Basic Mechanical Engineering Concepts and Thermodynamics Principles

Basic Mechanical Engg
Module I & II
Course Instructor: Dr. V. Mariappan Property of GEC
Restricted circulation only
1
Chapter-1 ........................................................................................................................... 2
Basic Concepts ................................................................................................................... 2
1.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 2
1.1 Preamble to Thermodynamics .................................................................................. 3
1.2 Basic Concepts .......................................................................................................... 4
1.2.1 System ................................................................................................................ 4
1.2.2 Surroundings ...................................................................................................... 4
1.2.3 Boundary ............................................................................................................ 4
1.2.4 State.................................................................................................................... 5
1.2.5 Properties ........................................................................................................... 5
1.2.6 Process ............................................................................................................... 7
Chapter - 2 ....................................................................................................................... 10
First Law of Thermodynamics ...................................................................................... 10
2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 10
2.2 Statement................................................................................................................. 10
2.2.1 Corollary .......................................................................................................... 10
2.3 Standard Reversible Processes ................................................................................ 12
2.3.1 Constant Volume Process ................................................................................ 13
2.3.2 Constant Pressure Process................................................................................ 14
2.3.3 Isothermal Process ........................................................................................... 15
2.3.4 Reversible Adiabatic Process ........................................................................... 17
2.4 First Law Applied to Open System ......................................................................... 21
2.4.1 Boiler................................................................................................................ 23
3.4.2 Turbine ............................................................................................................. 23
2.4.3 Condenser ........................................................................................................ 24
2.4.4 Compression Device ........................................................................................ 24
Chapter-3 ......................................................................................................................... 26
Second Law of Thermodynamics .................................................................................. 26
3.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 26
3.1 Second Law ............................................................................................................. 28
3.1.1 Kelvin-Planck Statement ................................................................................. 28
3.1.2 Claussius Statement ......................................................................................... 29
3.1.3 Observations .................................................................................................... 30
3.2 Factors Causing Irreversibility ................................................................................ 31
3.2.1 Friction ............................................................................................................. 31
3.3 Carnot Cycle ........................................................................................................... 31
3.3.1 Carnot Theorems ............................................................................................. 31
3.3.1 Efficiency of Carnot Cycle .............................................................................. 32
3.4 Absolute Temperature Scale ................................................................................... 33
Chapter - 4 ....................................................................................................................... 36
Cycles ............................................................................................................................... 36
4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 36
4.2 Otto Cycle ............................................................................................................... 36
4.2 Diesel Cycle ............................................................................................................ 37
2
Chapter-1
Basic Concepts
_____________________________________________________________
1.0 Introduction
Primarily study was classified as Arts and science. In arts literature, music, painting etc
are included. Arts is one step ahead of materialistic. It is more towards spiritualism and
more of philosophical. Whereas science is knowledge based. It is built on facts of life. It
is logical. Engineering is evolved from science.

Engineering is the art of utilizing unfathomable sources of power in nature for the
benefit, convenience and survival for mankind. It involves men, materials, machines and
energy. It is differentiated from pure science in that it is primarily concerned with how to
direct the discoveries of pure science to useful and economical ends and formulate
acceptable theories and practices from them. Engineering therefore demands creative
imagination and originality to innovate useful applications of natural phenomena.
Environment for sustenance of mankind is shown schematically in Fig 1.

Similarly technology but base more through experience, facts and experience. However,
the terms engineering and technology are used synomously. Coming back to engineering
whch had its rellization on civilization. To know about civilization one has to roll back to
many decades from now. Fire is the first ever useful discovery of pure science lead into
many useful applications including cooking. Engineering activities mainly classified into
civilian and military (non-civilian). Military activies demand manufauturing gave rise to
mechanical engineering. As production of any item needs energy, that too, electrial
energy, electrical engineering was evolved.invention of transistors made a breakthrough
in elctrical enginnering replacing valves by virtue of which the volume (size) could be
reduced with ratther better effectiveness. This engendered Electronics and
Telecommunication enginnering. Thereafter developments needed large compuations
whch gave rise to Computer engineering. Large computations also required information
between segment of people acorss the globe. This need was instrumental to develop
Information and Technology. These classification is shown in Fig 2. coming to
mechanical engieering, production activites goes under production/manufacturing. To
accomplish this, detailed design is requred. This gives design stream. For maufacturing
power is required to operate machies. Power can also produced using thermal energy,
Society
Individual
Engineering
Figure 1: Environment for sustenance of mankind
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which gave thermal engineering stream. Classification of mechanical engineering and
allied courses are given in Fig 3.
1.1 Preamble to Thermodynamics
Man is physically a weak animal; yet he dominates. How has this come about? Mans
dominion rests on his ability to control forces far greater than those which his own
muscles can exert. When civilization began, during the 6
th
millenium BC, the only
available sources were animals; heavy tasks were performed by gangs of slaves or
animals. As he experienced inconvenience and inconsistency while using them, he was
forced to thing about generating power which can be utilized for transportaion which is
breakthrough stp in civilization.

Engg
Military Civil
Mech Electrical
Electronics
Info & Tech Computers
Figure 2: Engineering classification
Mech
Design
1. M/C drg
2. M/C design
3. Theory of m/cs
4. Mechanics of solids
5. Dynamics of
machineries
6. Mech sys design

Manufacturing
1. Production Engg
2. CAD/CAM
3. Mfg systems
Industrial Engg
1. OR
2. Quality Mgmt
3. Industrial Engg
4. Reliability based
design
5. Maintenance mgmt
Thermal
1. Thermodynamics
2. Energy conversion
3. Heat and mass transfer
4. Power plant engg
5. Refrigeration and A/C

Figure 3: classification of Mechanical Engg
4
One way of defining thermodynamics is that it is science of relations between heat, work
and relevant properties of a system. This name is stemmed out form Greek word Therme,
which means hotness and dynamics referring power. Thus thermodynamics is a joint
word of therme and dynamics. This term was used for the first time by a renouned
Brittish scientist by name William Thompson (popularly known as Lord Kelvin), who is
referred as father of thermal sciences in 1849, in an international journal. In the first book
written by William Rankine, professor from Glasgow University, it was used. It is rather
logical to start with basics and then build mathematical model and analysis.
1.2 Basic Concepts
Things which are repeatedly referred in any concept are to be termed and defined. In this
way we have the following fundamental terms and definitions with which one will be
able understand concepts of thermodynamics conveniently.
1.2.1 System
It is defined as a region of space containing certain quantity of matter whose behaviour is
being investigated. It is schematically shown in Fig 4.

1.2.2 Surroundings
It is defined as those portions of matter external to system, which are affected by changes
occurring within the system. It is to be noted that the effect of system on surroundings is
not having major thrust.
1.2.3 Boundary
It is the one which separates the system from surroundings. It may or may not have
physical dimension. If it does not then in the analysis an imaginary boundary will be
drawn. It may be even stationary or non-stationary (rotating). If the boundary is having
physical dimension, it will entrap the system and therefore, it is what known as closed or
non-flow system. If it is imaginary it can not entrap and hence the flow of system is
possible, in which case it is known as open system or flow system.
Surroundings

Boundary

System
Figure 4: A system
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1.2.4 State
For analysis the condition of system is to be known. State of a system is the condition of
the system at the instant of investigation. As analysis becomes convenient and effective if
the state is measured.
1.2.5 Properties
Properties are those identifiable and hence measurable characteristics which are relevant
to the investigation. They possess unique values at the time of measurement. To achieve
unique value, it is a must to have equilibrium, in this case, thermodynamic equilibrium.
Thermodynamic equilibrium: A system is said to be in thermodynamic equilibrium if no
further changes occur within it when it is isolated from its surroundings. The isolation
may be physical or conceptual.
1.2.5.1 Thermodynamic Equilibrium
A system is said to be in thermodynamic equilibrium if no further changes occur within it
when it is isolated from its surroundings. The isolation may be conceptual too.
Entire classical thermodynamics is based on closed system for better modeling and the
concepts evolved are extended to open system with appropriate modifications. In general,
a closed system is viewed as piston-cylinder arrangement as it possesses flexibility in
movement of the boundary, which is required for generation of work. There are three
important properties to deal with closed system which are: volume, pressure and
temperature. Measurement of these properties is discussed in the following sections.
1.2.5.2 Measurement of properties
Volume (V): As region space will have regular shape for the sake of easiness in
manufacturing, say, cylinder, measurement volume need not be discussed.
Pressure (P): microscopically, force of net repulsion and attraction per unit area is known
as pressure exerted by the system. While measuring it is assumed that force is normal to
the area. There are many instruments like pressure gauges to measure pressure of a given
system. Manometer is one among them. It is a simple device and it is specially used for
measuring smaller pressure differentials. As atmosphere too comprised of matter, it is
having its own pressure known as atmospheric pressure. Therefore, a given system can be
either above or below atmospheric pressure.
Manometer principle: It is a principle used for measuring difference in pressure between
two given systems.

A B
liquid
Figure 5: systems exerting same pressure
6

F
liq
= m a (1.1)
= A l g (1.2)
Where, F is force, P is pressure, is density, A for cross-sectional area, a is acceleration
and g is acceleration due to gravity
for equilibrium condition,
F
A
= F
B
+ F
liq

(1.3)
P
A
A = P
B
A + A l g
P
A
= P
B
+ l g
P
A
- P
B
= l g (1.4)
Similar concept can be extended to measure atmospheric pressure using barometer.
Barometer is a typical manometer wherein mercury (Hg) is the liquid and one of the
systems is vacuum. l, the mercury head becomes 760 mm. Using Eqn (1.4) the
atmospheric pressure can be found out.
Temperature: Microscopically, frequency of collisions of molecules with walls of the
container and other molecules is viewed as temperature. The concept of temperature took
almost 25 years to develop. In fact, Galelio had invented thermometer in 1526, but it was
not logically scaled. Then Gabriel Fareheit (1686-1736), Professor from Holland devised
scale for temperature. Much later, in 1744 Anders Celsius provided a better scale. These
scales are based on Zeroth law of thermodynamics.
Zeroth law of Thermodynamics: If two bodies are each equal in temperature to a third
body, they are equal in temperature to each other. Lord Kelvin had proposed absolute
temperature scale, where 0K is the absolute dead state of a system. Hence, absolute
temperature of a system will be always positive. It is recommended always to use only
the absolute measurements.

It is to be noted that the entire classical thermodynamics is based on closed system. The
concepts are extended further to system with appropriate modifications. Coming back to
properties, it can be classified into two:
1. Intensive property
2. Extensive property
Extensive properties are those which depend upon extend of mass, while intensive
properties are independent of mass. For instance all those total quantities including total
volume are extensive and pressure temperature, density etc. are intensive properties. Care
Figure 6: systems exerting different pressure
A B
l
F
liq
F
B
F
A

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is warranted that density is intensive not at extensive property. Intensive property
resembles concept of unit price. It is to be noted that property of a system in a given state
will always have the same value, regardless of how the system arrived at that state.
Hence, mathematically it is referred as exact differential. Set of properties will describe
and locate the state of the system at that instant of investigation as a point; it is referred as
point function also. Therefore, they are denoted by a single suffix representing that
particular state, say P
1
. In typical P-V co-ordinates, the state of a system is as depicted in
Fig-7. Mathematically, they are referred to as exact differentials.

In the conversion process, we are concerned with the change in state of the system.
Moreover, investigation demands this change.
1.2.6 Process
Process is the path of succession of states through which the system passes. System can
only change its state for one or both of the following reasons (mechanical, thermal).
1. Mechanical: There will be change of state of a system if part of the boundary is
displaced by a force so that some mechanical work is done.
2. Thermal: There will be change of state of a system if the system is brought into contact
with a portion of surroundings which is at a different temperature, so that some heat
flows.

1.2.6.1 Postulates for Changing State
These two ways of changing state of a system leads to the definition of work and heat
energies.
1. Work: Work is something which appears at the boundary when a system changes its
state due to the movement of part of the boundary under action of a force.
2. Heat: Heat is something which appears at boundary when a system changes its state
due to the temperature difference between the system and its surroundings during the
contact.
As work and heat are appearing during the change of a system they are energies in
transition and graphically they will have a path and hence known as path function.
Mathematically they are referred to as inexact differentials. Normally, they are denoted
by two suffices one is to refer the initial point and the other end point, ex., W
1-2
. Work
can be classified into: displacement work, paddle (wheel) work, shaft work out of which
displacement work is common in closed system and shaft work for flow processes by
virtue of their better modeling properties and common applications. Unless otherwise
stated W refers to displacement work and is expressed as follows.
V
P
1
P
1

V
1

Figure 7: P-V plane
8
dW = F. dx
dW = (F/A) A.dx
= P.dV (1.5)
From Eqn (1.5) it is clear that V will go along X-axis and P on Y axis. Area under the
curve will yield displacement work. Hence, P-V co-ordinates are popular coordinates for
closed system. This plane provides the opportunity of movement of the part of the
boundary. It will be clearer from the Fig-8.

But for heat which can be expressed as quantum of heat dQ = m C dT where C is specific
heat capacity which is a property of a given system. It is to be noted that as heat and work
are energies in transition, system never contains work and heat. Using work and heat,
system can be classified into closed, flow and isolated systems. For non-flow system,
control mass can not cross boundary but heat and work may or may not. In case of flow
system, mass, should cross but work and heat may or may not, whereas, in case of an
isolated system, these quantities can not cross boundary.

1.2.6.2 Reversible Process
Reversible process is a process which once having taken place, can be reversed and in
doing so, leaves no change in system and surroundings as well. It means each and every
intermediate point is obtained with infinitesimal amount of heat and work transfers
independently or combined. As system and surroundings are returned back to their initial
states while reversing, graphically the same path is retraced. In short, they result in
continuous functions. Hence, it becomes easy to mathematically model.
1.2.6.3 Quasi-equilibrium/static Process
It is one in which the deviation from thermal equilibrium is infinitesimal, and all the
states the system passes through during quasi-equilibrium may be considered as
equilibrium states.
By this time we are all convinced that in a thermodynamic process heat to work
conversion takes place or work is generated, which is of course the prime objective. This
work generation is to be done repeatedly and continuously which can be accomplished by
a cyclic process.

V
1
2
}P.dV
P
1

P
P
2

Figure 8: Displacement work
V
1
V
2

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1.2.6.4 Cycle
When a system in a given initial state goes through a number of different changes of state
(or processes) and finally returns to its initial state, the system is said to have undergone a
cyclic process or simply a cycle. This is of course thermodynamic cycle, which is
different form mechanical cycle wherein the system comes back to initial mechanical
state.
1.2.6.5 Irreversible Process
It is a process on reversal it can not restore the system and surroundings to respective
initial states. All actual processes which are spontaneous and involve energy in
dissipation are irreversible processes. They can not be expressed mathematically due to
discontinuity. As long as factors causing dissipation like friction are present the process
can not be reversible. As friction is inevitable, irreversible process can only exist in
practice. To analyze problems related thermodynamic, that too processes, it is a must to
transform the problem mathematically, having once modeled carryout the analysis and
then extrapolate the findings to infer the solution for the actuality. The hard core energy
conversion from heat to work takes place only in a cycle. A cycle will be reversible if all
the processes associated are each reversible. Even one of the processes of the cycle is
irreversible; the entire cycle will be irreversible. Thus, all devices, be it, an engine (Power
producing) or power consuming device like refrigerator will be nothing but irreversible
cycles only.

Now we may have to go ahead on cycle and hence various processes involved with for
appropriate modeling, which is discussed in the next chapter.

10
Chapter - 2
First Law of Thermodynamics
________________________________________________________________________
2.1 Introduction
James Prescott Joule (1818-1889) was working very sincerely in establishing the fact of
conservation of energy. Though it was stated by Leibnitz in 1693, the international
community did not accept his claim as he had not considered thermal energy,. In fact this
gave motivation to J. P. Joule to carry out the research in that direction involving heat.
His constant work during 1843-1850 made him realize the fact that in a cycle heat and
work are mutually convertible. This fact came as First law of thermodynamics. There are
many interpretations and statements on first law, of which the following one is being
used more commonly.
2.2 Statement
When any closed system is taken through a cycle, the net work transfer taken place is
proportional to the net heat transfer taken place with the surroundings.
dW
J
dQ
}
=
}
, where,
J is Joules constant which is taken as unity in SI units.
2.2.1 Corollary
As the process is the one which we can perform and the cycle is comprised of many
processes, the fact to be reduced down to a process. In this process, three corollaries are
developed, which are as follows.
There exists a property of a closed system such that a change in its value is equal to the
difference between the heat and work transfers taken place during any change of state.
Proof:

Consider two cycles 1A2B1 and 1A2C1 and applying I law, we get

2 1 2 1
1 2 1 2
A B A B
A B A B
dQ dQ dW dW + = +
} } } }
(2.1)
Property-1
P
r
o
p
-
2
C
B
A
2
1
Figure 1: application of Ilaw to a process
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2 1 2 1
1 2 1 2
A C A C
A C A C
dQ dQ dW dW + = +
} } } }
(2.2)
Subtracting Eqn (2.2) from Eqn (2.1), we get

1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2
B C B C
B C B C
dQ dQ dW dW =
} } } }

rearranging,

1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2
B B C C
B B C C
dQ dW dQ dW =
} } } }
(2.3)
The above expression reveals difference between heat and work transfer as far as same
end points are concerned, is independent of path. That is, it is property. Thus it reveals
that that quandity is a property X. Eqn (2.3) can be written as

1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2
dQ dW dQ dW =
} } } }

1 1
2 2
dQ dW dX =
} }
(2.4)
In differential form
dQ dW = dX (2.5)
as LHS is energy, X is also is to be energy and moreover, X is a property this is total
energy that possessed by the system.
Significance of energy: this energy, E is available in varieties of form and it can be
broadly classified into Macrocopic and microscopic energy.macroscopic form is energy
of the system as a whole with respect to chosen co-ordinate frame. Kinetic energy (KE)
and potential energy (PE) come under this category. Mocroscopic form is energy
associated with the motion and position of the molecules, which is referred as internal
energy, U.
Potential energy:

F= m g
Energy required to lift stored as potential energy,
dW = mg dz
Total energy, PE =

0
Toatal energy,
z
PE mgdt =
}

m
m
z
Figure 2.2: Potential energy
12
i.e., PE = mgz (2.6)

Kinetic energy:

Energy required push the mass from rest to acquire velocity V is temporarily stored
known as kinetic energy.
F = m a
dW = m(dV/dt)dx
dW = mVdV
total energy, KE =

0
Toatal energy,
V
KE mVdV =
}

i.e., KE = () mV
2
(2.7)
Therefore, E = KE + PE + U
dE = dKE + dPE + dU
For a non-flow process, KE does not exist because V = 0 and during the process the
datum level does not change or does not change significantly dPE = 0. Thus, dE = dU.
Therefore, Eqn (2.5) becomes,

dQ dW = dU or dQ = dW + dU (2.8)
The above equation is often called as non-flow energy equation (NFEE). This is very
often used in analyzing processes.

As we are interested in analysis, mathematical modeling is a must as we have agreed, for
which processes is to be reversible. Either power producing or power consuming devices,
they are nothing but thermodynamic cycles. For a reversible cycle all the process
involved are necessarily to be reversible. We will see certain standard reversible
processes that are commonly used to comprise cycles in reality.
2.3 Standard Reversible Processes
Here, for all the process conceived we will give process equation, plot them on P-V plane
and get property ratios.process equation is nothing but P = f(V). These processes are
developed on the following imporatant assumptions:
i) System is control mass having constant vlaues of specific heats
ii) System obeys ideal gas equation
The ideal gas eqation is the equation obtainbed from combination of Boyles and
Charles laws, which is PV = mRT, where, R is characteristic gas constant.
R
R
M
= where, M is molecular weight of system under consideation.
m
Figure 2.3: Kinetic energy
0 V
m
V
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2.3.1 Constant Volume Process
It is a process wherein thoughout the interaction the volume is kept constant. A rigid
vessel or piston-cylinder machine with fixed position of cylinder can be of good
examples. This is known as Isochoric process also (Iso means constancy or fixed and
chori means space or volume). By definition the process equation becomes V = C and the
corresponding shematic diagrams and plot are given below.

Applying NFEE
dQ = PdV + dU
dQ = dU as dV = 0 (2.9)
dW = 0 (2.10)
Applying ideal gas equaiton at point 1 and 2, we get
P
1
V
1
= mRT
1
(2.11)
P
2
V
2
= mRT
2
(2.12)
Operating (2.12)/(2.11)

2 2
1 1
P T
P T
= (2.13)
Equations (2.9), (2.10) and (2.13) will be quite useful in the analysis. This process is used
as a standard experiment in knowing the nature of the system as it involves the energy
input transforms to the change in internal energy, which is based on the molecular
structure of the system.

Q = 0
W = 0
Figure 2.5: An isolated system

Q > 0
W = 0
Figure 2.7: Specific heat at constant volume
V
2
1
P
Figure 2.6: P-V plot of constant volume process
Heat
addition
Heat
rejection
14
Nature of a system vary its temperature for a heat input at a fixed volume represents a
constant volume process. Temperature will rise as the sytem receives an enrgy input at a
fixed space, frequency of collision will definitely increase due to increase in velocity of
molecule. Therefore specific heat at constant volume is defined as the amount of heat
required to show an unit temperatire rise in temperature for an unit mass of the system.
Thus the change in internal energy which is nothing but the heat transfer in a constant
volume process is
dU = m Cv dT (2.14)
This is to be remembered that it is a property and therefoe irrespective of the process
Eqn (2.14) will hold good.
Process direction:
dQ = m Cv dT which is positive only when dT is positive. That is, T increases. As T
increases P also will increase as per Eqn (2.13). that is, upward is for heat addition and
downward is for heat rejection.
2.3.2 Constant Pressure Process
It is a process wherein thoughout the interaction the pressure is kept constant. This is
known as Isobaric process also (Iso means constancy and bar means pressure). Any
heating process in an open vessel can be of good example. By definition the process
equation becomes P = C and the corresponding plot is given below.

Heat transfer:
Applying NFEE
dQ = PdV + dU
dQ = dPV + dU
dQ = d(PV+U) (2.15)
As Eqn (2.15) is an energy equation, (PV+U) is also energy. As U is internal energy and
therefore PV is also energy. Whenever a system having volume V and excerting pressure
P will have energy PV used for flow known as flow energy. But in the closed system this
energy is not used for flow. The combinaiton of U and PV is termed as Enthalpy, H.
Therefore, Eqn (2.15) becomes,
V
2 1
P
Figure 2.8: P-V plot of constant pressure process
Heat
addition
Heat
rejection
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dQ = dH (2.16)
Work transfer:
By definition, the displacement work
dW = PdV
= dPV (2.17)
= mRdT (2.18)
Properties:
Applying ideal gas equaiton at point 1 and 2, we get
P
1
V
1
= mRT
1
(2.19)
P
2
V
2
= mRT
2
(2.20)
Operating (2.20)/(2.19)

2 2
1 1
V T
V T
= (2.21)
Equations (2.16), (2.17), (2.18) and (2.21) will be quite useful in the analysis. This
process is used as a standard experiment in knowing the nature of the system as it
involves the energy input transforms to the change in enthalpy.

Process direction:
As dQ = mRdT, whenever dQ is positive dT would be positive too. That is, for heat
addition temperature increases. As per Eqn (2.21) temperature rises causes volume
increment and therefore heat addition will take expansion direction and vice-versa.
2.3.3 Isothermal Process
It is a process wherein thoughout the interaction temperature is kept constant. Any slow
heating/ cooling process can be of good example of this process. The amount of heat
input is effectively used to maintain the temperature (maintaining the frequency of
collisions due to such a movement of the poston). By definition the process equation
becomes T = C
1
. As the definition does not give the process equation unlike earlier
processes, we may have to establish it. Using ideal gas equation, we get
PV = mRT
= mRC
1

= C (2.22)
It is quite easy to prove that P= C/V is a decreasing function of V from to 0 by mere
taking first derivative.
i.e., dP/dV = -P/V (2.23)
The corresponding plot is given in Fig 2.10.
Q > 0
Figure 2.9: Specific heat at constant pressure
W
16
Heat transfer:
Applying NFEE
dQ = PdV + dU
dQ = PdV.. as dU = 0 due to T = C
i.e., dQ = dW (2.24)

Work transfer:
dW = PdV
Integrating from state 1 to state 2, we get

2 2
1 2
1 1
W dW PdV
= =
} }

2
2
1 1
ln
V C
dV C
V V
= =
}

2 2
1 1
ln or ln
V V
PV mRT
V V
= (2.25)
Properties:
Using process equation, we get
P
1
V
1
= P
2
V
2
= C = PV
(P
2
/ P
1
) = (V
1
/ V
2
) (2.26)
Equations (2.24), (2.25) and (2.26) will be quite useful for the analysis.
Process direction:
As heat transfer equals to work transfer, the same direction of poston movement can be
assigned to heat transfers. That is, heat addition will be having the same direction of
expansion and similarly the heat rejection.
Comment: The process curve is known as isotherm which can be used conveniently to
locate temperature in P-V plot. Form the ideal gas equation PV = mRT, it is clear that for
V
2
1
P
Figure 2.10: P-V plot of Isothermal process
Heat addition
Heat rejection
Module I & II
17
a given value of V, P increases with increase in temperature, which means that higher
isotherms are placed above in P-V plot as shown in the Fig 2.11.

2.3.4 Reversible Adiabatic Process
It is a process that involves no heat transfer. If the poston moves very fast practically we
can achieve no heat transfer as ther is no much time provided for heat transfer between
system and surroundins have different temperatures. Or else we have to providse ideal
thermal insulators around the boundary to arrest heat transfer. By definition the process is
dQ = 0. As the definition does not give the process equation, we may have to establish it.
Using NFEE, we get
dQ = dW + dU
dW = - dU by definition
PdV = -mCvdT (2.27)
Eqn (2.27) is a ordinary differential equation, solving which we get the process equation.
mRT(dV/V) = -mCvdT
Applying variable seperable method the above differential equation can be solved.
R (dV/V) = -CvdT/T
(Cp-Cv) (dV/V) = -CvdT/T
(-1) (dV/V) = -dT/T
Indefenitely integrating we get,
(-1)lnV = -lnT + C
1

ln(V
-1
T) = C
1

V
-1
T = C
2

V
-1
PV/mR = C
2

PV
= C is the process equation (2.28)

It is quite easy to prove that P= C/V is a decreasing function of V form to 0 by mere
taking first derivative.
V
P
Figure 2.11: Placement of Isotherms
T
2
> T
1

T
1

18
i.e., dP/dV = -P/V (2.29)
The corresponding plot is given below.

Heat transfer:
dQ = 0 by definition (2.30)
Work transfer:
dW = PdV
Integrating from state 1 to state 2, we get

2 2
1 2
1 1
W dW PdV
= =
} }

1
2
1
1
C V
dV C
V

+
+
= =
}

2
1
1
1
V
PV

+
+
=

1 1
2 1
( )
1
PV V V

+ +
=
+

1 1
2 2 2 1 1 1
)
1
PV V PV V

+ +
=
+

2 2 1 1 2 1
( )
or
1 1
PV PV mR T T

=
+ +
(2.31)

Using NFEE also we can get theexpression for work transfer. As per NFEE
dQ = dW + dU
dW = -dU by defintion dQ = 0
= - m Cv dT (2.32)
The above equattion reveals that as heat transfer is 0 the work transfer is at the cost of
internal energy.
Properties:
Using process equation, we get
V
2
1
P
Figure 2.12: P-V plot of reversible adiabatic process
Expansion
Compression
Module I & II
19
P
1
V
1
= P
2
V
2
= C = PV

(P
2
/ P
1
) = (V
1
/ V
2
)
(2.33)
Applying ideal gas equation on Eqn (2.32), we get

2
2
1
1
1
2
mRT
V
mRT
V
V
V
| |
=
|
\ .

2 1 1
1 2 2
T V V
TV V
| |
=
|
\ .

1
2 1
1 2
T V
T V

| |
=
|
\ .
(2.34)
Using Eqn (2.32) on Eqn (2.33)

1
1
1
2 2 2
1 1 1
( )
T P P
T P P
| | | |
= =
| |
\ . \ .
(2.35)
Equations (2.30), (2.31), (2.32), (2.33), (2.34) and (2.35) will be quite useful for the
analysis.
Process direction:
As no heat transfer direction of piston movement will decide the direction of the process.

Comment: The process curve is similar to process curve and as the temperature decreases
for an expansion process, for any starting pivot, in the expansion direction this process
will have to intrsect lower isotherm and hence it has to proceed below the initial
isotherm. The same fact is quite evident comparing the rate of change of slope, i.e.,
Equations (2.23) and (2.29). This fact is illustrated in Fig 2.13.

2.3.5 List of Formulae Common to all Processes
1. Boyles law:
PV = mRT
2. Characteristic gas constant

R
R
M
= where Rbar is univrsal gas costant = 8.3143 KJ/kmolK and M is
molecular weight
V
P
Figure 2.13: Isotherm & reversible adiabatic curves
T
1

1
PV
=C
20
3. Mass:
m = nM where n is number of mols
4. Specific heats:
Cp Cv = R
Cp/Cv =
5. For air:
R = 0.287 kJ/kgK
Cp = 1.005 kJ/kgK
Cv = 0.718 kJ/kgK
6. Energy:
- Potential energy, PE = mgZ, where Z is elevation
- Kinetic energy, KE = mV
2
/2, where V is velocity
- Enthalpy, H = U + PV, where, P is pressure and V is volume
- Change in internal energy, dU = mCvdT
- Change in enthalpy, dH = mCpdT
- Displacement Work, dW = PdV

2.3.6 Units of Measurement

Table A: International Standard (SI) units
No. Description MKS SI Remarks
1 Length m m -
2 Mass kg
m
kg -
3 Time s s -
4 Force Kg
f
N (Newton)
1kg
m
xg =1kg
f

1x1x9.81=1kg
f

10N~ 1kg
f

5 Pressure 1kg
f
/m
2
N/m
2
=Pa (Pascal)
1kg
f
/m
2
~ 10 Pa
1bar ~1kg
f
/cm
2

6 Temperature K (=C + 273) K (=C + 273) -
7 Work kg
f
m Nm = J (Joule) kg
f
m ~ 10 J
8 Heat cal (caloie) J
1 cal = 4.1868 J
heat and work are
same in SI
9 Power HP J/s = w (watt)
1HP=736w or
746w

Module I & II
21
2.3.7 Process Summary

Table B: Process Summary
Process
Process
eqn
P-V plot Work Heat Property
Constant
volume
V=C

0 dQ = dU P
2
/P
1
=T
2
/T
1

Constant
pressure
P=C

dW = d(PV)
= mRdT
dQ = dH V
2
/V
1
=T
2
/T
1

Isothermal PV = C

W
12
=PVln (V
2
/V
1
)
= mRTln (V
2
/V
1
)
Same as
work
P
2
/P
1
=V
1
/V
2

Reversible
adiabatic
PV
= C

1 1
( ) d PV mRdT
dW or
+ +
=

= mCvdT
0
2 1
1 2
P V
P V
| |
=
|
\ .

1
2 1
1 2
T V
T V

| |
=
|
\ .

1
2 2
1 1
T P
T P
| |
=
|
\ .

Polytropic PV
n
= C

1 1
( )
n n
d PV mRdT
dW or
+ +
=

dQ =
mCndT
2 1
1 2
n
P V
P V
| |
=
|
\ .

1
2 1
1 2
n
T V
T V
| |
=
|
\ .

1
2 2
1 1
n
n
T P
T P
| |
=
|
\ .

Table C: Standard Prefixes
Prefix Abbreviation Meaning
deci d 10
-1

centi c 10
-2

milli m 10
-3

micro

10
-6

nano n 10
-9

pico p 10
-12

deka da 10
1

hecto h 10
2

kilo k 10
3

mega M 10
6

giga G 10
9

tera T 10
12

2.4 First Law Applied to Open System
Of course the First lw of thermodynamics was sted for the closed system, which the fact
derived out of experimentation. Moreover building a model becomes is quite convenient
on closed system as it possesses lesser number of parameters to be involved like altitude,
22
velociity of flow, angle of flow etc. But in real life there are application of flow system
(open system) and hence we are force to extend the fact applied to closed system to open
system. As open system does not possess physical dimension, we may have to assign an
imaginary one, the volume of which is known as control volume and the surface of which
is known as contrl surface. Thus control volume technique refers to open system and
control mass (mass entrapped in the closed system) is referred to colsed system. As per
the first corollary of Ilaw,
Q = W + E (2.36)
writing down th eabove equation in rate form, we obtain
Q/t = W/t + E/t (2.37)
or
2 1
( ) Q W E E = +
or rearranging, it becomes

1 2
E Q W E + = +
For a generic process

Substuituting E i.e.,
i i i i i i
E U pV PE KE = + + +
1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
sh
U p V PE KE Q W U p V PE KE + + + + = + + + +
For a steady state flow process,
1 2
m m = , the above equation becomes,
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
sh
mu m p v m pe m ke m q m w m u m p v m pe m ke + + + + = + + + +
After simplification,
2 2
1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2
1 1
2 2
sh
u p v gZ V q w u p v gZ V + + + + = + + + + (2.38)
Total energy possessed
by at exit
Ground Level
Z
1

Z
2

Total energy possessed
by at inlet
q
w
sh

Figure 14: Generic Flow system
Module I & II
23
The above equation is popularly referred to Steady State SteadyFlow Energy Equation
(SSSFEE)
2.4.1 Boiler
It is a steady state steady flow single inlet and single exit device. It is a device where in
incoming water will be converted into steam by adding heat to the system. Symbolically
it is represented as mentioned below.

Applying SSSFEE on boiler i.e wcv = 0 as it does not aim to produce work, Eqn (2.38)
becomes

i i i e e e
h pe ke q h pe ke + + + = + +
as the amount of heat energy is far greater than the changes in potential and kinetic
energies, the above equation can be written as

e
0 as h
e i i
q h h h h = = A > > (2.39)
In an open system undergoes a cycle, heat addition normally involves boiler in vapour
power cycle. It provides heat that avilable to be converted into work as per the definition
of thermodynamics.
For gas refrigeration cycle, similar to this functioanl device known as evaporator. The
amount of heat added will be coming from the stuff ot be refrigerated, thus, this heat
transfer will be known as refrigerating effect. Otherwise, rest all will be the same as
boiler.
3.4.2 Turbine
higher energy system achieved by proevious heat addition process will be forced to go for
expansion process so as to produce work. Symbolically it is represented as mentioned
below.

Applying SSSFEE on turbine, which is preferred to be adiabatic as it is required to
expand without wasting energy possessed by the system, i.e q = 0. Eqn (2.38) becomes

i i i sh e e e
h pe ke w h pe ke + + = + + +

water steam
q
Figure 2.17: Boiler
Figure 2.18: Turbine
T
w
sh

24
As the amount of power produced is far greater than the changes in potential and kinetic
energies, the above equation can be written as

e
0 as h
sh i e i
w h h h h = = A > > (2.40)
In an open system undergoes a cycle, work generation normally involves turbine, say it a
vapour power cycle or gas power cycle.
2.4.3 Condenser
incoming expanded steam will be converted into water by rejecting heat to
thesurroundings. Symbolically it is represented as mentioned below.

Applying SSSFEE on boiler i.e wcv = 0 as it does not aim to produce work, Eqn (2.38)
becomes

i i i e e e
h pe ke q h pe ke + + + = + +
As the amount of heat energy getting is far greater than the changes in potential and
kinetic energies, the above equation can be written as

e
0 as h
e i i
q h h h h = = A < < (2.41)
In an open system undergoes a cycle, heat rejection normally involves boiler in vapour
power cycle.
2.4.4 Compression Device
To complete a cycle whether it is power plant or power consuming cycle, we need either
compressor or a pump ( a dvice to deliver a substance from low pressre to a higher
pressure). We will see them in the following sections.
2.4.4.1 Compressor
It is a steady state steady flow single inlet and single exit device used in gas power cycle
compressible gas is to be compressed and delivered to a higher pressure. It is a device
where in lower energy system is made to gain higher energy by work input. This is just
opposite to the expansion device. Symbolically it is represented as mentioned below.

water steam
q
Figure 2.19: Condenser
Figure 2.20: Compressor
C
w
sh

Module I & II
25

Applying SSSFEE on compressor, which is preferred to be adiabatic as it is required to
compress without any heat transfer, i.e q = 0. Eqn (2.38) becomes

i i i sh e e e
h pe ke w h pe ke + + = + + +
As the amount of power required to compression is far greater than the changes in
potential and kinetic energies, the above equation can be written as

e
as <h
sh i e i
w h h h h = = A (2.42)
2.4.4.2 Pump
lower energy system is made to gain higher energy by work input. It transfers fluid from
lower pressure to higher pressure. This is just opposite to the expansion device.
Symbolically it is represented as mentioned below.

Applying SSSFEE on pump, which is adiabatic as it does not have any heat transfer, i.e q
= 0. Eqn (2.38) becomes

i i i sh e e e
h pe ke w h pe ke + + = + + +
As the amount of power required to pump is far greater than the changes in potential and
kinetic energies, the above equation can be written as

e
as <h
sh i e i
w h h h h = = A (2.43)

Figure 2.20: Compressor
w
sh

P
26
Chapter-3
Second Law of Thermodynamics
______________________________________________________
3.0 Introduction
The first-law thermodynamics gave impetus to almost all the developments in thermal
engineering. As a statement it means energy heat which can be converted into work in a
cyclic device or process. The first corollary derived out of first law reduced down the
facts to a process, in which heat at one side will be equal to the sum of work transfer and
change in internal energy in the other side. It is just the energy balance, with out regard to
their nature. For instance, if heat rejected from a hot cup of tea to the surroundings is
extracted and if one claims to convert that in to work in a process, still the first law will
be applied and to our surprise it will not be violated. But we all know that such extraction
of heat is impossible. If assigning a direction is also incorporated such kind of violations
can be revealed. Moreover, the first law does not categorically say how to apply the
situation wherein irreversibility is involved. It does not quantify irreversibility. These are
the major shortcomings of I-law.

Second law works on this direction of assigning direction constraint to a process. It
introduces a concept of Thermal Energy Reservoir (TER). TER is one which will be
having heat capacity either to give or to receive depends on the temperature of the
system. Therefore it can be classified into source or sink. Source is TER which will be at
higher temperature than the source and sink would be having lower temperature. Further
source and sinks can be classified in to hypothetical and finite reservoirs. Hypothetical
source is a source having infinite capacity of energy by the virtue of being at higher
temperature to give to the system yet its temperature will not fall down. It is to be noted
that it is a hypothetical one and it is assumed to have many temperature blocks, any one
of which can be picked up as infinitesimal higher temperature in comparison with the
system. As a infinitesimally higher temperature can be chosen every time from the
constant temperature source, it is thus theoretically possible to add or reject heat
reversibly as it becomes infinitesimal variations and not spontaneous one. It can be
represented pictorially as shown in Figures 3.1a and 3.1 b. For the sake of simplicity they
are being commonly represented by rectangles as shown in Figures 3.2 a and b.

T
1
T
1
+T

T
1
-T
T
Q at
T
1
T
1 T
1
+T
T
1
-T
T
Q at
T
1
Figure 3.1 a: Hypothetical source Figure 3.1 b: Hypothetical sink
Module I & II
27

In case of finite reservoirs, they will behave like their hypothetical counter parts but after
the energy transfer the temperature of them will be changed with respect to the type of
heat transfer whether it has received or rejected. They are also represented like
hypothetical ones by rectangles and they do not have temperature blocks.

Let us consider a cycle completed by a paddle wheel for work transfer system and system
with surroundings as shown in the Fig 3.3a. Take a system at ambient temperature and
pressure in a container. Lowering the weight work can be done on the system, which will
in turn increase the internal energy by virtue of churning, which can be conveniently
rejected to the surroundings bringing the system at initial temperature and pressure. Thus
a cycle can be completed practically, wherein work and heat are negative. This cycle is of
course possible. But the reversal (refer Figure 3.3b); the rejected heat to the surroundings
is added to the system is first of all is not possible as heat flowing naturally from
surroundings which is at the same temperature of the system and secondly this heat can
not turn the paddle to raise the weight to initial position. But if you apply I law, it will not
be violated; which does not mean that the heat flowing from atmosphere and heat turning
the wheel are possible. In short, with paddle wheel and system cycle can be converted
only when they are negative.

Q at T
sys
Figure 3.2 a: Simple hypothetical
source
T K Source
Figure 3.1 b: Simple hypothetical
sink
T K Sink
Q at T
sys

Q
W
- -ve work
- -ve heat
-
Figure 3.3 a: A possible cycle

Q
W
- +ve work
- +ve heat
-
Figure 3.3 b: An impossible cycle
28

Now consider another case where heat flows from a source to a sink. This is quite natural.
It is just a process and to complete a cycle the heat is necessarily to be taken form sink
which is not possible. This is represented by Figure 3.4. Therefore, it is not possible to
complete a cycle with only TERs.

These cases lead us to have a cyclic device. Along with TER we have to have a cyclic
device to convert the heat received form the source and to complete the cycle it has to
reject heat to the sink. Thus the second law projects the requirement of a source, a cyclic
device which can either a power producing or power consuming and a sink. A cyclic
device can be schematically represented by a circle in a square with an arrow along
clock-wise for heat engine and counter-clockwise for refrigerator or heat pump as shown
in Figure 3.5a and b. With the help of these components the directional constraints can be
imposed upon a process.

Thus the directional constraints can be assigned with the help of the following
components:
1. Source
2. Cyclic device
3. Sink
3.1 Second Law
Using these components, Lord Kelvin and Planck had stated fact for a heat engine (power
producing cyclic device). This becomes a fundamental concept in a power plant/heat
engine.
3.1.1 Kelvin-Planck Statement
It is impossible to construct a device that will operate in a cycle and produce no effect
other than the raising of a weight and the exchange of heat with a single reservoir. It is a
consequence of experiment and logic. The whole statement can be put up pictorially as
shown in Figure 3.6a.
Figure 3.4: Impossibility in making cycle
T
H
K Source
T
L
K Sink

Figure 3.5: Cyclic device heat pump
and heat engine
Module I & II
29

That is completing a cycle without heat rejection is impossible. Another interpretation is
it is impossible to convert heat added to a system into work completely by system
undergoing a cycle. i.e., W
net
= Q
H
. To make a cycle possible, we have to introduce a sink
with a finite heat transfer as shown in Figure 3.6b. As QL is finite and Wnet

= Q
H
-Q
L
is
finite and positive, Q
H
> Q
L
. Let us introduce a term which is ratio of net work transfer in
a cycle to heat added, popularly known as efficiency of conversion (or simply efficiency,
q)
1
H L L
H H
Q Q Q
Q Q
q

= = (3.1)
As Q
H
>Q
L
, q<1.
Similarly Claussius stated the fact for power consuming (refrigerator, ref/heat pump, HP),
which is delineated in the following section. Conceptually, to generate work higher grade
heat (at higher temperature) some amount of heat is to be rejected to sink kept at low
temperature. This heat rejected can not be converted into work without any external
agency. Thus the energy conversion from heat to work involves degradation of energy.
3.1.2 Claussius Statement
It is impossible to construct a device that will operate in a cycle and produce no effect
other than transferring of heat from cooler body to a hotter body without any external
agency. It is also a consequence of experiment and logic. The whole statement can be put
up pictorially as shown in Figure 3.7a.

That is completing a cycle without heat rejection is impossible. Another interpretation is
that it is impossible heat to flow naturally from lower temperature reservoir to higher
temperature reservoir. To make a cycle possible, we have to introduce net work input as
shown in Figure 3.7b. As W
net
< 0 and W
net
= Q
H
-Q
L
, Q
H
> Q
L
. Let us introduce a term
which is the ratio of either heat pumped to the source or heat extracted from the sink to
net work input to the system, popularly known as Coefficient of Performance(or simply
efficiency, COP)

W
net
= Q
H
-Q
L

Q
L

Source T
H

Sink T
L

Q
H

Figure 3.6b: A possible heat engine
W
net
= Q
H

Source T
H

Q
H

Figure 3.6a: An impossible heat engine
30

or
H
L Q
net
Q
COP
W
= (3.2)

1
1
H
L
L L
ref
Q
netinput H L
Q
Q Q
COP
W Q Q
= = =

(3.2a)

H H
1
1
L
H
HP
Q
netinput H L
Q
Q Q
COP
W Q Q
= = =

(3.2b)
As Q
H
> Q
L
, COP
HP
> 1, however, this may not be true for refrigerator.

1 1
L H H L H H H
ref HP
netinput H L H L
Q Q Q Q Q Q Q
COP COP
W Q Q Q Q
+ +
= = = + =

(3.3)
Heat pump and refrigerator differ in location of the sole effect. In refrigerator the sole
effect is the amount of heat extracted from the sink, known as refrigerating effect. But in
the case of heat pump the sole effect is the amount heat pumped to the source, known as
heat pumped. There is a popular unit for refrigeration is tonne of refrigeration (TR). It is
nothing but amount of heat is to be removed from 1 short metric ton (= 900kg) of water at
STP to ice at 0C in a day. At STP the latent heat of water is 80 kcal/kg, TR becomes

80(900)
3000 / or 50 / min
24
TR kcal hr kcal = = (3.4)
Normally air-conditioners specified as 1 tonner, i.e., 1.5 tonner, where the ton refers to
this ton of refrigeration, i.e., the cooling effect.
3.1.3 Observations
Both the statements put together and is known as second law of thermodynamics. There
are three observations one could make, which are delineated here below.

If one looks at the statements, he will understand both are negative statements and it is
quite difficult prove mathematically a negative statement. Secondly, this law like the first
law based on the experiment and logic, it does not have a mathematical proof. Every
W
net
= 0
Q
L

Source T
H

Sink T
L

Q
H
= Q
L

Figure 3.7a: An impossible heat pump
W
net
= Q
H
-Q
L

Q
L

Source T
H

Sink T
L

Q
H
= Q
L

Figure 3.7b: A possible heat pump

Module I & II
31
relevant experiment that has been conducted directly or indirectly verifies the second law,
and no experiment has ever been conducted that contradicts the second law.

As we have seen that efficiency of a heat engine can not be 100%. The very next question
occurs to us is what would be the highest value that efficiency can take. Answer to this
comes from the definition of a reversible cycle. If we recall the definition of a reversible
process that any factor which does not make the system and surroundings not to come
back to their respective initial states.
3.2 Factors Causing Irreversibility
The following are the factors render a process irreversible. The brief coverage about
those factors is attempted as follows.
3.2.1 Friction
Friction is a resistance offered naturally in the opposite direction of the particles motion,
irrespective of the direction of the movement of the particle. Hence, reversing a process
having taken place in one direction, the amount of energy spent in overcoming friction
will not be recovered; rather, once again the same amount of energy will have to be spent
to overcome the friction in the reversal of the process. Thus, the surroundings will not be
coming back to the original position, say, suppose if the process is an expansion during
which certain quantity of energy, w
fri
is spent to overcome the friction by the system
making the work transfer as w w
fri
and which is dissipated in surroundings. In the
reversal, the surroundings have to do afresh w
fri
and the work required for the reversal
becomes, w + w
fri
. Thus, friction is a major and inevitable factor in any common process
takes place practically. This factor makes a process ever never reversible. In fact, there
are some more factors which cause irreversibility. In short, for any reversible process to
take place the condition is none of the factors causing irreversibility including friction to
be present.
3.3 Carnot Cycle
In 1824, a French engineer, by name Nicholas Leonard Sadi Carnot had proposed a
reversible cycle taking care of those factors causing irreversibility. This had laid the
foundations for many useful developments in second law. A cycle is necessarily to have a
heat addition process. To avoid irreversibility, heat addition is considered to be
isothermal. This is valid for heat rejection also. In the case of expansion process, heat
transfer is arrested making the expansion reversible adiabatic, which is also valid for
compression process. Carnot cycle has given two important facts which had given
immediate consequence of absolute temperature scale. These facts are known as Carnot
theorems.
3.3.1 Carnot Theorems
Theorem-1: It is impossible to construct an engine that operates between two given
reservoirs and is more efficient than the Carnot cycle operating between the same two
reservoirs.
32
Let us recall the concept of reversible cycle. If there is no irreversibility present,
maximum work can be obtained from such heat engines. That is, such heat engines will
reject the least to the sink. Where as, the irreversible one (actual) will have to spend some
amount of work to overcome the friction which leads into reduction in the net work as
(w-w
fri
). This work of friction finally gets dissipated as heat and rejected to the sink
naturally. The amount of heat rejected to the sink would be Q
Lrev
+ w
fri
(= Q
Lfri
as work
can be converted completely into heat). This professes a fact that for a given amount heat
from a given source, the reversible heat engine will reject minimum to the sink.
Theorem-2: All engines that operate on the Carnot cycle between two given constant
temperature reservoirs have the same efficiency.

From the two Carnot theorems one thing is pretty clear that efficiency of Carnot cycle is
purely depending upon the temperatures of the TERs, not the working substance and type
of system comprising the cycle. Let us see the derivation of the Carnot heat engine using
the process equations, to substantiate the findings.
3.3.1 Efficiency of Carnot Cycle
The P-V diagram of the cycle is depicted in Fig. 3.9.

1
L
H
Q
Q
q =

4 1
2 3
1
Q
Q

=

This simplifies the efficiency relation as

1
2
1 1
L
H
T T
T T
q = = (3.5)
Eqn (3.5) is function of temperature of sink and source.
The facts of the two theorems are:
1. irreversible engines will have lesser efficiency
V
2
1
P
Figure 3.9: P-V plot of Carnot cycle
3
4
1-2: reversible adiabatic compression
2-3: reversible isothermal heat addition
3-4: reversible adiabatic expansion
4-1: reversible isothermal heat rejection

Module I & II
33
2. Carnot efficiency is independent of system but depends on the temperatures of
TERs with which the engine interact.

These facts were well understood and appreciated by Lord Kelvin, who was then
opposing mind blowing British Thermal Units (BTU). The normal thermometer, a
principle derived from zeroth law of thermodynamics is purely a function of the working
substance inside the thermometer. For a handy clinical or industrial thermometer, heavy
liquid, some times referred as liquid metal mercury (Hg) whose specific gravity, 13.6
(13.6 times heavier than water) is used. That is, if one uses water theoretically speaking,
would have got the level difference magnified to 13.6 times, for which we need a longer
(perhaps 13.6 longer if not less) thermometer. As Carnot theorem breaches that Carnot
efficiency can be coupled with temperatures of TERs, Lord Kelvin thought building
hypothetically series of Carnot engines working between many reservoirs. Whatever a
previous engine rejects to an intermediate reservoir, is taken by the next engine in series
and in turn it rejects heat to the next intermediate reservoir, and so on. In fact these
intermediate reservoirs temperatures can be considered to be the graduations of a
thermometer. This is how the idea of absolute temperature scale came to existence.
3.4 Absolute Temperature Scale
Consider a heat engine operates between two different TERs as shown in the Fig. 3.10.
The efficiency of the single engine (engine on RHS of Fig 3.10) is 1
L
H
Q
Q
q = and as per
Carnot theorem it is function of temperatures of the TERs, i.e., T
L
and T
H
. In other words
Q
L
/Q
H
= f (T
L
, T
H
) (3.6)
It can be viewed that this single engine rejecting Q
L
to sink at T
L
and receiving heat from
source at T
H
into two engines in series (as shown in LHS of Fig. 3.10). Applying
Equation (3.6) individually on each of the engines in series, we get
Q
L
/Q
LI
= f (T
L
, T
LI
) (3.7)
Q
LI
/Q
LH
= f (T
LI
, T
H
) (3.8)
But ,
( , ) ( , ) ( , )
I
I I
I
L
L L
L H L L L H
H L H
Q
Q Q
f T T f T T f T T
Q Q Q
= = = (3.9)
( , ) ( , ) ( , )
I I
L H L L L H
f T T f T T f T T = (3.10)
The above equation is valid only when

( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
I I
I I
L L
L L L L
H H L H L H
Q T
Q T Q T
Q T Q Q T T

= = = (3.11)

34

Lord Kelvin has proposed the function as

L L
H H
Q T
Q T
= (3.12)
But the realization Carnot engine is not possible as it involves two extreme processes in a
stroke of piston in case of closed system. Isothermal is a dead slow process to maintain
the equilibrium and adiabatic is deadly fast process wherein we should not provide any
opportunity for the heat transfer. It means that the process should take theoretically 0
time unit. Practically having two extreme processes make otherwise also the reliability of
the engine as low as 0. But Lord Kelvin in his experimental set took care that by fixing
saturated steam at atmospheric pressure as source and ice at 0C as sink. For the sake of
hypothetical TER a large quantity of steam spread over in a longer pipe by fixing fixed
quantity of water approaching to 100C, which takes in comparatively a smaller quantity
of heat per unit length of pipe and still the temperature is maintained as 100C. similar
care had been taken at the sink side. In case of work transfer, he just introduced
irreversibility purposely so that the portion of heat added to the water to saturated steam
is rejected (as good as that portion of work could have been produced had he used an
expander). Then the system was taken through the sink similar to source side during
which the system is cooled to water. He did not introduce pump as he was not interested
to repeat the cycle and every cycle produce certain quantity of work. He could measure
the heat added and heat rejected from respective source and sink sides. The ratio obtained
was
Q
L
/Q
H
= T
L
/T
H
= 0.732 (3.13)
He was for simple system for units of measurement. He took conveniently the difference
between T
H
and T
L
as 100. i.e.,
Source T
H

Sink T
L

Q
L1

Q
H

W

= Q
HE

Q
L

T
LI

Q
L1

Q
L

Q
H

Figure 3.10: Engines in series and comparison

Module I & II
35
T
H
- T
L
= 100 (3.14)
Solving Equations (3.13) and (3.14), we get T
H
and T
L
as 373.13 (=100C + 273.13) and
273.13 (= 0C 273.13) respectively for 100C and 0C temperatures of source and sink in
centigrade scale. That is, we can setup a relation between absolute scale and centigrade
scale as
T

= C + 273.13 (3.15)
Thus the absolute temperature scale involves a mathematical thermometer (not a physical
thermometer). One can as usual measure the temperature using centigrade scale with the
existing thermometer and adding approximately 273 to that measurement will give us the
thermometer in absolute scale.

36

Chapter - 4
Cycles
________________________________________________________________________
4.1 Introduction
As per the definition of thermodynamics and the primary objective in thermal
engineering, energy conversion devices are the ones which can accomplish the task of
work generation. Modeling such devices is important. For light to medium power
generating units are known as engines while major power production units are known as
power plants. Based on this, the models also can be classified into:
i) Air-standard cycle
ii) Vapour power cycles
In the curriculum, only air standard cycles which are used for light to medium power
production. The major applications of these cycles are:
- Automobile Engineering
- locomotives
- earth-moving machineries
- generator sets
- marine engineering
The air standard cycles used for these applications are Otto and Diesel cycles. The air
standard cycles are models with the following assumptions.
- air as system obeys ideal gas equation
- heat transfers are reversible using external hypothetical reservoir
- c
p
, c
v
are temperature independent
- all processes are irreversible
4.2 Otto Cycle
Compression and expansion are reversible adiabatic, heat addition and rejections are
constant volume. The system is closed comprising of air following ideal gas equation.

2-3: reversible constant volume heat
addition
4-1: reversible constant volume heat
rejection

V
1
P
Figure 4.1: P-V plot of Otto cycle
4
2
Q
H
Q
L
3
Module I & II
37

Efficiency, = 1-(Q
L
/Q
H
)

2 3
4 1 4 1
3 2
1 1
Q T T
Q T T

= =

The above equation can be finally simplified to
1
1
1
r
q

= , where r is compression
ratio which is ratio of volume at the beginning of compression to volume at the end of
compression
4.2 Diesel Cycle
Compression and expansion are reversible adiabatic, heat addition and rejections are
constant volume. The system is closed comprising of air following ideal gas equation.

Efficiency, = 1-(Q
L
/Q
H
)

3 2
4 1
4 1 4 1
2 3 3 2 ( )
( )
( )
1 1 1
( )
p
v T T
c T T
Q T T
Q c T T

= = =

The above equation can be finally simplified to
1
1 1
1
( 1)
c
c
r
r
r
| |
| |
= |
|
|
\ .
\ .
, where r is
compression ratio which is ratio of volume at the beginning of compression to volume at
the end of compression and r
c
is cut off ratio which is the ratio of volume after heat
addition to before heat addition

P
2-3: reversible isobaric heat addition
4-1: reversible isochoric volume heat rejection

V
1
Figure 4.2: P-V plot of Diesel cycle
4
2
Q
H
Q
L
3
38
Chapter-5
Solution Procedure and Problem Solving Methodology
______________________________________________________

5.1 Solution Procedure for First law Problems
The numerical problems under First law, normally classified in this module into Single
process and multiple processes involving closed system.
- Draw the P-V plot. Care is warranted while plotting isothermal process and
reversible adiabatic process. not to forget to use the slope of the curve
- Enumerate the data given.
- From the list of to-find head, pickup the process.
- Apply formula referring to Table A or List containing formulae common to all
processes Table A.
- Check if the unknowns required to be computed available in the process under
study.
- If no, move back and forth along neighboring processes conveniently and
effectively to find the unknown required for the computation.
- For multiple process add the findings to get the required total
5.2 Solution Procedure for Cycles
Here the numericals will be either under Otto or Diesel cycles. The following are the
standard formulae used in cycles.
-
1
1 1
1
( 1)
c
c
r
r
r
| |
| |
= |
|
|
\ .
\ .
for Diesel cycle

1
1
1
r
q

| |
=
|
\ .
for Otto cycle
- 1
rejected
added
Q
Q
q =
-
expansion compression
net
added added
W W
W
Q Q
q

= =
- Follow also the procedure enlisted in solution procedure for First law as it is
after all first law applied to multiple process involving closed system
Module I & II
39
5.3 Exercise
1) Air is initially at 1.05 bar has a specific volume of 0.1 m
3
/kg. It is first compressed reversibly
according to the law pv
1.3
= constant to a pressure of 4.2 bar, and then allowed to expand
reversibly according to the law pv = constant. It finally follows a constant volume
process to come back to the initial conditions.
i) Show the processes on a p-v plane
ii) Find the heat transfer and work transfer in each process
iii) Find the changes in internal energy and enthalpy in each process
iv) Analyze the nature and performance of the complete cycle

2) For an engine working on Diesel cycle, the compression ratio is 10 and the maximum
pressure is limited to 70 bar. If the heat supplied is 1680 kJ/kg find the pressures and
temperatures at the various salient points of the cycle and the cycle efficiency. The
pressure and temperature of air at the commencement of compression are 1 bar and
100 C respectively.
Had it been Otto cycle with the same compression ratio and heat addition as given in
the data, what would have been its cycle efficiency?

3) Air is initially at 1.05 bar has a specific volume of 0.1 m
3
/kg . It is first compressed
reversibly according to the law pv
1.4
= constant to a pressure of 4.2 bar, and then allowed
to expand reversibly according to the law pv = constant. It finally follows a constant
volume process to come back to the initial conditions.
i) Show the processes on a p-v plane
ii) Find the heat transfer and work transfer in each process
iii) Find the changes in internal energy and enthalpy in each process
iv) Analyze the nature and performance of the complete cycle

4) Air occupies 0.024 m
3
at 700 kPa and 95C. It expands in the non-flow process
according to the law pV
1.4
= constant to a pressure of 70 kPa after which it is heated at
constant pressure to its original temperature. Sketch the process on p-V diagram, and for
each process calculate work done and heat transfer.

5) An ideal Diesel cycle with air as the working fluid has a compression ratio 18 and a
cutoff ratio of 2. At the beginning of the compression process, the working fluid is at
NTP and 2000 cc, representing the cycle in P-V plane determine the following:
i) all the cardinal points
ii) heat added, work output and efficiency
iii) Carnot efficiency
If the same heat is added with a cutoff ratio of 1, what will happen to the cycle and parts
i), ii) and iii)?.

6) An engine working on Diesel cycle has pressure ratio of 1.4. The engine dimensions are: bore
is 200 mm and stroke is 420 mm. If the compression ratio is 14 and cut-off ratio is 1.5 Assuming
start of compression is at NTP, find the following representing the cycle in P-V and T-S planes:
i) Cardinal points
ii) Maximum and minimum temperatures of the cycle
40
iii) Air standard efficiency
iv) Maximum efficiency that can be achieved theoretically

7) Two engines are to operate on Otto and Diesel cycles with the following data:
Maximum temperature: 1400K
Exhaust temperature: 700K
Initial condition: NTP
Cut-off ratio if applicable: 1.4
Estimate compression ratios, the maximum pressures, efficiencies and work outputs for each
engine.

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