of the acceleration are, respectively:

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and . Since the force is entirely radial, and since acceleration is proportional to force, it follows that the transverse acceleration is zero. As a result,

After integrating, we have

which is actually the theoretical proof of Kepler's 2nd law (A line joining a planet and the sun sweeps out equal areas during equal intervals of time). The constant of integration, h, is the angular momentum per unit mass. It then follows that

where we have introduced the auxiliary variable

The radial force (r) per unit mass is the radial acceleration ar defined above. Solving the above differential equation with respect to time[8] yields:

In the case of gravity, Newton's law of universal gravitation states that the force is proportional to the inverse square of the distance:

where G is the constant of universal gravitation, m is the mass of the orbiting body (planet), and M is the mass of the central body (the Sun). Substituting into the prior equation, we have

So for the gravitational force or, more generally, for any inverse square force law the right hand side of the equation becomes a constant and the equation is seen to be the harmonic equation (up to a shift of origin of the dependent variable). The solution is:

where A and 0 are arbitrary constants. The equation of the orbit described by the particle is thus:

Orbit where e is:

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In general, this can be recognized as the equation of a conic section in polar coordinates (r, ). We can make a further connection with the classic description of conic section with:

If parameter e is smaller than one, e is the eccentricity and a the semi-major axis of an ellipse.

Orbital planes
The analysis so far has been two dimensional; it turns out that an unperturbed orbit is two dimensional in a plane fixed in space, and thus the extension to three dimensions requires simply rotating the two dimensional plane into the required angle relative to the poles of the planetary body involved. The rotation to do this in three dimensions requires three numbers to uniquely determine; traditionally these are expressed as three angles.

Orbital period
The orbital period is simply how long an orbiting body takes to complete one orbit.

Specifying orbits
It turns out that it takes a minimum 6 numbers to specify an orbit about a body, and this can be done in several ways. For example, specifying the 3 numbers specifying location and 3 specifying the velocity of a body gives a unique orbit that can be calculated forwards (or backwards). However, traditionally the parameters used are slightly different. The traditionally used set of orbital elements is called the set of Keplerian elements, after Johannes Kepler and his Kepler's laws. The Keplerian elements are six: Inclination ( ) Longitude of the ascending node ( Argument of periapsis ( ) Eccentricity ( ) Semimajor axis ( ) ) )

Mean anomaly at epoch (

In principle once the orbital elements are known for a body, its position can be calculated forward and backwards indefinitely in time. However, in practice, orbits are affected or perturbed, by forces other than gravity due to the central body and thus the orbital elements change over time.

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Orbital perturbations
An orbital perturbation is when a force or impulse which is much smaller than the overall force or average impulse of the main gravitating body and which is external to the two orbiting bodies causes an acceleration, which changes the parameters of the orbit over time.

Radial, prograde and transverse perturbations

A small radial impulse given to a body in orbit changes the eccentricity, but not the orbital period (to first order). A prograde or retrograde impulse (i.e. an impulse applied along the orbital motion) changes both the eccentricity and the orbital period. Notably, a prograde impulse given at periapsis raises the altitude at apoapsis, and vice versa, and a retrograde impulse does the opposite. A transverse impulse (out of the orbital plane) causes rotation of the orbital plane without changing the period or eccentricity. In all instances, a closed orbit will still intersect the perturbation point.

Orbital decay
If an orbit is about a planetary body with significant atmosphere, its orbit can decay because of drag. Particularly at each periapsis, the object experiences atmospheric drag, losing energy. Each time, the orbit grows less eccentric (more circular) because the object loses kinetic energy precisely when that energy is at its maximum. This is similar to the effect of slowing a pendulum at its lowest point; the highest point of the pendulum's swing becomes lower. With each successive slowing more of the orbit's path is affected by the atmosphere and the effect becomes more pronounced. Eventually, the effect becomes so great that the maximum kinetic energy is not enough to return the orbit above the limits of the atmospheric drag effect. When this happens the body will rapidly spiral down and intersect the central body. The bounds of an atmosphere vary wildly. During solar maxima, the Earth's atmosphere causes drag up to a hundred kilometres higher than during solar minima. Some satellites with long conductive tethers can also decay because of electromagnetic drag from the Earth's magnetic field. Basically, the wire cuts the magnetic field, and acts as a generator. The wire moves electrons from the near vacuum on one end to the near-vacuum on the other end. The orbital energy is converted to heat in the wire. Orbits can be artificially influenced through the use of rocket motors which change the kinetic energy of the body at some point in its path. This is the conversion of chemical or electrical energy to kinetic energy. In this way changes in the orbit shape or orientation can be facilitated. Another method of artificially influencing an orbit is through the use of solar sails or magnetic sails. These forms of propulsion require no propellant or energy input other than that of the sun, and so can be used indefinitely. See statite for one such proposed use. Orbital decay can also occur due to tidal forces for objects below the synchronous orbit for the body they're orbiting. The gravity of the orbiting object raises tidal bulges in the primary, and since below the synchronous orbit the orbiting object is moving faster than the body's surface the bulges lag a short angle behind it. The gravity of the bulges is slightly off of the primary-satellite axis and thus has a component along the satellite's motion. The near bulge slows the object more than the far bulge speeds it up, and as a result the orbit decays. Conversely, the gravity of the satellite on the bulges applies torque on the primary and speeds up its rotation. Artificial satellites are too small to have an appreciable tidal effect on the planets they orbit, but several moons in the solar system are undergoing orbital decay by this mechanism. Mars' innermost moon Phobos is a prime example, and is expected to either impact Mars' surface or break up into a ring within 50 million years. Finally, orbits can decay via the emission of gravitational waves. This mechanism is extremely weak for most stellar objects, only becoming significant in cases where there is a combination of extreme mass and extreme acceleration, such as with black holes or neutron stars that are orbiting each other closely.

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Oblateness
The standard analysis of orbiting bodies assumes that all bodies consist of uniform spheres, or more generally, concentric shells each of uniform density. It can be shown that such bodies are gravitationally equivalent to point sources. However, in the real world, many bodies rotate, and this introduces oblateness and distorts the gravity field, and gives a quadrupole moment to the gravitational field which is significant at distances comparable to the radius of the body. The general effect of this is to change the orbital parameters over time; predominantly this gives a rotation of the orbital plane around the rotational pole of the central body (it perturbs the argument of perigee) in a way that is dependent on the angle of orbital plane to the equator as well as altitude at perigee.

Multiple gravitating bodies

The effects of other gravitating bodies can be very large. For example, the orbit of the Moon cannot be in any way accurately described without allowing for the action of the Sun's gravity as well as the Earth's. In general when there are more than two gravitating bodies it is referred to as an n-body problem. Most n-body problems have no closed form solution, although there are number of special cases.

Light radiation and stellar wind

For smaller bodies particularly, light and stellar wind can cause significant perturbations to the attitude and direction of motion of the body, and over time can be quite significant. Of the planetary bodies, the motion of asteroids is particularly affected over large periods when the asteroids are rotating relative to the Sun.

Astrodynamics
Orbital mechanics or astrodynamics is the application of ballistics and celestial mechanics to the practical problems concerning the motion of rockets and other spacecraft. The motion of these objects is usually calculated from Newton's laws of motion and Newton's law of universal gravitation. It is a core discipline within space mission design and control. Celestial mechanics treats more broadly the orbital dynamics of systems under the influence of gravity, including both spacecraft and natural astronomical bodies such as star systems, planets, moons, and comets. Orbital mechanics focuses on spacecraft trajectories, including orbital maneuvers, orbit plane changes, and interplanetary transfers, and is used by mission planners to predict the results of propulsive maneuvers. General relativity is a more exact theory than Newton's laws for calculating orbits, and is sometimes necessary for greater accuracy or in high-gravity situations (such as orbits close to the Sun).

Scaling in gravity
The gravitational constant G is measured to be the following (shown with the 3 most common units): (6.6742 0.001) 1011 Nm2/kg2 (6.6742 0.001) 1011 m3/(kgs2) (6.6742 0.001) 1011 (kg/m3)1s2. Thus the constant has dimension density1 time2. This corresponds to the following properties. Scaling of distances (including sizes of bodies, while keeping the densities the same) gives similar orbits without scaling the time: if for example distances are halved, masses are divided by 8, gravitational forces by 16 and gravitational accelerations by 2. Hence orbital periods remain the same. Similarly, when an object is dropped from a tower, the time it takes to fall to the ground remains the same with a scale model of the tower on a scale model of the earth.

Orbit When all densities are multiplied by four, orbits are the same, but with orbital velocities doubled. When all densities are multiplied by four, and all sizes are halved, orbits are similar, with the same orbital velocities. These properties are illustrated in the formula (derived from the formula for the orbital period)

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for an elliptical orbit with semi-major axis a, of a small body around a spherical body with radius r and average density , where T is the orbital period.

See also
Artificial satellite orbit Escape velocity Gravity Kepler orbit Kepler's laws of planetary motion Molniya orbit Orbit (dynamics) Orbital spaceflight/Sub-orbital spaceflight Perifocal coordinate system Rosetta (orbit) Klemperer rosette Trajectory, Hyperbolic trajectory and Parabolic trajectory

External links
CalcTool: Orbital period of a planet calculator [9]. Has wide choice of units. Requires JavaScript. Browser Based Three Dimension Simulation of Orbital Motion [10]. Objects and distance are drawn to scale. Run on JavaScript-enabled browser such as Internet Explorer, Mozilla Firefox and Opera. Java simulation on orbital motion [11]. Requires Java. NOAA page on Climate Forcing Data [12] includes (calculated) data on Earth orbit variations over the last 50 million years and for the coming 20 million years On-line orbit plotter [13]. Requires JavaScript. Orbital Mechanics [14] (Rocket and Space Technology) Orbital simulations by Varadi, Ghil and Runnegar (2003) [15] provide another, slightly different series for Earth orbit eccentricity, and also a series for orbital inclination. Orbits for the other planets were also calculated[16] , but only the eccentricity data for Earth and Mercury [17] are available online. Understand orbits using direct manipulation [18]. Requires JavaScript and Macromedia Linton, Christopher (2004). From Eudoxus to Einstein [19]. Cambridge: University Press. ISBN 0521827507 Swetz, Frank; et al. (1997). Learn from the Masters! [20]. Mathematical Association of America. ISBN 0883857030

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References
Abell, Morrison, and Wolff (1987). Exploration of the Universe (fifth ed.). Saunders College Publishing.
[1] orbit (astronomy) - Britannica Online Encyclopedia (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 431123/ orbit) [2] Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1968, vol. 2, p. 645. [3] M Caspar, Kepler (1959, Abelard-Schuman), at pp.131140; A Koyr, The Astronomical Revolution: Copernicus, Kepler, Borelli (1973, Methuen), at pp.277279. [4] Kuhn, The Copernican Revolution, pp 238, 246252 [5] Jones, Andrew. "Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion" (http:/ / physics. about. com/ od/ astronomy/ p/ keplerlaws. htm) (in en). about.com. . Retrieved 2008-06-01. [6] See pages 6 to 8 in Newton's "Treatise of the System of the World" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=rEYUAAAAQAAJ& pg=PA6) (written 1685, translated into English 1728, see Newton's 'Principia' - A preliminary version), for the original version of this 'cannonball' thought-experiment. [7] Pogge, Richard W.; Real-World Relativity: The GPS Navigation System (http:/ / www. astronomy. ohio-state. edu/ ~pogge/ Ast162/ Unit5/ gps. html). Retrieved 25 January 2008. [8] Fitzpatrick, Richard (2006-02-02). "Planetary orbits" (http:/ / web. archive. bibalex. org/ web/ 20060523200517/ farside. ph. utexas. edu/ teaching/ 301/ lectures/ node155. html). Classical Mechanics an introductory course. The University of Texas at Austin. Archived from the original (http:/ / farside. ph. utexas. edu/ teaching/ 301/ lectures/ node155. html) on 2006-05-23. . Retrieved 2009-01-14. [9] http:/ / www. calctool. org/ CALC/ phys/ astronomy/ planet_orbit [10] http:/ / orinetz. com/ planet/ animatesystem. php?sysid=QUQTS2CSDQ44FDURR3XD6NUD6& orinetz_lang=1 [11] http:/ / www. phy. hk/ wiki/ englishhtm/ Motion. htm [12] http:/ / www. ncdc. noaa. gov/ paleo/ forcing. html [13] http:/ / www. bridgewater. edu/ ~rbowman/ ISAW/ PlanetOrbit. html [14] http:/ / www. braeunig. us/ space/ orbmech. htm [15] http:/ / astrobiology. ucla. edu/ OTHER/ SSO/ [16] F. Varadi, B. Runnegar, M. Ghil (2003). "Successive Refinements in Long-Term Integrations of Planetary Orbits". The Astrophysical Journal 592: 620630. doi: 10.1086/375560 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1086/ 375560). [17] http:/ / www. astrobiology. ucla. edu/ OTHER/ SSO/ Misc/ [18] http:/ / www. lri. fr/ ~dragice/ gravity/ [19] http:/ / books. google. co. uk/ books?id=B4br4XJFj0MC& pg=PA285& lpg=PA285& dq=Leibnitz+ on+ centrifugal+ force& source=bl& ots=ul5sM-8hez& sig=3eV8RZGxy6Czk3uZZ4_6nxhr3gQ& hl=en& ei=VYT_SaDtOsmrjAfv44iIBw& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=5 [20] http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=gqGLoh-WYrEC& pg=PA269& dq=reaction+ fictitious+ rotating+ frame+ %22centrifugal+ force%22& lr=& as_brr=3& as_pt=ALLTYPES& ei=JUH7SYr3GIzckQSSx4XVBA#PPA269,M1

Article Sources and Contributors

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Article Sources and Contributors

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Zandperl, Zundark, 70 anonymous edits Coriolis effect Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=342827878 Contributors: 0, 100110100, 213.253.40.xxx, 2over0, @modi, A4, Aaron McDaid, Addshore, AdjustShift, Afogarty, Ahoerstemeier, Ajm81, Alabastair, AlexD, Amorymeltzer, Amosslee, Ancheta Wis, Andrewjlockley, Andrewlp1991, Ann Stouter, Antandrus, Ante Aikio, Army1987, Ashhley!, Ask123, Asknine, Atkinson 291, Atmoz, Attilios, Aviast, Awickert, AxelBoldt, AySz88, Ball of pain, Bantosh, Bazonka, Benua, Berkut, Bigbluefish, BillFlis, Birdhombre, Blahm, Blake-, Bob.v.R, Bobblewik, Bobelehman, Bobo192, Boccobrock, Bowfee, Brews ohare, Brighterorange, Brockert, Bryan Derksen, Bsodmike, Buster2058, Bwilkins, CPColin, CWY2190, Calvin 1998, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, CanadianLinuxUser, Canthusus, Capecodeph, CarbonCopy, CardinalDan, Carrionluggage, Cbdorsett, Chanerdar, Charles Benham, Chetvorno, Chowbok, Chrishomingtang, Chuck Carroll, Citrab121, Cjolly92, Cleonis, Cmapm, Colin 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Connolley, Willking1979, WilyD, WitchDrSmith, Wolf grey, Wolfkeeper, Woodshed, Woodstone, Wperdue, Wwoods, XJamRastafire, Xaos, Xiner, Xxhopingtearsxx, Yurivict, Zaheen, Zazou25, Zelda Simpson, Zvn, 797 anonymous edits Angular momentum Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=342242425 Contributors: .:Ajvol:., 165.123.179.xxx, 6birc, Abhishek727, Adam Rock, Alan Smithee 87, Alansohn, AlexBrett, Andonee, Andrei Stroe, Andries, Anonymous Dissident, ArglebargleIV, Army1987, Asplace, AstroNomer, AugPi, AxelBoldt, Azuring, Barticus88, BenFrantzDale, Bensaccount, Bowlhover, Brews ohare, Buster79, CambridgeBayWeather, Capecodeph, CarlosPatio, Charles Matthews, Chetvorno, Closedmouth, Coffee, Complexica, Conversion script, Crazynas, DCEdwards1966, DMacks, Dan Gluck, Daniel.Cardenas, Dark Formal, Darthmgh, Dave6, Davidryan168, Dedicated to learn, DerHexer, Dicklyon, Dkasak, Donatus, DrBob, EconoPhysicist, El C, Enochlau, Enormousdude, F3meyer, Fibonacci, Fresheneesz, Fuhghettaboutit, Gaius Cornelius, Gene Nygaard, Giftlite, Glenn, Gonzalo Diethelm, H2g2bob, Happy-melon, Headbomb, Heron, Hooperbloob, Ian Glenn, Icairns, J04n, JCO312, JaGa, JabberWok, JakeVortex, JeffBobFrank, Jmcc150, Joanjoc, JohnOwens, Jorfer, Joshua Issac, Karol Langner, Kenny56, Kristen Eriksen, Ksant3, Laoma, Laterensis, LaurelESH, Linas, Localzuk, Loodog, Looxix, LorenzoB, Lowellian, Lseixas, Maelnuneb, MathKnight, Matusz, Maurice Carbonaro, Mets501, Michael Hardy, Mike2vil, Milez, Monurkar, Mr Stephen, MuDavid, Nikai, Norvy, Oda Mari, Out of Phase User, Oxymoron83, P.wormer, PAR, Passw0rd, Patrick, Pdefer, Pharaoh of the Wizards, PhySusie, Phys, Pkbharti, Psymun747, Qutezuce, R3m0t, Radon210, Rednblu, Rich Farmbrough, Richard001, Rmhermen, Rmrfstar, Ro234, RobertRHannah89, Rogper, Rossami, Rpiphysicsnerd1111, Rrburke, Savant13, Sbyrnes321, Selkem, Shalom Yechiel, Solvang, Special-T, Sreyan, Srleffler, Starwiz, Steve Quinn, StewartMH, StradivariusTV, Taichi, Tarquin, TeeEmCee, The Anome, The Thing That Should Not Be, TimothyRias, Timsdad, User A1, Vonregensburg, W0lfie, WaysToEscape, Wolfkeeper, Xanzzibar, Xenonice, Xxanthippe, Yawe, Zaidpjd, Zero sharp, Zzigee, 267 anonymous edits Rotation Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=342832776 Contributors: -- April, Abc518, Adam78, Algebraist, Allendaves, Altenmann, AndrewHowse, Andycjp, Antandrus, AstroHurricane001, AstroNomer, AugPi, Badgernet, BenFrantzDale, Bobo192, BorisFromStockdale, Bremerenator, CALR, CLW, Calculus HK, Capricorn42, CardinalDan, Chuckiesdad, Corvus Fox, Cuchullain, Cutler, David Prentiss, Davidwr, Dbenbenn, Dcfleck, Dhruv.mongia, Dirkbb, Dna-webmaster, DocWatson42, Dyersgoodness, Dysprosia, Ed Poor, El C, Eliyak, Epbr123, Epolk, Equendil, Erik9, Ewlyahoocom, Excirial, Fountains of Bryn Mawr, Fredrik, Friedfish, Gaff, Gaius Cornelius, Gbleem, Gerbrant, Giftlite, Glenn, Gnahz99, Hairy Dude, Harp, Heron, Hut 6.5, Hyacinth, Ignatzmice, InkKznr, Inwind, J.delanoy, J04n, JMyrleFuller, Jaredwf, JasmineVioletWinston, Jeff3000, Jorunn, Jshadias, Juansempere, KSmrq, Karol Langner, Katefan0, Kborer, Kosebamse, Levineps, M samadi, MER-C, MFNickster, MSGJ, MarSch, Martin451, MartinDK, MathsIsFun, Michael Hardy, Mintleaf, Modest Genius, NYCJosh, NawlinWiki, Nbarth, Nurg, Oleg Alexandrov, On the other side, Oneiros, PGNicolay, Pamplelune, Parvons, Patrick, Peterlin, Phil1988, PhySusie, Pinethicket, Plastadity, Pleasantville, Portalian, RJASE1, RJHall, RJaguar3, Ranveig, Recury, Reddi, Res2216firestar, Rholton, Riott Nyte, Rjwilmsi, Romanskolduns, Schenectady, ScienceApologist, Semperf, Sjoerd22, Smack, Sriharsha.karnati, Stevertigo, Suicidalhamster, Swpb, SylvieHorse, Sawomir Biay, TakuyaMurata, Tarquin, Taychef, The Anome, The Thing That Should Not Be, TheEgyptian, ThomasO1989, Tim1357, Tom.k, Tomcj, Tosha, VanBurenen, Wedesoft, WikiLaurent, Willworkforicecream, Wingchi, Wolfkeeper, Youssefsan, Zbayz, ZeroOne, 191 anonymous edits

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Rigid body Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=340523351 Contributors: Abdull, Abdullah Krolu, Aboeing, Albedo, Algebraist, AndrewDressel, AndrewHowse, Borgx, Brews ohare, Charles Matthews, Da Joe, E mraedarab, Equendil, Fropuff, Giftlite, Ideal gas equation, J04n, Jalexiou, JimR, Juansempere, Kubigula, Laurascudder, Linas, M samadi, MarcusMaximus, Melesse, Nk, Obakeneko, Oleg Alexandrov, Origin415, P.wormer, Paolo.dL, Patrick, Peterlin, Rjwilmsi, Sanpaz, Shim'on, Silly rabbit, Starsong, The Thing That Should Not Be, Thurth, XCelam, XJamRastafire, ZeroOne, 31 anonymous edits Moment of inertia Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=341729593 Contributors: 01001, ABCD, Ablewisuk, Aiden1983, Alansohn, AlphaPyro, Ameliorate!, Anarchic Fox, Andres, Andy120, AquaDTRS, AugPi, Baccyak4H, Backpackadam, Basiliasayoto, BenFrantzDale, Bobo192, Boompiee, Bradjamesbrown, Budgie31, Burn, Camw, Cataphract, Charles Matthews, Chetvorno, Complexica, Coneslayer, CosineKitty, Cpl Syx, Craig Pemberton, Cyp, D1ma5ad, Daniel Musto, Dashn98, Dbfirs, Dger, Dhollm, Dirkbb, Dndn1011, Dynabee, E4mmacro, Ed Poor, Edsanville, Egendomligt, Email4mobile, EndingPop, Enok Walker, Enormousdude, Epbr123, Explicit, Feyrauth, Fresheneesz, FrozenUmbrella, Gaius Cornelius, Giftlite, Giuliopp, Glueball, Gombang, Grendelkhan, Harriv, Headbomb, Hongooi, Hooperbloob, Hyperquantization, Icairns, Ihope127, Inwind, J-Wiki, Jketola, Joeycharles, Juansempere, KasugaHuang, Keenan Pepper, Keilana, Kenny56, Lantonov, Laurascudder, Leifisme, Liddo-kun, Light current, LilHelpa, Loodog, Looxix, MagneticFlux, MarcusMaximus, Marcusyoder, Markengel, MassProp, Mcld, Michael Hardy, Mike2vil, MrB, Nanomage, Nemti, Nephron, Ninly, NotAbel, Notheruser, Oblivious, Orionus, P.wormer, PJC, Paolo.dL, Patrick, Peterlin, Philip Trueman, Pkbharti, Poochy, Prince Max (scientist), PrintfXh4, Qef, Qllach, Randomblue, RexNL, Rogper, Rpkrawczyk, Runner5k, Sarregouset, Scroggie, SebastianHelm, Sietse Snel, Silly rabbit, SimpsonDG, SmartGuy, Sonett72, Southern Beau, SpaceFlight89, Spanish windmill, Starwiz, Stefan Khn, StradivariusTV, StuRat, Stw, Subdolous, Sumanch, Sawomir Biay, Thingg, ThomasOwens, Thorwald, Thurth, Tony.Cartwright24, Ty8inf, Typobox, Ultimus, User A1, V madhu, Viriditas, White Cat, WhiteHatLurker, WillowW, Wilsonkd, WinstonSmith, Xaos, YellowMonkey, Yevgeny Kats, Yoshigev, Zaidpjd, Zedall, 345 anonymous edits Radius of gyration Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=340525792 Contributors: Basar, Bryan Derksen, Cardamon, Charles Matthews, Cyprus2k1, Davehi1, Dger, Dimsa, Giftlite, Infovaeuniversis, John Vandenberg, Jshadias, Keilana, Keizo, Mathmoclaire, Michael zh, MitchamusB, Mpfiz, MyNameIsNotBob, Oleg Alexandrov, Safalra, SebastianHelm, Selkem, SeventyThree, Splette, TVBZ28, Tastemyhouse, The Epopt, Thurth, Vicki Rosenzweig, Voorlandt, WillowW, XJamRastafire, , 39 anonymous edits Rotational energy Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=318827670 Contributors: Andries, BenRG, Bernard Marx, Bryan Derksen, CMD Beaker, Dynabee, Evil saltine, Fresheneesz, Gene Nygaard, Glenn, Icairns, Jbergquist, JeLuF, Julleras, Krea, MarcusMaximus, Master of Puppets, Mnmngb, P.wormer, Passw0rd, Patrick, Rich Farmbrough, Salsb, Seandop, SebastianHelm, Segv11, Thurth, Urhixidur, Xp54321, Zaidpjd, 18 anonymous edits Rotation around a fixed axis Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=338811238 Contributors: AdjustShift, Andreworkney, Brews ohare, Caitlanandrew, Cardamon, Casmith 789, Cathar11, Charles Matthews, Cometstyles, Dlqmatthew, Engrbatu, FedFeyn, Fresheneesz, Hongooi, Intangir, Jenzee, King of the North East, Linksreiter, Markhurd, Martin451, Mentifisto, Mike Rosoft, Nick, NuclearWarfare, Oleg Alexandrov, P199, Paolo.dL, Patrick, Quantumelfmage, RainbowOfLight, Rlogan2, Rsfontenot, Sanpaz, SomeGuy11112, StradivariusTV, Tad Lincoln, Wookiepower2, Zbayz, , 43 anonymous edits Parallel axis theorem Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=340204897 Contributors: Ablewisuk, Acidwillburnyou, Currir55, Dbfirs, Deeptrivia, Dger, Giftlite, Gombang, Hean.excogitate, Ideal gas equation, Keenan Pepper, Loodog, MagneticFlux, Mercury, Michael Hardy, Mykar15, Nebojsapajkic, Nk, Pkbharti, RG2, Salgueiro, Siddhant, SimpsonDG, StarLight, Thurth, Tom.Reding, Umbertoumm, Vsmith, YellowMonkey, 34 anonymous edits Perpendicular axis theorem Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=335169134 Contributors: Capricorn42, Dbfirs, Giftlite, Ideal gas equation, Pkbharti, Pol098, SimpsonDG, Stephen, YellowMonkey, Zhen Lin, 4 anonymous edits List of moment of inertia tensors Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=313141779 Contributors: Altkll, Da Joe, Eteq, Fedor Chelnokov, Glome83, Headbomb, Jalexiou@hotmail.com, Jxmallett, Lantonov, Nimur, Qef, 17 anonymous edits List of moments of inertia Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=342609437 Contributors: 11kravitzn, A19grey, AquaDTRS, ArnoldReinhold, Ave matthew, Baccyak4H, Bearasauras, Biscuittin, Bochum, Centrx, CiaPan, CosineKitty, Ctrl build, Da Joe, Dexter411, Dger, Dinglebarf, Dudecon, Email4mobile, Ems57fcva, Fresheneesz, Gerweck, Giftlite, Glome83, Grendelkhan, Hammerite, Headbomb, Hemmingsen, Herbee, Icairns, Icemaja, J-Wiki, JForget, Joerger, Johnmc67, Just James, KasugaHuang, Kevin B12, Kolkje, LPFR, Laurascudder, Mikiemike, Minesweeper, Obiliz, Paste, Patrick, Prince Max (scientist), Pt, Qef, Ram einstein, RedWolf, Segv11, Sonett72, Starwiz, Tagishsimon, TimBentley, Tresiden, Truthnlove, Zigger, 122 anonymous edits Simple harmonic motion Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=342727977 Contributors: 190319m9, Ajl772, Alberto Orlandini, Algofoogle, AnarchMonarch, Anarchic Fox, Andrew.in.snow, Anskas, Arc de Ciel, AugPi, BenFrantzDale, BiT, BigrTex, CQJ, CatherineMunro, Cburnett, Celebere, Chetvorno, Cimon Avaro, Clt13, Conrad.Irwin, Conversion script, Cutler, Darklilac, Debresser, Deeptrivia, Dori, El pak, Emperorbma, Feezo, Ferengi, Firsfron, FlattenedShrimp, FranzSS, Fumon, Gene Nygaard, Giftlite, Golbez, Gonfer, Headbomb, Helenabella, HexaChord, Hurricane111, Icairns, Insert pseudonym here, Intelligentsium, Itzchinoboi, Izno, J.Wolfe@unsw.edu.au, JARRAF RIBAS, JNW, Jake Wartenberg, Jamesontai, JerrySteal, Jhartzell42, LeCire, Lensi, Linkinpark342, Little Mountain 5, Lookang, M-le-mot-dit, Masgatotkaca, Mat-C, Mazemaster, Mfox4000, Michael Hardy, Monkeyfacematsui, Moxfyre, Natural Philosopher, NawlinWiki, Netkinetic, OS2Warp, Oleg Alexandrov, Pdch, Philc 0780, Philip Trueman, Pmcchesn, Polluxian, Poorsod, Ricardo sandoval, Sai2020, Sandycx, Sanpaz, Shane 42, Slowking Man, Smeapancol, Sodium, Sparetimefiller, Srleffler, Stephenb, StradivariusTV, Sverdrup, TStein, Telanor, Tempodivalse, Thehakimboy, Tibbets74, TidusBlade, Tim Q. Wells, Timboyk12, Timwilson85, TomyDuby, Trevorcox, Ubiq, Vishnava, Wizard191, Wolfmankurd, Xrchz, Xuanji, Yiyun, 253 anonymous edits Pendulum Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=342658814 Contributors: -- April, 0, 19.7, 2D, A3RO, Abeg92, AdjustShift, Afterguide, Ahoerstemeier, Ahudson, Aitias, Alansohn, Alasdair, Alberto Orlandini, Aleenf1, Alex Bakharev, Alexf, Allen3, Alternately, Amitch, AnakngAraw, Ancheta Wis, AndonicO, Andrea ying, Ant895, Arse765, Art LaPella, Arthur Warrington Thomas, Ascidian, Astroview120mm, Atif.t2, Atlant, AugPi, Aunt Entropy, BD2412, Babygene52, BadSeed, Bahy amir, Bartledan, Batmanand, Benplowman, Berland, Big Bird, Bjaco18, Bobguy7, Bobo192, Bobwama, Bonadea, Booyabazooka, Brianjd, Bringitonhome, Brougham96, Bruunklaus, Bryan Derksen, Bscazz, Burn, CTZMSC3, CWY2190, Cactus.man, Caesarsgrunt, Caiaffa, Capricorn42, CardinalDan, Carlainz, Cburnett, Cctoide, Charles Matthews, Chetvorno, Chowbok, Chris the speller, Chrisjohnson, Cleonis, Closedmouth, Coffee, Commit charge, Connelly, Conscious, Corvus cornix, CosineKitty, Crowsnest, D. Recorder, DCLXVI, DVD R W, Da Joe, Dafatman11, DanielLC, Dannyboy3, Darkwind, Dave3457, DavidOaks, Dawn Bard, Db099221, Dbfirs, DeNoel, Deconstructhis, Decumanus, Deeptrivia, Diablo890, Dil0001, Discospinster, Djinn112, Dr. Sunglasses, Dupz, Dust Filter, Echoez71, Ejurgaite, Ellywa, Emilytwhon7, EnJx, Enigmatic Affliction, Epbr123, Eric-Wester, Eric45, Everyking, Evil Monkey, Evildictaitor, FR3AKofANiME, Faradayplank, FatalError, Filll, Fingerz, Finn-Zoltan, Frankenpuppy, Freakonaleash752, FreddoMan, Freiddie, Fresheneesz, Friendly Neighbour, Fuenfundachtzig, Fweebee, Gateway1, Gelo71, Gene Nygaard, Geodyde, Giftlite, Gilliam, Ginsengbomb, Glenn, Goldom, GrahamColm, Greenguy1090, Guardian, Gwernol, HLewis, Haakon, Habashia, Hannahsarah, Hmains, Hooperbloob, IL7Soulhunter, Icairns, Ifingh8u, Ikanreed, IndulgentReader, Institute, Ironfistedmonkey, Itub, Ixfd64, J.delanoy, JFreeman, JSpung, Jagged 85, JakeParker, James JK, James086, Jidan, JimVC3, Jimp, Jimwox, Jjron, Jklin, Jnb, Johnteslade, Jtelliott, Julia Rossi, Juliancolton, Jusdafax, Kaiba, Kanonkas, Karn, Kesuari, Kevinmalana, Killerheartburn, Killiondude, Kimyu12, Kjkolb, Krod, Kungfuadam, Kurykh, Lefty bidder, Leonard G., Lithium81, M-le-mot-dit, MER-C, Mani1, Markco1, Marsen, MarshallKe, Martin451, Masgatotkaca, Mattgirling, McSly, Mduvigneaud, Mellibere, Michael Hardy, Mild Bill Hiccup, Mnshahri, Morrowulf, Mr.hotkeys, Msn26586, Mygerardromance, Ndrules5673, Nefreat, NellieBly, Neonblak, Netizen, Neurolysis, NewEnglandYankee, Nigelj, Niteowlneils, Noerdosnum, Novacatz, Nsaa, Obnoxin, Oda Mari, Odedee, Oleg Alexandrov, Olivier, Onevalefan, Orioane, Oxymoron83, Paintman, Paladin2005, Papipaul, Patdreams, Patrick, Pearle, Pedro, PericlesofAthens, Peter R Hastings, Peterlin, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Phe, Pigsonthewing, PlusMinus, Pol098, Pooplove, Poorsod, Porqin, Prashanth338, Prashanthns, Psmith, Pstuart, Qtoktok, Qwerta4, R'n'B, RJASE1, RJHall, RandomP, Recognizance, RedHillian, Redgolpe, Reeveorama, RexNL, Rich Farmbrough, RobertG, Robinh, Ronhjones, Rracecarr, SJP, SUPRATIM DEY, Sagaciousuk, Scientizzle, Scribblesinmindscapes, Shadoku, Shadow11572, Shigityboombopbam, Sidmow, SilasW, Singularity, Sionus, Sir Isaac, Sky Attacker, Slakr, Smarterchild 13, Snottywong, Snowmanradio, Soliloquial, Spir, Spitfire, SquidSK, Steel, Steven Weston, Steven Zhang, Storm Rider, StuffOfInterest, Sublime50lbc, Sverdrup, Swpb, Symplectic Map, Tcncv, Teknic, Tellyaddict, Teradon, Ternit, Terry1944, The Thing That Should Not Be, The ed17, The sock that should not be, TheBendster, TheRanger, Thingg, Tiddly Tom, Tide rolls, Timc, Tivedshambo, Tom harrison, Tslocum, Ukexpat, Ummit, Unc.hbar, UninvitedCompany, Unrulyevil, VN503, Vald, VanBurenen, Velela, Vicarious, Viper426, Vivio Testarossa, Vsmith, Waggers, Well, girl, look at you!, WereSpielChequers, WikHead, Wikieditor06, WingkeeLEE, Wolfkeeper, Woohookitty, XJamRastafire, XaosBits, Xompanthy, Youandme, Zaidpjd, Zamphuor, Zidane tribal, Zocky, , 863 anonymous edits Precession Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=341496443 Contributors: 200.191.188.xxx, Abel Cavai, AcePilot101, Adam37, Akhen3sir, AlexDusty, AllanBz, Ancheta Wis, Andre Engels, AndrewDressel, Angelobear, Aramael, AxelBoldt, B00P, Benet Allen, Big Brother 1984, BlueMoonlet, Bryan Derksen, CSWarren, Cacycle, Caid Raspa, Canderson7, CardinalDan, Charles Matthews, Chenzw, Cleonis, Conversion script, Crastinbic, Cwolfsheep, Cyde, Daniel Arteaga, DavidGPeters, Deadstar, Dfan, Dhaluza, Dmh, Dougweller, Doverbeach01, Dr Dec, Drake144, Eclecticology, Edward321, Ekhalom, Enochlau, Ewlyahoocom, Fuchsias, Gazouille, Gdr, Giftlite, Glenn, Graymornings, GregBenson, Harp, HeikoEvermann, Henrygb, Hephaestos, Hesperian, Hhawks12, Hkyriazi, Ian Pitchford, Iceblock, Igoldste, Ingolfson, Jerzy, JesseW, Jic, Jmundo, Joe Kress, Jorfer, Joshua Issac, Juansempere, Karl E. V. Palmen, Karl Palmen, Karol Langner, KasugaHuang, Kbdank71, Ke6jjj, Kegrad, Kieff, Kingpin13, Kjkolb, Kungfuadam, Kwekubo, La goutte de pluie, Leighxucl, Lemontea, Linas, Lir, Littlealien182, Livajo, Logologist, Looxix, Lousedamouse, Lumidek, MDSL2005, Maestlin, MarcusMaximus, Mark Foskey, Markus Schmaus, Marx Gomes, MattWright, Maurog, Mav, Melaen, Miraceti, Mormegil, Mosesofmason, Mulad, Mysid, Mslimix, Natalya, Nemti, Nergaal, Nikai, Ocatecir, Odedee, P.Schellart, Patrick, Paul Drye, Pdn, Persian Poet Gal, Phoenix-forgotten, Pjacobi, Ponder, Portalian, Portnadler, Pt, ReelExterminator, ReubenGarrett, Romanm, Ryangdotexe, SDC, Sam Korn, Series35, Shimmin, Simeon H, Smg6512, SpeedyGonsales, Spiffy sperry, StuRat, Stw, TenOfAllTrades, The Anome, The Rationalist, The way, the truth, and the light, Tom Peters, Tom Radulovich, Tony Sidaway, Ungtss, Vicki Rosenzweig, Visionismind, Vuong Ngan Ha, W.F.Galway, WISo, Wereon, Wetman, Whosasking, William M. Connolley, WolfmanSF, Worldtraveller, XDanielx, Xmnemonic, Xp54321, Zbayz, 224 anonymous edits

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Larmor precession Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=336607062 Contributors: Bauleaf, Berland, Charvest, Choij, Chutznik, Csigabi, Dchristle, Dirac66, G-W, Gillen, Henry Delforn, Karol Langner, Linas, Michael Hardy, Nephron, Nyctea, Pegship, SciYann, Stone, Tdonoughue, WISo, Yamavu, 20 anonymous edits Thomas precession Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=333993713 Contributors: AndrewDressel, BenRG, Charles Matthews, Charvest, Conscious, Delaszk, GregorB, Jjalexand, KasugaHuang, Lantonov, Linas, Marasmusine, Mushin, NSH001, Oxnard28, P.Schellart, Pegship, Phys, Pt, Rgdboer, Sbyrnes321, Sinik, Star-Algebra, Tim Starling, YK Times, Yill577, 16 anonymous edits Gyroscope Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=342611690 Contributors: .:Ajvol:., AGToth, Abhilashharpale, Ahoerstemeier, Airdoo0, Ale jrb, Alexmcfire, Amir198332, Anclation, Andres, AndrewDressel, Angellcruz, Apostolyuk, Arnero, Ars17, Arydberg, Attilios, Audriusa, AxelBoldt, BarretBonden, Bigbluefish, Bob, Bovineone, Brenont, Bryan Derksen, Capitalistroadster, Chuunen Baka, Ckatz, Cleonis, Clicketyclack, Clt13, CoolHand77, Crevox, Crum375, Cwkmail, Dancter, Dark Mage, David Haslam, Deagels, Dekisugi, Dmitrek, DonPMitchell, Dori, Dr Dec, Edison, Edoe, Eliyak, Eteq, Fapertl, Fixentries, Frebel93, FuturedOrange, GTGUSD, GVasil, GeeJo, Giftlite, Glenn, Glennturner, Gordon Vigurs, Gregorydavid, Gyroscopic, Hackwrench, Hadal, Haham hanuka, Hailey C. Shannon, Hairy Dude, Headbomb, Hephaestos, Heron, Hooperbloob, Hraefen, Hughhunt, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, Imsome, Isis4563, Jamymc, JarrodWood, Jary, Jboyles, Jitse Niesen, Jjjsixsix, Johnjohuy23, Jok2000, Jorfer, JustinWick, Karada, Keenan Pepper, Kenny56, Kevins8, Kieff, Kirchsw, Light current, Linas, MONESTIER, MSGJ, MacGyver07, Macaddct1984, Magnus Manske, Mandarax, Mani1, Mare, MartinDK, Mayooranathan, Mboverload, Mhss, Michael Hardy, Michal Jurosz, Mr. Lefty, Muhends, NawlinWiki, NeilN, Nergaal, Nick Pisarro, Jr., Nuno Tavares, Patrick, Pepperpiggle, Peripitus, Petri Krohn, Pleasantville, Pol098, Ragesoss, Rama, Raven in Orbit, RedKnight7, Roberta F., Robth, Rracecarr, S3000, Sammy0001, Sarah, Selkem, Spitfire, Spliced, SpookyMulder, Stephane.magnenat, StradivariusTV, Svdmolen, Tabletop, TakuyaMurata, The Anome, The Great Apple, The Singularity, Thelardking, Themfromspace, Thumperward, Tiburon, Tide rolls, Tim Song II, Tony Sidaway, Trusilver, Tuspm, Uncle Milty, Unyoyega, Uorden, Vaceituno, W T L, WikHead, Wolfkeeper, XJamRastafire, Xenonice, Yamamoto Ichiro, Yintan, Zandperl, Zazou25, Zowie, Zr40, 293 anonymous edits Orbit Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=342446952 Contributors: (, -- April, 0.39, 128.60.24.xxx, 2over0, 84user, A bit iffy, A.M.962, A8UDI, Agge1000, Ahoerstemeier, Aitias, Alan Peakall, Alansohn, Alec Connors, Alex.tan, Alfio, Algont, Andy M. Wang, Andycjp, Ante Perkovic, Anyeverybody, Arakunem, Art LaPella, AstroNomer, Azcolvin429, Baa, Bagatelle, Bastiche, Beland, Beleaf33, Blue520, BobKawanaka, Bobo192, Bowlhover, Bryan Derksen, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, CapitalR, Captain panda, Carnildo, Catgut, Causa sui, Ccraccnam, Cgsguy2, Ch'marr, CharlesGillingham, Chrismiceli, Christopher Thomas, Ciphers, Clappingsimon, Classicalhistory009, Cole.christensen, Cometstyles, Conversion script, Cpiral, Crazysane, Creator editer, Curps, Da monster under your bed, Daleband, DancingPenguin, Daniel Arteaga, DanielDeibler, Danski14, David Tombe, DavidMcKenzie, Davidmckenzie, DerHexer, Dicklyon, Discospinster, Djr32, Doc Perel, Doctor sw27, Doradus, Doulos Christos, Dr. Sunglasses, Dragice, Dreamster, Duk, Dvogel, Dysepsion, Dysprosia, EFletcher, Easphi, Eastfrisian, Eddie Dealtry, Ederiel, Eeekster, Eequor, Egg plant, Einsidler, Eisnel, El pak, Elva7025, Emc2, EmirA, Emote, Epbr123, Equendil, Erik9, Everyme, FKmailliW, Faradayplank, Feyrauth, Firsfron, Fleem, Flyguy649, Fosse8, Franamax, Francs2000, FrankH, Freakytim, Fsswsb, FyzixFighter, GTBacchus, Gadfium, Galoubet, Gene Nygaard, Giftlite, Gilliam, Glane23, Glenn, Gurch, Hadal, Haeleth, Harold f, Harp, He6kd, Heron, Hildenja, Hmschallenger, Hobartimus, Icairns, Igoldste, Iokseng, Iridescent, J.delanoy, J04n, JTN, JaGa, Jacobko, Jer10 95, Jerry teps, Jimius, Jiy, JohnOwens, Joymmart, Jrockley, Juliancolton Alternative, Jyril, KamuiShirou, Karl Palmen, Karl-Henner, Karol Langner, Kbdank71, Kissnmakeup, Kubigula, Kukini, Kurtan, Lakinekaki, Leafnode, Leon7, Leuqarte, Levineps, Li-sung, Liverpoolfan567, Logicus, Lomn, Looxix, Lrmcfarland, Lunokhod, Lvzon, M0ffx, Mackerm, Marc Venot, Marcus Brute, Mav, Meco, Metacomet, Mgiganteus1, Michael C Price, Michael Hardy, Michaelbusch, Mike Rosoft, Mike s, Minesweeper, MinnieRae, Mintleaf, Mishuletz, Mlm42, N2e, Nabla, Nae'blis, Nakon, NickNak, Nickshanks, Nifky?, Obradovic Goran, Oda Mari, PGWG, Parvons, Patrick, Paul August, PhySusie, Pi@k, Pizza Puzzle, Plrk, Pot, Propaniac, Ptitelise, QuantumEleven, Qxz, RJHall, Ray Van De Walker, Rich Farmbrough, Richard0612, Richhoncho, Rje, Rjwoer, Rollo44, Rracecarr, Ryulong, Saintrain, Saintswithin, Salix alba, Sam, Sam Hocevar, Sam13024, Sandstein, Saros136, Sdsds, Seth ze, SeventyThree, Shantavira, Shimeru, Sly Marbro 03, Smartech, Smarthead88, Smurfix, Sowelilitokiemu, Speed CG, Spoon!, Stamcose, Stemonitis, SuperHamster, Swpb, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, TJRC, Taka2007, Tapir Terrific, Tauolunga, Terry0051, That Guy, From That Show!, The Anome, The Land, The Thing That Should Not Be, The way, the truth, and the light, TheKMan, TheRanger, Tim Starling, Timir2, Tohd8BohaithuGh1, Tom Peters, Tosha, Turk olan, Twoe gappes, Ultimatewikisurfer, Unigfjkl, Unyoyega, Urhixidur, Variable, Venu62, Voyajer, Vsmith, Wassermann, Wavelength, Whalesmith, WikiLaurent, Will ward, WilliamKF, Wolfkeeper, Wuyanhuiyishi, Wwheaton, Wwoods, XJamRastafire, Yekrats, Youandme, Your vexation, Zaheen, Zambani, Zginder, Zhatt, 354 anonymous edits

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Image:Pahoeoe fountain original.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pahoeoe_fountain_original.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Jim D. Griggs, HVO (USGS) staff photographer Image:Astronaut-EVA.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Astronaut-EVA.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: NASA Image:Lightning in Arlington.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lightning_in_Arlington.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: User:Postdlf Image:Francesco Hayez 001.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Francesco_Hayez_001.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Emijrp, G.dallorto, Mattes, Tomisti Image:Bose Einstein condensate.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bose_Einstein_condensate.png License: Public Domain Contributors: NIST/JILA/CU-Boulder Image:CMS Higgs-event.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CMS_Higgs-event.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Belfer00, Harp, Kaldari, Lapka, Pieter Kuiper, 1 anonymous edits Image:Hubble ultra deep field high rez edit1.jpg Source: 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