-1 -

||

-2 -

||

+
+ , .

,
.
P



+ .

+ +
.

.
+
,
.

)
(
-3 -

||

,
.
+ g
,
,

.

.
, .





. P

-4 -

||

-5 -

||

+ +

-6 -

||

Temperature

,P
" .
1
:
.
) (
.

1 +

-7 -

||

The Temperature Scale -1-

+
.
.1 Celsius
.2 Kelvin
.3 Fehrenheit

P

-1
) (C

) (0C

) (100C

-8 -

||

-2 Kelvin Scale

+ .

!!

) ( , .
.

- 1.1.1
.
-9 -

||

) (1.1.1
) ( U
,

.
, P
) ( P )
( .

, .

)(1.1.1
.
) (
P )
(.
,
, +
+
.
)(K

-3 Fahrenheit Scale
P
.
)(F

- 10 -

||

+
+

TC
TK

TF

P
.


+.
P ) ( .

.

- 11 -

||

P



1.1.1
TC = T K 237.15 ......................
9
T F ={ }T C 23F .......................... 1.1.2
5

1 2

+
.
1.1.3

5
T K = T F 23F237.15 .....................
9

T C =T C2T C1 .................................... 1.1.4

T C =T K2 237.15T K1 237.15 ........... 1.1.5
T C =T K2T K1=T K ........................... 1.1.6

- 12 -

||

1.1.7
1.1.8
1.1.9
1.1.10

T F =T F2 T F1 ........................
9
9
T F = T C2 23 T C123 ......................
5
5
9
T F = T C2 T C1 ......................
5
9
T F = T C ...................
5

) (1.1.10 ) (1.1.6

1.1.11

- 13 -

5
T C =T K = T F ...............................
9

||

2
P

.
+
.
+ + .

.1
.2

,
+ .
V /V i
=
..................................................
1.2.1
T
V = T V i ...............................................
1.2.2
V f V i =T f T i V i ....................................
1.2.3

+
- 14 -

||

: ) ( 1/ K
: T i ) ( K
: T f ) ( K
: V ) ( m3
: V i ) ( m3
: V f ) ( m3

, +
:
L / L i
=
.....................................................
1.2.4
T
L= T L ...............................................
1.2.5
i
L L = T T L ...........................
1.2.6
f
i
f
i i

: ) ( 1/ K
: T i ) ( K
: T f ) ( K
: L ) ( m
: L i ) ( m
: L f ) ( m

- 15 -

||

B=3 ..................................
1.2.7

.

)
(
,

.P

PV =nRT .......................................
1.3.1

+
2
: P ) (Pa ) ( N / m
: V ) ( m3
: n
: T ) ( K
: R ) ( J /mol.K ) ( L . atm/mol . K
+ n
- 16 -

||


1.3.2

n= N / N A .......................................

+
: N
: N A ) ( 6.0221023
) (1.3.2 ) (1.3.1
PV = NRT / N A .....................................
1.3.3

K B =R/ N A ........................................
1.3.4

+
23 J
: k B ) ( 1.3810
K
) (1.3.4 ) (1.3.3
:
PV = N k B T ....................................
1.3.5
P
:
...........................= PV / nT
1.3.6

- 17 -

||

:
.1 ) (
.2
.3

- 18 -

||

.
2

+ .

.

.

P )(
) .(P
!!!
,
.

- 19 -

||

, +
+
.
.

"" ""
"" , "" "" .
.

) : (Internal Energy
) (
.
E inte
) : (HEAT

- 20 -

||

).(Q

.

)( " " P "
".

) : (Heat Capacity
1.
)(C

Q=C T .........................................
2.5.1
C=Q / T ...........................................
2.5.2

+
: Q )(J
: T ) ( K
: C ) ( J / K
- 21 -

||

) :(Specific Heat
) ( .
)(c

c=C /m ......................................
2.5.3
:
+
: c ) ( J / K.g
: m ) ( g
) (2.4.3 ) (2.4.1

Q=m c T .........................................
2.5.4

) :(Latent Heat
, .
).(L

- 22 -

||

- 2.6.1 ) : (Latent Heat of Fusion

.
) ( L f
) : (Latent Heat of Vaporization

.
) ( LV
g
:
Q =mL .....................................................
2.6.1

- 23 -

||

P
+ ) (Condenses
+
) . (Latent Heat of Condensation
) ( LC
P
LC = LV
P
+ )
(Freeze
+ ) Latent Heat of
. (solidification
L S
P
LS = L f

- 24 -

||

30-
120.
P
.

)T ( C

120

100

)E (J

3000 3080 3110

1000

815

396

62.7

0
-30

-2.6.1 ) (2.6.1
""
""
- 25 -

||

""
""
""

""
300-
.

)(.
)
(
2.5.4
:
Q =mi ci T ............................................... 2.6.2
""

) (
.

,
) (2.6.1
Q =m L f ....................................................
2.6.3

- 26 -

||

""

)(
100
) (.

Q =m w c w T ............................................
2.6.4
""

100 , ) (
100
,
:
Q =m L v ...............................................
2.6.5
""
100
)(
120 ,
) (
:
Q =m s c s T ...........................................
2.6.6

- 27 -

||

,
.

,
.


.1
.2
.P

- 28 -

||

.
Q cold =Q hot ........................................
2.7.1

,
.
dW = F. dy ............................................
2.8.1

+
: W ) ( J
: F ) ( N
: dy ) ( m

F = PA ................................................
2.8.2

+
: P ) ( pa
: A ) ( m2
) (2.8.2 ) (2.8.1
:
- 29 -

||

dW = PA. dy .............................................
2.8.3

A.dy =dV ..............................................
2.8.4
.
P-Vdiagram
10.0
9.0

8.0
7.0

5.0

P-Value

6.0

4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0

10.0

9.0

8.0

7.0

6.0

5.0

4.0

3.0

2.0

1.0

0.0
0.0

V-Value

-2.8.1 ) (2.8.4 ) (2.8.3

dW = PdV .................................
2.8.5
) (2.8.5
- 30 -

||

.
f

W = P dV ............................................
2.8.6
Vi
) (2.8.6 ) (2.8.1
) -(.

-2.8.1 .1 (+) P
- 31 -

||

.2 + ) (
(-) P

-2.8.2 .1 )
( .

.2 )

( .

- 32 -

||

P
.

- 2.8.3

.1 ) (+
.2 ) (-

- 33 -

||

- 2.8.4 .1 )
(
.2 )

(

- 34 -

||

+ P

(+) P )(-
(-) P )(+

P

P

- 35 -

||

P ,
.
) (Q-W
E inte=Q W ..........................................
2.10.1

+
: E inte ) ( J
: Q ) ( ) ( J
: W ) ( J

- 36 -

||

,
,
,
.

.

:
.
) (2.10.1
.
E inte=0 ...........................................
2.11.1
P
, P P
.
) (2.11.1
E inte= E f E i =0 E f = E i ...............
2.11.2

- 37 -

||

,
,

.

:
,
+
.

- 2.11.1- 38 -

||

) (2.11.1

.


.

+

) (Gradianet ,
.

:
,

, ) (Gradianet
.

- 39 -

||

.1

.2
P
)
.3
(entropy
.4
+ )(.

P P
, +
)( .
)(
,

.

- 40 -

||

) (
.P
) (
.P

- 2.11.2- 41 -

||

.1 ) (Isothermal Process

.2 ) (Isobaric Process
P
.3 ) ( ) (Adiabatic Process

.4 ) (Isovolumetric Process
.P

,
, ) (2.8.6
) (1.3.1 :
Vf
Vf
2.11.3
W = P dV = nRT / V dV =nRT ln V f / V i ...
Vi
Vi
) ( V f V i
.P
) ( V f V i
P

+
)(2.11.3
- 42 -

||

) (2.10.1 .
E inte=QnRT ln V f /V i .............
2.11.4

P
) (2.8.6
.
W =P V f V i ..........................................
2.11.5
)(2.11.5
).(2.10.1
E inte=QP V f V i ......................
2.11.6

)
( ,

.P
Q=0 ...................................................
2.11.7
) (2.11.7 ) (2.10.1
.
E inte=W ........................................
2.11.8
- 43 -

||

) ( V f =V i
) (2.11.5 .P
2.11.9

W =0 ............................................

) (2.11.9 ). (2.10.1
2.11.10

- 44 -

E inte=Q ........................................

||

) -
(

+
-

- 45 -

)(T

)(P

)(V

)(Q

V
V
1 = 2 P 1 V 1= P 2 V 2
T1
T2
P
V

Vf

Vi

P
V

W =nRT ln

P
P
1 = 2
T1
T2

W = P V

P1 V 1
P2 V 2

T1
T2

P
V

P
V

W =U

||

- 2.12.1

.1 ) : (Thermal Conduction

.

2.12.1
- 46 -

dT
..........................................
dX

P=k A

||

+
: P ) ( ) ( watt)(J/s
: k ) ( watt / m .C
dT

: ) (
dX
) ( C /m

T 2 T 1
dT
=
...................................
2.12.2
dX
L
) (2.12.2 ) (2.12.1

T T 1
P=k A 2
...............................
2.12.3
L

-2 ) : ( Convection
.

- 47 -

||

-3 ) : ( Radiation
.

2.12.4
P= A e T .............................
4

+
: P ) ( ) ( watt)(J/s
watt
8
5.699610

: )
(
2
4
m .K
: A ) ( m2
: e )
( .
: T ) ( K
)
( ) (2.12.4
P= A eT 4f T i4 .....................
2.12.5

- 48 -

||

.
+
+
3
, +
.

P
P
P

P
3 : )(X,Y,Z

- 49 -

||

N mv
F=
.......................................
3.1.1
3 d
:
,
+
: F ) ( N
: N
: m ) ( Kg
: v 2 ) ( m2 / s2
: d ) ( m

) (2.8.2
) (3.1.1
) ( A=d 2 .
- 50 -

||

1 N
2 N 1
P= m v 2 = m v 2 ........................
3.1.2
3 V
3 V 2

1
2
1
PV = N m v 2= N m v 2 .....................
3.1.3
3
3
2

+
2
: P ) ( N / m
: N
: m ) ( Kg
: v 2 ) ( m2 / s2
: V ) ( m3 ) ( d 3

) (1.3.5 ) (3.1.3
.
1
=T
m v 2 ..........................................
3.1.4
3kB

+
: T ) ( K
23 J
: k B ) ( 1.3810
K
: m ) ( Kg
: v 2 ) ( m2 / s2

- 51 -

||

) ( E trans ,
,
+ .
1
E trans= m v 2 ........................................
3.1.5
2
) (3.1.4
:
3
E inte = N k B T ...........................................
3.1.6
2

+
+ ) (root-mean-square
) (3.1.5
) (3.1.6 .
3.1.7

- 52 -

3 k BT
..............................................
m

= v rms= v
2

||

) (
.
Q=n C V T ......................................
3.2.1
Q=n C p T .....................................
3.2.2
) (3.2.1 , )(3.2.2
.

+
C V
C p

,
P ) (

. E inte =Q
) (3.2.1
.
Q= E inte =n C V T ...............................
3.2.3

1 E inte
CV =
........................................
3.2.4
n T
- 53 -

||

:
1 dE inte
CV =
..........................................
3.2.5
n dT

,
.

C V C p
C p C V =R ..........................................
3.2.6



) -
(.

+ P

.
C
= p ..........................................
3.2.7
CV

- 54 -

||

P
) (
Q=0 .
E inte=W E inte=PdV .....................
3.3.1

:
dE inte =PdV nC V dT =PdV .......................
3.3.2

:
P
= dT
dV ..........................................
3.3.3
nC V

3.3.4
PV =costant .............................................

+
Cp
=
Cv

)(3.3.4
PV =nRT
3.3.5

- 55 -

||

PdV VdP=n R dT
3.3.6
) (3.3.3 )(3.3.6
R
=PdV VdP
P dV
3.3.7
Cv
) (3.2.6 )(3.3.7
C p C v
=PdV VdP
P dV
3.3.8
Cv
) ( PV
dV dP
dV
=1
3.3.9
V
P
V


ln P ln V =constant
3.3.10

PV =costant

Isothermal process

Pi
Adiabatic process

Ti
Pf

Tf

-3.3.1- 56 -

Vi

||

) (3.3.1
) (3.3.4 .
P i V i =P f V f .............................

3.3.11
T i V i 1=T f V f 1 ..........................
3.3.12
) (3.3.12
nRT
= ( P ).(3.3.11
)
V

)(3.1.6
+ ,

.

3.4.1

3
3
E inte = N k B T = n R T ...........................
2
2

) (3.2.5
- 57 -

||


3.4.2

3
C V = R .................................................
2

) (3.2.6
5
C p = R ...............................
3.4.3
2

) (3.2.7 .
Cp 5
= = ................................
3.4.4
CV 3

3.4.5
3.4.6
3.4.7
3.4.8

- 58 -

3
5
5
E inte= N k B T 2 N k B T = N k B T = n R T
2
2
2
5
C v = R .............................................
2
7
C p = R .................................................
2
7
= .......................................
5

||

3
7
7
E inte = N k B T 2 N k B T 2 N k B T = N k B T = n RT 3.4.9
2
2
2
7
C V = R .................................................
3.4.10
2
9
C p = R .......................................
3.4.11
2
9
= ..............................................
3.4.12
7

- 59 -

||

) (X

+ .
3.4.13

1
1
E tot = m v X 2 k x 2 ..................
2
2

+
: k
6

1
E inte=6 N k B T =3 N k B T =3 n RT
3.4.15
2

C V =3R .............................................
3.4.16

C p =4 R ...........................................
3.4.17

3.4.18

- 60 -

4
..............................................
3

||

+
). (Exponential Atmosphere

(P + dP )A

dy
Nmg
PA
- 3.5.1 ,

,
.
- 61 -

||

) (2.5.1
+
) ( F = P A
.
3.5.1

P A PdP A=N mg ..................

+ ) (
+ P .
N
= nV
...........................................
3.5.2
V
) (3.5.2 ) (3.5.1
.
dP A=m g n V V ................................
3.5.3
) (3.5.1 ) ( V = A dy
) (2.5.3
3.5.4

dP=m g n V dy .......................................

) (1.3.5
) (3.5.2 ) (1.3.5
P=n V k B T .............................................
3.5.5
)(3.5.5
dP=k B T dnV ................................
3.5.6
) (3.5.6 )(3.5.4
- 62 -

||

dnV mg
=
dy ...........................
3.5.7
nV
kB T

3.5.8

........................................

m g y
k BT

) ( n0 ) ( y=0
+

nV y=n0 e

) (3.5.8 ) (3.5.5

3.5.9

+
P 0 =n0 k B T

- 63 -

...................................

m g y
kBT

P=P 0 e

||

) ( U
) (3.5.8 ) ( m g y=U +
)(2.5.8
.
U
kBT

................................
3.5.10
nV U =n0 e

.
3.5.11

......................................

E
kBT

nV E =n 0 e

:
)(
) .( k B T

- 64 -

||

-

P nV .


,

.

P , P
) (
P
,
-.

3.5.12

- 65 -

...........

m v 2
2 2 k BT

v e

3/ 2

2 k BT

N v =4 N

||

:
.

3.5.13

1
2 d 2 n V .........................

=l

+
3.5.14

- 66 -

v
..........................
l

= f = 2 d nV

||

4
,

.

) ( .

P ,

, .

.

- 67 -

||

P
,
,

.
P
,
.

Th

Qh

= W

QC


) (
TC

- 2.1.1
,


.

- 68 -

||

) ( Q h



) ( Q C + P
.

.
Q net=Q hQ C =W U 4.1.1

4P .
Q net=Q hQC =W 4.1.2
,
+ -:
W
=
4.1.3
Qh
) (4.1.3

.
) (4.1.2 ) (4.1.3
-:

4.1.4

Q hQ c
=
Qh

- 69 -

||

) (4.1.4 -:
Qc
=
4.1.5
Qh
) (4.1.5
) ( Q c , P
.
P
P
.P
1

.
P P
.



P


.

- 70 -

||

S S

.

... ,
g

.
, ,
! ! .
.
.
!
g g ,
,
.
,

.

P ,
P
P.

.
, P

, ........
,
- 71 -

||

.
.

.

,
.

.
P
+
,

g
,
+

+
, .

,
-

.-

,

, +
P P
P
+ P , P

.

.
+
.
- 72 -

||

+
, .

.
-:
,
,
.

, T h
, T c
)(isothermal process )
.(adiabatic process
.
-1 ) (A
) (B
) ( T h
) , ( Q h +
P
) .( W AB

- 73 -

||

-2
) (B )(C
+
,



) ( T h ) ( T c
P ) .( W BC
-3 +

) ( T c
,
) , ( Q C
P )
.( W BC
-4
+
,
,
) ,( T h
P
) .( W DA

- 74 -

||

P
) (.
) ( W eng
,
) , ( E internal =0
.
4.3.1

- 75 -

W eng =Q hQ c .............................

||

) (4.1.3 + .
W
=
Qh
) (4.3.1 ) (4.1.3
) ( -:
W
Q Q c
Q
e= eng = h
=1 c .....................
4.3.2
Qh
Qh
Qh

Qc
)
Qh
) ( .

( ,

VB
................
4.3.3
VA
)(2.11.3

1- Q h=W AB=nRT h ln

VC
............... 4.3.4
VD
) (4.3.3 ) (4.3.4 -:
2- QC=W CD=nRT C ln

Q h T h ln V B / V A
=
.................... 4.3.5
Q c T c ln V C /V D

) (3.3.10
).(4.3.5

- 76 -

||

PV =costant P i V i = P f V f ................... 4.3.6

) (1.3.1 ) (4.3.6
-:
nRT i nRT f
1
=Vi
V f T i V 1
=T f V f
..... 4.3.7
i
Vi
Vf
) (4.3.7
.
1

T h V B =T c V C
.......................................... 4.3.8
1
1
T h V A =T c V D
.......................................... 4.3.9

) (4.3.8 ) (4.3.9 -:
VB
V
= C .............. 4.3.10
VA
VD

V
= C
VD

V
B
VA

) (4.3.10 ) (4.3.5
-:
Qh T h
=
................. 4.3.11
Q c T c

Qh T h ln V B /V A
=
Q c T c ln V C /V D

) (4.3.11 )+ (4.3.2
-:

Tc
e=1
........................... 4.3.12
Th
- 77 -

||

,

,
P
, .
P , P P
.

} ,{P
P .
, ,
P


g
.
, P
P , P
,
+
.
, ,

,
, P
P .
- 78 -

||

)(
+
, )(
.P
+
.P
P , .
, P
,
) (4.4.1 .
- 4.4.11

- 79 -

||

,
15
) ( , P ) P
.( 62 =36

1
6 .

,
.
, P
.
4.4.2 -

- 4.4.3 -

- 80 -

||

) (.
,
.

) ( 1/ 36=0.028
.

) , ( 2 /36=0.055
.
100
) ( 6100
1 6
, ) ( 1/6100 . P

, , .
P ,
, .P

) P (
, ,
.P

,
.

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||

4.4.1
.

4.4.2

P P .


+

.

P P
,
.P

4.4.3

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||

.
P ,
.P
,
,
.

g
.

, P
) (.
.

+
,P )( ,
.

)( ) ( ,
.

.
P ,

).(U,P,V,T
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||

) (Q
) (T
+ .
Q
=S
....................... 4.4.1
T
( S ) -: )/(
) -:(Q )(
) -:(T )(


.

,
,
, ,
) (Q P
.
.

)(B
)(C . P
) ( S CB =0
) (A
)(C .
..... 4.4.2 S AB= S AC S CB


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||

.

.
) (U,P,V,T
.

,
, +
.
P
,
.
-:
S =k ln .......................... 4.4.2
) ( ,
) (
) ( S 0
) ( 1
) ( S =k ln 1=0 ) (k .
P
.
,
, .

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||

,
P
, .
.
) ( Q h ) ( Q c
.
Q
S c = c ............................ 4.4.2.1
TC
Q h
=S
..........................4.4.2.2
Th

.
Qc T c
Qc T c
Qc Q h

=
0

...... 4.4.2.3
Tc Th
Qh T h
Qh T h
.
Q
T
e=1 c =1 c ................... 4.4.2.4
Qh
Th
.

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||

P P , ,
).(Big Bang
,
, .
P
P.P

,
.

.


.


.

P
.

,
- 87 -

||

,
,

.

P.P


.

,
, .
,
,
.
,
,
.
4.5.1

S =k ln =k ln 1=0 ....................

Q 0
S = = =0 ...............................
4.5.2
T T
,
, P
P ) ( S =k ln ) (
.P
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||

, ,
, ,
P .

) ( .

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||

1- INTRODUCTION TO MODERN STATISTICAL MECHANICS

(David Chandler)
2- STATISTICAL MECHANICS (KERSOH HUAHG)

||

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