PARTS AND WORKING OF HYDRAULIC AND PNEUMATIC SYSTEMS

Fluid power is energy transmitted and controlled by means of a pressurized fluid, either liquid or gas. The term fluid power applies to both hydraulics and pneumatics. Hydraulics uses pressurized liquid, for example, oil or water. Pneumatics uses compressed air or other neutral gases. A simple hydraulic system has liquid, a pump, and lines to carry the liquid, control al es, and an output de ice. The liquid must be a ailable from a continuous source, such as the reser oir or a sump. !n a hydraulic bra"e system, the master cylinder ser es as the main #uid pump and mo es the liquid through the system. The lines used to carry the liquid may be pipes, hoses, or a networ" of internal bores or passages in a single housing. $al es are used to regulate hydraulic pressure and direct the flow of the liquid. The output de ice is the unit that uses the pressurized liquid to do wor". The basic components of a fluid power system are essentially the same, regardless of whether the system uses a hydraulic or a pneumatic medium. There are fi e basic components used in a system. These basic components are as follows% &. 'eser oir or recei er (. Pump or compressor ). *ines +pipe, tubing, or flexible hose, -. .irectional control al e /. Actuating de ice

Figure% 0asic Hydraulic 1ystem

Hydraulic Fluid

Hydraulic fluid must be essentially non2compressible to be able to transmit power instantaneously from one part of the system to another. At the same time, it should lubricate the mo ing parts to reduce friction loss and cool the components so that the heat generated does not lead to fire hazards. !t also helps in remo ing the contaminants to filter. The most common liquid used in hydraulic systems is petroleum oil because it is only ery slightly compressible. The other desirable property of oil is its lubricating ability. Finally, often, the fluid also acts as a seal against lea"age inside a hydraulic component. The degree of closeness of the mechanical fit and the oil iscosity determines lea"age rate. Figure below shows the role played by hydraulic fluid films in lubrication and sealing.

T3P41 5F H3.'A6*!7 F*6!.1 There ha e been many liquids tested for use in hydraulic systems. 7urrently, liquids being used include mineral oil, water, phosphate ester, water2based ethylene glycol compounds, and silicone fluids. The three most common types of hydraulic liquids are petroleum2based, synthetic fire2resistant, and water2based fire2resistant.

Reser !ir
The primary purpose of the reser oir is to hold the system fluid not currently in use in the system. !t holds the hydraulic fluid to be circulated and allows air entrapped in the fluid to escape. This is an important feature as the bul" modulus of the oil, which determines the stiffness of hydraulic system, deteriorates considerably in the presence of entrapped air bubbles. !t also helps in dissipating heat. 5ther important functions of the reser oir are to separate solid particles and to separate water from fluid.

Figure% 'eser oir

Li"e
Fluid lines are used to transfer the fluid, and fittings are used to connect the lines to the power source and the points of application. Pipe, tubes and hoses, along with the fittings or connectors, constitute the conducting lines that carry hydraulic fluid between components. *ines are one of the disad antages of hydraulic system that we need to pay in return of higher power to weight ratio. *ines con ey the fluid and also dissipate heat. !n contrast, for Pneumatic 1ystems, no return path for the fluid, which is air, is needed, since it can be directly released into the atmosphere. There are arious "inds of lines in a hydraulic system. The wor"ing lines carry the fluid that deli ers the main pump power to the load. The pilot lines carry fluid that transmits controlling pressures to arious directional and relief al es for remote operation or safety. *astly there are drain lines that carry the fluid that ine itably lea"s out, to the tan". T3P41 5F *!841 The three types of lines used in systems are pipe +rigid,, tubing +semi rigid,, and hose +flexible,. A number of factors are considered when the type of line is selected for a particular fluid system. These factors include the type of fluid, the required system pressure, and the location of the system. For example, hea y pipe might be used for a large stationary fluid power system, but comparati ely lightweight tubing must be used in

aircraft and missile systems because weight and space are critical factors. Flexible hose is required in installations where units must be free to mo e relati e to each other.

Pu#$s
The purpose of a hydraulic pump is to supply a flow of fluid to a hydraulic system. The pump does not create system pressure, since pressure can be created only by a resistance to the flow. As the pump pro ides flow, it transmits a force to the fluid. As the fluid flow encounters resistance, this force is changed into a pressure. 'esistance to flow is the result of a restriction or obstruction in the path of the flow. This restriction is normally the wor" accomplished by the hydraulic system, but can also be restrictions of lines, fittings, and al es within the system. Thus, the pressure is controlled by the load imposed on the system or the action of a pressure2regulating de ice. A pump must ha e a continuous supply of fluid a ailable to the inlet port to supply fluid to the system. As the pump forces fluid through the outlet port, a partial acuum or low2pressure area is created at the inlet port. 9hen the pressure at the inlet port of the pump is lower than the local atmospheric pressure, atmospheric pressure acting on the fluid in the reser oir forces the fluid into the pump:s inlet. !f the pump is located at a le el lower than the reser oir, the force of gra ity supplements atmospheric pressure on the reser oir. H3.'51TAT!7 5' P51!T!$4 .!1P*A74;48T P6;P1 These pumps deli er a gi en amount of fluid for each cycle of motion, that is, stro"e or re olution. Their output in terms of the olume flow rate is solely dependent on the speed of the prime2mo er and is independent of outlet pressure notwithstanding lea"age. These pumps are generally rated by their olume flow rate output at a gi en dri e speed and by their maximum operating pressure capability which is specified based on factors of safety and operating life considerations. !n theory, a pump deli ers an amount of fluid equal to its displacement each cycle or re olution. !n reality, the actual output is reduced because of internal lea"age or slippage which increases with operating pressure. ;oreo er, note that the power requirement on the prime mo er theoretically increases with the pump deli ery at a constant fluid pressure. !f this power exceeds the power that the prime mo er can handle the pump speed and the deli ery rate would fall automatically. There are arious types of pumps used in hydraulic systems as described below. <4A' P6;P1 A gear pump de elops flow by carrying fluid between the teeth of two meshed gears. 5ne gear is dri en by the dri e shaft and turns the other, which is free. The pumping chambers formed between the gear teeth are enclosed by the pump housing and the side plates. A low pressure region is created at the inlet as the gear teeth separate. As a result, fluid flows in and is carried around by the gears. As the teeth mesh again at the outlet, high pressure is created and the fluid is forced out. ;ost gear type pumps are fixed displacement. They range in output from ery low to high olume. They usually operate at comparati ely low pressure. $A84 P6;P1 !n a ane pump a rotor is coupled to the dri e shaft and turns inside a cam ring. $anes are fitted to the rotor slots and follow the inner surface of the ring as the rotor turns. 7entrifugal force and pressure under the anes "eep them pressed against the ring. Pumping chambers are formed between the anes and are enclosed by the rotor, ring and two side plates. At the pump inlet, a low pressure region is created as the space between the rotor and ring increases. 5il entering here is trapped in the pumping chambers and then is pushed into the outlet as the space decreases. ;ost fixed displacement ane pumps today utilize the balanced design. !n this design, the cam ring is elliptical rather than a circle and permits two sets of internal ports. The two outlet ports are &=> degrees apart so that pressure forces on the rotor are cancelled out pre enting side loading of the dri e shaft and bearings. P!1T58 P6;P1 !n a piston pumps, a piston reciprocating in a bore draws in fluid as it is retracted and expels it on the forward stro"e. Two basic types of piston pumps are radial and axial. A radial pump has the pistons arranged radially in a cylinder bloc" in an axial pump the pistons are parallel to the axis of the cylinder bloc". The latter may be further di ided into in2line +swash plate or wobble plate, and bent axis types.

%AL%ES
A al e is defined as any de ice by which the flow of fluid may be started, stopped, or regulated by a mo able part that opens or obstructs passage. As applied in fluid power systems, al es are used for controlling the flow, the pressure, and the direction of the fluid flow. $al es must be accurate in the control of fluid flow and pressure and the sequence of operation.

$al es are classified according to their use% flow control, pressure control, and directional control. 1ome al es ha e multiple functions that fall into more than one classification. F*59 758T'5* $A*$41 Flow control al es are used to regulate the flow of fluids in fluid2power systems. 7ontrol of flow in fluid2 power systems is important because the rate of mo ement of fluid2powered machines depends on the rate of flow of the pressurized fluid. These al es may be manually, hydraulically, electrically, or pneumatically operated. 4xample% 0all al es, <ate al es, <lobe al es, 8eedle al es. <AT4 $A*$41% <ate al es are used when a straight2line flow of fluid and minimum flow restriction are needed. <ate al es are so2named because the part that either stops or allows flow through the al e acts somewhat li"e a gate. The gate is usually wedge2shaped. 9hen the al e is wide open the gate is fully drawn up into the al e bonnet. This lea es an opening for flow through the al e the same size as the pipe in which the al e is installed. Therefore, there is little pressure drop or flow restriction through the al e.

Figure% 5peration of a <ate al e P'4116'4 758T'5* $A*$41 The safe and efficient operation of fluid power systems, system components, and related equipment requires a means of controlling pressure. There are many types of automatic pressure control al es. 1ome of them merely pro ide an escape for pressure that exceeds a set pressure? some only reduce the pressure to a lower pressure system or subsystem? and some "eep the pressure in a system within a required range. '4*!4F $A*$41% 'elief al es are automatic al es used on system lines and equipment to pre ent o er2 pressurization. ;ost relief al es simply lift +open, at a preset pressure and reset +shut, when the pressure drops slightly below the lifting pressure. They do not maintain flow or pressure at a gi en amount, but pre ent pressure from rising abo e a specific le el when the system is temporarily o erloaded. ;ain system relief al es are generally installed between the pump or pressure source and the first system isolation al e. P'4116'4 '4<6*AT5'1% Pressure regulators, often referred to as unloading al es, are used in fluid power systems to regulate pressure. !n pneumatic systems, the al e, commonly referred to as a pressure regulator, simply reduces pressure. 14@64874 $A*$41% 1equence al es control the sequence of operation between two branches in a circuit? that is, they enable one unit to automatically set another unit into motion. An example of the use of a sequence al e is in an aircraft landing gear actuating system. A sequence al e is somewhat similar to a relief al e except that, after the set pressure has been reached, the sequence al e di erts the fluid to a second actuator or motor to do wor" in another part of the system.

.!'47T!58A* 758T'5* $A*$41 .irectional control al es are designed to direct the flow of fluid, at the desired time, to the point in a fluid power system where it will do wor". The dri ing of a ram bac" and forth in its cylinder is an example of when a directional control al e is used. $arious other terms are used to identify directional al es, such as selector al e, transfer al e, and control al e .irectional control al es for hydraulic and pneumatic systems are similar in design and operation. Howe er, there is one maAor difference. The return port of a hydraulic al e is ported through a return line to the reser oir, while the similar port of a pneumatic al e, commonly referred to as the exhaust port, is usually ented to the atmosphere. 7H47B $A*$41% 7hec" al es are used in fluid systems to permit flow in one direction and to pre ent flow in the other direction. They are classified as one2way directional control al es. The chec" al e may be installed independently in a line to allow flow in one direction only, or it may be used as an integral part of globe, sequence, counterbalance, and pressure2 reducing al es. 7hec" al es are a ailable in arious designs. They are opened by the force of fluid in motion flowing in one direction, and are closed by fluid attempting to flow in the opposite direction. The force of gra ity or the action of a spring aids in closing the al e.

ACTUATORS
An actuator is a de ice that con erts fluid power into mechanical force and motion. 7ylinders, motors, and turbines are the most common types of actuating de ices used in fluid power systems. 73*!8.4'1 An actuating cylinder is a de ice that con erts fluid power to linear, or straight line, force and motion. 1ince linear motion is a bac"2and2forth motion along a straight line, this type of actuator is sometimes referred to as a reciprocating, or linear, motor. The cylinder consists of a ram or piston operating within a cylindrical bore. Actuating cylinders may be installed so that the cylinder is anchored to a stationary structure and the ram or piston is attached to the mechanism to be operated, or the piston or ram may be anchored to the stationary structure and the cylinder attached to the mechanism to be operated. Actuating cylinders for pneumatic and hydraulic systems are similar in design and operation.

Figure% Single-acting ram2type actuating cylinder ;5T5'1 A fluid power motor is a de ice that con erts fluid power energy to rotary motion and force. The function of a motor is opposite that of a pump. Howe er, the design and operation of fluid power motors are ery similar to pumps. ;otors ha e many uses in fluid power systems. !n hydraulic power dri es, pumps and motors are combined with suitable lines and al es to form hydraulic transmissions. The pump, commonly referred to as the A2end, is dri en by some outside source, such as an electric motor. The pump deli ers fluid to the motor. The motor, referred

to as the 02end, is actuated by this flow, and through mechanical lin"age con eys rotary motion and force to the wor". This type of power dri e is used to operate +train and ele ate, many of the 8a y:s guns and roc"et launchers. Hydraulic motors are commonly used to operate the wing flaps, radomes, and radar equipment in aircraft. Air motors are used to dri e pneumatic tools. Air motors are also used in missiles to con ert the "inetic energy of compressed gas into electrical power, or to dri e the pump of a hydraulic system. Fluid motors may be either fixed or ariable displacement. Fixed displacement motors pro ide constant torque and ariable speed. The speed is aried by controlling the amount of input flow. $ariable2displacement motors are constructed so that the wor"ing relationship of the internal parts can be aried to change displacement. The maAority of the motors used in fluid power systems are the fixed2displacement type. Although most fluid power motors are capable of pro iding rotary motion in either direction, some applications require rotation in only one direction. !n these applications, one port of the motor is connected to the system pressure line and the other port to the return line or exhausted to the atmosphere. The flow of fluid to the motor is controlled by a flow control al e, a two2way directional control al e, or by starting and stopping the power supply. The speed of the motor may be controlled by arying the rate of fluid flow to it. !n most fluid power systems, the motor is required to pro ide actuation power in either direction. !n these applications the ports are referred to as wor"ing ports, alternating as inlet and outlet ports. The flow to the motor is usually controlled by either a four2 way directional control al e or a ariable2displacement pump. Fluid motors are usually classified according to the type of internal element, which is directly actuated by the flow. The most common types of elements are the gear, the ane, and the piston. All three of these types are adaptable for hydraulic systems, while only the ane type is used in pneumatic systems.

Figure% <ear type ;otor

Figure% $ane type ;otor T6'0!841 Turbines are used in pneumatic systems to con ert "inetic energy of gases to mechanical energy. Turbines are used to dri e electric generators, to con ert mechanical energy into electrical energy, and to dri e pumps to supply fluid flow in hydraulic systems. The basic distinction between types of turbines is the manner in which the gas causes the turbine rotor to mo e. 9hen the rotor is mo ed by a direct push or CimpulseD from the gas impinging upon the blades, the turbine is said to be an impulse turbine. 9hen the rotor is mo ed by force of reaction, the turbine is said to be a reaction turbine.

FILTRATION
Filtration de ices are installed at "ey points in fluid power systems to remo e the contaminants that enter the system along with those that are generated during normal operations. Filtration de ices for hydraulic systems differ somewhat from those of pneumatic systems. The filtering de ices used in hydraulic systems are commonly referred to as strainers and filters. 1ince they share a common function, the terms strainer and filter are often used interchangeably. As a general rule, de ices used to remo e large particles of foreign matter from hydraulic fluids are referred to as strainers, while those used to remo e the smallest particles are referred to as filters.

Figure% Full2flow hydraulic filter 1T'A!84'1 1trainers are used primarily to catch only ery large particles and will be found in applications where this type of protection is required. ;ost hydraulic systems ha e a strainer in the reser oir at the inlet to the suction line of the pump. A strainer is used in lieu of a filter to reduce its chance of being clogged and star ing the pump. Howe er, since this strainer is located in the reser oir, its maintenance is frequently neglected. 9hen hea y dirt and sludge accumulate on the suction strainer, the pump soon begins to ca itate. Pump failure follows quic"ly. F!*T4'1

The most common de ice installed in hydraulic systems to pre ent foreign particles and contamination from remaining in the system is referred to as filters. They may be located in the reser oir, in the return line, in the pressure line, or in any other location in the system where the designer of the system decides they are needed to safeguard the system against impurities. Filters are classified as full flow and proportional or partial flow. !n the full2flow type of filter, all the fluid that enters the unit passes through the filtering element, while in the proportional2flow type, only a portion of the fluid passes through the element. F6**2F*59 F!*T4'% The full2flow filter pro ides a positi e filtering action? howe er, it offers resistance to flow, particularly when the element becomes dirty. Hydraulic fluid enters the filter through the inlet port in the body and flows around the filter element inside the filter bowl. Filtering ta"es place as the fluid passes through the filtering element and into the hollow core, lea ing the dirt and impurities on the outside of the filter element. The filtered fluid then flows from the hollow core through the outlet port and into the system. 1ome full2 flow filters are equipped with a contamination indicator. These indicators, also "nown as differential pressure indicators, are a ailable in three typesEgauge indicators, mechanical pop2up indicators, and electrical with mechanical pop2up indicators. As contaminating particles collect on the filter element, the differential pressure across the element increases. Filter elements used in filters that ha e a contamination indicator are not normally remo ed or replaced until the indicator is actuated. This decreases the possibility of system contamination from outside sources due to unnecessary handling. The use of the no bypassing type of filter eliminates the possibility of contaminated fluid bypassing the filter element and contaminating the entire system. This type of filter will minimize the necessity for flushing the entire system and lessen the possibility of failure of pumps and other components in the system. A bypass relief al e is installed in some filters. The bypass relief al e allows the fluid to bypass the filter element and pass directly through the outlet port in the e ent that the filter element becomes clogged. These filters may or may not be equipped with the contamination indicator. A filter bypass indicator pro ides a positi e indication, when acti ated, that fluid is bypassing the filter element by flowing through the bypass relief al e.

Figure% Full2flow bypass2type hydraulic filter +with contamination indicator,

Figure% Full2flow bypass2type hydraulic filter 0efore correcti e action is ta"en based on indicator readings, the bypass condition should be erified at normal operating temperature and flow conditions by attempting to reset the indicator. P'5P5'T!58A*2F*59 F!*T4'% This type of filter operates on the enturi principle. As the fluid passes through the enturi throat a drop in pressure is created at the narrowest point. A portion of the fluid flowing toward and away from the throat of the enturi flows through the passages into the body of the filter. A fluid passage connects the hollow core of the filter with the throat of the enturi. Thus, the low2pressure area at the throat of the enturi causes the fluid under pressure in the body of the filter to flow through the filter element, through the hollow core, into the low2pressure area, and then return to the system. Although only a portion of the fluid is filtered during each cycle, constant recirculation through the system will e entually cause all the fluid to pass through the filter element.

Figure% Proportional2Flow Filter

P846;AT!7 <A141% 7lean, dry gas is required for the efficient operation of pneumatic systems. .ue to the normal conditions of the atmosphere, free air seldom satisfies these requirements adequately. The atmosphere contains both dust and impurities in arious amounts and a substantial amount of moisture in apor form. 1olids, such as dust, rust, or pipe scale in pneumatic systems, may lead to excessi e wear and failure of components and, in some cases, may pre ent the pneumatic de ices from operating. ;oisture is also ery harmful to the system. !t washes lubrication from mo ing parts, thereby aiding corrosion and causing excessi e wear of components. ;oisture will also settle in low spots in the system and freeze during cold weather, causing a stoppage of the system or ruptured lines. An ideal filter would remo e all dirt and moisture from a pneumatic system without causing a pressure drop in the process. 5b iously, such a condition can only be approached? it cannot be attained.

Figure% Air2filter

ACCUMULATORS
An accumulator is a pressure storage reser oir in which hydraulic fluid is stored under pressure from an external source. The storage of fluid under pressure ser es se eral purposes in hydraulic systems. !n some hydraulic systems it is necessary to maintain the system pressure within a specific pressure range for long periods of time. !t is ery difficult to maintain a closed system without some lea"age, either external or internal. 4 en a small lea" can cause a decrease in pressure. 0y using an accumulator, lea"age can be compensated for and the system pressure can be maintained within an acceptable range for long periods of time. Accumulators also compensate for thermal expansion and contraction of the liquid due to ariations in temperature. A liquid, flowing at a high elocity in a pipe will create a bac"ward surge when stopped suddenly by the closing of a al e. This sudden stoppage causes instantaneous pressures two to three times the operating pressure of the system. These pressures, or shoc"s, produce obAectionable noise and ibrations which can cause considerable damage to piping, fittings, and components. The incorporation of an accumulator enables such shoc"s and surges to be absorbed or cushioned by the entrapped gas, thereby reducing their effects. The accumulator also dampens pressure surges caused by pulsating deli ery from the pump. There are times when hydraulic systems require large olumes of liquid for short periods of time. This is due to either the operation of large cylinders or the necessity of operating two or more circuits simultaneously. !t is not economical to install a pump of such large capacity in the system for only intermittent usage, particularly if there is sufficient time during the wor"ing cycle for an accumulator to store up enough liquid to aid the pump during these pea" demands. The energy stored in accumulators maybe also used to actuate hydraulically operated units if normal hydraulic system failure occurs. Four types of accumulators used in 8a y hydraulic systems are as follows% &. Piston type (. 0ag or bladder type ). .irect2contact gas2to2fluid type -. .iaphragm type

Figure% Floating piston2type accumulator

Figure% 0ladder2type accumulator.

Figure% .irect2contact gas2to2fluid accumulator

Figure% .iaphragm accumulator