Histology by Andrea Di Flavio

55 -Fibers of connective tissue

Fibers of the connectivle tissue, that are in the ECM strengthen and support the tissues. And there are three types: 1- Collagen fibers: are resistant, robust and flexible. hey co!e as parallel bea!s" such disposition garantees great resistence" the collagen protein abounds. #- Elastic fibers: are branched and co!bine to for! a net$or% inside the tissue. he elastic fiber is for!ed by an elastine protein and by a glycoprotein: fibrillin. he elastic fibers are resistant: after they stretch they al$ays go bac% to their usual length. &ou can especially find the! in the der!is, blood vessels $alls and lungs. '- Reticular fibers: they are for!ed by an associated glycoprotein, they for! the stro!a $ich is a support net$or% of !any soft organs li%e the spleen, the liver and li!phonodes" they for! a branched net$or% and intersect along the adipose cells, nervous fibers and cells of the scheleton( bone cells)*.

56 -Biosynthesis of the collagen and elastic fibers

Collagen is a structural protein that principally for!s fibrous ele!ents of the s%in, tendons, cartilages, bones, teeth and blood vessels. &ou can find a lot of it in connective tissue. Collagen is responsible of the !ecchanical protection of the organis!, of the !aintence of elasticity and %eeps the tissue tone. he structural unit of collagen is tropocollagen, $hich is for!ed by three polipeptide chains that intersicate bet$een eachother and are resistent to stretchings. he biosynthesis of collagen happens in the fibroblasts( cells of the connective tissue*. hen the triple heli! of tropocollagen" #ono#ers$ is co#plete% it&s e!pelled in the e!tracellular space and they asse#ble together for#ing big fibers of collagen' he elastic fibers are for!ed by a fibrous protein: elastine, $hich is responsabile of the elastic caratteristics of organs ----------and tissue that for! connective tissue. Elastine is synthesi+ed in fibroblasts li%e !ono!ers: tropoelastine, $hich you have in elastic fibers that stretch and return to the initial for! $hen the driving force stops. he sa!e thing happens $ith collagen but instead of having tropocollagen $e have tropoelastine

5(- e#bryonic connective tissue "ho) it develops$

Connective tissues pri!arly co!e fro! the !iddle layer of e!bryonic paper: !esoder! and partially ectoder! and endoder!. E!bryonic connective tissue is also called #esenchy#a, $hich is is an extre!ely loose tissue and presents spindle-shaped !esenchy!al cells that are in a very fluid substance. Mesenchy!al cells are sta!inal cells because all cells of the connective tissue originate fro! this cell.

5*- +oose connective tissue

he loose connective tissues co!es fro! the !esenchy!a $hich is the e!bryonic connective tissue. he difference bet$een dense and loose c.t. is that loose c.t. is less co!pact than the dense c.t. and there are less fibers than the dense tissue. he cells of loose connective tissue are fibroblast, !acrophages and plas!a cells. he loose c.t. doesn,t have high elasticity capacity and the function of this tissue is to occupy the free space bet$een t$o organs. here are three types of loose connective tissues: areolar, adipose and reticular. -oose connective tissue is pri!arily located beneath epithelial !e!branes and glandular epitheliu!, binding these epithelia to other tissues, contributing to the for!ation of organs. he fibers that co!pose the loose tissue are three collagen, elastic and reticular. .n the loose tissue there are adipocytes in $hich there are the lipids. here are also so!e leu%ocytes. he areolar loose connective tissue is one of the !ost diffused connective tissue" it contains nu!erous types of cell li%e fibroblast, !acrophages, plas!acells and adipocytes and so!e leu%ocytes. he three typesof fibers(* are displayed rando!ly in the tissue. .t for!s $ith the adipose tissue a subcutaneous layer(protective panniculus* that surrounds blood vessels, nerves and organs.

5,- Co#pact fibrous% elastic and fibrola#ellar connective tissue' -ig#ent tissue
here are four types of dense connective tissue: 1Co#pact fibrous connective tissue"regular dense connective tissue$ : fiber bea!s are regularly displayed in parallel structure and continues $ay to !a%e the tissue very resistant. he tissue is resistant and flexible (tendons and liga!ents*"

#- Elastic connective tissue: branched elastic fibers predo!inate and fibroblasts are in the spaces. .t,s a tissue that tolerates repeated cycles of traction and release high capacity of elasticity ( lungs, artery, vocal cords* 'Fibrola#ellar connective tissue "irregular dense connective tissue$ : collagen fibers of this tissue for! an indefinite net$or% so it presents itself in la!inas ($e find this tissue in der!is, heart valves, perichondriu!- !e!brane that is around the cartilage* and periostiu!( !e!brane that,s around the bone*.

/- -ig#ent connective tissue: is for!ed by cells called !elanocytes that accu!ulate in the epider!is and in the iris. his cell has a rich cytoplas! of !elanin granules.

6.- Adipose Connective /issue'

hite Adipose /issue

he $hite adipose tissue ( $hich is yello$ in hu!ans because it,s rich of carotenoids assu!ed in food* is called $hite fat and for!s !ost of the fat in !an and for!s energy reserve. he $hite adipose tissue is for!ed by cells called adipocytes of one vacuolar, $hich are speciali+ed cells in the accu!ulation of triglycerids. .t,s functions are to slo$ do$n the lost of heat through the s%in (ther!al isolation*, protection and support.

60-Adipose Connective /issue' Bro)n Adipose

he bro$n adipose tissue is also called bro$n fat. .n !en you can especially found it in the fetuses. he reason $hy the color is bro$n is due to its rich capillary vascular net$or% that goes through it and to its nu!erous !ithocondria that contain colored cytochro!es. he bro$n adipose tissue is for!ed by adipocytes !ulti vacuolar that present accu!ulations of lipids under the for! of !ultiple s!all little drops in the cytoplas!. his %ind of fat is a energy bo!b as the lipases divide the triglycerids in the glycerol and the fatty acids release energy( highly ther!o energetic*

61- Reticular connective tissue' 2ononuclear-phagocyte syste#" reticolo endoteliale$

he loose reticular connective tissue is for!ed by reticulated fibers and cells finely intersected. .t for!s the stro!a( a support net$or%* of !any organs, it %eeps together the s!ooth !uscular cells, it %eeps and ta%es a$ay old hepatic cells in the spleen. .n the infla!!atory processes the reticular, the !acrophages turn on their phagocitation activity high phagocitation activity that for! the !ononuclear-phagocyte syste!, a very i!portant syste! in the defense processes of the organis!.

-63 -Hyaline Cartilage

Cartilage is a speciali+ed connective tissue for!ed by a !atrix of co!pact gel, cells called condrocytes and fibers of different nature. he cartilage is free of blood vessels and nerves, so this !eans it heals $ith fatigue after an in0ury. he hyaline cartilage has a funda!ental substance: a co!pact gel and nu!erous condrocytes. .t,s the !ost diffused and it gives flexibility and support to the 0oints, reducing

the friction and absorbing shoc%s. 1e can find it in the extre!ities of long bones, ribs, trachea, bronchi, nose, scheleton of the enbiobe and fetus.

64-Elastic cartilage and Fibrous Cartilage

.n the elastic cartilage condrocytes are bet$een the nu!erous elastic fibers" it gives resistence and elasticity because it supports sprains $ithout da!age and it !a%es go bac% to its original for!. .t,s situated in the epiglottis, auditory tubes. .n the fibrous cartilage the condrocytes are spread bet$een bands of collagen fibers" it,s free of perichondriu! and it,s the !ost resistant of all. .t,s situates in the intervertebral discs and !enisci of the %nee 0oint.

65- Bone /issue Cells

he bone tissue is a %ind of connective tissue characteri+ed by high resistance and hardness. he !atrix of this type of tissue is rich in phosphate and calciu! carbonate that consent high hardness to the !atrix and the tissues. he function of bone tissue is to substain the !uscle, protect and it,s also a reserve of salts and calciu!. he cells of the bone tissue: 5steoblast: is the cell that has the function to produce ECM i!portant to the gro$th phase of the bone . 1hen the gro$th process is over the osteoblast go into the bone cavity called lacuna and beco!es osteocyte. 5steocyte: rappresents the 2uit phase of osteoblast, for the reason this reason the osteocyte doesn,t produce !atrix. 5steoclast: its role is to destroy the extracellular !atrix that is i!portant to the gro$th of the bone.

66- Bone /issue E!tracellular 2atri!

he !atrix of the bone tissue is rich in phosphate and calciu! carbonate. .nside the !atrix there are three types of cell( osteobalst3cyte3clast*. he difference bet$een this !atrix and the other !atrix of the cell is that the bone !atrix allo$s the bone to have high resistance and hardness.

6(- For#ation or ossification

he osteoblast in the gro$th process release the ECM that in the future $ill be ossified and $ill beco!e part of the ne$ bone. 1hile the osteoclast destroys part of the !atrix to replace $ith a ne$ !atrix in the gro$th process.

6*- Blood% Blood plas#a and Antibodies

4lood is a fluid connective tissue" it,s co!posed by cells( eritrocytes, leu%ocytes and frag!ents of cells called platelets or thro!bocytes* that are inside a fluid ECM called plas!a. he function of the blood is transport oxygen and nutrient substances in the blood vessel in the body. .n the plas!a there are a lot of proteins li%e albu!in, fibrogen and globulins. .nside the !atrix there are different types of antibodies that defend the organis! by pathogenic agents. 5las!a is !ade by 678 of $ater and has !ore than a hundred types of substances li%e free gases (oxygen, carbon dioxide*, ions, organic !olecules particularly in protein, lipid hor!ones, vita!ins, $aste products of the cellular activity. he proteins that circulate in the plas!a are: i!!unoglobulins ( antibodies that defend the organis! fro! extraneous agent and are produced by plas!acells*, coagulation factors,signaling proteins and transport proteins.

6,-Erythrocytes
he erythrocytes are the !ost abundant figurate ele!ents in the blood ( about /,9-9 !illion3!!'*. hey are cells $ithout nucleus, the reason is because they lose it during the process of differentiation. heir plas!a contains al!ost exclusively he!oglobin (:b* a protein that bounds $ith oxygen in the lungs and releases it in the tissues(passive transport verso grandiente*. :b is a cro!oprotein and is such because it has an he!e group( ;/ ato!s of Fe that bind $ith oxygen so this !eans that an erythrocyte can transport up to / !olecules of oxygen*. he erythrocytes have a shape biconcave disc and are very flexible as they have a very $ide surface for gas exchanges and the capacity to transfer through very capillaries. Even if the nu!ber of erythrocytes is i!portant, the real efficiency in transport of oxygen depends on the concentration of he!oglobin.

(.-6ranulocytes types

he granulocytes are a type of leu%ocyte, $e the! li%e this because inside the cytoplas! there are granules. he granulocytes are divided in three group: 7eutrophil: is a cell $ith the role to phagocitate the pathogenic agent. hey are present in the first phase of infla!!atory reaction. After the neutrophil do their function, they die and $ith the cellular $aste, they beco!e pus. Eosinophil: is the cell $ith a bilobed nucleus. hey are present in allergic reaction, they have a substance $ith high cytotoxic po$er fro! the bacteria and virus. Basophil : is a cell $ith bilobed nucleus and contains hista!ine. 1hen the hista!ine(protein* is released inside the blood vessel there is a blood dilatation.

(0-+y#phocytes-types
he li!phocytes are a cell $ith the role to defend the organis! fro! the pathogenic agents. here three types of li!phocytes: ly!phocyte 4, ly!phocyte , <atural =iller(<=*. he ly!phocytes li%e the granulocytes have the capacity to go out of the blood vessel and go in the inter tissue space to attac% pathogenic agents. +y#phocyte B is produced by red bone !arro$. .t,s role is to produce antibodies $hich are specific of the attac% of antigenes. +y#phocyte / is produced by thy!e. he ly!phocyte 4 rapresented the first hi!!unitary reaction $hile ly!phocyte has the principal role to attac% the infected cell by a virus or bacteria. 7atural 8iller attac%s all %ind of bacteria and infected cell in the sa!e $ay. hey have a receptor that allo$s the! to stop destroying activity $hen the pathogenic agents is dead inside the host cell avoiding the cell death. +y#phocyte / Helper has the role to send help !essages to the <= to %ill the pathogenic agent.

(1- 2onocytes 9 Develop#ent of 2onocytes of 2onocytopoiesis

Monocytes are the biggest leu%ocytes, they loo% li%e ly!phocytes but have !ore cytoplas! and a have a >?@ shape nucleus. -i%e the ly!phocytes they phagocitate the pathogenic agent but they need !ore ti!e to go on the infection site than ly!phocytes.

(3-/hro#bocytes- Develop#ent of /hro#bocytes of /hro#bopoiesis

hro!bocytes are cells present in blood vessel $ith the function of he!ostasis process to prevent the lost of blood after a lesion or in0ury of the blood vessel. he thro!bocyte is produced by the red bone !arro$. he thro!bocyte $ith a lot of protein li%e fibrogene allo$ the coagulation of blood.

(4-He#opoiesis- -eriods and :ites of He#atopoiesis

:e!opoiesis is the process in $hich are produced blood cells. he site of this process is the red bone !arro$. he red bone !arro$ is situated in flat bones li%e the craniu!, pelvis and sternu!. he $hole blood cell derives fro! !ulti po$er sta!ina cell called he!ocytoblast. he he!ocytoblast divides in # types of sta!ina cell: - sta#inal ly#phoide: it for!s all the types of ly!phocytes( 4 and <=* -sta#inal #yeloide: it fro!s the precursor of thro!bocytes, granulocytes, erythrocytes, !onocytes and!acrophages.

(5- Red Bone 2arro)

.n the body there are t$o types of bone !arro$: yello$ and red. he yello$ !aaro$ is situated in the long bone and ta%es this color because inside of it there are adypocytes cells. he red bone !arro$ is created in the flat bones li%e pelvis and sternu!. he red bone !arro$ is the site of he!opoiesis, in fact inside this !arro$ there are t$o type of sta!ina cells( ly!phoide and !ieloide*. hese cells produce all types of the blood.

(6- Erythropoiesis or Develop#ent of Erythrocytes

he erythropoiesis is process in $hich the erythrocytes are for!ed. he site of this process is the red bone !arro$. he erythrocytes production is regulated by an hor!one called erythropoietine that is produced by the %idney $hen the blood is not that oxygenated. he process starts by a !ulti po$er

sta!ina cell (e!atobalst*, than there are the sta!ina cell progenitor !iloide cell proerythroblast erythroblast basophil erythroblast acinophil reticolocyte erythrocyte.

((-6ranulopoiesis or Develop#ent of 6ranulocytes

Aranulocytes are the leu%ocyte $ith granules inside the cytoplas!. .s divided in ' types: neutrophil, eosinophil, basophil. he role of granulocytes is to defend the body against pathogenic agents. he process that for! the granulocytes is called granulopoiesis. he site of this process is the red bone !arro$. he process start fro! a !ulti po$er sta!ina cell( e!cytoblast*. he other phases progenic #yeloid cell% #yelobast% pro#yelocyte% #yelocite% #eta#yelocyte% #ature granulocyte'

(*-+y#phopoiesis or Develop#ent of +y#phocytes

he ly!phocytes ( 4 <=* are a type leu%ocyte, they have the function to defend the organis! fro! pathogenic agents. .t,s produced by red bone !arro$. he process start fro! a !ulti po$er sta!ina cell( e!ocytoblast*, than there are sta#inal ly#phoide% ly#phoideblast% proly#phocyte% ly#phocyte. he ly!phocyte 4 ann <= !ature in the red bone !arro$ $hile the ly!ph. develop in the thy!e.

(,-Regulation of He#atopoiesis
:e!opoiesis is this process in $hich are produced blood cells. he regulation of this process is controlled by a lot of hor!ones, one of $hich is erythropoietin( released by the %idney and gives the signal to the red bone !arro$ to produce erythrocytes if there isn,t as !uch oxygen in the blood*. he other is colony sti!ulating factor that induce the red bone !arro$ to produce the granulocytes neutrophil, eosinophil , basophil*. Another is interleu%in $hich induces the sta!ina ly!phoide cell in the bone !arro$ to produce and !ature ly!phocytes.

*.-2uscle /issue' :#ooth 2uscle /issue'

*4-7erve /issue' Develop#ent

he for!ation of nerve tissue start during e!bryogenesis. he e!bryo is for!ed by three types of cellular papers: endoder!, !esoder!, ectoder!. he for!ation of nerve tissue co!es fro! ectoder!, in this process so!e cells the !esoder! are fused and for! the notochord. he notochord press the ectoder! layer and for! a crest the introflexion of this crest for!s the neural tube. he apical neural tube $ill for! the brain and the rest of the neural tube $ill the spinal cord and the cells of the nerve tissue. he role of the nerve tissue is to trans!it the signal by the brain to other parts f the body. here are t$o type of cell in the nerve tissue: neurons and glial cell. <eurons have the role to trans!it and to receive a signal- Alial cell have the role to give nutrients and to sustain the neurons. .n the hu!an body there are !ore glia cell than neuron.

*5-7eurons' /ypes of 7eurons

he neurons are the cell of the nerve tissue. he role of neuron is to receive and trans!it the i!pulse in the rest of the body. A neuron is co!posed by a body called so!a. .n the so!a there is the nucleus and the cytoplas!atic organelles. Fro! the so!a t$o things are branched: dendrites and axon. he dendrites receive the signals by an afferent neuron and trans!its this signal in a centripetal $ay to the so!a, $hile the axons send the signal in centrifuge $ay fro! the so!a to other cell or other neurons than%s to the synapses. here are three types of neuron:

:ensorial neuron or Afferent neuron; they trans!it and transport the signal by sensorial organs to nervous syste!. <nter neuron;the inter neurons are situated in the central nervous syste! and elaborate the signal trans!itted by a sensorial neuron and send the signal to !otor3 efferent neurons. Efferent= 2otor neuron; hey trans!it the signal fro! interneuron s to s!ooth and striated !uscle and allo$ the contraction.

*6- 7euronal outgro)ths' A!on' Dendrites'

he neuron have a body called so!a and t$o types of outgro$ths: axon and dendrites. Bendrites are branched outgro$ths that trans!it the signal of other neurons to the so!a. .n the neurons there can be found a lot of dendrites. .t trans!its fro! other neuron to the so!a in centripetal $ay. 1hile the axon trans!its in centrifuge fro! so!a to other cell fro! synapses. he axon is surrounded by !yelin sheath. he !yelin sheath is for!ed by # type of cell: Cch$ann cell (for the peripheral axon* and oligodendrocite( for the axon for central nervous syste!*.

*(-7erve fiber- types' -eripheral nerves

he nervous fiber is for!ed by the axon and their !yelin sheath. he nervous fibers are divided in t$o groups: un!yelinated and !yelinated. ?n!yelinated are the nerve fiber in $hich the axon doesn,t have !yelin, $hile the !yelinated fibers have !yelin sheath around the axon. he nervous fibers can be !otor efferent $hen they trans!it the signal fro! the central nervous syste! to the periphery. 1hile the other afferent3 sensorial trans!it the signal fro! sensorial organs to central nervous syste!. he !yelin sheath surrounds the axon in a concentrically, for!ing nodes called Danvier nodes. he i!pulse can,t go through the !yelinic sheath but 0u!ps to Danvier nodes until the sinapses. he nerve, a

co!plex of nervous fibers associated to blood vessel that give nutrients and oxygen to the fiber. here are t$o types of nerve: :o#atic or Brain spinal : they start fro! the central nervous syste! to s%eletal !uscle" >isceral nerve ; that start fro! the c.n.s. to s!ooth !uscle"

**-<nterneuronal synapses
he neurons co!!unicate $ith each other or $ith a target cell (glands or !uscle* by the synapses. he neuron that sends the signal is called presynapses $hile the target cell of this signal is called post synapses. .n the body there are t$o types of synapses: electric and che!ical.

Electric signal $hen the post synapses cell receives the signal by a AA5 0unction and potential action goes in directly fro! the presynapses cell. Che#ical signal $hile in the che!ical signal there is a liberation of neurotrans!itter. he phase of this process starts fro! a depolari+ation of presynaptic cell than%s to the entrance of Ca ions and the vesicles that have the neurotrans!itter go and fuse $ith the synaptic !e!brane and release their neurotrans!itter that fuse to the receptor of post synaptic cell that receive the signal.

*,-7eurotrans#itters' /ransporters'
1e can find neurotrans!itter in the che!ical synapses. he neurotrans!itter is a substance that guide infor!ation bet$een the synapses. here are different type of neurotrans!itter, so!e of the! are acetylcholine $hich is the !ost diffused neurotrans!itter in the body. 1e can fre2uently find it in the neuro!uscular 0unction. :erotonin acts on the synapses that regulate sleep, sensorial perception, control of te!perature and e!otions. 7oradrenaline is present in the e!otion and sleep control reactions. Dopa#ine controls e!otion. 6ABA( ga!!a a!inobutyric acid* is the neurotrans!itter $ith inhibitory role of the brain.

,.-7euroglia-types
he nerve tissue has t$o types of cell: neurotrans!itter and glia cell. he glia cell doesn,t have the function to trans!it the signal, but it,s function is to sustain and feed neurons. here are t$o types of glia cell: Cch$ann cell and oligodendrocyte

Cch$ann cells can be found in the peripheral part of the nervous tissue. he function of this cells to for! the !yelinic sheath . his !yelinic sheath goes around the axon and for!s nodes. he signal can,t go through the !yelic sheath but it 0u!ps on Danvier nodes. he oligodendrocytes have the sa!e function but they can only be found in the central nervous syste!. Ether cells of the glia cella are the astrocytes $hich function is to for! a barrier around the brain that gives protection to the brain fro! toxic substances present in the blood. 4ut in this barrier liposoluble substances can pass along $ith alcohol and anesthetics, because this barrier isn,t perfect.

,0-Receptor 7erve Endings' 7euro#uscular ?unction

he receptor is a cell speciali+ed for reception of signal. he receptor is on the end of the sensitive nervous fiber, $ithout !yelin sheath or a nervous ter!ination in contact $ith a non-nervous cell. here are different types of receptor: Mechanical receptor: they cap

,1-Effector 7erve Endings' 7euro#uscular ?unction

<euro!uscular 0unction is a type of 0unction of nervous fibers. .s a co!plex bet$een !otor neuron and cell of the s%eletal !uscle. he !otor neuron have only one axon that branches in the extre!eties in the synaptic botton that contain vescicle full of neurotrans!itters called acetylcholine. he contraction of the !uscle starts $ith the arrival of potential action in the !otor neuron after it releases Ach. he post synaptic cell receives Ach by the receptor present in the intersynaptic space and receive the i!pulse of contraction. 1hen the contraction is finished an en+y!e Ach degrades fro! the intersynaptic space.