Meter Ail

Properties of Materials
Properties and Strength of Materials
1-1 Introduction:
Those notes are devoted to shed some lights on the mechanical properties of the main
two elements composing reinforced concrete: Steel and Concrete.

.
:
-1 .
-2
.
-3 .
-4
.
-5 .
-6
.
-7
.
1-2 Definitions
1-2-1 Strain
is a dimensionless value, it is the ratio between the change of length to the original
L
L0
length:
=
Where:
L = Change in length,
L0 = Original length.
1-2-2 Stress
Is the intensity of internal forces = Force / Area
Stress units = Force unites / Area Units = Kg./Cm2, lb./in2, T/m2.
1 Kg. = 2.205 lb. and 1 in. = 2.54 cm
Prepared by Amr A. El-Sayed, Civil Eng. Dept., El-Minia Univ., Eg.
then 1 Kg./Cm2 = 14.223 lb / in2 , and 1 Kg./Cm2 = 10.0 T/m2.

1-2-3 Normal Stress
is the stress normal to the section, and could be tension or compression stress:
P
Tension
Compression
P
A
Where:
P
A
Normal stress
Applied load
Cross sectional area
1-2-4 Shear stress

Is the tangential stress.
Q
A
Q
Where:
Q
A
Shear stress
Shearing (tangential) force
Cross-sectional area
1-2-5 Poissons Ratio

Is the ratio between lateral strain to the longitudinal strain.
Lateral Strain
Longitudinal Strain
The value of for all materials varies over a range of 0.0 0.50 .
1-2-6 Youngs Modulus

Is the ratio between stress and strain in the elastic stage.
Stress
= , the Youngs modulus is also called (Modulus of Elasticity), and its units are
Strain
as the same stress units, (because the strain is dimensionless).
E=
1-2-7 Complementary Shear

Shear stresses in vertical planes are always accompanied by shear stresses in
horizontal planes perpendicular to the applied shearing force. Such stress is called
complementary shear.
For equilibrium:
M = M1
dy
Moment = area . stress . distance

(t.dx) . . dy = (t.dy) . . dx
then:
=
dx
1-2-8 Shear strain

Is the ratio between the change in length in lateral direction to the original length.
Shear Strain =
Deformation
Couple arm
= tan
x
L
then =
Where is the shear strain defined by the

angular displacement in radians as is very
small.
1-2-9 Shear Modulus

The shear modulus is the ratio between shear stress to shear strain
Shear Modulus (G ) =
Shear Stress ( )
Shear Strain ( )
in stress units
** Relation between E & G:

E
) 2(1 +
=G
For steel, E = 2100 T/cm2 = 2100*104 T/m2

For concrete, E = 210 T/cm2 = 210*104 T/m2.
1-3 Types of loading

1-3-1 Static loading
The load is applied slowly and increases gradually till its maximum value without
developing any impact or vibrations.

) (Test Specimen
.
)) (Continues Loading (
. :

a- Short time static loading: the time between the application of load and the load reaches its
maximum value (at the specimen failure) is few minutes.
.
b- Long time static loading: The load is applied gradually till its maximum value, and remains
constant for sufficient time to enable its probable final effect to be predicted.
)
( .
1-3-2 Dynamic loading
The load is applied to the specimen in a form of vibrations or shocks. The dynamic
loading may also be caused by impact.

.
.
) . (Equivalent Static Load
).(Load Factor
Equivalent Static Load
= Load Factor
Dynamic Load
1-3-3 Repeated loading

The load is applied in small quantities for several times.
.

.
6
0.8
0.5
4
Stress
Stress
0.4
Stress
0.6
0.2
-1
0
0
-0.5
6
Time
Time
Time
12
10
)(1
)(2
)(3
:
-1 .
-2 .
-3 .
1-4 Mechanical properties of materials
1-4-1 Elasticity
Is the ability of the material to return to its original dimensions when the external
applied load is removed.

.
.
) (Elastic Limit Stress
.
1-4-2 Plasticity
Is the property which permits materials to undergo permanent change in shape without
fracture, i.e the material does not return to its original dimensions.

.
1-4-3 Ductility
Is the ability of the material to stand large plastic deformation in tension, i.e the
property of the material which enables it to be drawn out to a considerable extent before
failure.
:
-1 =
-2 =
-3 =
L L0
.100
L0
= % Elongation

A A
% Reduction of area = 0
.100
A0

A A
Elongation factor = 0
.100
A
1-4-4 Malleability
Is the property which represents the capacity of the material to withstand plastic
deformation in compression without failure.

.
1-4-5 Brittleness
Is the property of the material which makes it fractured before much or no

deformation is noticeable.

.
1-4-6 Strength
Is the resistance of the material to any applied forces, and is measured in the known
stress units.
This resistance is usually known as the tensile strength if the applied load is tension or
compressive strength if the applied force is compression. The ultimate strength is the
maximum stress which the material is capable to withstand, developed under a slowly axial
applied load.
) (
( Bending) ) (
.
.
1-4-7 Stiffness
Stress
Stress
Is the property of the material to resist any sort of deformation. A stiff material is that
material which withstand high unit stress with relatively small unit deformation. In uni-axial
tension and compression tests, the stiffness is quantitatively measured by the modulus of
elasticity within the elastic limit.
Strain
Strain

Modulus of Elasticity .
Modulus of Elasticity .
.(- )
E=
Stress
= = tan
Strain
E1 = tan 1, and E2 = tan 2

but 1 > 2.
then, E1 > E2, the material no. (1) is stiffer than no. (2)
1-4-8 Toughness
It is the ability of the material to withstand or absorb mechanical energy. Tough

material is that material which can withstand great deformation together with high stress.
Pf
Py
Pu
Load
Toughness is measured by means of the modulus of toughness which represents the

amount of energy absorbed per unit volume from the time of load application till failure.
Lf
Elongation

.-
Toughness =
Py + Pu
.L f
Modulus of Toughness =
1-4-9 Resilience
Toughness y + u
=
. f
Volume
2
It is the capacity of the material to store mechanical energy; given in energy units
(kg.m, or lb.in i.e. force.distance). Resilience is measured by the Modulus of Resilience,
which is the maximum amount of mechanical energy that may be stored in a unit volume and
be completely recovered upon the removal of load.
.
.
- .
Stress
Load
Resilience
Modulus of Resilience
Strain
Elongation
1-4-10 Hardness
Is the ability of the material to resist scratching, abrasion, cutting, or indentation. The
hardness of non-metallic materials such as stones, gravel, and rock is usually measured by its
resistance to abrasion by friction.

.
-1 Indentation Hardness
-2 Rebound Hardness
-3 Scratch Hardness
-4 Wear Hardness
-5 Mechineability Hardness
-
1-4-11 Endurance
Is the ability of the material to withstand repeated application of load. The endurance
limit is the highest repeated stress that can be applied infinite number of times causing failure
to the material.

.

1-4-12 Durability
Is the ability of the material to resist the internal or external destructive conditions
over long period of time.
1-5 Axial deformations:

1-5-1 Due to external force:
L
P
,=
and
A
L0
P
A = P.L0
E= =
L
A.L
L0
L =
P.L
E. A
. (1-1)
1-5-2 Due to self weight

a- the cross section is constant:
Specific weight (density)

t/m3:
cm2:
. x dx
W
A
: x
Px = W.x.A
ton
x (at any sec tion x) =
(W .x. A).dx = W .x.dx

E
W
W x2
L (Total Extension) = .x.dx =
E
E0 2
0
L
L =
W .L2
2.E
W.x.A
dx
E. A
W.L.A
Px .Lx
E. A
. (1-2)
10
1-5-3 Due to external variable load
The load various linearly from 0.0 to w. The load equation is from first degree, so, the
normal force diagrams degree will be 2.0 (2nd degree parabola).
w.L/2
w=0
L/2
w.L/2
L/2
w t/m
dx
Wx
w
The load at any section x:
WX W
=
X
L
WX = W .
X
L
Normal force at any section x:

X
X
0 W . L .dx
at x = 0.0, the normal force =
N=
W .L W . X 2
2
2.L
1
N .dx
E. A 0
W .L2
3.E. A
W X2
Lo 2
X
W
. X .dx
L 0
W .L
, then
2
c=
W .X 2
+c
2.L
W .L
2
. (1-3)
L
1 W .L W . X 2
E. A 0 2
2 .L
.dx
W X3
1 W .L
.X
.
E. A 0 2
2 .L 3
L
. (1-4)
11
Example: Find the total extension of the bar shown in figure. A = 12.50 cm2, E = 2100
t/cm2.
5.0 t
5.0 t
20.0
5.0
15.0 t
10.0
5.0 t
10.0
10.0 t
10.0 t
q = 0.125 t/m
2.50 t
2.5
7.50 t
7.5
10.0 t
5.0 t
10.0
20.0
20.0
10.0 t
5.0 t
5.0
5.0 t
L1 =
P.L1
5.0 * 20.0
=
= 0.004 Cm.
E. A 2100 *12.50
L 2 =
P.L2
10.0 * 10.0
=
= +0.004 Cm
E. A 2100 * 12.50
L31 =
L3 2
10.0 * 20.0
= +0.0076 Cm (due to concentrated load)
2100 *12.50
0.125 * 20.0 2
W .L2
=
=
= 0.001 Cm (due to uniform load)
3.E. A 3 * 2100 *12.50
L41 =
2.50 * 20.0
= 0.0019 Cm (due to concentrated load)
2100 * 12.50
L4 2 =
W .L2
0.125 * 20.0 2
=
= 0.0019 Cm (due to uniform load)
2.E. A 2 * 2100 *12.50
L5 =
5.0 * 10.0
P.L
=
= 0.0019 Cm
E. A 2100 *12.50
Total change in length = 0.0009 cm
12
b- the cress section is variable:
Elongation due to external force P

d` = d0 2.ab,
ab
x
=
ac L0
and
ab
x
=
d 0 d1 L0
then
ab =
d 0 d1
.x
2.L0
d0
d 0 d1
.x
L0
= d0 k.x
d` (diameter at any section x) = d 0

d 0 d1
L0
A (cross-sectional area at x) = .d`2 / 4 =
(stress at any section x) =
(strain at section x) =
(d 0 k .x )2
P
4 .P
=
Ax .(d 0 k .x )2
dx
k=
where
cb a
L0
then
e
d
4 .P
1
.
E. (d 0 k .x )2
d`
P
4 .P
dx
x = .dx =
.
E. (d 0 k .x )2
L
4 .P 0
2
. (d 0 k .x ) .dx
L =
E. 0
L0
L =
4.P (d 0 k .x )
.
E.
1 * k
0
L0
4 .P
1
,
.
L =
E. .k (d 0 k .x )
replacing (k) with
d 0 d1
L0
13
L
4.P
1
1
0
L =
.
.
E. d 0 d1
d0 0
d 0 d1
d 0 L .L0
L =
L0 1
4 .P
1
.
.
E. d 0 d1 d1 d 0
L =
L =
4.P.L0
E. .(d 0 d1 )
L0 d 0 d1
4 .P
.
.
E. d 0 d1 d 0 .d 1
. (1-5)
1-6 Stress in compound sections

:( as one unit)
1- S = C
2- Pt = PS + PC
Suppose we have a bar made of two materials steel, and copper.
S =
then
S
ES
S
ES
C =
, and
C
EC
EC
P
and S = S
AS
C =
PC
AC
Steel
Copper
PS
PC
=
E S . AS E C . AC
PS = PC .
E S . AS
,
E C . AC
E .A
P = PC 1 + S S
E C . AC
but
P = PS + PC
14
or,
PC = P.
EC . AC
E C . AC + E S . AS
. (1-6)
PS = P.
E S . AS
EC . AC + E S . AS
. (1-7)
1-6-1 Reinforced Concrete Columns
P
PS
PC
S
C
S = C ,
Total load carried by the column

load carried by steel bars
load carried by concrete
stress in steel
stress in concrete
then
ES
C
EC
S = C.
ES
EC
ES
= n = (mod ular ratio)
EC
S = n. C
P = PS + PC
Concrete
= S.AS + C.AC
Steel
P = n. C.AS + C.AC
A
P = C . AC 1 + n. S
AC
P = C .AC (1+ n.)
AS
=
AC
. (1-8)
15
1-7 Simple statically indeterminate problems:

.(Compatibility Equations)
Examples:
1- Find the normal stresses, and reactions, E = 2000.0 t/cm2.

.CB = AC
AC = CB
RA
A
R A .L AC R B .LCB
=
E. A
E. A
30.0
2
R A = .RB
3
3.RA = 2.RB
but,
RB
RA
RA + RB = 10.0 t
10.0 t
2
.R B + R B = 10.0
3
RB = 6.0 t, and
20.0
LAC = 30.0, and LCB = 20.0
RB
RA = 4.0 t
16
1-7 Thermal stresses

:
-1 ) (
L (due to temperature t) = .L.t
where:
L
t
Coefficient of thermal expansion

Original length of the bar
)Temperature change = (t1 t0
-2 :
P.L
= L
= .L.t
E. A
P=.t.E.A
And the thermal stress = P / A

t = . t . E

) ( .
:
. t . L -
= .t
.t.L
L
t = .E
t = .t .E
L
17
2- Mechanical properties of metals in static tension test

.
b c
f
d
1- Elastic Stage (0 to a)
2- Yield Stage (b d)
3- Elastic-Plastic Stage (Ductile
Stage).
1 2
4- Plastic Stage (Necking Stage)
2-1 Elastic Strength
The elastic strength can be determined from:

2-1-1- Proportional limit
Is the maximum value of the applied stress in the elastic zone.

(a) ( ) ( )
.
2-1-2 Elastic limit
Is the maximum stress that the material can withstand, and if that stress is removed,
there will be no permanent deformations.
) (
(Elastic ( Proportional Limit)
( b) .
. Limit)
.(Johanson) ( Elastic Limit)
18
Johansons appearant Elastic limit:

) (Johanson ) (-
% 50 ).(Elastic Limit
and,
Tangent inclination = mt,

Straight line inclination = ml
El. L
mt = ml 0.50 mt.
1.50 mt = ml.
mt = (2/3) ml
ml = Y/cd
then,
Y
3 .cd
2
= mt
) (cd de = 0.5 cd : .ce = 1.50 cd : ) (oe

) (oe ).(Elastic Limit
2-2 Proof Stress

) (Elastic stress ). (Plastic stress
example:
P Tons
L mm
(0.10 % proof stress) means the stress which

causes 0.10 % of permanent elongation.

) ( ): (P -
0.10
=
.L0
100
X
) (Proof load .
Pr oof Load
A0
19
= Pr oof Stress
2-3 Stiffness
Stress
Stiffness is measured by the modulus

of elasticity.
E = tan ()
in the elastic stage.
E=
Strain
2-4 Resilience
Modulus of Resilience = Resilience / Volume

P
.d ,
Load
( P-)
.()
Stress
.
LP
1
R = P.d = .PP * LP
2
0
Resilience
Modulus of Resilience
and = E.
Elongation
M. of Resiliense =
E. .d
Strain
= 0.5 E. 2P
2-5 Plastic strength

:
PMax.
A0
P
2- Fracture Strength f = Frc.
A0
1- Ultimate Strength u =
kg/cm2
kg/cm2
Where:
PMax.
the maximum force on the curve
PFrac.
The load at fracture.
20
2-6 Ductility
:
.100
A0 A
.100
A0
L L0
= % Elongation
1-
= % Reduction of area
2-
= Elongation factor
3-
L0
A0 A
.100
A
2-7 Toughness
Load
Pu
)Toughness = Total area under the (P-

LF
P + PU
.LF
diagram = P.d Y
2
0
Pf
Py
Modulus of Toughness = Toughness / Volume

F
+ U
= .d Y
. F
2
0
Toughness Index Number:
= u . f
Lf
Elongation
3- Elongation Equation
:
-1 L0
-2 .A0
:
-1
.
L1 = constant * L0
-2 :A0
L1 L0,
then
L1 = b . L0
A0
L2 = c .
L = L1 + L2
21
). (3-1
L = b.L0 + c. A0
L Y L0 .X b,c
.
L
C. A0
L0
) (L , L0 Y c. A0
A
L
= % Elongation = b + c. 0
L0
L0
A0
L0
A0
L0
For Egyptian specifications:
22
for long specimens
L0 = 11.30 * A0
for short specimens
L0 = 5.65 * A0
3-1 True stress-True strain diagram
a- True Stress : equals the applied force at any moment divided by the cross-sectional area at
the same moment.

`=
Pi
Ai
b- True strain:
d1
d2
di
L1
L0
Li
L1
L0
d0
L
L0 L1 L2
True strain (`) =
+
+
+ ........... + i =
L0
L1
L2
Li
` =
Li
dl
Li
L0
L
L
= log e L = log e ( Li ) log e ( L0 )
L0
` = log e
Li
L0
. (3-2)
but
Li = L0 + Lt
` = log e
L0 + Lt
L0
` = log e 1 +
Lt
L0
= log e (1 + )
. (3-3)
23
True strain = loge (1 + ordinary strain)

The volume of specimen is constant, i.e,
A0 * L0 = Ai * Li
Li
A
= 0
L0
Ai
A0
Ai
` = log e
. (3-4)
A0 d 0
=
Ai d i
and for circular specimens
d
= log e 0
di
`
d
= 2. log e 0
di
. (3-5)
from equations (3-3) and (3-4)

1+ =
Ai =
` =
A0
Ai
A0
1+
Pi
,
Ai
` =
. (3-6)
Substituting from equation (3-6)

Pi
.(1 + ) ,
A0
but
Pi
is the normal stress ()
A0
` = .(1 + )
. (3-7)
Equation (3-7) represents the relationship between the true stress (`), and the
ordinary stress ().
(` - `) ( mild steel)
:
1- Part I: Elastic Stage

from
` = 0
` = a . `
to
` = `P
(3-8)
24
where:
a
)is a constant ( a = E Modulus of Elasticity
2- Part II: Elastic-Plastic stage:

)` (` -
:
` = b . `c
where:
)b, and c are constants (related to each material
b is called Strength coefficient, and c Strain hardening component
3- Part III : Plastic stage
)` (` -
:
`` = k + m.
). (3-9
` = `f
` = `u
to
from
Where:
k, and m are constants

m
strain hardening coefficient
:
)
(
. ) (
:
dP = 0
). (3-10
Pi = ` . Ai
A0
Ai
) ). ( Equation (3-4
A0
` e
= Ai
or,
` = loge
A0
`= e
Ai
But,
Then,
Ai )(3-10
A0
). (3-11
` e
) (3-11 ) (Pmax.
.
Pi = `.
25
dP = A0 `.e `(1).d `+e `.d ` = 0
`.e `.d `= e `.d `

`=
d `
d `
. (3-12)
( `-`) ( 3-12)
.( `)
( `-`)
.`
For part II of the (`-`) curve:

` = b . `c
d `
= b.c. `c1
d `
c 1
c. ` = `
= ` = b . `c
`c
c = c 1 = `cc +1
`
c = `
. (3.(`max.) ( 3-00) `
`max . = b.c c
. (3-
4- Factors affecting the tensile properties of metals:

1- Carbon Content
(u)
. (y)
2- Rate of loading
3- Temperature
4- Over straining
5- Cold working
6- Size and shape of test specimen
7- Effect of eccentric loads
8- Alloying elements
9- Heat treatment
26
5- Failure of metals under compression

P
A
The compressive force

For the inclined plane (),

A
A`=
cos
Pn = P. cos and
n =
Pn P.(cos )2
=
A`
A
Where
Pn
the normal force to the inclined plane ().
n
the normal stress
Pt = P. sin
q=
Pt P
= . sin . cos
A` A
where:
the tangential (shear) force to the inclined plane ().
the shearing stress
Pt
q
= tan
Where:
Angle of the internal friction.
Friction reaction (f) = . n.
. =
Stress causing failure = ( q f )

F=
P
P
. sin . cos tan . . cos 2
A
A
F is maximum when
dF
= 0, and note that is constant.
d
dF P
= [sin .( sin ) + cos .(cos ) + 2 tan . cos . sin ]
d A
27
dF P
= cos 2 sin 2 + 2 tan . cos . sin
d A
but,
cos (2) = cos2 - sin2

sin (2) = 2.sin . cos
dF P
1
= cos(2 ) + 2 tan . . sin(2 ) = 0.0

d A
2
-cos (2) = tan . sin (2)

tan =
but,
cos(2 )
= cot(2 )
sin( 2 )
cot = tan (90-),

tan = - tan (90-2)
then,
tan = tan (2-90)
= 2 - 90
90 +
= 45 +
2
2
28
Section II
Properties and Strength of Concrete Aggregate
2-1 Introduction

.
2-2 Definitions

1- Volume Weight (`):
) (
W
Vt
= ` = U W
vV
Aggregate
sV
tV
Voids
2- Specific Gravity ():
) (
W
Vs
Where
the volume of solids only
29
Vs
.
3- Absolute Specific Gravity:

. )(
.
4- Appearent Specific Gravity:
) ( ) 20
( .
or
1000 Kg/m3.
lb/Ft3.
Unit weight of water = 1.0 gr/cm3,

in English system
w = 62.40
and
s g = 2.65 t/m3.
5- Voids Ratio:
.
.
)Total volume of aggregate (including voids

Volume of voids
)Volume of solids (absolute volume of aggregate particles
Vt
Vv
Vs
)a- Voids ratio with respect to total volume (Porosity n
Vs
Vt
Vv Vt Vs
=
Vt
Vt
n =1
=n
).(Volume Weight Wa
Wa Wa
/
Vt Vs
Wa Vs
.
Wa Vt
n =1
n =1
but,
Wa
=
Vs
and
Wa
`=
Vt
` Specific Gravity Volume Weight

=n
=
Specific Gravity
n =1
). (2-1
30
then,
=
b- Voids ratio with respect to solid volume (e)
e=
Vv Vt Vs Vt
W W
=
= 1= a / a 1
Vs
Vs
Vs
Vs Vt
e=
1
`
e=
` Specific Gravity Volume Weight

=
`
Volume Weight
. (2-2)
( Volume Weight)
.
6- Relation Between (e, and n)
n=
Vv
Vv
=
Vt Vs + Vv
1 Vs + Vv Vs
=
= +1
n
Vv
Vv
n=
e
e +1
1 1
e +1
= +1=
n e
e
. (2-3)
31
2-3 Grading and Sieve Analysis:

.
) ( ) (

.
Sand
100
52
25
Gravel
2
14
3
"
16
2.5 1.25 0.625 0.321 0.156
3
3
"
"
8 16
10
3
"
4
1
" 1
2
20.0
mm
40.0
mm
Specification
British
Egyptian
:

:
Sedimentation by Hydrometer
Clay
Test
Sieve analysis by sieves
Sand
Silt
Fine
Gravel
Coarse Medium
Soil
Type
Fine
No. 200
No. 60
No. 100
No. 40
No. 20
No. 10
No. 4
1/2
3/8
3/4
Sieve
100
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0.005
0.075
0.15
0.25
0.42
0.84
4.75
19.0
12.7
9.52
0.0001
0.001
0.01
0.1
1.0
10
Diameter of soil grain in mm
32
100
Percentage of passing by weight %
90
) (Logarithmic Base :
and
) log(a ) = b. log(a
) log(a.b ) = log(a ) + log(b
b
) (2 )) (log(2
.
: )) (log(2

:
1- It is required to draw the grading curves for both sand and gravel
100
52
25
14
3
"
16
3
"
8
3
"
4
1
" 1
2
Sieve Size
6
0
24
0
45
0
60
0
81
0
96
3
100
36
100
75
100
96
% passing Sand
% passing Gravel
90
nd
a
S
80
70
Gr
av
el
60
50
40
30
20
10
" 1.50
"3/4
"3/8
" 3 / 16
No. 7
No. 14
No. 25
No. 52
Sieve Size
33
No. 100
100
2- The sieve analysis test was carried out on two samples of aggregates, the total weight of
gravel sample was (10000 gm), and the total weight of sand sample was (1000 gm).
The weight on each sieve for both sand and gravel is displayed in the following table. It is
required to draw the grading curves for both sand and gravel.
Sieve Size
1
1 "
2
3
"
4
3
"
8
3
"
16
14
25
52
100
Pan
weight of sand
weight of gravel
480
5050
3000
20
1250
130
220
100
-
260
-
370
-
110
-
10
-
Solution
Sieve Size
3
"
4
3
"
8
3
"
16
14
25
52
100
Pan
20
150
250
510
880
990
100
480
5530
8530
15
25
51
88
99
100
4.8
55.3
85.3
97.80
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
98
85
75
49
12
95.2
44.7
14.7
2.20
9780 10000 10000 10000 10000 10000 10000
100
90
80
Sa
nd
70
60
50
Gr
av
el
40
30
20
10
1.50 "
3/4"
3/8"
3 / 16 "
No. 7
No. 14
No. 25
No. 52
No. 100
Total weight of
sand
Total weight of
gravel
% retained
sand
%retained
gravel
% passing
sand
% passing
gravel
1
1 "
2
Sieve Size
34
2-4 Finesse Modulus

).(100
= Finesse Modulus for Sand
2 to 3.75
= Gravel
5 to 8
2-5 Maximum nominal size
) (%95
:
0.25 -1 0.20 .
3/2 -2 4/3 .
Note: Sieve number (25) determines the size of sand according to the percentage passing
through it as follows:
Percentage Passing
Type of Sand
< 34
35 59
60 79
80 - 100
Coarse
Medium
Fine
Very fine
2-6 Limits of Grading
35
Problems on Grading of combined aggregate (1)

( ) ( ) -1
.( n : m )
Sand : Gravel
(in combined aggregate)
n : m
1- Mathematical Method
S n
=
G m
Where:
S
G
A
refers to Sand
refers to Gravel
refers to combined Aggregate
A=
n
m
.S +
.G
n+m
n+m
A=
n.S + m.G
n+m
Where:
(n+m)
S
G
A
. (2-
For example, if the mix proportion of Sand to Gravel was 2 : 3, and for sieve size (3 / 8 ) the
percentage passing of sand was 100, and the percentage passing of gravel was 36, then the
percentage passing of the combined aggregate will be:
A=
n.S + m.G
n+m
2 * 100 + 3 * 36
= 61.60 %
2+3
36
2- Graphical Method
100
100
"3/4
90
70
60
50
40
3/
"
57.3 %
/1
80
3
.7
no
.1
4
25
no
no.
10
0.0
60
50
40
30
30
20
70
no. 52
n. 100
% Passing Sand
% Passing Gravel
80
"8
90
20
10
0.0
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0.0 % Sand / Aggregate

% Gravel / Aggregate 0.0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
-1 ) ( ) (
).(0.0 to 100
-2 (Sand /
) Aggregate ).(Gravel / Aggregate
-3 ) (
)" (3/8
) ( .
) (100% ) (36% ) (100 )(36
.
-4 ) (1 : 2 ) (1:3 = 0.333
) (2:3 = 0.666 ) (0.33

) (3/8 ) (57.33
) (57.33% .
37
Example:
1- Given the grading of both fine and coarse aggregate. It is required to obtain the grading
of combined aggregate with the ratio (1 Sand : 2 Gravel).
Solution
-1 :
:
n.S + m.G
n+m
=A
Where:
m=2
100
52
25
14
3
"
16
3
"
8
3
"
4
1
" 1
2
6
0
24
0
45
0
60
0
81
0
96
3
100
36
100
75
100
96
15
20
27
34
57.33
83.33
97.33
n = 1, and
Sieve Size
% passing Sand
% passing Gravel
% passing Aggregate
S + 2*G
3
-2 .
)Problems on grading of aggregate (2

-2 .
.
: :
3
(5.0 mm or
16
) inch
n.S + m.G
n+m
3
(5.0 mm or
16
=A
).inch
G = 0.0
38
For combined aggregate,
% Passing Gravel = 0.0,
A=
n.S
n+m
A
n
=
S n+m
S n+m
m
=
=1+
A
n
n
m S
SA
= 1=
n A
A
n
A
( Mix proportion ) =
m
SA
. (
) (G = 0.0)
.(G 0.0) ((5 mm)
A=
n.S + m.G
n+m
A.n + A.m = n.S + m.G

n( A S ) = m(G A)
n (A G)
=
m (S A)
S, G, and A are the values of percentage passing of Sand, Gravel, and

Aggregate from sieve size (5 mm).
: :
1.5 "
100
90
% Passing Sand
80
70
60
50
40
90
no
.7
no
.
80
/1
"
14
no.
3/
70
4"
25
3/
8"
20
0.0
60
50
30
10
100
40
30
% Passing Gravel
Where,
. (
20
no. 52
10
n. 100
0.0
65.6
34.40
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0.0 % Sand / Aggregate

39
3
-1 (5.0 mm or
16
) inch
.
-2 (5.0 mm or
3
16
) inch .
Example:
Given the grading of a desired combined aggregate, and the grading of both sand and
gravel. It is required to find the ratio of (Sand : Gravel) to satisfy the grading of the desired
combined aggregate.
100
52
25
14
3
"
16
3
"
8
3
"
4
1
" 1
2
Sieve Size
2
0
1
12
0
5
50
0
18
72
0
25
83
0
30
96
3
35
100
22
49
100
55
70
100
100
100
% passing Sand
% passing Gravel
% passing Aggregate
-1 :
n ( A G ) 35 3 32
= 0.525
=
=
=
m (S A) 96 35 61
:
n.S + m.G
n+m
=A
for example, Sieve (3 / 4 ):
32 * 100 + 61 * 55
= 70.484 %
32 + 61
=A
-2 :
) (35%
3
(5.0 mm or
16
) inch ).(65.6) (34.4
n 34.4
=
= 0.524
m 65.6
40
Problems on grading of aggregate (3)

. -3
inch)
3
(5.0 mm or
16
.
Example:
1- The grading of a combined aggregate is shown in the following table. It is required to
find the mix proportion of (sand : gravel), and the grading of both of them.
Sieve Size (mm)
% passing Aggregate
60
98
40
92
20
56
10
31
5
20
2.5
17
1.25
15
0.63
9
0.31
3
0.16
1
Solution
( 20 %) ( 5 mm)
.(20 %)
S
n
%=
A
n+m
n
20
=
100 n + m
100 * n = 20 * n + 20 * m
80 * n = 20 * m
n 20 1
=
=
m 80 4
n:m=1:4
A=
n.S + m.G
n+m
1- For sieves (60 mm to 5 mm),
G=
S = 100 %
A(n + m ) n.S
%
m
41
n = 1, m = 4, S = 100
)(A
) .(60 mm to 5 mm
G = 0.0 %
2- For sieves (5 mm to 0.16 mm),
) A(n + m
n
)(A
(5 mm to 0.16 mm
).
42
=S
Surface area of aggregate

.
.
Effect of surface area on the properties of concrete
:
-1 ) 5-2\2(.
-2 .
:
-1 ) 100-60 \2 (
.
-2
.
) +( :
-1
-2 .
-3 .

) 30-25\2(.
300
200
25 - 30 cm2/gm
50
40
30
100
0.0
20
10
Specific Surface Area cm2 / gm
400
0.0
Specific Surface Area Cm2/gm
43
Calculating the surface area of aggregate:

.
:
1- Assuming that the particles have spherical shape:
..
) (Wt . (W1,
).W2, W3,.
:
-1 = = N
-2 = d
-3 ) = (Specific Weight
=
3
4 d
. . .N .
3 2
.d 3 .N .
= `W
6
` 6.W
=N
.d 3 .
=
2
d
.N
2
` 6.W
d .
` 6.W
.d 3 .
= 4. .
.d 2 .
=
Where:
Weight of aggregate passing through a specific opening d1, and retained on the
sieve opening d2
Average size of aggregate particles:
d, can be represented by:
`W
d
d1 + d 2
)(Arithmetic mean
2
)d = d1 .d 2 (Geometric mean
) log(d1 ) + log(d 2
= )log (d
2
=d
)(Logarithmic mean
44
Specific weight of aggregate material

:
` 6.W1 ` 6.W2 ` 6.W3
+
+
+ ..............
d 2 .
d 3 .
d1.
=
Where:
: d1 )(1
) : d2 ) + (1 )( (2
) : d3 ) + (2 ) ( (3
=
Wt
` 6.W1 ` 6.W2 ` 6.W3
+
+
+ ..............
d 2 .
d 3 .
d1.
If (P1, P2, P3, .) are the percentage passing from sieves (1, 2, 3, ..) respectively,
= then the specific surface area
100
) 6.( P1 P2 ) 6.( P2 P3 ) 6.( P3 P4
+
+
+ ..............
d 2 .
d 3 .
d1.
2- Assuming that the particles have different shapes:

).(Angularity, or form Factors
=
Wt
` 6.W1
` 6.W3
` 6.W2
S1
+ S2
+ S3
+ ..............
d 2 .
d 3 .
d1 .
S1, S2, S3, :
=S
)S = 1 (in case of spherical particles
45
Example:
1- It is required to determine the specific surface area for the Sand, and Gravel samples
given their grading in the following table. Assume that specific gravity () for both sand
and gravel = 2.65 t/m3, and the form factor = 1.40.
Sieve Size mm
% passing Sand
% passing Gravel
40
100
95
20
100
44.8
10
100
13.4
5
97.5
0.6
2.5
85
-
1.25
75
-
0.625
48
-
0.31
12
-
0.16
1
-
Solution
1- Specific surface area of Sand:
Sieve size
mm
Logarithmic
Mean (d)cm
% passing
P
40
20
10
5
2.5
1.25
0.625
0.31
0.16
2.8284
1.4142
0.7071
0.3536
0.17678
0.0884
0.0442
0.0221
100
100
100
97.5
85
75
48
12
1
P1 P2
6.( P1 P2 )
d .
2.5
12.5
10
27
36
11
8.0051
80.04
128.077
691.5393
1844.348
1127.1
S.
6.( P1 P2 )
d .
11.207
112.056
179.3078
968.155
2582.0872
1577.94
5430.75
Specific surface area of sand = 5430.75 / 100 = 54.3 cm2 / gr.

2- Specific area of Gravel
Sieve size
mm
40
20
10
5
Logarithmic
Mean (d)cm
% passing
P
2.8284
1.4142
0.7071
95
44.8
13.4
0.60
P1 P2
6.( P1 P2 )
d .
50.20
31.40
12.80
40.185
50.27
40.98
S.
6.( P1 P2 )
d .
56.259
70.378
57.372
184.016
Specific surface area of Gravel = 184.016 / 100 = 1.84 cm2/gr.
46
- : :
:
-1 ) (
-2 ) (
-3 .
:
: .
-1 :
n. As + m. Ag
n+m
= Aa
Where:
Specific surface area of combined aggregate
Specific surface area of sand
Specific surface area of gravel
Mix proportion of sand : gravel
) m.( Aa Ag ) = n.( As Aa
Aa
As
Ag
n,m
n. Aa + m. Aa = n. As + m. Ag
( .
) n (Aa Ag
=
) m ( As Aa
-2 :
-1 ) ( ) (
.

-2 (Sand /
) Aggregate ).(Gravel / Aggregate
-3 ) ( )
(.
n
-4 %
n+m
m
.
%
n+m
-5 ) (4 ) (3
.
47
50
50
40
40
30
30
22.8
20
20
10
10
0.0
0.0
Surface area of Gravel cm2/gm
Surface Area of Sand cm2/gm
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0.0 % Sand / Aggregate

:
30-25)
( ) (/2
./2 25
Examples:
1- In the previous example, if the percentage of sand and gravel in the mixed aggregate was
40.0 %, and 60.0 % respectively, find the specific surface area of the resulted aggregate.
Solution
1- Mathematical method:
n : m = 40 : 60 = 2 : 3
Aa =
n. As + m. Ag
n+m
2 * 54.3 + 3 * 1.84
= 22.82 cm2/gr.
2+3
2- Graphical method:
Sand : Aggregate = 2 : 5 = 40 %,
The solution is given in the previous chart.
48
2- two samples of sand, the first is coarse, and its specific surface area equals to 50 cm2/gm,
and the second is fine with specific surface area of 80 cm2/gm. There is also a sample of
gravel with 5.0 cm2/gm specific surface area.
Determine the mix proportion of both the two samples of sand with the sample of gravel to
obtain a sample of aggregate with 25.0 cm2/gm specific surface area in each case. It is also
required to find the resulted specific surface area of the aggregate if each type of sand is
mixed with gravel by (1:1), and (1 : 4). Use both mathematical and graphical methods.
Solution
1- Mathematical method:
a- for sand with 50.0 cm2/gm specific surface area:
n Aa Ag
=
m As Aa
n:m=4:5
n 25 5
20 4
=
=
=
m 50 25 25 5
= 1 : 1.25
b- for sand with 80.0 cm2/gm specific surface area:
n Aa Ag
=
m As Aa
n 25 5
20 4
=
=
=
m 80 25 55 11
n : m = 4 : 11 = 1 : 2.75
90
90
80
80
70
70
60
60
50
50
40
40
30
30
20
20
10
10
0.0
44.4
26.7
0.0
2- Graphical method:
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0.0 % Sand / Aggregate

49
to find the surface area of aggregate:
Aa =
n. As + m. Ag
n+m
1- Coarse sand with gravel ( 1 : 1)
Aa =
1 * 50 + 1 * 5
= 27.50 cm2/gm
2
2- Coarse sand with gravel ( 1 : 4)
Aa =
1 * 50 + 4 * 5
= 14.0 cm2/gm
5
3- Fine sand with gravel ( 1 : 1)
Aa =
1 * 80 + 1 * 5
= 42.50 cm2/gm
2
4- Fine sand with gravel ( 1 : 4)
90
90
80
80
70
70
60
60
50
50
40
42.5
40
30 27.5
20 20.0
14.0
30
0.0
0.0
20
10
1 * 80 + 4 * 5
= 20.0 cm2/gm
5
Aa =
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0.0 % Sand / Aggregate

50
Section III
Cement
3-1 Introduction
Soundness of Cement

.
) (Soundness
) (Strength and Durability

.
:

1- Free Lime
) "" (

) (:
) ( + +.
2 Ca O + 2 H2 O 2 Ca (OH)2 + Heat
(Free
) lime
.

) (.
2- The presence of too high Magnesia
% 5
3- The presence of excess of Sulphate
) (S O3 .% 2
) (Cement Unsoundness :
-1 ) (
) (Clay .
51
-2
.
:

)
(.
52
Section IV
Tests applied on aggregate and Cement
1- Volume weight
:

.
:
) 3( ) 15 (
50 16 .
:
-1 .W1
-2 25
25 25
.
-3 ) ( .W2
W2 W1
-4 =
Volume of cylinder
2- Specific weight
:

.
:
100 1000 .
:

:
-1 110-100
.W
-2 V1
.
-3 ) +( .V2
-4 = ).(V2 V1
53
W
-5 =
V2 V1
:

.
3- Voids ratio
:
.
:
.
:
-1 123 .
-2
.
-3 .V
V
-4 =
Volume of cylinder
:
=
)4- Angularity Factor (S

) (S ` W
) (V ) (WL
3 ) 25 (
) (WC ).(
=
=
54
WL
WC
S (Angularity Factor) =
WL
WC
5- Strength of aggregate
6- Crushing value of aggregate
7- Hardness of aggregate
8- Toughness of aggregate
9- Harmful impurities in aggregate
55
10- Soundness of cement
11- Strength of cement
56
Section V
Solved Problems
1- In a tension steel member of 2.0 m long the elongation was found to be 2.0 mm
corresponding to a force of 4000 Kg. Calculate the area of the member cross section, and
the applied normal stress if the modulus of elasticity of this type of material is 2100 t/cm2.
Solution
Data:
L0 = 200.0 cm
L = 2.0 mm = 0.20 cm
P = 4000.0 kg. = 4.0 tons
E = 2100.0 t/cm2.
Required:
A (cross-sectional area), (Normal stress)

L =
P.L0
E. A
Then, A =
P.L0
4 .0 * 2 .0
=
= 0.02 cm2.
E.L 2100.0 * 0.2
P 4.0
=
= 210.0 t/cm2.
A 0.02
2- A load of 2.0 t is hanged down from a vertical round steel rod of 2.1*106 kg/cm2 modulus
of elasticity. If the stress in the rod was 1500.0 kg/cm2, find:
a- Diameter of the rod.
b- Length of rod corresponding to an elongation of 0.3 mm.
c- The change in the rod diameter if the Poissons ratio equals to 0.30
Solution
a- =
P
A
then, 1500.0 =
2000.0
.d 2
4
d = 1.30294 cm.
57
b- L =
2000.0 * L0
0.30
=
10
2.1 * 10 6 * 1.333
P.L0
E. A
L0 = 42.0 cm
c- =
Lateral Strain
Longitudinal Strain
A
0.30 =
A0
1.333 A1
=
0.03
L0
1.3333
42.0
A1 = 1.333047 cm2 = . d2/4

d = 1.3028 cm
change in diameter = 1.3029 1.3028 = 0.0001 cm
3- For the beam shown, calculate the magnitude of the normal stresses in the different
parts as well as the value of the resulted deformation at the free end. The beam cross
sectional area is 10.0 cm2, and its modulus of elasticity equals to 2.0*106 kg/cm2.
(neglect the own weight of the beam).
Solution
1- for part no. (1)
L =
P.L0
E. A
P = 6.0 t (tension) = 6000.0 kg., A = 10.0 cm2., and L0 = 200.0 cm
P 6000
= 600.0 kg/cm2 (tensile)
=
A
10
L =
6000.0 * 200.0
= +0.060 cm
2 *10 6 * 10.0
2- for part (2)
P = 3.0 t (compression) = 3000.0 kg., A = 10.0 cm2., and L0 = 200.0 cm
P 3000
= 300.0 kg/cm2 (compressive)
=
A
10
58
L =
3000.0 * 200.0
= -0.03 cm
2 *10 6 *10.0
total elongation at the free end = 0.06 0.03 = 0.03 cm
4- Calculate the value of the tension force P which causes total elongation of 0.55 mm in
the shown combined rod. The upper part is cast iron of 7.50 cm diameter, and the lower
part is of mild steel and 5.0 cm diameter.
Modulus of elasticity of cast iron and mild steel is 1.2*106 kg/cm2, and 2.10*106 kg/cm2
respectively.
Solution
L =
P.Li
P.Ls
+
E i . Ai E s . As
Li (length of cast iron rod) = 30.0 cm

Ai (cross-sectional area of cast iron rod) = .d2/4 = * 7.502 / 4 = 44.18 cm2.
Ls (length of mild steel rod) = 30.0 cm
As (cross-sectional area of mild steel rod) = .d2/4 = * 5.02 / 4 = 19.635 cm2.
30.0
30.0
L = P
+
= 0.055
6
6
1.20 *10 * 44.18 2.10 * 10 *19.635
P = 75.6 tons
5- A steel rod, circular in section, tapers from 3.0 cm diameter to 1.50 cm diameter in a
length of 60.0 cm. Find how much this length will increase under a pull of 2.0 tons if E =
2.10*106 kg/cm2.
Solution
L =
4.P.L0
E. .(d 0 d1 )
P = 2.0 t
d0 = 3.0 cm
L =
L0 = 60.0 cm
d1 = 1.50 cm
E = 2.10*106 kg/cm2
4 * 2000.0 * 60
= 0.0485 cm
2.10 *10 6. .(3.0 1.50)
59
Problems:
1- A tension test was carried out on a high tensile steel specimen of 2.20 Cms diameter and
11.0 Cms gauge length. The load (P) in tons and the extension (L) in mms were recorded as
follows:
0.0
0.0
P (Tons)
L (mm)
2.0
6.0
12.0 14.0
0.032 0.096 0.192 0.225
16.0
0.38
17.0
1.20
18.0
2.50
19.0
7.30
19.2
11.50
Solution
20
P Tons
15
10
0
0
10
12
L mm
1- The bar AB is considered to be absolutely rigid, and a load of 18000 kg is applied as shown
in figure (1). The connection at A is a pin, and AB is supported by the steel rod EB and the
copper rod CD. The cross sectional area of CD is 5.0 cm2, and that of EB is 3.0 cm2.
Determine the stress in each bar.
Es = 2.10 * 106 kg/cm2
Ec = 1.0 * 105 kg/cm2
2- The sieve analysis test was carried out on samples of aggregates, the percentage passing
from each sieve was as follows:
Sieve Size
Sand
Gravel
Aggregate
40
0.0
77
85.2
20
0.0
30
51.0
10
0.0
7
39.5
5
98
0.0
29.4
2.5
77
0.0
26.9
1.25
64
0.0
25.4
0.63
47
0.0
16.4
0.31
9
0.0
5.7
0.16
3
0.0
1.20
It is required to determine the optimum ratio of combination of sand and gravel to

obtain all-in aggregate with the grading stated above, and then find:
a- The fineness modulus of the combined aggregate.
b- The type of sand according to its grading, and
c- The specific surface area for the given gravel.
60

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Properties of Materials

Properties and Strength of Materials

Prepared by Amr A. El-Sayed, Civil Eng. Dept., El-Minia Univ., Eg.

then 1 Kg./Cm2 = 14.223 lb / in2 , and 1 Kg./Cm2 = 10.0 T/m2.

1-2-4 Shear stress

1-2-5 Poissons Ratio

1-2-6 Youngs Modulus

Prepared by Amr A. El-Sayed, Civil Eng. Dept., El-Minia Univ., Eg.

1-2-7 Complementary Shear

Moment = area . stress . distance

1-2-8 Shear strain

Where is the shear strain defined by the

1-2-9 Shear Modulus

Prepared by Amr A. El-Sayed, Civil Eng. Dept., El-Minia Univ., Eg.

** Relation between E & G:

For steel, E = 2100 T/cm2 = 2100*104 T/m2

1-3 Types of loading

Prepared by Amr A. El-Sayed, Civil Eng. Dept., El-Minia Univ., Eg.

1-3-3 Repeated loading

1-4 Mechanical properties of materials

Prepared by Amr A. El-Sayed, Civil Eng. Dept., El-Minia Univ., Eg.

Prepared by Amr A. El-Sayed, Civil Eng. Dept., El-Minia Univ., Eg.

Is the property of the material which makes it fractured before much or no

Prepared by Amr A. El-Sayed, Civil Eng. Dept., El-Minia Univ., Eg.

E1 = tan 1, and E2 = tan 2

It is the ability of the material to withstand or absorb mechanical energy. Tough

Toughness is measured by means of the modulus of toughness which represents the

Prepared by Amr A. El-Sayed, Civil Eng. Dept., El-Minia Univ., Eg.

1-5 Axial deformations:

1-5-2 Due to self weight

Specific weight (density)

x (at any sec tion x) =

(W .x. A).dx = W .x.dx

Prepared by Amr A. El-Sayed, Civil Eng. Dept., El-Minia Univ., Eg.

1-5-3 Due to external variable load

Normal force at any section x:

at x = 0.0, the normal force =

Prepared by Amr A. El-Sayed, Civil Eng. Dept., El-Minia Univ., Eg.

Total change in length = 0.0009 cm

Prepared by Amr A. El-Sayed, Civil Eng. Dept., El-Minia Univ., Eg.

b- the cress section is variable:

Elongation due to external force P

d` (diameter at any section x) = d 0

A (cross-sectional area at x) = .d`2 / 4 =

(stress at any section x) =

replacing (k) with

Prepared by Amr A. El-Sayed, Civil Eng. Dept., El-Minia Univ., Eg.

1-6 Stress in compound sections

Prepared by Amr A. El-Sayed, Civil Eng. Dept., El-Minia Univ., Eg.

1-6-1 Reinforced Concrete Columns

Total load carried by the column

P = C .AC (1+ n.)

Prepared by Amr A. El-Sayed, Civil Eng. Dept., El-Minia Univ., Eg.

1-7 Simple statically indeterminate problems:

1- Find the normal stresses, and reactions, E = 2000.0 t/cm2.

LAC = 30.0, and LCB = 20.0

Prepared by Amr A. El-Sayed, Civil Eng. Dept., El-Minia Univ., Eg.

1-7 Thermal stresses

Coefficient of thermal expansion

And the thermal stress = P / A

Prepared by Amr A. El-Sayed, Civil Eng. Dept., El-Minia Univ., Eg.

2- Mechanical properties of metals in static tension test

4- Plastic Stage (Necking Stage)

2-1 Elastic Strength