Competency Training and Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Certificate in

Power System Modeling and Analysis

Training Course in

Load Flow Analysis

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis

Course Outline
1. The Load Flow Problem 2. Power System Models for Load Flow Analysis 3. Gauss-Seidel Load Flow 4. Newton-Raphson Load Flow 5. Backward/Forward Sweep Load Flow 6. Principles of Load Flow Control 7. Uses of Load Flow Studies
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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis

The Load Flow Problem

Basic Electrical Engineering Solution Load Flow of Distribution System Load Flow of Transmission and Subtransmission System Load Flow of a Contemplated System Load Flow of a Single Line

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis

The Load Flow Problem

Basic Electrical Engineering Solution
How do you determine the voltage, current, power, and power factor at various points in a power system?
Sending End Line Receiving End

1.1034 + j2.0856 ohms/phase

ISR = ?

Solve for:
1) ISR = (SR/VR )* 2) VD = ISRZL 3) VS = VR + VD 4) SS = VSx(ISR)*

VS = ?

VR = 13.2 kVLL Load 2 MVA, 3Ph 85%PF

VOLTAGE DROP = VS - VR

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis

The Load Flow Problem

Sending End Line

1.1034 + j2.0856 ohms/phase

ISR = ?

Receiving End

Solve for:
1) ISR = (SR/VR )* 2) VD = ISRZL 3) VS = VR + VD 4) SS = VSx(ISR)*

VS = ?

S1 = ( 2,000,000 / 3 ) cos 1 ( 0.85 ) = 666 ,666.67 31.79 VA

VR = 13.2 kVLL Load 2 MVA, 3Ph 85%PF

VR = ( 13,200 / 3 )0 = 7621.020 V I SR 666 ,666.67 31.79 = = 87.48 31.79 A 7621.020

VD = ( 87.48 31.79 )( 1.1034 + j2.0856 ) = 178.15 + j104.23 V VS = (7621.02 + j0 ) + ( 178.15 + j104.23 ) = 7,799.87 0.77 V VS = 7,799.87 0.77 /1000* 3 = 13.51 k V
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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis

The Load Flow Problem

Load Flow From the Real World
Sending End Line Receiving End

1.1034 + j2.0856 ohms/phase

ISR = ?

VS = 13.2 kVLL

VR = ? Load 2 MVA, 3Ph 85%PF

How do you solve for:

1) ISR = ? 2) VD = ? 3) VR = ? 4) SS = ?
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Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Load Flow Analysis

The Load Flow Problem

Load Flow of Distribution System
Bus2 Bus1 I12 , Loss12 = ? I23 , Loss23 = ? Bus3 V3 = ? P3 , Q3 = ?

Utility Grid

V1 = 67 kV P1 , Q1 = ?

How do you solve for the Voltages, Currents, Power and Losses?

I24 , Loss24 = ? V4 = ? P4 , Q4 = ? Bus4 V2 = ? Lumped Load A P2 , Q2 = ? 2 MVA 85%PF Lumped Load B 1 MVA 85%PF

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis

The Load Flow Problem

Load Flow of Transmission and Subtransmission System
G 1 How do you solve for the Voltages, Currents and Power of a LOOP power system? Line 2 3 Line 3 Line 1 G 2

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis

The Load Flow Problem

Load Flow of a Contemplated System
How about if there are contemplated changes in the System? How will you determine in advance the effects of: Growth or addition of new loads Addition of generating plants Upgrading of Substation Expansion of distribution lines before the proposed changes are implemented?

Answer: LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis

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The Load Flow Problem

Load
simulates (i.e., mathematically determine) the performance of an electric power system under a given set of conditions. Load Flow (also called Power Flow) is a snapshot picture of the power system at a given point.

Flow

Analysis

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The Load Flow Problem

Load Flow of a Single Line
Sending End Line

1.1034 + j2.0856 ohms/phase

ISR = ?

Receiving End Load 2 MVA, 3Ph 85%PF

VS = 13.2 kVLL

VR = ?

Injected Power at Receiving End

SR = VR x (ISR)*

Voltage at Sending End

VS = VR + Z x ISR

Solving for the Current

ISR = (SR / VR)*
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Voltage at Receiving End

VR = VS - Z x SR*/VR*
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The Load Flow Problem

Load Flow of a Single Line
Sending End Line

1.1034 + j2.0856 ohms/phase

ISR = ?

Receiving End Load 2 MVA, 3Ph 85%PF

VS = 13.2 kVLL

VR = ?

Converting Quantities in Per Unit Base Power = 1 MVA Base Voltage = 13.2 kV Base Impedance = [13.2]2/1 = 174.24 ohms
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VS(pu) = 13.2 /13.2 = 1/0 SR(pu) = 2/cos-1(0.85) / 1 Zpu = (1.1034 + j2.0856)/174.24 = 0.00633 + j0.01197
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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis

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The Load Flow Problem

Load Flow of a Single Line
Sending End Line

1.1034 + j2.0856 ohms/phase

ISR = ?

Receiving End Load 2 MVA, 3Ph 85%PF

VS = 13.2 kVLL

VR = ?

VR(k) = VS - Z x [SR]* / [VR(k-1) ]*

Let

VR(0) = 1/0
For k = 2

For k = 1

VR(1) = __________ V(1) = __________

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VR(2) = __________ V(2) = __________

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis

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The Load Flow Problem

Load Flow of a Single Line
Sending End Line

1.1034 + j2.0856 ohms/phase

ISR = ?

Receiving End Load 2 MVA, 3Ph 85%PF

VS = 13.2 kVLL

VR = ?

VR(k) = VS - Z x [SR]* / [VR(k-1) ]* VR(2) = __________

For k = 3 For k = 4

VR(3) = __________ V(3) = __________

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VR(4) = __________ V(4) = __________

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis

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The Load Flow Problem

Load Flow of a Single Line
Sending End Line

1.1034 + j2.0856 ohms/phase

ISR = ?

Receiving End Load 2 MVA, 3Ph 85%PF

VS = 13.2 kVLL

VR = ?

VS = __________ VR = __________ VD = VS VR VD = __________

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ISR = __________ SR = __________ SS = VS x [ISR]* SS = __________

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis

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The Load Flow Problem

Load Flow of a Single Line
Sending End Line

1.1034 + j2.0856 ohms/phase

ISR = ?

Receiving End Load 2 MVA, 3Ph 85%PF

VS = 13.2 kVLL

VR = ?

PFR = PR / SR PFR = _________ PFS = PS / SS PFS = _________

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SLoss = PLoss + QLoss SLoss = SS - SR PLoss = _________ QLoss = _________

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis

17

Power System Models for Load flow Analysis

Bus Admittance Matrix, Ybus Network Models Generator Models Bus Types for Load Flow Analysis

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis

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Power System Models for Load Flow Analysis

The power system components are interconnected through the buses. The buses must therefore be identified in the load flow model.
Generators and loads are connected from bus to neutral. Transmission lines and transformers are connected from one bus to another bus.

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis

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Power System Models for Load Flow Analysis

Network Models
The static components (transformers and lines) are represented by the bus admittance matrix, Ybus
Y 11 Y 21 Y 31 M Y n 1 Y 12 Y 22 Y 32 M Yn2 Y 13 L Y 1 n Y 23 L Y 2 n Y 33 L Y 3 n M M Y n 3 L Y nn

[YBUS] =

The number of buses (excluding the neutral bus) determines the dimension of the bus admittance, Ybus.
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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis

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Power System Models for Load Flow Analysis

Network Models
Line No. Bus Code Impedance Z pq (p.u.) 1 2 3 1 -2 1 -3 2 -3 0.08 + j0.24 0.02 + j0.06 0.06 + j0.18

Line 1 1 Line 2 3
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2 Line 3 Set-up the Ybus

Training Course in Load Flow Analysis

21

Power System Models for Load Flow Analysis

Network Models
Compute the branch admittances to set up Ybus: 1 1 ______________ y12 = ____ = 1.25 - j3.75 = z12 0.08 + j0.24 1 1 ______________ y13 = ____ = 5 - j15 = z13 0.02 + j0.06 1 1 ______________ = 1.667 - j5 y23 = ____ = z23 0.06 + j0.18
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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis

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Power System Models for Load Flow Analysis

Set-up the bus admittance matrix: Y11 = y12 + y13 = (1.25 - j3.75) + (5 - j15) = 6.25 - j18.75 = 19.7642 -71.5651 Y12 = -y12 = -1.25 + j3.75 = 3.9528 108.4349 Y13 = -y13 = -5 + j15 = 15.8114 108.4349 Y21 = Y12 = -y12 = -1.25 + j3.75 = 3.9528 108.4349
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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis

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Power System Models for Load Flow Analysis

Y22 = y12 + y23 = (1.25 - j3.75) + (1.6667 - j5) = 2.9167 - j8.75 = 9.2233 -71.5649 Y23 = -y23 = -1.6667 + j5 = 5.2705 108.4349 Y31 = Y13 = -y13 = -5 + j15 = 15.8114 108.4349 Y32 = Y23 = -y23 Y33 = -1.6667 + j5 = 5.2705 108.4349 = y13 + y23 = (5 - j15) + (1.6667 - j5) = 6.6667 - j20 = 21.0819 -71.5650
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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis

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Power System Models for Load Flow Analysis

Generator Models
Voltage-controlled generating units to supply a scheduled active power (P) at a specified voltage (V). The generating units are equipped with voltage regulator to adjust the field excitation so that the units will operate at particular reactive power (Q) in order to maintain the voltage. Swing generating units to maintain the frequency at 60Hz in addition to maintaining the specified voltage. The generating unit is equipped with frequency-following controller (very fast speed governor) and is assigned as Swing generator
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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis

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Power System Models for Load Flow Analysis

Bus Types for Load Flow
Generators and loads are connected from bus to neutral.

Four quantities must be specified to completely describe a bus. These are:

Bus Bus Bus Bus

voltage magnitude, Vp voltage phase angle, p injected active power, Pp injected reactive power, Qp
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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis

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Power System Models for Load Flow Analysis

Swing Bus or Slack Bus
The difference between the total load demand plus losses (both P and Q) and the scheduled generations is supplied by the swing bus. The voltage magnitude and phase angle are specified for the swing bus. P,Q + Type 1: G V Swing Bus U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Specify: V, Unknown: P, Q

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Power System Models for Load Flow Analysis

The total real power Pp injected into the system through the bus is specified together with the magnitude of the voltage Vp at the bus. The bus voltage magnitude is maintained through reactive P,Q power injection. + Type 2: G V Generator Bus U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Generator Bus (Voltage-Controlled) Bus or PV Bus

Specify: P, V Unknown: Q,

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Power System Models for Load Flow Analysis

Load Bus or PQ Bus
The total injected power Pp and the reactive power Qp at Bus P are specified and are assumed constant, independent of the small variations in bus voltage. P,Q Type 3: Load Bus + Specify: P, Q Unknown: V,
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V
-

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis

29

Power System Models for Load Flow Analysis

SUMMARY OF BUS TYPES
Bus Type Type1: S w in g Type 2: G e n e ra to r Type 3: Load Know n Q u a n t it ie s V p, p P p, V p P p, Q p Unknow n Q u a n t it ie s P p, Q p Q p, p V p, p

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis

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Power System Models for Load Flow Analysis

G 1 Line 1 G 2 Line 2 3
Bus No. 1 2 3 Voltage Generation P Q V (p.u.) 1.0 0.0 * * 1.0 * 0.20 * * * 0 0
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Bus Types

Line 3

Load P Q 0 0 0 0 0.60 0.25

Remarks Swing Bus Gen Bus Load Bus

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Gauss-Seidel Load Flow

Linear Formulation of Load Flow Equations Gauss-Seidel Load Flow Solution Numerical Example

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis

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Gauss-Seidel Load Flow

Linear Formulation of Load Flow Equations
Pp + jQp = Vp Ip* Pp - jQp = Vp* Ip Pp = real power injected into bus P Qp = reactive power injected into bus P Vp = phasor voltage of bus P Ip = current injected into bus P
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The real and reactive power into any bus P is: or where

(1)

Training Course in Load Flow Analysis

33

Gauss-Seidel Load Flow

Equation (1) may be rewritten as: Pp - jQp _________ Ip = Vp* From the Bus Admittance Matrix equation, the current injected into the bus are: Ip = Yp1V1 + Yp2V2 + + YppVp + + YpnVn I1 = Y11V1 + Y12V2 + Y13V3 I2 = Y21V1 + Y22V2 + Y23V3 I3 = Y31V1 + Y32V2 + Y33V3
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(2)

(3)

Training Course in Load Flow Analysis

34

Gauss-Seidel Load Flow

Substituting (3) into (2) Pp - jQp _________ = Yp1V1 + Yp2V2 + + YppVp + + YpnVn Vp* P1 jQ1 _________ = Y11V1 + Y12V2 + Y13V3 V1* P2 jQ2 _________ = Y21V1 + Y22V2 + Y23V3 V2* P3 jQ3 _________ = Y31V1 + Y32V2 + Y33V3 V3*
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(4)

Training Course in Load Flow Analysis

35

Gauss-Seidel Load Flow

Solving for Vp in (4) P1 jQ1 _______ - (___ + Y12V2 + Y13V3) Y11V1 = V1*

1 P1 jQ1 V1 = Y12V2 Y13V3 * Y11 V1

P 2 jQ2 _______ V2* - (Y12V2 + ___ + Y13V3)

Y22V2 =

1 P2 jQ2 Y21V1 Y13V3 V2 = * Y22 V2

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Gauss-Seidel Load Flow

Y33V3 = P 3 jQ3 _______ V3* - (Y13V1 + Y23V2 + ___)

1 P3 jQ3 Y31V1 Y32V2 V3 = * Y33 V3

n P jQ 1 p p Vp = ___ _______ - YpqVq Ypp Vp* q=1 q p

(5)

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis

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Gauss-Seidel Load Flow

Gauss-Seidel Load Flow Solution
Generalizing the Gauss-Seidel Load Flow, the estimate for the voltage Vp at bus p at the kth iteration is:
n Pp - jQp 1 _______ ___ k+1 Y V pq q Vp = Ypp (Vpk)* q=1 q p

(6)

where, = k =k+1
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if p < q if p > q
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Gauss-Seidel Load Flow

Gauss-Seidel Voltage Equations of the form shown in (6) are written for all buses except for the swing bus. The solution proceeds iteratively from an estimate of all bus voltages For a Load Bus (Type 3) whose real power and reactive power are specified, the G-S voltage equation is used directly to compute the next estimate of the bus voltage. For a Generator Bus (Type 2) where the voltage magnitude is specified, an estimate of Qp must be determined first. This estimate is then compared with the reactive power limits of the generator. If it falls within the limits, the specified voltage is maintained and the computed Qp is inputted, in the Gauss-Seidel equation. Otherwise, the reactive power is set to an appropriate limit (Qmin or Qmax) and the bus is treated as a load bus in the current iteration.
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Gauss-Seidel Load Flow

Numerical Example
Shown in the figure is a 3-bus power system. The line and bus data pertinent to the system are also given. The reactive limits of generator 2 are zero and 50 MVARS, respectively. Base power used is 100 MVA. Solve the load flow problem using Gauss-Seidel iterative method assuming a 0.005 convergence index.

Line 1

1 Line 2 3
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2 Line 3

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Gauss-Seidel Load Flow

Branch Data
Line No. Bus Code Impedance Z pq (p.u.) 1 2 3 1 -2 1 -3 2 -3 0.08 + j0.24 0.02 + j0.06 0.06 + j0.18

Bus Data Bus Voltage Generation No. V (p.u.) P Q 1 1.0 0.0 * * 2 1.0 * 0.20 * 3 * * 0 0
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Load P Q 0 0 0 0 0.60 0.25

Remarks Swing Bus Gen Bus Load Bus

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis

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Gauss-Seidel Load Flow

Specified Variables: V1 = 1.0 1 = 0.0 V2 = 1.0 P3 = -0.6 P2 = 0.2 Q3 = -0.25 Note the negative sign of P and Q of the Load at Bus 3

Initial Estimates of Unknown Variables: 20 = 0.0 V30 = 1.0 30 = 0.0

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Gauss-Seidel Load Flow

The Bus Admittance Matrix elements are: Y11 = 6.25 - j18.75 = 19.7642 -71.5651 Y12 = -1.25 + j3.75 = 3.9528 108.4349 Y13 = -5 + j15 = 15.8114 108.4349 Y21 = -1.25 + j3.75 = 3.9528 108.4349 Y22 = 2.9167 - j8.75 = 9.2233 -71.5649 Y23 = -1.6667 + j5 = 5.2705 108.4349 Y31 = -5 + j15 = 15.8114 108.4349 Y32 = -1.6667 + j5 = 5.2705 108.4349 Y33 = 6.6667 - j20 = 21.0819 -71.5650
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Gauss-Seidel Load Flow

Gauss-Seidel Equations
Bus 1: Swing Bus
V1
(k + 1 )

= 1 0

for all iterations

Bus 2: Generator Bus Q2 must first be determined from: P2 - jQ2(k+1) = (V2(k))* [Y21V1(k+1) + Y22V2(k) + Y23V3(k)] then substitute it to:
V2
(k + 1 )

(k + 1 ) 1 P2 jQ 2 (k + 1 ) (k ) = Y 21 V 1 Y 23 V 3 * ( ) k Y 22 V2

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Gauss-Seidel Load Flow

Bus 3: Load Bus
(k + 1 )

V3

1 P3 jQ 3 (k + 1 ) (k + 1 ) = Y 31 V 1 Y 32 V 2 * Y 33 V (k ) 3

Iteration 1 (k = 0): V1 (1) = 1.00 P2 - jQ2(1) = (1.00) [(-1.25 + j3.75)(1.00) + (2.9167 - j8.75)(1.00) + (-1.6667 + j5)(1.00) = 0.0 + j0.0 Q2(1) = 0.0 [This value is within the limits.]
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Gauss-Seidel Load Flow

V2
(k + 1 )

(k + 1 ) 1 P2 jQ 2 (k + 1 ) (k ) = Y 21V 1 Y 23 V 3 * (k ) Y 22 V 2

V2

(1)

0.2 - j0.0 1 ___________ ___________________ = 9.2233-71.5650 1.00

V1 Y21 - (-1.25 +j3.75) (1.00) (k ) Y23 V3 - (-1.6667 + j5) (1.00)
( k +1)

P2 jQ2

( k +1 )

Y22

(V )
(k )
2

= 1.00711.1705
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Gauss-Seidel Load Flow

V3
(k + 1 )

1 P3 jQ 3 (k + 1 ) (k + 1 ) = Y 31V 1 Y 32 V 2 * ( ) k Y 33 V 3 P jQ 3 3

V31

1 _____________________ = 21.0819-71.5650 Y33 ( k +1) Y31 V1 - (-5 +j15) (1.00)

-0.6 + j0.25 ____________ 1.00

(V )
3

k *

( k +1 ) Y32 V2 - (5.2705108.4349)(1.00711.1705)

= 0.9816 -1.0570
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47

Gauss-Seidel Load Flow

V2 = V2(1) - V2(0) = 1.00711.1705 - 1.00 V2 = 0.0217 V3 = V3(1) - V3(0) = 0.9816-1.0570 - 1.00 V3 = 0.0259
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48

Gauss-Seidel Load Flow

Iteration 2 (k = 1): V1(2) = 1.00 Let, V2(1) = 1.01.1705 P2 - jQ2(2) = (1.0-1.1705)[(-1.25 + j3.75)(1.00) + (9.2233-71.5649)(1.01.1705) + (5.2705108.4349 )(0.9816-1.0570) = 0.2995 - j0.0073 Q2 (2) = 0.0073 [This value is within the limits.]
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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis

49

Gauss-Seidel Load Flow

V2
(k + 1 )

(k + 1 ) 1 P2 jQ 2 (k + 1 ) (k ) = Y 21V 1 Y 23 V 3 * k ( ) Y 22 V2

V2

(2)

1 ___________________ = 9.2233 -71.5650

0.2 - j0.0073 ______________ 1.0 -1.1705

- (-1.25 +j3.75) (1.0 0) - (5.2705 108.4349 ) (0.9816 -1.0570) = 0.9966 0.5819

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50

Gauss-Seidel Load Flow

V3
(k + 1 )

1 P3 jQ 3 (k + 1 ) (k + 1 ) = Y 31 V 1 Y 32 V 2 * Y 33 V (k ) 3

1 _____________________ (2) V3 = 21.0819 -71.5650 - (-5 +j15) (1.0 0)

-0.6 + j0.25 ___________________ 0.9816 1.0570

- (5.2705 108.4349) (0.9966 0.5819 ) = 0.9783 -1.2166

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51

Gauss-Seidel Load Flow

V2 = V2(2) - V2(1) = 0.9966 0.5819 - 1.0071 1.1705 V2 = 0.0125 V3 = V3(2) - V3(1) = 0.9783 -1.2166 - 0.9816 -1.0570 V3 = 0.004
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52

Gauss-Seidel Load Flow

Iteration 3 (k = 2): V1(2) = 1.00 Let, V22 = 1.0 0.5819 P2 - jQ22 = (1.0 -0.5819) [(-1.25 + j3.75)(1.0 0) + (9.2233 -71.5649 ) (1.0 0.5819) + (5.2705 108.4349 ) (0.9783 -1.2166 ) = 0.2287 - j0.0472 Q22 = 0.0472 [This value is within the limits.]
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53

Gauss-Seidel Load Flow

V2
(k + 1 )

(k + 1 ) 1 P2 jQ 2 (k + 1 ) (k ) = Y 21V 1 Y 23 V 3 * k ( ) Y 22 V2

V23

1 ___________________ = 9.2233 -71.5650

0.2 - j0.0472 ______________ 1.0 -0.5819

- (-1.25 +j3.75) (1.0 0) - (5.2705 108.4349 ) (0.9783 -1.2166 ) = 0.9990 0.4129

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Gauss-Seidel Load Flow

V3
(k + 1 )

1 P3 jQ 3 (k + 1 ) (k + 1 ) = Y 31 V 1 Y 32 V 2 * Y 33 V (k ) 3

1 _____________________ 3 V3 = 21.0819 -71.5650 - (-5 +j15)(1.00)

-0.6 + j0.25 ___________________ 0.9783 1.2166

- (5.2705108.4349)(0.99900.4129) = 0.9788-1.2560
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Gauss-Seidel Load Flow

V2 = V2(3) - V2(2) = 0.99900.4129 - 1.00.5819 V2 = 0.003 < 0.005

V3 = V3(3) - V3(2) = 0.9788-1.2560 - 0.9783-1.2166 V3 = 0.0008 < 0.005

The solution has converged.

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Newton-Raphson Load Flow

Non-Linear Formulation of Load Flow Equations Newton-Raphson Load Flow Solution Numerical Example

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Newton-Raphson Load Flow

Non-Linear Formulation of Load Flow Equations
The complex power injected into Bus p is

Pp jQ p = E* pIp
and the current equation may be written as
Ip =

(1)

Y
q =1

pq

Eq
n

(2)

Substituting (2) into (1)

P p jQ

= E

* p

Y E
q =1 pq

(3)
q

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Newton-Raphson Load Flow

Let E = V p p
p

E q = Vq q

Ypq = Ypq pq
Substituting into equation (3),

Pp jQ p =
Pp =
n

VVY
q =1 p q
q pq

pq

( pq + q p )

(4)

Separating the real and imaginary components

VVY
q =1 p
n q =1

co s( pq + q p )

(5) (6)

Q p = V pV q Y pq sin( pq + q p )
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Newton-Raphson Load Flow

The formulation results in a set of non-linear equations, two for each Bus of the system. Equations Pp are written for all Buses except the Swing Bus. Equations Qp are written for Load Buses only The system of equations may be written for i number of buses minus the swing bus (n-1) j number of load buses

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Newton-Raphson Load Flow

The system of equations may be written as

P1 = P1 ( 1 , 2 ,..., i ,v1 ,v 2 ....,v j ) P2 = P2 ( 1 , 2 ,..., i ,v1 ,v 2 ....,v j ) M M Pi = Pi ( 1 , 2 ,..., i ,v1 ,v 2 ....,v j )

(7)

Q1 = Q1 ( 1 , 2 ,..., i ,v1 ,v2 ....,v j ) Q2 = Q2 ( 1 , 2 ,..., i ,v1 ,v2 ....,v j )

Q j = Q j ( 1 , 2 ,..., i ,v1 ,v2 ....,v j )
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Newton-Raphson Load Flow

Equation (7) may be linearized using a First-Order Taylor-Series Expansion
P1spec P2 spec = P1calc = P2calc + + P1 1 1 P2 1 1 + + P1 2 2 P2 2 2 +... + +... + P1 i i P2 i i Pi i 2 + + P1 V1 V1 P2 V1 V1 Pi V1 V1 + + P1 V2 V2 P2 V2 V2 Pi V2 V2 +... + +... + P1 V j V j P2 V j V j Pi V j V j Q1 V j V j Q2 V j V j Q j V j

Pi spec

M M M

= Pi calc = Q1calc
calc = Q2

+ + +

M P
i

1 +

M P
i

+... + +... + +... +

+ + +

+ + +

+... + +... + +... +

Q1spec Q2spec

Q1 1 1 Q2 1 1

+ +

Q1 2 2 Q2 2 2

Q1 i i Q2 i i Q j i

Q1 V1 V1 Q2 V1 V1 Q j V1

Q1 V2 V2 Q2 V2 V2 Q j V2

M M M
spec j

= Q

calc j

M Q

1 +

M Q

+... +

V1 +

V2 +... +

V j

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P1 s p e c sp ec P2 Pi s p e c sp ec Q1 Q sp ec 2 sp ec Q j
P1 P1c a l c 1 P2 c a lc P2 1 M M Pi Pi c a l c 1 = Q1 Q 1c a l c 1 Q2 c a lc Q2 1 M M Q j a lc Qc j 1

62

P1 2 P2 2

L L

P1 i P2 i

P1 V1 P2 V1

P1 V2
P2 V2

L
L

M
Pi 2 Q1 2 Q2 2

M L L L M
j

M
Pi V1 Q1 V1 Q 2 V1

M
Pi V2 Q1 V2 Q 2 V2

Pi 2 Q1 i Q 2 i

L L L

M
Q

M
Q i
j

M
Q
j

M
Q
j

V1

V2

P1 1 V j P2 2 V j M M Pi i V j Q1 V1 V j Q2 V 2 V j M M Q j V j V j

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Newton-Raphson Load Flow

or simply

P P Q = Q

P V Q V V

P P V P V V Q = Q Q V V V
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Newton-Raphson Load Flow

Newton-Raphson Load Flow Solution
P J1 = Q J 3 J 2 V J4 V
p

n Pp = V p V q Y p q s in ( p q + q q = 1 ,q p p J1 P p = V V Y s in ( + ) p q pq pq q p q
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Newton-Raphson Load Flow

Pp 2 V P V = + p p p Y pp c o s pp V p V Pp = V V Y c o s ( + q p ) q p q p q p q Vq n Q p = V pV q Y pq c o s ( pq + q q = 1 ,q p p Q p = V V Y co s( p q pq pq + q p ) q
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J2

J3

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Newton-Raphson Load Flow

V p J4 V q Q p V p Q p Vq = Q p V p2 Y p p s in p q = V p V q Y p q s in ( p q + q )

The solution of the load flow equations proceeds iteratively from the set of initial estimates. These estimates are updated after evaluating the Jacobian matrix.

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Newton-Raphson Load Flow

At the kth iteration,
( k +1 ) (k ) (k ) p = p + p

V p( k +1 ) = V p( k ) + V p( k )
The process is terminated once convergence is achieved whrein

MAX P( k ) p

and

MAX Q ( k ) q

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Newton-Raphson Load Flow

Numerical Example
Shown in the figure is a 3-bus power system. The line and bus data pertinent to the system are also given. The reactive limits of generator 2 are zero and 50 MVARS, respectively. Base power used is 100 MVA. Solve the load flow problem using Gauss-Seidel iterative method assuming a 0.005 convergence index.

G 1 Line 2

Line 1

G 2 Line 3 3

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Newton-Raphson Load Flow

Branch Data
Line No. Bus Code Impedance Z pq (p.u.) 1 2 3 1 -2 1 -3 2 -3 0.08 + j0.24 0.02 + j0.06 0.06 + j0.18

Bus Data Bus Voltage Generation No. V (p.u.) P Q 1 1.0 0.0 * * 2 1.0 * 0.20 * 3 * * 0 0
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Load P Q 0 0 0 0 0.60 0.25

Remarks Swing Bus Gen Bus Load Bus

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Newton-Raphson Load Flow

The elements of the Bus Admittance Matrix are:

Y11 = 6.25 j18.75 = 19.7642 71.5651 Y12 = 1, 25 + j 3.75 = 3.9528 108.4349 Y13 = 5 + j15 = 15.8114 108.4349 Y 21 = 1.25 + j .375 = 3.9528 108.4349 Y 22 = 2.9167 j 8.75 = 9.2233 71.5649 Y 23 = 1.6667 + j 5 = 5.2705 108.4349 Y31 = 5 + j15 = 15.811 4 108.4349 Y32 = 1.6667 + j 5 = 5.2705 108.4349 Y33 = 6.6667 j 20 = 21.0819 71.5650
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Newton-Raphson Load Flow

Bus 1: Swing Bus (Not included) Bus 2: Generator Bus (Compute for P2) Bus 32: Generator Bus (Compute for P2 and Q2)

P2 P2 2 P3 3= P 2 Q3 Q3 2

P2 3 P 3 3 Q3 3

P2 V3 2 V3 P V3 3 3 V3 Q3 V3 V3 V3 V3
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Newton-Raphson Load Flow

Specified Variables: V1 = 1.0 1 = 0.0 V2 = 1.0 P3 = -0.6 P2 = 0.2 Q3 = -0.25

Initial Estimates of Unknown Variables: 20 = 0.0 V30 = 1.0 30 = 0.0

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Newton-Raphson Load Flow

Compute Initial Power Estimates

P20 = V2V1Y21 cos( 21 + 1 2 ) + V2V2Y22 cos 22 + V2V3Y23 cos( 23 + 3 2 ) = ( 1.0 )( 1.0 )( 3.9528 )cos( 108.4349 + 0.0 + 0.0 ) + ( 1.0 )( 1.0 )( 9.2233 )cos( 71.5649 ) + ( 1.0 )( 1.0 )( 5.2705 )cos( 108.4349 ) = 0.0

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Newton-Raphson Load Flow

P30 = V3V1Y31 cos( 31 + 1 3 ) + V3V2Y32 cos( 22 + 2 3 ) + V3V3Y33 cos 33 = ( 1.0 )( 1.0 )( 15.8114 )cos( 108.4349 + 0.0 0.0 ) + ( 1.0 )( 1.0 )( 5.2705 )cos( 108.4349 + 0.0 + 0.0 ) + ( 1.0 )( 1.0 )( 21.0819 )cos( 71.5650 ) = 0.0

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Newton-Raphson Load Flow

0 Q3 = V 3V1Y31 sin( 31 + 1 3 )

+ V 3V 2Y32 sin( 32 + 2 3 ) + V 3V 3Y33 sin 33 = ( 1.0 )( 1.0 )( 15.8114 ) sin( 108.4349 + 0.0 0.0 ) + ( 1.0 )( 1.0 )( 5.2705 ) sin( 108.4349 + 0.0 + 0.0 ) + ( 1.0 )( 1.0 )( 21.0819 ) sin( 71.5650 ) = 0.0

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Newton-Raphson Load Flow

Compute Power Mismatch

P20 = 0 . 2 0 . 0 = 0 . 2 P30 = 0 .6 0 .0 = 0 .6 Q 30 = 0 .2 5 0 .0 = 0 .2 5
Evaluate elements of Jacobian Matrix
P J = Q P Q V V V
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Newton-Raphson Load Flow

Elements of J1:

P2 = V2V1Y21 sin( 21 + 1 2 ) 2 + V2V3Y23 sin( 23 + 3 2 ) = ( 1.0 )( 1.0 )( 3.9528 )sin( 108.4349 + 0.0 0.0 ) + ( 1.0 )( 1.0 )( 5.2705 )sin( 108.4349 + 0.0 0.0 ) = 8.75

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Newton-Raphson Load Flow

Elements of J1:

P2 = V2V3Y23 sin( 23 + 3 2 ) 3 = ( 1.0 )( 1.0 )( 5.2705 ) sin( 108.4349 + 0.0 0.0 ) = 5

P3 = V3V2Y32 sin( 32 + 2 3 ) 2 = ( 1.0 )( 1.0 )( 5.2705 ) sin( 108.4349 + 0.0 0.0 ) = 5

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Newton-Raphson Load Flow

Elements of J1:

P3 = V3V1Y31 sin( 31 + 1 3 ) 3 + V3V2Y23 sin( 32 + 2 3 ) = ( 1.0 )( 1.0 )( 15.8114 )sin( 108.4349 + 0.0 0.0 ) + ( 1.0 )( 1.0 )( 5.2705 )sin( 108.4349 + 0.0 0.0 ) = 20

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Newton-Raphson Load Flow

Elements of J2:

P2 = V2V3Y23 cos( 23 + 3 + 2 ) V3 V3

= (1.0 )(1.0 )(5.2705) cos(108.4349 + 0.0 0.0 ) = 1.6667

P3 V3 = P3 + V32Y33 cos 33 V3 = 0.0 + ( 1.0 )2 ( 8.2233 )cos( 71.5649 ) = 2.9167

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Newton-Raphson Load Flow

Elements of J3:

Q3 = V3V2Y32 cos( 32 + 2 3 ) 2 = ( 1.0 )( 1.0 )( 5.2705 )cos( 108.4349 + 0.0 0.0 ) = 1.6667
+ V3Y2Y32 cos( 32 + 2 3 ) = ( 1.0 )( 1.0 )( 15.8114 )cos( 108.4349 + 0.0 0.0 ) + ( 1.0 )( 1.0 )( 5.2705 )cos( 108.4349 + 0.0 0.0 ) = 6.6667
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Q3 = V3V1Y31 cos( 31 + 1 3 ) 3

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Newton-Raphson Load Flow

Elements of J4:

P3 V3 = Q3 V32Y33 sin 33 3 = 0.0 ( 1.0 )2 ( 21.0819 ) sin( 71.5649 ) = 20

In Matrix Form,

8.75 5 1.6667

1.6667 20 2.9167 6.6667 20

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Newton-Raphson Load Flow

Solving for Gradients,

5 1.6667 2 0.2 8.75 0.6 = 5 20 2.9167 3 20 0.25 1.6667 6.6667 V3 / V3

20 = 0.003984rad . = 0.2283 deg

30 = 0.02587rad. = 1.4822deg V30 = 0.02145 V30 = 0.02145

V3
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Newton-Raphson Load Flow

Update Initial Estimates

21 = 20 + 20
21 = 0.0 + 0.2283 = 0.2283 31 = 30 + 30 31 = 0.0 1.4822 = 1.4822
V = V + V
1 3 0 3 0 3

Specified Variables

V31 = 1.0 0.02145 = 0.97855

V11 = 1.0

11 = 0.0
V21 = 1.0

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Newton-Raphson Load Flow

Update Estimates of Injected Power
1 P 2 = V2VY 1 21 cos( 31 + 1 3 )

+ V2V2Y22 cos(22 )

+ 1.4822 = (1.0 )(1.0 )(3.9528 )cos(108.4349 + 0.0 0.2283) + (1.0 )(1.0 )(9.2233)cos( 71.5649 ) + (1.0 )(0.97855)(5.2705)cos(108.4349 1.4822 0.2283) = 0.1975
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+ V2V3Y23 cos(23 + 3 2 )

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Newton-Raphson Load Flow

Update Estimates of Injected Power

P31 = V3V1Y31 cos( 31 + 1 3 ) + V3V2Y32 cos( 32 + 2 3 ) + V3V3Y33 cos( 33 ) = (0.97855 )(1.0 )(15.8114 )cos(108.4349 + 0.0 + 1.4822 ) + (0.97855 )(1.0 )( 5.2705 )cos(108.4349 + 0.2283 + 1.4822 ) + (0.97855 )(0.97855 )( 21.0819 )cos( 71.5650 ) = 0.66633

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Newton-Raphson Load Flow

Update Estimates of Injected Power
1 Q3 = [V3V1Y31 sin( 31 + 1 3 )

+V3V3Y33 sin( 33 )]

+ V3V2Y32 sin( 32 + 2 3 )

= - [(0.97855 )(1.0 )(15.8114 )sin(108.4349 + 0.0 + 1.4822 ) + (0.97855 )(1.0 )( 5.2705 )sin(108.4349 + 0.2283 + 1.4822 ) +(0.97855 )(0.97855 )( 21.0819 )sin( 71.5650 )] = 0.2375

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Newton-Raphson Load Flow

Compute Power Mismatch P2 = P2 ,s p P2 ,c a lc
= 0 .2 0 .1 9 7 5 = 0 .0 0 2 5

P3 = P3 ,s p P3 ,c a lc
= 0 .6 + 0 .6 6 3 3 = 0 .0 6 3 3

Q 3 = Q 3 ,s p Q 3 ,c a lc
= .0 .2 5 + 0 .2 3 7 5 = 0 .0 1 2 5
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Newton-Raphson Load Flow

Evaluate Elements of Jacobian Matrix Elements of J1:

P 2 = VVY 2 1 21 sin( 21 + 1 2 ) 2 + VV 2 3Y 23 sin(23 + 3 2 ) = (1.0)(1.0)(3.9528)sin(108.4349 + 0.0 0.2283) + (1.0)(0.97855)(5.2705)sin(108.4349 1.4822 0.2283) = 8.6942

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Newton-Raphson Load Flow

Elements of J1:

P 2 = V2V3Y23 sin(23 + 3 2 ) 3 = (1.0)(0.97855)(5.2705)sin(108.4349 1.4822 0.2283) = 4.9393

P 3 = VV 3 2Y 32 sin( 32 + 2 3 ) 2 = (0.97855)(1.0)(5.2705)sin(108.4349 + 0.2283 + 1.4822) = 4.8419

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Newton-Raphson Load Flow

Elements of J1:

P3 = V3V1Y31 sin( 31 + 1 3 ) 3 + V3V2Y23 sin( 32 + 2 3 ) = (0.97855 )(1.0 )(15.8114 )sin(108.4349 + 0.0 + 1.4822 ) + (0.97855 )(1.0 )( 5.2705 )sin(108.4349 + 0.2283 + 1.4822 ) = 19.3887

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Newton-Raphson Load Flow

Elements of J2:

P2 V3 = V2V3Y23 cos( 23 + 3 + 2 ) V3

= (1.0 )(0.097855)(5.2705) cos(108.4349 + 1.4822 0.2283) = 1.4842

P3 V3 = P3 + V32Y33 cos 33 V3 = 0.6633 + ( 0.97855 )2 ( 21.0819 )cos( 71.5650 ) = 5.7205

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Newton-Raphson Load Flow

Elements of J3:

Q3 = VV 3 2Y 32 cos( 32 + 2 3 ) 2 = (0.97855)(1.0)(5.2705)cos(108.4349 + 0.2283 + 1.4822) = 1.7762

Q3 = V3V1Y31 cos( 31 + 1 3 ) 3

+ V3Y2Y32 cos( 32 + 2 3 ) = ( 0.97855 )( 1.0 )( 15.8114 )cos( 108.4349 + 0.0 + 1.4822 ) + ( 0.97855 )( 1.0 )( 5.2705 )cos( 108.4349 + 0.2283 + 1.4822 ) = 7.0470
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Newton-Raphson Load Flow

Elements of J4:

P3 V3 = Q3 V32Y33 sin 33 3 = 0.2375 ( 0.97855 )2 ( 21.0819 )sin( 71.565 ) = 18.9137

In Matrix Form,

8.6942 4.9393 1.4842 4.8419 19.3887 5.7205 1.7762 7.0470 18.9137

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Newton-Raphson Load Flow

Solving for Gradients,

0.0025 8.6942 4.9393 1.4842 2 0.0633 = 4.8419 19.3887 5.7205 3 0.0125 1.7762 7.0470 18.9137 V3 / V3

21 = 0.0025 rad x 180 0 / rad = 0.1458 0

31 = 0.0038 rad x 180 0 / rad = 0.2150 0

V30
V3

= 0.0005

V 31 = (0 .0005 )(0 .97855 ) = 0 .0005

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Newton-Raphson Load Flow

Update Previous Estimates

22 = 21 + 21
= 0.2283 + 0.1458 = 0.37410

32 = 31 + 31
= 1.4822 + 0.2150 = 1.2672 0 V32 = V31 + V31 = 0.97855 + 0.0005 = 0.9791
Specified Variables

V11 = 1.0

11 = 0.0
V21 = 1.0
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Newton-Raphson Load Flow

Update Previous Estimates of Injected Power

P22 = V2V1Y21 cos( 21 + 1 2 ) + V2V2Y22 cos( 22 ) + V2V3Y23 cos( 23 + 3 2 ) = ( 1.0 )(1.0 )( 3.9528 )cos(108.4349 + 0.0 0.3741) + ( 1.0 )(1.0 )( 9.2233 )cos( 71.5649 ) + ( 1.0 )(0.9791)( 5.2705 )cos( 108.4349 1.2672 0.3741) = 0.2018

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Newton-Raphson Load Flow

Update Previous Estimates of Injected Power

P32 = V3V1Y31 cos( 31 + 1 3 ) + V3V2Y32 cos( 22 + 2 3 ) + V3V3Y33 cos 33 = ( 0.9791 )( 1.0 )( 15.8114 )cos( 108.4349 + 0.0 1.2672 ) + ( 0.9791 )( 1.0 )( 5.2705 )cos( 108.4349 + 0.3741 + 1.2672 ) + ( 0.9791 )( 0.9791 )( 21.0819 )cos( 71.5650 ) = 0.5995

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Newton-Raphson Load Flow

Update Previous Estimates of Injected Power
2 Q3 = [V3V1Y31 sin( 31 + 1 3 )

+V3V2Y32 sin( 32 + 2 3 ) + V3V3Y33 sin33 ] = [(0.9791)(1.0 )(15.8114 )sin(108.4349 + 0.0 1.2672 ) + (0.9791)(1.0 )( 5.2705 )sin(108.4349 + 0.37411 + 1.2672 ) +(0.9791)(0.9791)( 21.0819 )sin( 71.5650 )] = 0.2487

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Newton-Raphson Load Flow

Compute Power Mismatch P2 = P2 ,s p P2 ,c a lc
= 0 .2 0 .2 0 1 8 = 0 .0 0 1 8

P3 = P3 ,s p P3 ,c a lc
= 0 .6 + 0 .5 9 9 5 = 0 .0 0 0 5

Q 3 = Q 3 ,s p Q 3 ,c a lc
= .0 .2 5 + 0 .2 4 8 7 = 0 .0 0 1 3
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The solution has converged

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Newton-Raphson Load Flow

The solution of the Load Flow Problem is

V1 = 1.00 0 V2 = 1.00.3741
0 0

V3 = 0.9791 1.2672

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The bus voltages are: V1 = 1.00 V2 = 0.99900.4129 V3 = 0.9788-1.2560

Information from a Load Flow Study

The power injected into the buses are: P1 - jQ1 = V1* [Y11V1 + Y12V2 + Y13V3 ] P1 - jQ1 = (1.00) [(19.7642-71.5651)(1.00) + (3.9528108.4349)(0.99900.4129) + (15.8114108.4349) (0.9788-1.25560) = 0.4033 - j0.2272
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P2 - jQ2 = V2* [Y21V1 + Y22V2 + Y23V3 ]

Information from a Load Flow Study

P2 - jQ2 = (0.999-0.4129)[(3.9528108.4349)(1.00) + (9.2233-71.5649)(0.99900.4129) + (5.2705108.4349)(0.9788-1.25560) = 0.2025 - j0.04286 P3 - jQ3 = V3* [Y31V1 + Y32V2 + Y33V3 ] P3 - jQ3 = (0.97881.256) [(15.8114108.4349)(1.00) + (5.2705108.4349)(0.99900.4129) + (21.0819 -71.5650)(0.9788-1.25560 ) = -0.600 + j0.2498
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Information from a Load Flow Study

The branch currents are:

I pq = I line = y pq ( V p Vq )
I12 = y12 [V1 - V2]

I qp = I line = y pq ( Vq V p )
I21 = y12 [V2 V1]

I13 = y13 [V1 V3]

I31 = y13 [V3 V1]

I23 = y23 [V2 V3]

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I32 = y23 [V3 V2]

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Information from a Load Flow Study

Line Currents
Ipq Vp
p

Iline ypo

ypq

Vq
q

Iqp

yqo

The line current Ipq, measured at bus p is given by

I pq = I line + I po = y pq ( V p Vq ) + y poV p
Similarly, the line current Iqp, measured at bus q is I = I + I = y (V V ) + y V
qp line qo pq q p qo q
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Information from a Load Flow Study

The branch power flows are: P12 jQ12 = V1* I12 P21 jQ21 = V2* I21

P13 jQ13 = V1* I13

P31 jQ31 = V3* I31

P23 jQ23 = V2* I23

P32 jQ32 = V3* I32

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Information from a Load Flow Study

Power FLOWS
The power flow (Spq) from bus p to q is

S pq = Ppq jQ pq = V I

* p pq

The power flow (Sqp) from bus q to p is

S qp = Pqp jQqp = Vq* I qp

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Information from a Load Flow Study

The line losses are: P12(Loss) jQ12(Loss) = (P12 jQ12) + (P21 jQ21 )

P13(Loss) jQ13(Loss) = (P13 jQ13) + (P31 jQ31 )

P23(Loss) jQ23(Loss) = (P23 jQ23) + (P32 jQ32 )

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Information from a Load Flow Study

Line Losses
The power loss in line pq is the algebraic sum of the power flows Spq and Sqp

S loss = Ploss + jQloss = S pq + S qp

= (V p + V q )I
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= VpI

* pq

VqI
* pq

* pq

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Information from a Load Flow Study

BASIC INFORMATION Voltage Profile Injected Power (Pp and Qp) Line Currents (Ipq and Ipq) Power Flows (Ppq and Qpq) Line Losses (I2R and I2X)

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Information from a Load Flow Study

OTHER INFORMATION Overvoltage and Undervoltage Buses Critical and Overloaded Transformers and Lines Total System Losses

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Backward/Forward Sweep Load Flow

Load Flow for Radial Distribution System Procedure: Iterative Solution Initialization Solving for Injected Currents through the nodes Backward Sweep Forward Sweep Solving for Injected Power Solving for Voltage Mismatch

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Backward/Forward Sweep Load Flow

Bus2 Bus1 I12 , Loss12 = ? I23 , Loss23 = ?
0.635 + j1.970

Utility Grid

0.131 + j1.595

V1 = 67 kV P1 , Q1 = ?

I24 , Loss24 = ? V4 = ? P4 , Q4 = ? 0.4223 + j0.7980 Bus4 V2 = ? Lumped Load A P2 , Q2 = ? 2 MVA 85%PF Lumped Load B 1 MVA 85%PF

Bus3 V3 = ? P3 , Q3 = ?

Load Flow for Radial Distribution System

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Backward/Forward Sweep Load Flow

Equivalent Circuit
Bus2 V1 = 67 kV Bus1
0.0075+j 0.0915 pu

0.0364 +j 0.1131 pu

Utility Grid

Bus3 V3

V1

0.0242+j0.0458pu

Bus4 V4

1 + j0 pu

V2

Base Values
Sbase = 10 MVA Vbase1 = 67 kV Vbase2 = 13.2 kV
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0.085 + j0.05267 pu

0.17 + j0.10536 pu

Base Z =13.22/10 =17.424

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Backward/Forward Sweep Load Flow

Iterative Solution
1. Solve Injected Currents by Loads 2. Solve Line Currents (Backward Sweep) 3. Update Voltages (Forward Sweep) 4. Solve for Injected Power 5. Solve for Power Mismatch Continue iteration by Backward-Forward Sweep until convergence is achieved After convergence, solve Iinj, Pinj, Qinj, PF, PLoss, QLoss
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Backward/Forward Sweep Load Flow

Initialization
Bus2 V1 = 67 kV Bus1
0.0075+j 0.0915 pu

0.0364 +j 0.1131 pu

Utility Grid

Bus3 V3

V1

0.0242+j0.0458 pu

Bus4 V4

1 + j0 pu

V2

Initialize,

V1(0) = 1/0 V2(0) = 1/0 V3(0) = 1/0 V4(0) = 1/0

0.085 + j0.05267 pu

0.17 + j0.10536 pu

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Backward/Forward Sweep Load Flow

Solving for Injected Currents
Bus2 V1 = 67 kV Bus1
0.0075+j 0.0915 pu

0.0364 +j 0.1131 pu

Utility Grid

Bus3 V3
0.17 + j0.10536 pu

V1

0.0242+j0.0458 pu

Bus4 V4
0.085 + j0.05267 pu

1 + j0 pu

V2

Solve Injected Currents by Loads

I1(0) = 0 I2(0) = 0

I3(0) = S3* /[V3(0)]* = __________ I4(0) = S4* /[V4(0)]* = __________

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Backward/Forward Sweep Load Flow

Backward Sweep
Bus2 V1 = 67 kV Bus1
0.0075+j 0.0915 pu

0.0364 +j 0.1131 pu

Utility Grid

Bus3 V3
0.17 + j0.10536 pu

V1

0.0242+j0.0458 pu

Bus4 V4
0.085 + j0.05267 pu

1 + j0 pu

V2

Solve Line Currents (Backward Sweep)

I24(0) = I4(0) = _______ I23(0) = I3(0) = _______ I12(0) = 0 + I23(0) + I24(0) = _______

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Backward/Forward Sweep Load Flow

Forward Sweep
Bus2 V1 = 67 kV Bus1
0.0364 +j 0.1131 pu

Utility Grid
V1

Bus3 V3

0.0075+j 0.0915 pu

0.0242+j0.0458 pu

Bus4 V4

1 + j0 pu

V2

Update Voltages (Forward Sweep)

V1(1) = 1/0

0.085 + j0.05267 pu

0.17 + j0.10536 pu

V2(1) = V1(0) [I12(0)][Z12] = ________ V3(1) = V2(1) [I23(0)][Z23] = ________ V4(1) = V2(1) [I24(0)][Z24] = ________

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Backward/Forward Sweep Load Flow

Solving for Injected Power
Bus2 V1 = 67 kV Bus1
0.0075+j 0.0915 pu

0.0364 +j 0.1131 pu

Utility Grid

Bus3 V3 0.17 + j0.10536 pu

V1

0.0242+j0.0458 pu

Bus4 V4

1 + j0 pu

V2

Solve Injected Power

S1(1) = [V1(1)][I1(0)]* = ___________ S2(1) = [V2(1)][I2(0)]* = ___________ S3(1) = [V3(1)][I3(0)]* = ___________ S4(1) = [V4(1)][I4(0)]* = ___________

0.085+ j0.05267 pu

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Backward/Forward Sweep Load Flow

Solving for Power Mismatch
Bus2 V1 = 67 kV Bus1
0.0075+j 0.0915 pu

0.0364 +j 0.1131 pu

Utility Grid

Bus3 V3

V1

0.0242+j0.0458 pu

Bus4 V4

1 + j0 pu

V2

Solve S1(1) = S1(sp) - S1(calc) = ____________ Power Mismatch S2(1) = S2(sp) S2(calc) = ____________ S3(1) = S3(sp) S3(calc) = ____________ S4(1) = S4(sp) S4(calc) = ____________
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0.085 + j0.05267 pu

0.17 + j0.10536 pu

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Backward/Forward Sweep Load Flow

Iterative Solution
Iteration 2: Solve Injected Currents by Loads Solve Line Currents (Backward Sweep) I1(1) = 0 I2(1) = 0 I3(1) = S3* /[V3(1)]* = __________ I4(1) = S4* /[V4(1)]* = __________ I24(1) = I4(1) = _______ I23(1) = I3(1) = _______ I12(1) = 0 + I23(1) + I24(1) = _______
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Backward/Forward Sweep Load Flow

Iterative Solution
Update Voltages (Forward Sweep) V1(2) = 1/0 V2(2) = V1(1) [I12(1)][Z12] = ________ V3(2) = V2(1) [I23(1)][Z23] = ________ V4(2) = V2(1) [I24(1)][Z24] = ________ Solve Injected Power S1(2) = [V1(2)][I1(1)]* = ___________ S2(2) = [V2(2)][I2(1)]* = ___________ S3(2) = [V3(2)][I3(1)]* = ___________ S4(2) = [V4(2)][I4(1)]* = ___________
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Backward/Forward Sweep Load Flow

Iterative Solution
Solve Power Mismatch S1(2) = S1(sp) - S1(calc) = ____________ S2(2) = S2(sp) S2(calc) = ____________ S3(2) = S3(sp) S3(calc) = ____________ S4(2) = S4(sp) S4(calc) = ____________ If Mismatch is higher than set convergence index, repeat the procedure (Backward-Forward Sweep) [Iteration 3]

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Backward/Forward Sweep Load Flow

Iterative Solution
Iteration 3: Solve Injected Currents by Loads Solve Line Currents (Backward Sweep) I1(2) = 0 I2(2) = 0 I3(2) = S3* /[V3(2)]* = __________ I4(2) = S4* /[V4(2)]* = __________ I24(2) = I4(2) = _______ I23(2) = I3(2) = _______ I12(2) = 0 + I23(2) + I24(2) = _______
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Backward/Forward Sweep Load Flow

Iterative Solution
Update Voltages (Forward Sweep) V1(3) = 1/0 V2(3) = V1(2) [I12(2)][Z12] = ________ V3(3) = V2(2) [I23(2)][Z23] = ________ V4(3) = V2(2) [I24(2)][Z24] = ________ Solve Injected Power S1(3) = [V1(3)][I1(2)]* = ___________ S2(3) = [V2(3)][I2(2)]* = ___________ S3(3) = [V3(3)][I3(2)]* = ___________ S4(3) = [V4(3)][I4(2)]* = ___________
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Backward/Forward Sweep Load Flow

Iterative Solution
Solve Power Mismatch S1(3) = S1(3) - S1(2) S2(3) = S2(3) S2(2) = ____________ S3(3) = S3(3) S3(2) = ____________ S4(3) = S4(3) S4(2) = ____________ If Mismatch is lower than set convergence index, compute power flows

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Backward/Forward Sweep Load Flow

Bus2 Bus1
0.0364 +j 0.1131 pu

Bus3

Utility Grid

0.0075+j 0.0915 pu

0.0242+j0.0458

Bus4

VOLTAGE PROFILE V1 = ________ V2 = ________ V3 = ________ V4 = ________

Lumped Load B 1 MVA 85%PF

Lumped Load A 2 MVA 85%PF

INJECTED POWER P1 + jQ1 = ________ + j ________ P2 + jQ2 = ________ + j ________ P3 + jQ3 = ________ + j ________ P4 + jQ4 = ________ + j ________

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Backward/Forward Sweep Load Flow

Bus2 Bus1
0.0364 +j 0.1131 pu

Bus3

Utility Grid

0.0075+j 0.0915 pu

0.0242+j0.0458 pu

POWER FLOW (P-Q) P12 + jQ12 = ________ + j ________

Bus4 Lumped Load A 2 MVA 85%PF Lumped Load B

P23 + jQ23 = ________ + j ________ 1 MVA 85%PF P24 + jQ24 = ________ + j ________ POWER FLOW (Q-P)

P21 + jQ21 = ________ + j ________ P32 + jQ32 = ________ + j ________ P42 + jQ42 = ________ + j ________
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Backward/Forward Sweep Load Flow

Bus2 Bus1
0.0364 +j 0.1131 pu

Bus3

Utility Grid

0.0075+j 0.0915 pu

0.0242+j0.0458 pu

Branch Currents I12 = ________ I23 = ________ I24 = ________ POWER LOSSES

Bus4 Lumped Load A 2 MVA 85%PF Lumped Load B 1 MVA 85%PF

I2R12 + jI2X12 = ________ + j ________ I2R23 + jI2X24 = ________ + j ________ I2R24 + jI2X24 = ________ + j ________
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Backward/Forward Sweep Load Flow

Line sections in the radial network are ordered by layers away from the root node (substation bus).
1 2 4 7 13 21 27 8 14 22 23 8 9 15 5 10 11 17 16 24 28 32 29 33 35 18 3 6 12 20 25 30 34 31 26

Layer 1 Layer 2 Layer 3 Layer 4 Layer 5 Layer 6 Layer 7 Layer 8

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Three-Phase Forward/ Backward Sweep Method

The iterative algorithm for solving the radial system consists of three steps. At iteration k: Step 1: Nodal current calculation

I ia I ib I ic

(k )

S / V ( k 1 ) ia ia ( k 1 ) = Sib / Vib S / V ( k 1 ) ic ic

( ( (

) ) )

( k 1 ) Y * Via ia * V Yib ib * Y ic Vic

Where,

I ia , I ib , I ic V ia ,V ib ,V ic Y ia ,Y ib ,Y ic

Current injections at node i Voltages at node i Admittances of all shunt elements at node i
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S ia , S ib , S ic Scheduled power injections at node i

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Three-Phase Forward/ Backward Sweep Method

Step 2: Backward Sweep to sum up line section current Starting from the line section in the last layer and moving towards the root node. The current in the line section l is:

J la J lb J lc
Where,

(k )

I ja = I jb I jc

(k )

J ma J + mb mM J mc

(k )

J la , J lb , J jc
l and M

are the current flows on line section l Is the set of line sections connected to node j

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Three-Phase Forward/ Backward Sweep Method

Step 3: Forward Sweep to update nodal voltage Starting from the first layer and moving towards the last layer, the voltage at node j is:

V ja V jb V jc

(k )

Via V = ib Vic

(k )

zaa ,l zab ,l zac ,l

zab ,l zbb ,l zbc ,l

zac ,l J la zbc ,l J lb zcc ,l J lc

(k )

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Three-Phase Forward/ Backward Sweep Method

After the three steps are executed in one iteration, the power mismatches at each node for all phases are calculated:

S S S

(k ) ia (k ) ib (k ) ic

=V =V =V

(k ) ia (k ) ib (k ) ic

(I ) (I ) (I )

(k ) ia (k ) ib (k ) ic

Y Via
* ia * ia * ic

S ia S ib S ic

Y Vib Y Vic

If the real and imaginary part (real and reactive power) of any of these power mismatches is greater than a convergence criterion, steps 1, 2 & 3 are repeated until convergence is achieved.
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Principles of Load Flow Control

Prime mover and excitation control of generators Reactive Var Compensation (e.g., Capacitors) Control of tap-changing and voltage regulating transformers

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Principles of Load Flow Control

Generator Voltage & Power Control
jX Ei

Vt0

The complex power delivered to the bus (Generator Terminal) is

Ei Vt 0 Pt + jQt = [Vt 0]I = [Vt 0] jX

*

EiVt Pt = sin X
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EiVt Vt 2 Qt = cos X X
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Principles of Load Flow Control

Generator Voltage & Power Control

EiVt = Pt sin X
Observations:

EiVt Vt 2 Qt = cos X X

1. Real Power is injected into the bus (Generator Operation), must be positive (Ei leads Vt) 2. Real Power is drawn from the bus (Motor Operation), must be negative (Ei lags Vt) 3. In actual operation, the numeric value of is small & since the slope of Sine function is maximum for small values, a minute change in can cause a substantial change in Pt
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Principles of Load Flow Control

Generator Voltage & Power Control

EiVt = Pt sin X
Observations:

EiVt Vt 2 Qt = cos X X

4. Reactive Power flow depends on relative values of EiCos and Vt 5. Since the slope of Cosine function is minimum for small values of angle, Reactive Power is controlled by varying Ei
Over-excitation (increasing Ei) will deliver Reactive Power into the Bus Under-excitation (decreasing Ei) will absorb Reactive Power from the Bus
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Principles of Load Flow Control

Capacitor Compensation ~
p Ipq q + jQc PL - jQL
The voltage of bus q can be expressed as

Eq = Vp

X pqQq Vp

X pq Pq Vp

Observations:

1. The Reactive Power Qq causes a voltage drop and thus largely affects the magnitude of Eq 2. A capacitor bank connected to bus q will reduce Qq that will consequently reduce voltage drop
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Principles of Load Flow Control

Tap-Changing Transformer
a:1 q s p r
The equivalent circuit of transformer with the per unit transformation ratio:

1 y pq a

Observation:
The voltage drop in the transformer is affected by the transformation ratio a

1 a y pq 2 a

a 1 y pq a

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Uses of Load Flow Study

Sensitivity Analysis with Load Flow Study Analysis of Existing Conditions Analysis for Correcting PQ Problems Expansion Planning Contingency Analysis System Loss Analysis

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Uses of Load Flow Studies

Sensitivity Analysis with Load Flow Study
1) Take any line, transformer or generator out of service. 2) Add, reduce or remove load to any or all buses. 3) Add, remove or shift generation to any bus. 4) Add new transmission or distribution lines. 5) Increase conductor size on T&D lines. 6) Change bus voltages. 7) Change transformer taps. 8) Increase or decrease transformer size. 9) Add or remove rotating or static var supply to buses.
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Uses of Load Flow Studies

1) ANALYSIS OF EXISTING CONDITIONS Check for voltage violations PGC: 0.95 1.05 p.u. (For Transmission) PDC: 0.90 1.10 p.u (For Distribution)*
*Recommended 0.95 1.05 p.u.

Check for branch power flow violations Transformer Overloads Line Overloads Check for system losses Caps on Segregated DSL

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Uses of Load Flow Studies

2) ANALYSIS FOR CORRECTING PQ PROBLEMS Voltage adjustment by utility at delivery point Request TransCo to improve voltage at connection point TransCo as System Operator will determine feasibility based on Economic Dispatch and other adjustments such as transformer tap changing and reactive power compensation

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Uses of Load Flow Studies

2) ANALYSIS FOR CORRECTING PQ PROBLEMS Transformer tap changing Available Taps
At Primary Side At Secondary Side Both Sides

Typical Taps
Tap 1: +5% Tap 2: +2.5% Tap 3: 0% (Rated Voltage) Tap 4: -2.5% Tap 5: -5%

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Uses of Load Flow Studies

2) ANALYSIS FOR CORRECTING PQ PROBLEMS Capacitor compensation Compensate for Peak Loading Check overvoltages during Off-Peak Optimize Capacitor Plan System configuration improvement

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Uses of Load Flow Studies

3) EXPANSION PLANNING New substation construction Substation capacity expansion New feeder segment construction / extension Addition of parallel feeder segment Reconducting of existing feeder segment/ circuit Circuit conversion to higher voltage Generator addition

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Load Flow Analysis

149

Uses of Load Flow Studies

4) CONTINGENCY ANALYSIS Reliability analysis of the Transmission (Grid) and Subtransmission System 5) SYSTEM LOSS ANALYSIS Segregation of System Losses

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Load Flow Analysis

150

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering