Load Flow Analysis 1587142201

Competency Training and Certification Program in Power System Engineering
Distribution System Modeling and Analysis
Training Course in
Load Flow Analysis
U. P. NATIONAL ENGINEERING CENTER

NATIONAL ELECTRIFICATION ADMINISTRATION
Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 2
Course Outline
1. The Load Flow Problem
2. Power System Models for Load Flow
Analysis
3. Gauss-Seidel Load Flow
4. Newton-Raphson Load Flow
5. Backward/Forward Sweep Load Flow
6. Principles of Load Flow Control
7. Uses of Load Flow Studies
U. P. National Engineering Center Competency Training & Certification Program in

National Electrification Administration Electric Power Distribution System Engineering
The Load Flow Problem
 Basic Electrical Engineering Solution

 Load Flow of Distribution System
 Load Flow of Transmission and
Subtransmission System
 Load Flow of a Contemplated System
 Load Flow of a Single Line


Basic Electrical Engineering Solution
How do you determine the voltage, current, power, and
power factor at various points in a power system?
Sending Line Receiving

End End
1.1034 + j2.0856 ohms/phase
Solve for:
VS = ? ISR = ? VR = 13.2 kVLL 1) ISR = (SR/VR )*
Load 2) VD = ISRZL
2 MVA, 3Ph
VOLTAGE DROP = VS - VR 85%PF 3) VS = VR + VD
4) SS = VSx(ISR)*


Sending Receiving
End
Line
End Solve for:
1.1034 + j2.0856 ohms/phase
1) ISR = (SR/VR )*
VS = ? ISR = ?
2) VD = ISRZL
VR = 13.2 kVLL
S1  ( 2,000,000 / 3 ) cos 1 ( 0.85 ) 3) VS = VR + VD
Load
 666 ,666.67 31.79 VA
2 MVA, 3Ph 4) SS = VSx(ISR)*
85%PF
VR  ( 13,200 / 3 )0  7621.020 V


 666 ,666.67 31.79 
I SR     87.48  31.79 A
 7621.020 
VD   87.48   31.79  1.1034  j2.0856   178.15  j104.23 V
VS  7621.02  j0    178.15  j104.23   7,799.87 0.77 V
VS  7,799.87 0.77 /1000* 3  13.51 k V

Load Flow From the Real World
End End
1.1034 + j2.0856 ohms/phase
VS = 13.2 kVLL ISR = ? VR = ?
Load
How do you solve for: 2 MVA, 3Ph
85%PF
1) ISR = ?
2) VD = ?
3) VR = ?
4) SS = ?


Load Flow of Distribution System
Bus2
I23 , Loss23 = ? Bus3
Bus1 I12 , Loss12 = ?
V3 = ?
Utility P3 , Q3 = ?
I24 , Loss24 = ?V4 = ?
Grid P4 , Q4 = ?
V1 = 67 kV Bus4
P1 , Q1 = ? V2 = ? Lumped Load A
P2 , Q2 = ? 2 MVA 85%PF
Lumped Load B
How do you solve for 1 MVA 85%PF
the Voltages,
Currents, Power and
Losses?

Load Flow of Transmission and
G Line 1 G
1 2
How do you solve for
the Voltages, Line 2 Line 3
Currents and Power
of a LOOP power 3
system?


Load Flow of a Contemplated System
How about if there are contemplated changes in the
System?
How will you determine in advance the effects of:
• Growth or addition of new loads
• Addition of generating plants
• Upgrading of Substation
• Expansion of distribution lines
before the proposed changes are implemented?
Answer: LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS

Load Flow Analysis

simulates (i.e.,
mathematically determine) the performance
of an electric power system under a given
set of conditions.
Load Flow (also called Power Flow) is a
snapshot picture of the power system at a
given point.

Load Flow of a Single Line

End End
1.1034 + j2.0856 ohms/phase
Load
2 MVA, 3Ph
VS = 13.2 kVLL ISR = ? VR = ? 85%PF
Injected Power at Receiving End Voltage at Sending End
SR = VR x (ISR)* VS = VR + Z x ISR
Solving for the Current Voltage at Receiving End
ISR = (SR / VR)* VR = VS - Z x SR*/VR*


End End
1.1034 + j2.0856 ohms/phase
Load
2 MVA, 3Ph
VS = 13.2 kVLL ISR = ? VR = ? 85%PF
Converting Quantities in Per Unit

Base Power = 1 MVA VS(pu) = 13.2 /13.2 = 1/0
Base Voltage = 13.2 kV SR(pu) = 2/cos-1(0.85) / 1
Base Impedance = [13.2]2/1 Zpu = (1.1034 + j2.0856)/174.24
= 174.24 ohms = 0.00633 + j0.01197

End End
1.1034 + j2.0856 ohms/phase
Load
2 MVA, 3Ph
VS = 13.2 kVLL ISR = ? VR = ? 85%PF
VR(k) = VS - Z x [SR]* / [VR(k-1) ]*

Let VR(0) = 1/0
For k = 1 For k = 2
VR(1) = __________ VR(2) = __________
V(1) = __________ V(2) = __________

End End
1.1034 + j2.0856 ohms/phase
Load
2 MVA, 3Ph
VS = 13.2 kVLL ISR = ? VR = ? 85%PF
VR(k) = VS - Z x [SR]* / [VR(k-1) ]*

VR(2) = __________
For k = 3 For k = 4
VR(3) = __________ VR(4) = __________
V(3) = __________ V(4) = __________

End End
1.1034 + j2.0856 ohms/phase
Load
2 MVA, 3Ph
VS = 13.2 kVLL ISR = ? VR = ? 85%PF
VS = __________ ISR = __________

VR = __________ SR = __________
VD = VS – VR SS = VS x [ISR]*
VD = __________ SS = __________
Power System Models for

Load flow Analysis
 Bus Admittance Matrix, Ybus

 Network Models
 Generator Models
 Bus Types for Load Flow Analysis


Load Flow Analysis
The power system components are
interconnected through the buses. The buses
must therefore be identified in the load flow
model.
 Generators and loads are connected from bus to

neutral.
 Transmission lines and transformers are
connected from one bus to another bus.


Load Flow Analysis
Network Models
The static components (transformers and lines) are
represented by the bus admittance matrix, Ybus
Y11 Y12 Y13 Y1 n 
 
Y21 Y22 Y23 Y2 n 
 
[YBUS] = Y31 Y32 Y33 Y3 n 
 
    
 
Yn 1 Yn 2 Yn 3 Ynn 
 
The number of buses (excluding the neutral bus)
determines the dimension of the bus admittance, Ybus.
Nodal Voltage Equations

 I1  Y11 Y12 Y13 Y1 n  V1 
  
  Y21 Y23 Y2 n  V2
I
 
Y22
  2

 I 3   Y31 Y32 Y33 Y3 n  V3 
    
        
 
I  Yn 1 Yn 2 Yn 3 Ynn  V 
 n   n 
[ I ] = [Ybus][V]
Yii = self-admittance, the sum of all admittances terminating on
the node (diagonal elements)
Yij = mutual admittance, the negative of the admittances
connected directly between the nodes identifed by the
double subscripts

Load Flow Analysis
Network Models
Line No. Bus Code Impedance Zpq (p.u.)
1 1-2 0.08 + j0.24
2 1-3 0.02 + j0.06
3 2-3 0.06 + j0.18
Line 1
1 2
Line 2 Line 3 Set-up the

Ybus
3

Load Flow Analysis
Network Models
Compute the branch admittances to set up Ybus:
1
y12 = ____ 1
______________
= = 1.25 - j3.75
z12 0.08 + j0.24
1
y13 = ____ 1
______________ = 5 - j15
=
z13 0.02 + j0.06
1
y23 = ____ 1
______________ = 1.667 - j5
=
z23 0.06 + j0.18

Load Flow Analysis
Set-up the bus admittance matrix:
Y11 = y12 + y13
= (1.25 - j3.75) + (5 - j15)
= 6.25 - j18.75 = 19.7642  -71.5651°
Y12 = -y12
= -1.25 + j3.75 = 3.9528  108.4349°
Y13 = -y13
= -5 + j15 = 15.8114  108.4349°
Y21 = Y12 = -y12

= -1.25 + j3.75 = 3.9528  108.4349°


Load Flow Analysis
Y22 = y12 + y23
= (1.25 - j3.75) + (1.6667 - j5)
= 2.9167 - j8.75 = 9.2233  -71.5649°
Y23 = -y23
= -1.6667 + j5 = 5.2705  108.4349°
Y31 = Y13 = -y13
= -5 + j15 = 15.8114  108.4349°
Y32 = Y23 = -y23
= -1.6667 + j5 = 5.2705  108.4349°
Y33 = y13 + y23 = (5 - j15) + (1.6667 - j5)
= 6.6667 - j20 = 21.0819  -71.5650°

Load Flow Analysis
Generator Models
 Voltage-controlled generating units to supply a
scheduled active power (P) at a specified voltage
(V). The generating units are equipped with voltage
regulator to adjust the field excitation so that the
units will operate at particular reactive power (Q) in
order to maintain the voltage.
 Swing generating units to maintain the frequency
at 60Hz in addition to maintaining the specified
voltage. The generating unit is equipped with
frequency-following controller (very fast speed
governor) and is assigned as Swing generator

Load Flow Analysis
Bus Types for Load Flow
 Generators and loads are connected from bus to
neutral.
Four quantities must be specified to
completely describe a bus. These are:
 Bus voltage magnitude, Vp
 Bus voltage phase angle, p
 Bus injected active power, Pp
 Bus injected reactive power, Qp


Load Flow Analysis
Swing Bus or Slack Bus
The difference between the total load demand plus
losses (both P and Q) and the scheduled
generations is supplied by the swing bus. The
voltage magnitude and phase angle are specified
for the swing bus.
P,Q
+ Specify: V, 
Type 1:
Swing Bus
Vδ G
Unknown: P, Q
-


Load Flow Analysis
Generator Bus (Voltage-Controlled) Bus or
PV Bus
The total real power Pp injected into the system
through the bus is specified together with the
magnitude of the voltage Vp at the bus. The bus
voltage magnitude is maintained through reactive
power injection. P,Q
Specify: P, V
+
Type 2:
Vδ G Unknown: Q, 
Generator Bus -


Load Flow Analysis
Load Bus or PQ Bus

The total injected power Pp and the reactive power
Qp at Bus P are specified and are assumed constant,
independent of the small variations in bus voltage.
P,Q
+
Type 3: Specify: P, Q
Load Bus Vδ
Unknown: V, 
-


Load Flow Analysis
SUMMARY OF BUS TYPES
Bus Known Unknown
Type Quantities Quantities
Type1:
Swing Vp, p Pp, Qp
Type 2:
Generator Pp, Vp Qp, p
Type 3:
Load Pp, Qp Vp, p

Load Flow Analysis
G Line 1 G
1 2
Bus Types
Line 2 Line 3
3
Bus Voltage Generation Load Remarks
No. V (p.u.)  P Q P Q
1 1.0 0.0 * * 0 0 Swing Bus
2 1.0 * 0.20 * 0 0 Gen Bus
3 * * 0 0 0.60 0.25 Load Bus
Gauss-Seidel Load Flow
 Linear Formulation of Load Flow Equations

 Gauss-Seidel Load Flow Solution
 Numerical Example


Linear Formulation of Load Flow
Equations
The real and reactive power into any bus P is:
Pp + jQp = Vp Ip*
or
Pp - jQp = Vp* Ip (1)
where Pp = real power injected into bus P

Qp = reactive power injected into bus P
Vp = phasor voltage of bus P

Ip = current injected into bus P

Equation (1) may be rewritten as:
Pp - jQp
_________ (2)
Ip =
Vp*
From the Bus Admittance Matrix equation, the
current injected into the bus are:
Ip = Yp1V1 + Yp2V2 + … + YppVp + … + YpnVn (3)
I1 = Y11V1 + Y12V2 + Y13V3

I2 = Y21V1 + Y22V2 + Y23V3
I3 = Y31V1 + Y32V2 + Y33V3

Substituting (3) into (2)
Pp - jQp
_________ = Y V + Y V + … + Y V + … + Y V (4)
p1 1 p2 2 pp p pn n
Vp *
P1 – jQ1
_________ = Y11V1 + Y12V2 + Y13V3
V1*
P2 – jQ2
_________ = Y V + Y V + Y V
21 1 22 2 23 3
V2 *
P3 – jQ3
_________ = Y31V1 + Y32V2 + Y33V3
V3*

Solving for Vp in (4)
P1 – jQ1
_______
Y11V1 = - (___ + Y12V2 + Y13V3)
V1*
1  P1  jQ1 
V1   *
 Y12V2  Y13V3 
Y11  V1 
P2 – jQ2
_______
Y22V2 = - (Y12V2 + ___ + Y13V3)
V2*
1  P2  jQ2 
V2   V*  Y21V1  Y13V3 
Y22  2 

P3 – jQ3
_______
Y33V3 = - (Y13V1 + Y23V2 + ___)
V3*
1  P3  jQ3 
V3   V*  Y31V1  Y32V2 
Y33  3 
1 P - jQ n
___ _______
p p
Vp = - Σ YpqVq (5)
Ypp Vp* q=1
q p


Gauss-Seidel Load Flow Solution
Generalizing the Gauss-Seidel Load Flow, the

estimate for the voltage Vp at bus p at the kth
iteration is:
P - jQ n
1
___ _______ - Σ YpqVq
p p
k+1
Vp = (6)
Ypp (Vpk)* q=1
q p
where,  = k if p < q
=k+1 if p > q


 Gauss-Seidel Voltage Equations of the form shown in (6)
are written for all buses except for the swing bus. The
solution proceeds iteratively from an estimate of all bus
voltages
 For a Load Bus (Type 3) whose real power and reactive
power are specified, the G-S voltage equation is used
directly to compute the next estimate of the bus voltage.
 For a Generator Bus (Type 2) where the voltage
magnitude is specified, an estimate of Qp must be
determined first. This estimate is then compared with the
reactive power limits of the generator. If it falls within the
limits, the specified voltage is maintained and the
computed Qp is inputted, in the Gauss-Seidel equation.
Otherwise, the reactive power is set to an appropriate limit
(Qmin or Qmax) and the bus is treated as a load bus in the
current iteration.


Numerical Example
Shown in the figure is a 3-bus power system. The line and bus
data pertinent to the system are also given. The reactive
limits of generator 2 are zero and 50 MVARS, respectively.
Base power used is 100 MVA. Solve the load flow problem
using Gauss-Seidel iterative method assuming a 0.005
convergence index.
G Line 1 G
1 2
Line 2 Line 3
3

Branch Data
1 1-2 0.08 + j0.24
2 1-3 0.02 + j0.06
3 2-3 0.06 + j0.18
Bus Data
1 1.0 0.0 * * 0 0 Swing Bus
2 1.0 * 0.20 * 0 0 Gen Bus
3 * * 0 0 0.60 0.25 Load Bus

Specified Variables:
V1 = 1.0 1 = 0.0
V2 = 1.0 P2 = 0.2 Note the negative sign of P

P3 = -0.6 Q3 = -0.25 and Q of the Load at Bus 3
Initial Estimates of Unknown Variables:

20 = 0.0
V30 = 1.0
30 = 0.0


The Bus Admittance Matrix elements are:
Y11 = 6.25 - j18.75 = 19.7642  -71.5651°
Y12 = -1.25 + j3.75 = 3.9528  108.4349°
Y13 = -5 + j15 = 15.8114  108.4349°
Y21 = -1.25 + j3.75 = 3.9528  108.4349°
Y22 = 2.9167 - j8.75 = 9.2233  -71.5649°
Y23 = -1.6667 + j5 = 5.2705  108.4349°
Y31 = -5 + j15 = 15.8114  108.4349°
Y32 = -1.6667 + j5 = 5.2705  108.4349°
Y33 = 6.6667 - j20 = 21.0819  -71.5650°


Gauss-Seidel Equations
Bus 1: Swing Bus
 k 1 
V1  10 for all iterations
Bus 2: Generator Bus

Q2 must first be determined from:
P2 - jQ2(k+1) = (V2(k))* [Y21V1(k+1) + Y22V2(k) + Y23V3(k)]
then substitute it to:
1  P2  jQ 2 
 k 1 
 k 1   k 1  k 
   Y21V1  Y23V3 
 
V2
Y22   k  *

 V2

Bus 3: Load Bus
 k 1  1  P  jQ  k 1   k 1 

  3 3
 Y31V1  Y32V2 
 
V3
Y33  V3  k *

Iteration 1 (k = 0): V1 (1) = 1.00

P2 - jQ2(1) = (1.00) [(-1.25 + j3.75)(1.00)
+ (2.9167 - j8.75)(1.00)
+ (-1.6667 + j5)(1.00)
= 0.0 + j0.0
Q2(1) = 0.0 [This value is within the limits.]

 k 1  1  P  jQ
 k 1 
    

  2 2
 Y21V1
k 1
 Y23V3 
k
 
V2
Y22  k  *

 V2
 k 1 
1 0.2 - j0.0 P2  jQ2
___________________ ___________
V2 (1) =
9.2233-71.5650 1.00
Y22
Y21 V1
 k 1  V 
2
k  *
- (-1.25 +j3.75) (1.00)

k 
Y23 V3
- (-1.6667 + j5) (1.00)
= 1.00711.1705

 k 1  1  P  jQ  k 1   k 1 

  3 3
 Y31V1  Y32V2 
 
V3
 V3 k  
*
Y33
P3  jQ3
1
_____________________ -0.6 + j0.25
____________
V3 = 1
21.0819-71.5650 1.00
Y33 V 
3
k *
 k 1 
Y31 V1
- (-5 +j15) (1.00)
 k 1 
Y32 V2
- (5.2705108.4349)(1.00711.1705)
= 0.9816 -1.0570

ΔV2 = V2(1) - V2(0)
= 1.00711.1705 - 1.00
ΔV2 = 0.0217
ΔV3 = V3(1) - V3(0)

= 0.9816-1.0570 - 1.00
ΔV3 = 0.0259


Iteration 2 (k = 1): V1(2) = 1.00
Let, V2(1) = 1.01.1705
P2 - jQ2(2) = (1.0-1.1705)[(-1.25 + j3.75)(1.00)

+ (9.2233-71.5649)(1.01.1705)
+ (5.2705108.4349 )(0.9816-1.0570)
= 0.2995 - j0.0073
Q2 (2) = 0.0073 [This value is within the limits.]


 k 1  1  P  jQ k 1  k 1  k 

  2 2
 Y21V1  Y23V3 
 
V2
Y22   k *

V2
1
___________________ 0.2 - j0.0073
______________
V2 (2) =
9.2233  -71.5650 1.0  -1.1705
- (-1.25 +j3.75) (1.0  0)
- (5.2705  108.4349 ) (0.9816  -1.0570)
= 0.9966  0.5819


 k 1  1  P  jQ  k 1   k 1 

  3 3
 Y31V1  Y32V2 
 
V3
Y33  V3  k *

1
_____________________ -0.6 + j0.25
___________________
V3 =
(2)
21.0819  -71.5650 0.9816  1.0570
- (-5 +j15) (1.0  0)

- (5.2705  108.4349) (0.9966  0.5819 )
= 0.9783  -1.2166


ΔV2 = V2(2) - V2(1)
= 0.9966  0.5819 - 1.0071  1.1705
ΔV2 = 0.0147
ΔV3 = V3(2) - V3(1)

= 0.9783  -1.2166 - 0.9816  -1.0570
ΔV3 = 0.0043


Iteration 3 (k = 2): V1(2) = 1.00
Let, V22 = 1.0  0.5819
P2 - jQ22 = (1.0 -0.5819) [(-1.25 + j3.75)(1.0  0)

+ (9.2233  -71.5649 ) (1.0  0.5819)
+ (5.2705  108.4349 ) (0.9783  -1.2166 )
= 0.2287 - j0.0472
Q22 = 0.0472 [This value is within the limits.]


 k 1  1  P  jQ k 1     

  2 2
 Y21V1
k 1
 Y23V3 
k
 
V2
Y22  k  *

V2
1
___________________ 0.2 - j0.0472
______________
V2 3 =
9.2233  -71.5650 1.0  -0.5819
- (-1.25 +j3.75) (1.0  0)

- (5.2705  108.4349 ) (0.9783  -1.2166 )
= 0.9990  0.4129


 k 1  1  P  jQ  k 1   k 1 

  3 3
 Y31V1  Y32V2 
 
V3
Y33  V3  k *

1
_____________________ -0.6 + j0.25
___________________
V3 =
3
21.0819 -71.5650 0.9783  1.2166
- (-5 +j15)(1.00)
- (5.2705108.4349)(0.99900.4129)
= 0.9788-1.2560


ΔV2 = V2(3) - V2(2)
= 0.99900.4129 - 0.99660.5819
ΔV2 = 0.0038  0.005
ΔV3 = V3(3) - V3(2)

= 0.9788-1.2560 - 0.9783-1.2166
ΔV3 = 0.0008  0.005
The solution has converged.


The bus voltages are:
V1 = 1.00
V2 = 0.99900.4129
V3 = 0.9788-1.2560
The power injected into the buses are:
P1 - jQ1 = V1* [Y11V1 + Y12V2 + Y13V3 ]
P1 - jQ1 = (1.00) [(19.7642-71.5651)(1.00)
+ (3.9528108.4349)(0.99900.4129)
+ (15.8114108.4349) (0.9788-1.25560)
= 0.4033 - j0.2272

P2 - jQ2 = V2* [Y21V1 + Y22V2 + Y23V3 ]
P2 - jQ2 = (0.999-0.4129)[(3.9528108.4349)(1.00)
+ (9.2233-71.5649)(0.99900.4129)
+ (5.2705108.4349)(0.9788-1.25560)
= 0.2025 - j0.04286
P3 - jQ3 = V3* [Y31V1 + Y32V2 + Y33V3 ]

P3 - jQ3 = (0.97881.256) [(15.8114108.4349)(1.00)
+ (5.2705108.4349)(0.99900.4129)
+ (21.0819  -71.5650)(0.9788-1.25560 )
= -0.600 + j0.2498

The branch currents are:
I pq  I line  y pq ( V p  Vq ) I qp   I line  y pq ( Vq  V p )
I12 = y12 [V1 - V2] I21 = y12 [V2 – V1]
I13 = y13 [V1 – V3] I31 = y13 [V3 – V1]
I23 = y23 [V2 – V3] I32 = y23 [V3 – V2]


Line Currents
Vp ypq Vq
Ipq Iline Iqp
p q
ypo yqo
The line current Ipq, measured at bus p is given by

I pq  I line  I po  y pq ( V p  Vq )  y poV p
Similarly, the line current Iqp, measured at bus q is

I   I  I  y (V V )  y V
qp line qo pq q p qo q

Power FLOWS
The power flow (Spq) from bus p to q is
S pq  Ppq  jQpq  Vp* I pq
The power flow (Sqp) from bus q to p is
Sqp  Pqp  jQqp  V I *

q qp


The branch power flows are:
P12 – jQ12 = V1* I12 P21 – jQ21 = V2* I21
P13 – jQ13 = V1* I13 P31 – jQ31 = V3* I31
P23 – jQ23 = V2* I23 P32 – jQ32 = V3* I32

Line Losses
The power loss in line pq is the algebraic sum of the power
flows Spq and Sqp
Sloss  Ploss  jQloss  S pq  Sqp
 V p I pq  Vq I pq
* *
 V p  Vq I pq *


The line losses are:
P12(Loss) – jQ12(Loss) = (P12 – jQ12) + (P21 – jQ21 )

SUMMARY OF BASIC INFORMATION

Voltage Profile
Injected Power (Pp and Qp)
Line Currents (Ipq and Ipq)
Power Flows (Ppq and Qpq)
Line Losses (I2R and I2X)

OTHER INFORMATION
Overvoltage and Undervoltage Buses
Critical and Overloaded Transformers
and Lines
Total System Losses

Load Flow for a 37-bus system

Newton-Raphson Load Flow
 Non-Linear Formulation of Load Flow

Equations
 Newton-Raphson Load Flow Solution
 Numerical Example

Newton-Raphson Method
The system of non-linear equations can be
linearized using the first order Taylor’s Series
f1 0 f
y1  f1 ( x0 )  ( x )x1  1 ( x0 )x2
0 0
x1 x2
f 2 0 f
y2  f 2 ( x0 )  ( x )x1  2 ( x0 )x2
0 0
x1 x2
Where:
x0 = (x10, x20) are set of initial estimates
fi(x0) = the function fi (x1,x2) evaluated using the set of
initial estimates.
f i ( x )
0
= the partial derivatives of the function fi(x1,x2)

x j evaluated using the set of original estimates.
The equation may be written in matrix form as
follows:
 y1  f1 ( x )    x 0 
0 f 1 ( x o ) f 1 (x 0 )
    x1 x 2

f 2 ( x 0 ) 
1
0
 y2  f 2 ( x )  x1
f 2 ( x 0 )
 x2 
0
x 2  
The matrix of partial derivatives is known as the

Jacobian. The linearized system of equations may
be solved for ∆x’s which are then used to update
the initial estimates.

At the kth iteration:
k 1
 x1  x1
k k
x1
k 1
 x2  x2
k k
x2
Convergence is achieved when
y1  f1 ( x k )  
y2  f 2 ( x k )  
Where ε is pre-set precision indices.


Non-Linear Formulation of Load Flow
Equations
The complex power injected into Bus p is
Pp  jQp  E*p I p (1)
and the current equation may be written as
n
I p   Ypq Eq (2)
q 1
Substituting (2) into (1)

(3)
n
Pp  jQp  E   Ypq Eq *
p
q 1


Let E  V  Eq  Vq  q
p p p
Ypq  Ypq  pq
Substituting into equation (3),
n
Pp  jQp   VpVqYpq (  pq  q   p ) (4)
q 1
Separating the real and imaginary components

n
Pp   VpVqYpq co s(  pq  q   p ) (5)
q 1
n
Qp   VpVqYpq sin(  pq  q   p ) (6)
q 1


The formulation results in a set of non-linear
equations, two for each Bus of the system.
Equations Pp are written for all Buses except the
Swing Bus.
Equations Qp are written for Load Buses only
The system of equations may be written for
i number of buses minus the swing bus (n-1)
j number of load buses


The system of equations may be written as
P1  P1( 1 , 2 ,..., i ,v1 ,v2 ....,v j )
P2  P2 ( 1 , 2 ,..., i ,v1 ,v2 ....,v j )
 
i  1 , 2 ,..., i ,v1 ,v2 ....,v j )
Pi  P( (7)
Q1  Q1( 1 , 2 ,...,i ,v1 ,v2 ....,v j )

Q2  Q2 ( 1 , 2 ,...,i ,v1 ,v2 ....,v j )
 
Q j  Q j ( 1 , 2 ,..., i ,v1 ,v2 ....,v j )

Equation (7) may be linearized using a First-Order
Taylor-Series Expansion
P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
P1spec  P1calc   1   2 ...   i  V1  V2 ...  V j
 1  2  i V1 V2 V j
P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2
P2 spec  P2calc   1   2 ...   i  V1  V2 ...  V j
 1  2  i V1 V2 V j
   P  P  Pi
 Pi
 Pi
 Pi
Pi spec  Pi calc  i
 1  i
 2 ...   i  V1  V2 ...  V j
 1  2  2 V1 V2 V j
Q1 Q1 Q1 Q1 Q1 Q1
Q1spec  Q1calc   1   2 ...   i  V1  V2 ...  V j
 1  2  i V1 V2 V j
Q2 Q2 Q2 Q2 Q2 Q2
Q2spec  Q2calc   1   2 ...   i  V1  V2 ...  V j
 1  2  i V1 V2 V j
   Q  Q  Q j  Q j  Q j  Q j
 Q   1   2 ...   i  V1  V2 ...  V j
spec calc j j
Q
 1  2  i V1 V2 V j
j j

 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 

 P1spec  P1calc      1 
   2  i V1 V2 V j   
 1

    
 spec
 P2calc 
  P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2  
 
 P2   1  2  i V1 V2 V j   2 
    
    
    
    
    
   Pi Pi Pi Pi Pi Pi   
 Pi spec  Pi calc
     i 
   2  2 V1 V2 V j   
  1

    
 spec
 Q1calc 
  Q1 Q1 Q1 Q1 Q1 Q1  
V

 Q1   1  2  i V1 V2 V j   1 
    
   Q2 Q2 Q2 Q2 Q2 Q2   
 Q spec  Q2 calc 
   V2 
 2    1  2  i V1 V2 V j   
    
    
    
    
   Q  
 spec calc 
Q j Q j Q j Q j Q j  
 Qj   j
 V j 
Q j
   
  1
  2  i V1 V2 V j 


or simply
 P P 
 P    V    
Q    Q Q  V 
   
  V 
 P P 
 P    V V    
Q    Q Q  V 
   V   V 
  V 


Newton-Raphson Load Flow Solution
 P P   P   J1 J 2    
 P    V V         
Q    Q   V     
  V
Q
   V   V     
  V   Q   J3 J4  
 V 
 Pp n
   V pVq Ypq sin(  pq   q   p )

  p q 1,q  p
J1 
 Pp  V V Y sin(      )
  p q pq pq q p
 q

 Pp
  p Y pp cos  pp
2
 p
V P V
V p
p

J2 
V Pp  V V Y cos(      )
 q V p q pq pq q p
 q
 Q p n
   V pVq Ypq cos(  pq   q   p )

  p q 1,q  p
J3 
 Q p  V V Y cos(      )
  p q pq pq q p
 q


 Q p
V p  Q p  V p2Ypp sin  pq
 V p
J4 
V Q p
 V pVq Ypq sin(  pq   q   p )
 q Vq

The solution of the load flow equations proceeds

iteratively from the set of initial estimates. These
estimates are updated after evaluating the Jacobian
matrix.


At the kth iteration,
 p( k 1 )   p( k )   p( k )
V p( k 1 )  V p( k )  V p( k )
The process is terminated once convergence is
achieved whrein
MAX  P( k )   p and MAX Q( k )   q


Numerical Example
Shown in the figure is a 3-bus power system. The line and
bus data pertinent to the system are also given. The
reactive limits of generator 2 are zero and 50 MVARS,
respectively. Base power used is 100 MVA. Solve the load
flow problem using Newton-Raphson iterative method
assuming a 0.005 convergence index.
G Line 1 G
1 2
Line 2 Line 3
3

Branch Data
1 1-2 0.08 + j0.24
2 1-3 0.02 + j0.06
3 2-3 0.06 + j0.18
Bus Data
1 1.0 0.0 * * 0 0 Swing Bus
2 1.0 * 0.20 * 0 0 Gen Bus
3 * * 0 0 0.60 0.25 Load Bus

The elements of the Bus Admittance Matrix are:
Y11  6.25  j18.75  19.7642  71.5651
Y12  1,25  j3.75  3.9528 108.4349
Y13  5  j15  15.8114 108.4349
Y21  1.25  j.375  3.9528 108.4349
Y22  2.9167  j8.75  9.2233  71.5649
Y23  1.6667  j5  5.2705108.4349
Y31  5  j15  15.8114 108.4349
Y32  1.6667  j5  5.2705108.4349
Y33  6.6667  j20  21.0819   71.5650

Bus 1: Swing Bus (Not included)
Bus 2: Generator Bus (Compute for P2)
Bus 3: Load Bus (Compute for P3 and Q3)
 P2 P2 P2   

  P2   V3    2 
    2  3 V3   
    
   P3 P3 P3  
  P3     V3  3 
 3 V3   
   2  
  
 Q3   Q3 Q3 Q3   V3 
V3  
  2  3 V3   V3 

Specified Variables:
V1 = 1.0 1 = 0.0
V2 = 1.0 P2 = 0.2
P3 = -0.6 Q3 = -0.25
Initial Estimates of Unknown Variables:

20 = 0.0
V30 = 1.0
30 = 0.0


Compute Initial Power Estimates
P20  V2V1Y21 cos(  21   1   2 )

 V2V2Y22 cos  22  V2V3Y23 cos(  23   3   2 )
 ( 1.0 )( 1.0 )( 3.9528 )cos( 108.4349  0.0  0.0 )
 ( 1.0 )( 1.0 )( 9.2233 )cos( 71.5649 )
 ( 1.0 )( 1.0 )( 5.2705 )cos( 108.4349 )
 0.0

P30  V3V1Y31 cos(  31   1   3 )

 V3V2Y32 cos(  22   2   3 )  V3V3Y33 cos 33
 ( 1.0 )( 1.0 )( 15.8114 )cos( 108.4349  0.0  0.0 )
 ( 1.0 )( 1.0 )( 5.2705 )cos( 108.4349  0.0  0.0 )
 ( 1.0 )( 1.0 )( 21.0819 )cos( 71.5650 )
 0.0

Q30  V3V1Y31 sin(  31   1   3 )

 V3V2Y32 sin(  32   2   3 )  V3V3Y33 sin 33
 ( 1.0 )( 1.0 )( 15.8114 )sin( 108.4349  0.0  0.0 )
 ( 1.0 )( 1.0 )( 5.2705 )sin( 108.4349  0.0  0.0 )
 ( 1.0 )( 1.0 )( 21.0819 )sin( 71.5650 )
 0.0


Compute Power Mismatch
P20  0.2  0.0  0.2

P30  0.6  0.0  0.6
Q30  0.25  0.0  0.25
Evaluate elements of Jacobian Matrix
 P P 
  V
 
J  
 
 Q V
Q 
  V 

Elements of J1:
P2
 V2V1Y21 sin(  21   1   2 )
 2
 V2V3Y23 sin(  23   3   2 )
 ( 1.0 )( 1.0 )( 3.9528 )sin( 108.4349  0.0  0.0 )
 ( 1.0 )( 1.0 )( 5.2705 )sin( 108.4349  0.0  0.0 )
 8.75


Elements of J1:
P2
 V2V3Y23 sin(  23   3   2 )
 3
 ( 1.0 )( 1.0 )( 5.2705 )sin( 108.4349  0.0  0.0 )
 5
P3
 V3V2Y32 sin( 32   2   3 )
 2
 ( 1.0 )( 1.0 )( 5.2705 )sin( 108.4349  0.0  0.0 )
 5

Elements of J1:
P3
 V3V1Y31 sin(  31   1   3 )
 3
 V3V2Y23 sin( 32   2   3 )
 ( 1.0 )( 1.0 )( 15.8114 )sin( 108.4349  0.0  0.0 )
 ( 1.0 )( 1.0 )( 5.2705 )sin( 108.4349  0.0  0.0 )
 20


Elements of J2:
P2
V3  V2V3Y23 cos 23   3   2 
V3
 1.01.05.2705cos108.4349  0.0  0.0
 1.6667
P3
 P3  V3 Y33 cos33
2
V3
V3
 0.0  (1.0) (21.0819) cos(71.5649)
2
 6.6668

Elements of J3:
Q3
 V3V2Y32 cos( 32   2   3 )
 2
 ( 1.0 )( 1.0 )( 5.2705 )cos( 108.4349  0.0  0.0 )
 1.6667
Q3
 V3V1Y31 cos(  31   1   3 )
 3
 V3Y2Y32 cos(  32   2   3 )
 ( 1.0 )( 1.0 )( 15.8114 )cos( 108.4349  0.0  0.0 )
 ( 1.0 )( 1.0 )( 5.2705 )cos( 108.4349  0.0  0.0 )
 6.6667

Elements of J4:
Q3
V3  Q3  V32Y33 sin  33
V3
 0.0  1.0 21.0819sin  71.5649
2
 20
In Matrix Form,
 8.75 5  1.6667
 5 20 6.6668 
 
1.6667  6.6667 20 

Solving for Gradients,
 0.2   8.75 5  1.6667   2 

  0.6     5 20 6.6668    3 
    
 0.25 1.6667  6.6667 20  V3 / V3 
 2  0.00666rad  0.38161deg
0
 3  0.021588rad  1.23691deg
0
V3
0
 0.02025  V3  0.97975
0
V3

Update Initial Estimates
21 = 21 + 20
= 0.0 + 0.38161 = 0.38161
31 = 31 + 30
= 0.0 – 1.23691 = - 1.23691
Specified Variables
V31 = V31 + V30
V  1.0
1
1
= 1.0 – 0.02025 = 0.97975

 11  0.0
V21  1.0


Update Estimates of Injected Power
P21 = V2V1Y21 cos (q 21 + d1 - d2 )
+V2V2Y22 cos (q 22 )
+V2V3Y23 cos (q 23 + d3 - d2 )
 1.01.03.9528 cos108.4349  0.0  0.38160
 1.01.09.2233 cos 71.5649
 1.00.979755.2705 cos108.4349  1.2365  0.3816
 0.1978

P3  V3V1Y31 cos(31  1   3 ) 
1
V3V2Y32 cos(32   2   3 )  V3V3Y33 cos(33 )

P3  (0.97975)(1.0)(15.8114) cos(108.4349  0.0  1.2369)
1
 (0.97975)(1.0)(5.2705) cos(108.4349  0.3816  1.2369)

 (0.97975) 2 (21.0819) cos( 71.5649)
 0.58601


V3V1Y31 sin(31  1   3 )  
Q  
1
3
       
 3 2 32
V V Y sin( 32 2 3 ) V V Y
3 3 33 sin( 33 
)
(0.97975)(1.0)(15.8114) sin(108.4349  0.0  1.2369) 

 
   (0.97975)(1.0)(5.2705) sin(108.4349  0.3816  1.2369)
 (0.97975) 2 (21.0819) sin(71.5649) 
 0.23957


P2  P2,sp  P2,calc  0.2  0.19780
 0.00220
P3  P3,sp  P3,calc   0.6  (0.58601)
 0.01399
Q3  Q3,sp  Q3,calc   0.25  (0.23957)
 0.010430
Proceed to Iteration 2

Evaluate Elements of Jacobian Matrix
Elements of J1:
P2
 V2V1Y21 sin( 21  1   2 )  V2V3Y23 sin( 23   3   2 )
 2
 (1.0)(1.0)(3.9528) sin(108.4349  0.0  0.38161)
 (1.0)(0.97975)(5.2705) sin(108.4349  1.23691  0.38161)
 8.7012


Elements of J1:
P2
 V2V3Y23 sin( 23   3   2 )
 3
 (1.0)(0.97975)(5.2705) sin(108.4349  1.23691  0.38161)
 4.9430
P3
 V3V2Y32 sin(32   2   3 )
 2
 (0.97975)(1.0)(5.2705) sin(108.4349  0.38161  1.23691)
 4.8507

Elements of J1:
P3
 V3V1Y31 sin(31  1   3 )  V3V2Y32 sin(32   2   3 )
 3
 (0.97975)(1.0)(15.8114) sin(108.4349  0.0  1.23691)
 (0.97975)(1.0)(5.2705) sin(108.4349  0.38161  1.23691)
 19.4378


Elements of J2:
P2
V3  V2V3Y23 cos 23   3   2 
V3
 1.00.979755.2705cos108.4349  1.23691  0.38161
 1.4939
P3
 P3  V3 Y33 cos33
2
V3
V3
 0.58601  (0.97975) 2 (21.0819) cos(71.5649)
 5.8135

Elements of J3:
Q3
 V3V2Y32 cos(32   2   3 )
 2
 (0.97975)(1.0)(5.2705) cos(108.4349  0.38161  1.23691)
 1.7706
Q3
 V3V1Y31 cos(31  1   3 )  V3V2Y32 sin(32   2   3 )
 3
 (0.97975)(1.0)(15.8114) cos(108.4349  0.0  1.23691)
 (0.97975)(1.0)(5.2705) cos(108.4349  0.38161  1.23691)
 6.9855

Elements of J4:
Q3
V3  Q3  V3 Y33 sin  33
2
V3
 0.23957  0.97975 21.0819sin 71.5649
2
 18.9587
In Matrix Form,
 8.7012  4.9430  1.4939
 4.8507 19.4378 5.8135 
 
 1.7706  6.9855 18.9587 


Solving for Gradients,
 0.00220   8.7012  4.9430  1.4939   2 
 0.01399   4.8507 19.4378 5.8135    
    3

  0.01043  1.7706  6.9855 18.9587  V3 V3 
  0.000183rad  0.01050 deg

1
2
  0.000546rad  0.03127 deg

1
3
V
1
 0.01043  V3  0.97903
3 0
V3

Update Previous Estimates
21 = 21 + 20
= 0.38161 – 0.01050 = 0.37110
31 = 31 + 30
= -1.23691 – 0.03127 = - 1.26819
Specified Variables
V3 = V3 + V3
1 1 0
= 0.97975 – 0.97975(0.000734)
V11  1.0
= 0.97903  11  0.0
V21  1.0

Update Previous Estimates of Injected Power
P22  V2V1Y21 cos 21  1   2 
 V2V2Y22 cos 22 
 V2V3Y23 cos 23   3   2 
 1.01.03.9528 cos108.4349  0.0  0.37110
 1.01.09.2233 cos 71.5649
 1.00.979035.2705 cos108.4349  1.26819  0.37110
 0.20000


P3  V3V1Y31 cos(31  1   3 ) 
2
V3V2Y32 cos(32   2   3 )  V3V3Y33 cos(33 )
P3  (0.97903)(1.0)(15.8114) cos(108.4349  0.0  1.26819)

2
 (0.97903)(1.0)(5.2705) cos(108.4349  0.37110  1.26819)

 (0.97903) 2 (21.0819) cos( 71.5649)
 0.59999


V3V1Y31 sin(31  1   3 )  
Q3   
2
       
 3 2 32
V V Y sin( 32 2 3 ) V V Y
3 3 33 sin( 33 
)
(0.97903)(1.0)(15.8114) sin(108.4349  0.0  1.26819) 

   (0.97903)(1.0)(5.2705) sin(108.4349  0.37110  1.26819)
 (0.97903) 2 (21.0819) sin(71.5649) 
 0.24999


P2  P2,sp  P2,calc  0.2  0.20000

 0.00000
P3  P3,sp  P3,calc   0.6  (0.59999)
 0.00001
Q3  Q3,sp  Q3,calc   0.25  (0.24999)
 0.00001
The solution has converged


The solution of the Load Flow Problem is
V1  1.00 0
V2  1.00.371100
V3  0.97903  1.26819 0

Backward/Forward Sweep
Load Flow
 Load Flow for Radial Distribution System

 Procedure: Iterative Solution
 Initialization
 Solving for Injected Currents through the nodes
 Backward Sweep
 Forward Sweep
 Solving for Injected Power
 Solving for Voltage Mismatch

Load Flow
Bus2 I23 , Loss23 = ?

0.635 + j1.970  Bus3
Bus1 I12 , Loss12 = ?
V3 = ?
Utility P3 , Q3 = ?
Grid I24 , Loss24 = ?V4 = ?
0.131 + j1.595 
V1 = 67 kV P4 , Q4 = ?
0.4223 + j0.7980  Bus4
P1 , Q1 = ? V2 = ? Lumped Load A
P2 , Q2 = ? 2 MVA 85%PF
Lumped Load B
1 MVA 85%PF
Load Flow for Radial Distribution System

Load Flow
Equivalent Circuit
Bus2
V1 = 67 kV Bus1 0.0364 +j 0.1131 pu Bus3
V3
Utility
Grid 0.0075+j 0.0915 pu Bus4 0.17 +
V1 V4
0.0242+j0.0458pu j0.10536
pu
~ 1 + j0 pu
V2 0.085 +
j0.05267
Base Values pu
Sbase = 10 MVA
Vbase1 = 67 kV
Base Z =13.22/10 =17.424
Vbase2 = 13.2 kV

Load Flow
Iterative Solution
1. Solve Injected Currents by Loads
2. Solve Line Currents (Backward Sweep)
3. Update Voltages (Forward Sweep)
4. Solve for Injected Power
5. Solve for Power Mismatch
Continue iteration by Backward-Forward Sweep until
convergence is achieved
After convergence, solve Iinj, Pinj, Qinj, PF, PLoss, QLoss
Load Flow
Initialization
Bus2
V1 = 67 kV 0.0364 +j 0.1131 pu Bus3
Bus1
V3
Utility
Grid 0.0075+j 0.0915 pu Bus4 0.17 +
V1 V4
0.0242+j0.0458 pu j0.10536
pu
~ 1 + j0 pu
V2 0.085 +
j0.05267
Initialize, V1(0) = 1/0 pu
V2(0) = 1/0
V3(0) = 1/0
V4(0) = 1/0

Load Flow
Solving for Injected Currents
Bus2
0.0364 +j 0.1131 pu Bus3
V1 = 67 kV Bus1
V3
Utility
Grid 0.0075+j 0.0915 pu Bus4 0.17 +
V1 V4 j0.10536
0.0242+j0.0458 pu pu
~ 1 + j0 pu
V2 0.085 +
j0.05267
pu
Solve I1(0) = 0
Injected
I2(0) = 0
Currents
by Loads I3(0) = S3* /[V3(0)]* = __________
I4(0) = S4* /[V4(0)]* = __________

Load Flow
Backward Sweep
Bus2
0.0364 +j 0.1131 pu Bus3
V1 = 67 kV Bus1
V3
Utility
Grid 0.0075+j 0.0915 pu Bus4 0.17 +
V1 V4 j0.10536
0.0242+j0.0458 pu pu
~ 1 + j0 pu
V2 0.085 +
j0.05267
pu
Solve Line
Currents
I24(0) = I4(0) = _______
(Backward
Sweep) I23(0) = I3(0) = _______
I12(0) = 0 + I23(0) + I24(0) = _______
Load Flow
Forward Sweep
Bus2
0.0364 +j 0.1131 pu Bus3
V1 = 67 kV Bus1
V3
Utility
Grid 0.0075+j 0.0915 pu Bus4 0.17 +
V1 V4
0.0242+j0.0458 pu j0.10536
pu
~ 1 + j0 pu
V2 0.085 +
j0.05267
Update pu
V1(1) = 1/0
Voltages
V2(1) = V1(0) – [I12(0)][Z12] = ________
(Forward
Sweep) V3(1) = V2(1) – [I23(0)][Z23] = ________
V4(1) = V2(1) – [I24(0)][Z24] = ________
Load Flow
Solving for Injected Power
Bus2
0.0364 +j 0.1131 pu Bus3
V1 = 67 kV Bus1
V3
Utility
Grid 0.0075+j 0.0915 pu Bus4 0.17 +
V1 V4 j0.10536
0.0242+j0.0458 pu
pu
~ 1 + j0 pu
V2 0.085+
j0.05267
Solve pu
S1(1) = [V1(1)][I1(0)]* = ___________
Injected
Power S2(1) = [V2(1)][I2(0)]* = ___________
S3(1) = [V3(1)][I3(0)]* = ___________
S4(1) = [V4(1)][I4(0)]* = ___________
Load Flow
Solving for Power Mismatch
Bus2
0.0364 +j 0.1131 pu Bus3
V1 = 67 kV Bus1
V3
Utility
Grid 0.0075+j 0.0915 pu Bus4 0.17 +
V1 V4
0.0242+j0.0458 pu j0.10536
pu
~ 1 + j0 pu
V2 0.085 +
j0.05267
Solve pu
S1(1) = S1(sp) - S1(calc) = ____________
Power
Mismatch S2(1) = S2(sp) – S2(calc) = ____________
S3(1) = S3(sp) – S3(calc) = ____________
S4(1) = S4(sp) – S4(calc) = ____________
Load Flow
Iterative Solution
Iteration 2:
Solve I1(1) = 0
Injected
I2(1) = 0
Currents
by Loads I3(1) = S3* /[V3(1)]* = __________
I4(1) = S4* /[V4(1)]* = __________
Solve Line I24(1) = I4(1) = _______
Currents
I23(1) = I3(1) = _______
(Backward
I12(1) = 0 + I23(1) + I24(1) = _______
Sweep)

Load Flow
Iterative Solution V1(2) = 1/0
V2(2) = V1(1) – [I12(1)][Z12] =
Update
________
Voltages
V3(2) = V2(1) – [I23(1)][Z23] =
(Forward
________
Sweep)
V4(2) = V2(1) – [I24(1)][Z24] =
________
Solve S1(2) = [V1(2)][I1(1)]* = ___________
Injected
S2(2) = [V2(2)][I2(1)]* = ___________
Power
S3(2) = [V3(2)][I3(1)]* = ___________
S4(2) = [V4(2)][I4(1)]* = ___________

Load Flow
Iterative Solution
Solve S1(2) = S1(sp) - S1(calc) = ____________

Power
Mismatch S2(2) = S2(sp) – S2(calc) = ____________
S3(2) = S3(sp) – S3(calc) = ____________
S4(2) = S4(sp) – S4(calc) = ____________
If Mismatch is higher than set convergence index, repeat the

procedure (Backward-Forward Sweep) [Iteration 3]

Load Flow
Iterative Solution
Iteration 3:
Solve I1(2) = 0
Injected
I2(2) = 0
Currents
by Loads I3(2) = S3* /[V3(2)]* = __________
I4(2) = S4* /[V4(2)]* = __________
Solve Line I24(2) = I4(2) = _______
Currents
I23(2) = I3(2) = _______
(Backward
I12(2) = 0 + I23(2) + I24(2) = _______
Sweep)

Load Flow
V1(3) = 1/0
Iterative Solution
V2(3) = V1(2) – [I12(2)][Z12] =
Update ________
Voltages
V3(3) = V2(2) – [I23(2)][Z23] =
(Forward ________
Sweep)
V4(3) = V2(2) – [I24(2)][Z24] =
________
Solve S1(3) = [V1(3)][I1(2)]* = ___________

Injected S2(3) = [V2(3)][I2(2)]* = ___________
Power
S3(3) = [V3(3)][I3(2)]* = ___________
S4(3) = [V4(3)][I4(2)]* = ___________

Load Flow
Iterative Solution
Solve S1(3) = S1(3) - S1(2)

Power
Mismatch S2(3) = S2(3) – S2(2) = ____________
S3(3) = S3(3) – S3(2) = ____________
S4(3) = S4(3) – S4(2) = ____________
If Mismatch is lower than set convergence index, compute

power flows

Load Flow
Bus2
0.0364 +j 0.1131 pu Bus3
Bus1
Utility
Grid 0.0242+j0.0458
0.0075+j 0.0915 pu
Bus4
Lumped Load A
VOLTAGE PROFILE 2 MVA 85%PF
Lumped Load B
V1 = ________ 1 MVA 85%PF
V2 = ________ INJECTED POWER
V3 = ________ P1 + jQ1 = ________ + j

________
V4 = ________
P2 + jQ2 = ________ + j
________
P3 + jQ3 = ________ + j
U. P. National Engineering Center ________
Competency Training & Certification Program in
Load Flow
Bus2
0.0364 +j 0.1131 pu Bus3
Bus1
Utility
Grid 0.0242+j0.0458 pu
0.0075+j 0.0915 pu
POWER FLOW (P-Q) Bus4
Lumped Load A
P12 + jQ12 = ________ + j ________ 2 MVA 85%PF
Lumped Load B
P23 + jQ23 = ________ + j ________ 1 MVA 85%PF
P24 + jQ24 = ________ + j ________

POWER FLOW (Q-P)
P21 + jQ21 = ________ + j ________
P32 + jQ32 = ________ + j ________
P42 + jQ42 = ________ + j ________
Load Flow
Bus2
0.0364 +j 0.1131 pu Bus3
Bus1
Utility
Grid 0.0242+j0.0458 pu
0.0075+j 0.0915 pu
Bus4
Branch Currents Lumped Load A
2 MVA 85%PF
I12 = ________ Lumped Load B
1 MVA 85%PF
I23 = ________
I24 = ________ POWER LOSSES
I2R12 + jI2X12 = ________ + j ________
I2R23 + jI2X24 = ________ + j ________
I2R24 + jI2X24 = ________ + j ________
Load Flow
Line sections in the radial network are ordered by
layers away from the root node (substation bus).
1 2 3 Layer 1
4 5 6 Layer 2
7 9 10 11 12
8 Layer 3
17
13 8 14 15 18 20
16 19 Layer 4
21 22 23
24 25 26
Layer 5
27 31
28 29 30
Layer 6
32 33 34
Layer 7
35 Layer 8

Three-Phase Backward
/Forward Sweep Method
The iterative algorithm for solving the radial system
consists of three steps. At iteration k:
Step 1: Nodal current calculation
 I ia 
(k )

 S / V ( k 1 )
 ia ia( k 1 )

 Y *  Via 
( k 1 )

ia
I 
 ib  
  Sib / Vib  
 *
Yib
 
 Vib 
 I ic  
 S / V ( k 1 )
 ic ic 

  Y *
 
ic  Vic 
Where, I ia , I ib , I ic Current injections at node i

Sia , Sib , Sic Scheduled power injections at node i
Via ,Vib ,Vic Voltages at node i
Yia ,Yib ,Yic Admittances of all shunt elements at node i
Step 2: Backward Sweep to sum up line section current
Starting from the line section in the last layer and
moving towards the root node. The current in the
line section l is:
(k )
 I ja 
(k ) (k )
 J la   J ma 
J   
 lb     I jb     J mb 
 J lc   I jc  mM
 J mc 
 
Where, J la , J lb , J jc are the current flows on line section l
l and M Is the set of line sections connected to node j

Step 3: Forward Sweep to update nodal voltage
Starting from the first layer and moving towards
the last layer, the voltage at node j is:
(k )
V ja 
(k ) (k )
Via   zaa,l zab,l zac,l   J la 
      
V jb   Vib    zab,l zbb,l zbc,l   J lb 
V jc  Vic   zac,l zbc,l zcc ,l   J lc 
 

After the three steps are executed in one iteration,
the power mismatches at each node for all phases
are calculated:
S (k )
ia V (k )
ia I 
(k ) 
ia
*
ia
2
 Y Via  Sia
S (k )
ib V (k )
ib I 
(k ) 
ib
*
ia
2
 Y Vib  Sib
S (k )
ic V (k )
ic I 
(k ) 
ic
*
ic
2
 Y Vic  Sic
If the real and imaginary part (real and reactive
power) of any of these power mismatches is greater
than a convergence criterion, steps 1, 2 & 3 are
repeated until convergence is achieved.
Principles of Load Flow Control
 Prime mover and excitation control of generators

 Reactive Var Compensation (e.g., Capacitors)
 Control of tap-changing and voltage regulating
transformers


Generator Voltage & Power Control
jX
The complex power delivered to the
bus (Generator Terminal) is
I Vt0
Ei ~  Ei   Vt 0 
Pt  jQt  Vt 0I  Vt 0
*

 jX 
 EiVt   EiVt Vt 2 
Pt   sin   Qt   cos   
 X   X X


Pt   sin   Qt   cos   
 X   X X
Observations:
1. Real Power is injected into the bus (Generator Operation),  must
be positive (Ei leads Vt)
2. Real Power is drawn from the bus (Motor Operation),  must be
negative (Ei lags Vt)
3. In actual operation, the numeric value of  is small & since the
slope of Sine function is maximum for small values, a minute
change in  can cause a substantial change in Pt


Pt   sin   Qt   cos   
 X   X X
Observations:
4. Reactive Power flow depends on relative values of EiCos and Vt
5. Since the slope of Cosine function is minimum for small values of
angle, Reactive Power is controlled by varying Ei
• Over-excitation (increasing Ei) will deliver Reactive Power into the Bus
• Under-excitation (decreasing Ei) will absorb Reactive Power from the
Bus


Capacitor Compensation
~ q
The voltage of bus q can be
expressed as
Ipq
p + jQc X pqQq X pq Pq
Eq  V p  j
PL - jQL Vp Vp
Observations:
1. The Reactive Power Qq causes a voltage drop and thus largely
affects the magnitude of Eq
2. A capacitor bank connected to bus q will reduce Qq that will
consequently reduce voltage drop



Tap-Changing Transformer
a:1 The  equivalent circuit of
q r transformer with the per unit
transformation ratio:
1
s p y pq
a
Observation:
The voltage drop in the 1 a a 1
transformer is affected by 2
y pq y pq
a a
the transformation ratio “a”

Uses of Load Flow Study
 Sensitivity Analysis with Load Flow Study

 Analysis of Existing Conditions
 Analysis for Correcting PQ Problems
 Expansion Planning
 Contingency Analysis
 System Loss Analysis

Uses of Load Flow Studies

Sensitivity Analysis with Load Flow Study
1) Take any line, transformer or generator out of service.
2) Add, reduce or remove load to any or all buses.
3) Add, remove or shift generation to any bus.
4) Add new transmission or distribution lines.
5) Increase conductor size on T&D lines.
6) Change bus voltages.
7) Change transformer taps.
8) Increase or decrease transformer size.
9) Add or remove rotating or static var supply to buses.

 Sensitivity
Analysis
Example
IEEE 14-Bus
System


 Sensitivity
Analysis
Example
Removal of Line
4-5


 Sensitivity
Analysis
Example
IEEE 14-Bus
System


 Sensitivity
Analysis
Example
Removal of
generator at
Bus 2


 Sensitivity
Analysis
Example
IEEE 14-Bus
System


 Sensitivity
Analysis
Example
Removal of
rotating VAR
supply at bus
3
From 1.010 pu


 Sensitivity
Analysis
Example
IEEE 14-Bus
System


 Sensitivity
From 14.9 MW +
5.0 MVAR;
V: from 1.035 pu
Analysis Line 9-14: From

50% loading
Example
Increase in P
and Q at bus
14


1) ANALYSIS OF EXISTING CONDITIONS
• Check for voltage violations
 PGC: 0.95 – 1.05 p.u. (For Transmission)
 PDC: 0.90 – 1.10 p.u (For Distribution)*
*Recommended 0.95 – 1.05 p.u.
• Check for branch power flow violations
 Transformer Overloads
 Line Overloads
• Check for system losses
 Caps on Segregated DSL


2) ANALYSIS FOR CORRECTING PQ PROBLEMS
• Voltage adjustment by utility at delivery point
 Request TransCo to improve voltage at
connection point
 TransCo as System Operator will determine
feasibility based on Economic Dispatch and
other adjustments such as transformer tap
changing and reactive power compensation


• Transformer tap changing
 Available Taps
 At Primary Side
 At Secondary Side
 Both Sides
 Typical Taps
 Tap 1: +5%
 Tap 2: +2.5%
 Tap 3: 0% (Rated Voltage)
 Tap 4: -2.5%
 Tap 5: -5%


•Capacitor compensation
• Compensate for Peak Loading
• Check overvoltages during Off-Peak
• Optimize Capacitor Plan
• System configuration improvement


3) EXPANSION PLANNING
• New substation construction
• Substation capacity expansion
• New feeder segment construction / extension
• Addition of parallel feeder segment
• Reconducting of existing feeder segment/ circuit
• Circuit conversion to higher voltage
• Generator addition


3) EXPANSION PLANNING
•Generator addition
Image from: Coster etal, "Integration Issues of Distributed Generation in Distribution Grids." Proceedings of the IEEE. Vol. 99, No. 1, January 2011


4) CONTINGENCY ANALYSIS
Reliability analysis of the Transmission (Grid) and
5) SYSTEM LOSS ANALYSIS

Segregation of System Losses



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Competency Training and Certification Program in Power System Engineering

Distribution System Modeling and Analysis

Load Flow Analysis

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The Load Flow Problem

Load Flow of a Single Line

VR(k) = VS - Z x [SR]* / [VR(k-1) ]*

The Load Flow Problem

Load Flow of a Single Line

VS = __________ ISR = __________

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 Bus Admittance Matrix, Ybus

U. P. National Engineering Center Competency Training & Certification Program in

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 Generators and loads are connected from bus to

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Nodal Voltage Equations

Power System Models for

Line 2 Line 3 Set-up the

Power System Models for

Compute the branch admittances to set up Ybus:

Power System Models for

Y21 = Y12 = -y12

U. P. National Engineering Center Competency Training & Certification Program in

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U. P. National Engineering Center Competency Training & Certification Program in

Power System Models for

U. P. National Engineering Center Competency Training & Certification Program in

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ISR = (SR / VR)* VR = VS - Z x SR/VR

VS = ISR =