A GENERAL UNIFIED APPROACH

TO MODELLING SWITCHING-CONVERTER POWER STAGES

RD.MIDDLEBROOK AND SLOBODAN CUK
ABSTRACT
A method f o r model l i ng swi t chi ng-convert er
power s t ages i s devel oped, whose s t a r t i n g poi nt
i s t he uni f i ed st at e- space r epr es ent at i on of t h e
switched networks and whose end r e s u l t i s e i t h e r a
complete st at e-space des cr i pt i on or i t s equi val ent
smal l -si gnal low-frequency l i ne a r c i r c u i t model.
A new canoni cal c i r c u i t model i s proposed,
whose fi xed t opol ogy cont ai ns a l l t he e s s e n t i a l
i nput -out put and c ont r ol pr oper t i es of any dc-to-
dc swi t chi ng conver t er , r egar dl es s of i t s de t a i l e d
conf i gur at i on, and by which d i f f e r e n t conver t er s
can be char act er i zed i n t h e form of a t a b l e con-
veni ent l y s t or ed i n a computer d a t a bank t o pro-
vi de a us e f ul t o o l f o r computer ai ded desi gn and
opt i mi zat i on. The new canoni cal c i r c u i t model
pr edi ct s t h a t , i n genera1, swi t chi ng a c t i on i nt r o-
duces bot h zer os and pol es i n t o t he dut y r a t i o t o
out put t r a ns f e r f unct i on i n addi t i on t o t hose from
t he e f f e c t i ve f i l t e r network.
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Bri ef Review of Exi st i ng Modelling Techniques
I n model l i ng of swi t chi ng conver t er s i n
gener al , and power s t ages i n p a r t i c u l a r , two
main approaches - one based on st at e- space
model l i ng and t he ot her usi ng an averagi ng
t echni que - have been developed ext ensi vel y,
but t her e has been l i t t l e c or r e l a t i on between
them. The f i r s t approach remains s t r i c t l y i n
t he domain of equat i on mani pul at i ons, and
hence r e l i e s heavi l y on numeri cal methods and
computerized Implementationa. Its pri mary
advantage i s i n t h e uni f i ed des cr i pt i on of a l l
Pover s t ages r egar dl es s of t h e t ype (buck. boost .
buck-boost o r any ot he r va r i a t i on) t hrough
u t i l i z a t i o n of t h e exact st at e-space equat i ons
of t he two swi t ched models. -On t h e ot her hand,
Procesei ng Systems .'I
based on equi val ent c i r c u i t mani pul at i ons,
r e s ul t i ng i n a s i ngl e equi val ent l i n e a r c i r c u i t
model of t he par er st age. Thi s has t he d i s t i n c t
advantage of provi di ng t he c i r c u i t desi gner wi t h
physi cal i ns i ght i n t o t he behavi our of t he
o r i g i n a l swi t ched c i r c u i t , and of al l owi ng t he
powerful t ool s of l i n e a r c i r c u i t a na l ys i s and
s ynt hes i s t o be used t o t he f u l l e s t ext ent i n
desi gn of r egul at or s i ncor por at i ng swi t chi ng
conver t er s.
1.2 Proposed New St at e-Space Averaging Approach
The method proposed i n t h i s paper bri -dges t he
gap e a r l i e r consi dered t o e x i s t between t he s t a t e -
space t echni que and t h e averagi ng t echni que of
model l i ng power s t a ge s by i nt r oduct i on of s t a t e -
space averaged model l i ng. At t h e same t i me i t
o f f e r s t he advant ages of bot h e x i s t i n g methods -
t h e gener al uni f i ed t reat ment of t he st at e- space
approach, a s wel l a s an equi val ent l i n e a r c i r c u i t
model a s i t s f i n a l r e s u l t . Furt hermore, it makes
c e r t a i n gener al i zat i ons pos s i bl e, which ot herwi se
coul d not be achi eved.
The proposed st at e- space averagi ng method,
out l i ned i n t h e Flowchart of Fi g. 1, al l ows a
uni f i ed t r eat ment of a l a r g e v a r i e t y of power
s t ages c ur r e nt l y used, s i nc e t h e averagi ng s t e p
i n t he st at e- space domain i s very si mpl e and c l e a r l y
defi ned (compare bl ocks l a and 2a) . It merely
c ons i s t s of averagi ng t he two exact st at e- space
de s c r i pt i ons of t he swi t ched models over a s i ngl e
cycl e T, where f s = 1/ T i s t he swi t chi ng frequency
(bl ock 2a) . Hence t he r e i s no need f o r s pe c i a l
"know-howf' i n massaging t he two swi t ched c i r c u i t
models i n t o t opol ogi cal l y equi val ent forms i n or der
t o appl y ci r cui t - or i ent ed procedure d i r e c t l y , a s
r equi r ed i n [ l ] (bl ock l c ) . Nevert hel ess, t hrough
a hybri d model l i ng t echni que (bl ock 2c) , t he c i r -
c u i t s t r u c t u r e of t h e averaged c i r c u i t model
(bl ock 2b) can be r e a d i l y recogni zed from t he
averaged st at e-space model (bl ock 2a) . Hence
a l l t he be ne f i t s of t h e previ ous averagi ng
t echni que a r e r et ai ned. Even though t h i s out -
I n e i t h e r case, a per t ur bat i on and l i ne a r i z a t i on
@ 1976 IEEE.
Reprinted, vith permission, f r w Proceedings of the IEEE Pwer El ect r~ni cs Specialists Conference, J~~~
* - 10, 1976, Cleveland, OH.
stolc - spore C ~ Y O ~ I O ~ S
rlrody slotc ldct modd
d - o: d, d' ~' - 2, x- x+; ,
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y . ~ + i , v, -Lj . i dynom,c ioc ~ m o / / s 1 9 ~ / 1 mo t / .
Fi g. 1, Flowchart of averaged modelling approaches
process r equi r ed t o i ncl ude t he dut y r a t i o
modulation e f f e c t proceeds i n a very s t r a i ght f or -
ward and formal manner, t hus emphasizing t he
corner-stone char act er of bl ocks 2a and 2b. At
t h i s s t age (block 2a or 2b) t he st eady- st at e (dc)
and l i n e t o out put t r a ns f e r f unct i ons a r e al r eady
avai l abl e, a s i ndi cat ed by bl ocks 6a and 6b
r es pect i vel y, whi l e t he dut y r a t i o t o out put
t r a ns f e r f unct i on i s a va i l a bl e a t t he f i nal - st age
model (4a or 4b) a s i ndi cat ed by bl ocks 7a and 7b.
The two f i n a l s t age models (4a and 4b) then gi ve
t he complete des cr i pt i on of t he swi t chi ng
convert er by i ncl us i on of bot h independent con-
t r o l s , t he l i n e vol t age va r i a t i on and t he dut y
r a t i o modulation.
Even though t he c i r c u i t t ransformat i on pat h
b might be pr ef er r ed from t he pr a c t i c a l desi gn
st andpoi nt , t he st at e- space averagi ng pat h a i s
i nval uabl e i n reachi ng some gener al concl usi ons
about t he smal l -si gnal low-frequency models of
any dc-to-dc swi t chi ng conver t er (even t hose
ye t t o be i nvent ed) . Whereas, f o r pat h b, one
has t o be prekented wi t h t he pa r t i c ul a r c i r c u i t
i n or der t o proceed wi t h modelling, f o r pat h a
t he f i na l st at e- space averaged equat i ons (block
48) gi ve t he complete model des cr i pt i on through
gener al mat r i ces A1, A2 and vect or s bl,
b2'
c T, and c2T of t h e two s t a r t i n g switched models
( h o c k l a ) . Thi s i s a l s o why al ong pat h b i n
t he Flowchart a pa r t i c ul a r example of a boost
power s t a ge wi t h p a r a s i t i c e f f e c t s was chosen,
whi l e al ong pat h a gener al equat i ons have been
r et ai ned. Spe c i f i c a l l y, f o r t he boost power
s t age bl = b2 - b. Thi s example w i l l be l a t e r
pursued i n d e t a i l al ong both pat hs.
I n addi t i on t he st at e- space averagi ng
approach o f f e r s a c l e a r i ns i ght i n t o t he
qua nt i t a t i ve na t ur e of t he ba s i c averagi ng
approximation, which becomes be t t e r t he f ur t he r
t he e f f e c t i ve low-pass f i l t e r cor ner frequency
f is below t he swi t chi ng frequency f, , t ha t i s,
f z / f s << 1. Thi s i s, however, shown t o be
equi val ent t o t he requirement f o r smal l out put
vol t age r i ppl e , and hence does not pose any
s e r i ous r e s t r i c t i o n or l i mi t a t i on on modelling
of prac r i c a l dc-to-dc conver t er s.
Fi na l l y, t he st at e- space averagi ng approach
s er ves a s a ba s i s f or der i vat i on of a us e f ul
gener al c i r c u i t model t ha t des cr i bes t he i nput -
out put and c ont r ol pr oper t i es of any dc-to-dc
conver t er .
1. 3 New Canoni cal Ci r cui t Model
The cul mi nat i on of any of t hes e der i va-
tions al ong e i t h e r pat h a or pat h b i n t he
Flowchart of Fi g. 1 i s an equi val ent c i r c u i t
(bl ock 5) , va l i d f or smal l - si gnal low-f requency
var i at i ons superimposed upon a dc oper at i ng
poi nt , t h a t r epr es ent s t h e two t r a ns f e r f unct i ons
of i n t e r e s t f o r a swi t chi ng conver t er .
These
.re t he l i n e vol t age t o
out put and dut y r a t i o
to out put t r a n s f e r f unct i ons .
The equi val ent c i r c u i t i s a canoni cal model
t h a t cont ai ns t h e e s s e n t i a l pr ope r t i e s of
dc-to-dc swi t chi ng conver t er , r egar dl es s of t he
det ai l ed conf i gur at i on.
As seen i n bl ock 5 f o r
the general case, t h e model i ncl udes an i d e a l
t ransformer t h a t des cr i bes t he ba s i c d c - t e d c
t ransformat i on r a t i o from l i n e t o out put ; a
low-pass f i l t e r whose el ement val ues depend upon
t he dc dut y r a t i o ; and a vol t age and a cur r ent
generat or pr opor t i onal t o t h e dut y r a t i o modula-
t i on i nput .
The canoni cal model i n bl ock 5 of t he Flow-
char t can be obt ai ned fol l owi ng e i t h e r pat h a or
pat h b, namely from bl ock 4a or 4b, a s w i l l be
&own l a t e r . However, fol l owi ng t h e gener al
des cr i pt i on of t he f i n a l averaged model i n bl ock
ha, c e r t a i n gener al i zat i ons about t he canoni cal
model a r e made pos s i bl e, which a r e ot her wi se not
achi evabl e. Namely, even though f or a l l c ur r e nt l y
known swi t chi ng dc-to-dc conver t er s (such a s t he
buck, boost , buck-boost, Venable 131, Weinberg [ 4 ]
and a number of ot her s ) t h e frequency dependence
appears onl y i n t h e dut y- r at i o dependent vol t age
generat or but not i n t h e cur r ent gener at or , and the
~n bs,a@,a,fkaLs.f d e ~ . L~i , r l ~l e ~z c r _o~. . e oI ~omi a l i n
pol es of t h e e f f e c t i v e f i l t e r network which
e s s e nt i a l l y c o n s t i t u t e t h e l i n e vol t age t o out put
t r a ns f e r f unct i on. Moreover, i n gener al , both
dut y- r at i o dependent gener at or s , vol t age and cur-
r e nt , a r e frequency dependent ( a ddi t i ona l zer os
and pol es ) . That i n t h e p a r t i c u l a r cas es of t he
boost or buck-boost conver t er s t h i s dependence
reduces t o a f i r s t or der pol ynomi al r e s u l t s from
t he f a c t t h a t - t h e or der of t h e syst em which i s
involved i n t h e swi t chi ng a c t i on i s onl y two.
Hence from t he gener al r e s u l t , t h e or der of t he
Polynomial i s a t most one, though it coul d reduce
t o a pure cons t ant , a s i n t h e buck or t h e Venable
convert er [ 3] .
The s i gni f i c a nc e of t h e new c i r c u i t model i s
t h a t any swi t chi ng dc-to-dc conver t er can be
reduced t o t h i s canoni cal f i xed t opol ogy form,
a t l e a s t a s f a r a s i t s i nput -out put and c ont r ol
a;nt"y";;;f; 5-7 i;-g;;,;j, ;~;;er~f~~c:'iv:a for
el ement s depend on dut y r a t i o D) , and t h e conf i -
gur at i on chosen which opt i mi zes t he s i z e and
wei ght . Al so, comparison of t he frequency depen-
dence of t he two dut y- r at i o dependent gener at or s
provi des i ns i ght i n t o t he quest i on of s t a b i l i t y
once a r egul at or feedback l oop i s cl os ed.
1.4 Ext ensi on t o Complete Regul at or Treat ment
Fi na l l y, a l l t h e r e s u l t s obt ai ned i n model l i ng
t he conver t er o r , more accur at el y, t he network
which e f f e c t i ve l y t akes pa r t i n swi t chi ng a c t i on,
can e a s i l y be i ncor por at ed i n t o more compl i cat ed
syst ems cont ai ni ng dc-to-dc conver t er s. For
example, by model l i ng t he modul at or s t a ge al ong t he
same l i n e s , one can obt ai n a l i n e a r c i r c u i t model
of a cl osed-l oop swi t chi ng r egul at or . St andard
l i near feedback theory ran t hen be used f o r bot h
a na l ys i s and s ynt hes i s , s t a b i l i t y cons i der at i ons ,
and proper desi gn of feedback compensating net -
works f o r mul t i pl e l oop a s wel l a s si ngl e-l oop
r e gul a t or conf i gur at i ons .
2. STATE-SPACE AVERAGING
I n t h i s s e c t i on t he st at e- space averagi ng
method i s developed f i r s t i n gener al f o r any dc-
to-dc swi t chi ng conver t er , and t hen demonst rat ed
i n d e t a i l f o r t he p a r t i c u l a r cas e of t he boost
power s t age i n which p a r a s i t i c e f f e c t s ( e s r of
t he capaci t or and s e r i e s r e s i s t a nc e of t he i n-
duct or ) a r e i ncl uded. General equat i ons f or
bot h st eady- st at e (dc) and dynamic performance
( ac) a r e obt ai ned, from which i mport ant t r a n s f e r
in f unct i ons a r e der i ved and a l s o appl i ed t o t he
s p e c i a l cas e of t he boost power s t age.
swi t chi ng between two l i n e a r net works cons i s t i ng
of i d e a l l y l o s s l e s s s t or a ge el ement s, i nduct ances
and capaci t ances. I n p r a c t i c e , t h i s f unct i on may
be obt ai ned by use of t r a n s i s t o r s and di odes
which oper at e a s synchronous swi t ches. On t he
assumpt i on t h a t t h e c i r c u i t oper at es i n t he so-
c a l l e d "continuous conduct i on" mode i n which t he
i nst ant aneous i nduct or c ur r e nt does not f a l l t o
zer o a t any poi nt i n t he cycl e, t h e r e a r e onl y
two d i f f e r e n t " s t at es " of t h e c i r c u i t . Each s t a t e ,
however, can be r epr esent ed by a l i n e a r c i r c u i t
model ( a s shown i n bl ock l b of Fi g. 1 ) or by a
correspondi ng s e t of s t at e- s pace equat i ons (bl ock
l a ) . Even though any s e t of l i n e a r l y i ndependent
va r i a bl e s can be chosen a s t he s t a t e va r i a bl e s ,
i t i s customary and conveni ent i n e l e c t r i c a l
net works t o adopt t h e i nduct or c ur r e nt s and capa-
c i t o r vol t ages. The t o t a l number of s t or age
el ement s t hus det ermi nes t h e or der of t he system.
k e , E , , ~ s , " d , ~ :~,~h,,B,,:h,~,i,c,~ e:f LaLve_c,to,E
equat i ons f o r t h e two swi t ched models:
(i) i nt er val Td : ( 11) i nt er val Td' :
where Td denotes t he i nt er val when t he switch i s
i n t he on s t at e a n d T( l - d) 5 ~ d ' i s t he i nt erval
f or which it i s i n t he o f f s t at e , as shown i n
Fig. 2 . The s t a t i c equations yl = clTx and
y
= c2Tx are necessary i n order t o account f or
t i e case when t h e output quant i t y does not
s w ~ t c h dr i v e
o f f 7
k r-
1 Td Td' 4
Fig. 2. Def i ni t i on o f t he two switched i nt er val s
Td and Td' .
coincide wi t h any of t he s t at e var i abl es , but
i s rather a cert ai n l i near combination o f t he
s t at e vari abl e$.
Our obj ect i ve now i s t o replace t he st at e-
space descri pt i on o f t he two l i near c i r c ui t s
emanating from t he two successive phases o f t he
switching cycl e T by a si ngl e state-space des-
cri pt i on which represents approximately t he beha-
viour o f t he c i r c ui t across t he whole period T.
We t heref ore propose t he following simple avera-
ging s t ep: t ake t he average o f bot h dynamic and
s t at i c equations f or t he two switched i nt er val s
( I ) , by summing t he equations f or i nt er val Td
mul t i pl i ed by d and t he equations f or i nt er val
Td' mul t i pl i ed by d' . The following l i near
continuous system r e s ul t s :
Af t e r rearranging ( 2 ) i nt o t he standard
l i near continuous system state-space descri pt i on,
we obt ai n t he basi c averaged state-space descrip-
t i on (over a si ngl e period T ) :
Thi s model i s t he basi c averaged model which
i s the s t ar t i ng model f or a l l ot her deri vat i ons
(bot h state-space and ci r cui t or i ent ed) .
Note t hat i n t he above equations t he dut y
r at i o d i s considered const ant ; it i s not a time
dependent vari abl e ( y e t ) , and part i cul arl y not a
switched discontinuous vari abl e which changes
between 0 and 1 as i n [ l ] and [ 2 ] , but i s merely
a f i xed number f or each cycl e. This i s evi dent
from t he model deri vat i on i n Appendix A. In
part i cul ar, when d = 1 ( swi t ch const ant l y on)
t he averaged model ( 3 ) reduces t o switched
model ( 11) , and when d = 0 ( swi t ch o f f ) i t
reduces t o switched model ( 111) .
In essence, comparison between ( 3) and ( 1 )
shows t hat t he system matrix of t he averaged
model i s obtained by taking t he average o f two
switched model matrices A and A2, i t s cont rol i s
t he average o f two cont rol vect ors bl and b 2 , and
i t s output i s t he average o f two outputs yl and
y over a period T.
2
The j us t i f i c at i on and t he nature o f the
approximation i n s ubs t i t ut i on f or t he two switched
models o f (1) by averaged model ( 3) i s indicated
i n Appendix A and given i n more de t ai l i n [b].
The basi c approximation made, however, i s t hat
o f approximation o f t he fundamental matrix
eAt = I + At + by i t s f i rst - order l i near
term. Thi s i s , i n turn,shown i n Appendix B t o
be t he same approximation necessary t o obt ai n t he
dc condi t i on independent o f t he storage element
val ues (L,C) and dependent on t he dc dut y r at i o
onl y. I t al s o coincides wi t h t he requirement f or
low output vol t age r i ppl e , which i s shown i n
Appendix C t o be equi val ent t o f c / f << 1 ,
namely t he e f f e c t i v e f i l t e r corner frequency
much lower than t he switching frequency.
The model represented by ( 3 ) is an averaged
model over a si ngl e period T . I f we now assume
t hat t he dut y r at i o d i s constant from cycl e t o
c y c l e , namely, d = D (st eady s t at e dc duty r a t i o ) ,
we get :
where
Since ( 4 ) i s a l i near system, superposition
holds and it can be per t ~r bed by i nt roduct i on o f
l i ne vol t age vari at i ons v as v = V + C , where
V i s t he dc l i ne i nput v81t agef cauging 8
c8rrespo:ding perturbation i n t he s t at e vect or
x = X + X , where !gain X i s t he dc value of t he
s t at e vect or and x t he superFposed ac pertur-
bat i on. Si mi l ar l y, y = Y + y , and
Separation o f the steady-state ( dc) part
from the dynamic ( ac) part then r es ul t s i n t he
steady s t at e ( dc) model
and t he dynamic ( ac) model
I t i s i nt erest i ng t o note t hat i n ( 7 ) t he
steady s t at e ( dc) vect or X wi l l i n general only
depend on the dc duty r at i o D and resi st ances
i n t he ori gi nal model, but not on t he storage
element values ( L' s and C' s ) . Thi s i s so
because X i s t he sol ut i on o f t he l i near system
of equations
i n which L' s and C' s are proportionality con-
st ant s. Thi s i s i n complete agreement wi t h t he
f i rst -order approximation of t he exact dc
conditions shown i n Appendix B , which coincides
wi t h expression ( 7 ) .
From t he dynamic ( ac) model, t he l i ne
voltage t o state-vector t r ans f er functions can
be easi l y derived as:
Hence at t h i s stage both steady-state
( dc) and l i ne t r ans f er functions are avai l abl e,
as shown by block 6a i n t he Flowchart of F i g . 1.
We now undertake t o include t he duty r at i o
modulation e f f e c t i nt o t he basic averaged
model ( 3 ) .
2.2 Perturbation
Suppose now t hat the duty r at i o changes from
cycle t o cycl e, t hat i s , d ( t ) = D + a where D
i_s the steady-state ( dc) duty r at i o as bef ore and
d i s a superimposed ( ac) vari at i on. With t he A
corres~ondi na perturbatipn def i ni t i on x = X + x ,
dc term l i ne duty r at i o vari at i on
vari at i on
nonlinear second-order term
dc ac ac term nonlinear term
term term
The perturbed state-space descri pt i on i s
nonlinear owing t o t he presence o f the_ prodyct
o f the two time dependent quant i t i es x and d .
2 . 3 Linearization and Final State-Space Averaged
Model
Let us now make t he small-signal approxima-
t i on, namely t hat departures from t he steady st at e
values are negl i gi bl e compared t o t he steady st at e
values themselves:
Then, using approximations (12) we negl ect a l l
nonlinear terms such as t he second-order terms i n
(11) and obtain once again a line_ar system, but
including duty-ratio modulation d . Af t er sepa-
rat i ng steady-state ( dc) and dynamic ( ac) parts
o f t hi s linearized system we arri ve at t he follow-
ing resul t s for t he f i nal state-space averaged
model.
Steady-state ( dc) model:
Dynamic (ac small-signal) model:
T
In these r es ul t s , A, b and c are given as bef ore
by ( 5 ) .
Equations (13) and ( 14) represent t he small-
signal low-frequency model o f any No- st at e
switching dc-to-dc converter working i n t he con-
tinuous conduction mode.
I t i s important t o note t hat by negl ect of
t he nonlinear term i n (11) t he source o f harmonics
i s e f f e c t i v e l y removed. Theref ore, t he l i near
description (14) i s act ual l y a l i neari zed
describing function r es ul t t hat i s the l i m i t o f
t he de s ~r i bi ng~f unc t i on 2s t he amplitude of t he
input signals ve andlor d becomes vanishingly
explained i n [ I ] , 121, or la]' i n h i c h smail-
signal assumption (12) i s preserved. Very good
agreement up t o close t o hal f t he switching
frequency has been demonstrated repeatedly
(111, [21, 131, 171).
2.4 Example: Boost Power St age wi t h Pa r a s i t i c s
We now i l l u s t r a t e t he method f o r t h e boost
power s t a ge shown i n Fi g. 3.
i n which I i s t he d c i nduct or c ur r e nt , V is
t h e dc capaci t or vol t age, and Y i s t he dc out put
vol t age .
Dynamic ( a c s mal l s i gna l ) model:
Fi g. 3.
Example f o r t he s t at e- s pace averaged
model l i ng: boost power s t a ge wi t h para-
s i t i c ~ i ncl uded.
Fi g. 4. Two swi t ched c i r c u i t models of t he
c i r c u i t i n Pi g. 3 wi t h assumpt i on of i d e a l
swi t ches. A l l el ement s i n t h e f i n a l s t a t e -
space averaged mode4 (13) and (14) a r e
obt ai ned: A b , c from a ) f o r i n t e r v a l
Td, and ~ ~ , b i : ~ k homb) f o r i n t e r v a l Td' .
With assumption of i d e a l swi t ches, t h e two
swi t ched models a r e a s shown i n Fig. 4. For choi ce
of st at e- space vect or xT = ( 1 v ) , t h e s t a t e space
equat i ons become:
.--I
where
Note t h a t (15) i s t he s p e c i a l case of (1) i n
which bl = b2 = b = [ I / L b]T.
Using (16) and (5) i n t h e gener al r e s u l t
(13) and ( 14) , we obt ai n t he fol l owi ng f i n a l
st at e- space averaged model.
St eady- st at e (dc) model:
2
i n which R' (1-D) R + R~ + D ( ~ - D ) ( R ~ ~ ~ R ; .
We now l ook more c l os e l y a t t he dc vol t age
t r ansf or mat i on r a t i o i n (17):
v Y 1 2
_ r - = -
(1-D) R
(19)
V V 1-D (I-D)~R + Rp + D(1-D) (Rc /b)
W L T
i d e a l c or r e c t i on f a c t o r
dc gai n
Thi s shows t h a t t h e i d e a l d c vol t a ge gai n i s 1 / D '
when a l l p a r a s i t i c s a r e zer o (R = 0, Rc = 0) and
t h a t i n t h e i r presence i t is s l f g h t l y reduced by
a c or r e c t i on f a c t o r l e s s t han 1. Also we observe
..L-.. ------- --- ..I.- a.. ---- /u
di s c ont i nui t y of out put vol t a ge was not in?iu$.&$+L
i n [Z], but was c or r e c t l y account ed f o r i n 111.
From t h e dynamic model (18) one can f i nd t he
dut y r a t i o t o out put and l i n e vol t age t o out put
t r a n s f e r f unct i ons , which agr ee exact l y wi t h t hose
obt ai ned i n [ l ] by fol l owi ng a d i f f e r e n t method of
averaged model de r i va t i on based on t he equi val ence
of c i r c u i t t opol ogi es of two swi t ched net works.
The fundament al r e s u l t of t h i s s e c t i on i s t he
development of t h e gener al st at e- space averaged
model r epr esent ed by (13) and ( 14) , which can be
e a s i l y used t o f i nd t he smal l - si gnal low-frequency
model of any swi t chi ng dc-to-dc conver t er . Thi s
was demonst rat ed f o r a boost power s t a g e wi t h
p a r a s i t i c s r e s u l t i n g i n t h e averaged model (17)
and (18). It i s i mport ant t o emphasize t h a t ,
unl i ke t he t r a n s f e r f unct i on de s c r i pt i on, t he
st at e- space des cr i pt i on (13) and a 4 ) gi ves t he
compl et e syst em behavi our. Thi s i s very us ef ul
i n implementing two-loop and mul t i -l oop feedback
when two o r more s t a t e s a r e used-i n a feedback
pat h t o modul at e t h e dut y r a t i o d. For example.
bot h out put vol t a ge and i nduct or c ur r e nt may
be r et ur ned i n a feedback l oop.
3. HYBRID MODELLING
In t h i s sect i on it wi l l be shown t hat f or any
s pe c i f i c converter a us ef ul c i r c ui t r eal i z at i on
o f t he basi c averaged model given by ( 3 ) can
always be found. Then, i n t he following s ect i on,
t he perturbation and l i neari zat i on st eps wi l l be
carried out on t he c i r c ui t model f i nal l y t o
arri ve a t t he c i r c ui t model equivalent o f ( 13) and
( 14) +
The c i r c ui t r eal i z at i on wi l l be demonstrated
f or t he same boost power stage example,for which
t he basi c state-space averaged model ( 3 ) becomes:
In order t o "connect" t he c i r c ui t , we
express t he capacitor vol t age v i n terms of t he
desired output quant i t y y as :
R+Rc
v = - y - ( 1 - d ) Rc i
R
or , i n mat ri x form
Subst i t ut i on o f (21) i nt o ( 20) gives
i deal
From ( 22) one can e as i l y reconstruct t he c i r c ui t
represent at i on shown i n F i g . 5 .
The basi c model ( 22) i s val i d f or t he dc
regime, and t he two dependent generators can be
modeled as an i deal d ' : l transformer whose range
extends down t o dc, as shown i n F i g . 6 .
F i g . 5 . Ci rcui t r eal i z at i on o f t he basi c st at e-
space averaged model ( 20) through hybrid
modelling.
d': I
Fig. 6 . Basic c i r c ui t averaged model f or t he
boost c i r c ui t example i n F i g . 3. Both dc-
to-dc conversion and l i n e vari at i on are
modelled when d(t)-D.
As be f or e , we f i nd t hat t he c i r c ui t model i n
Fig. 6 reduces f or d = 1 t o switched model i n F i g .
4a, and f or d = 0 t o switched model i n F i g . 4b.
In both cases t he addi t i onal resi st ance R =
dd' ( R I I R) disappears, as it should.
1
I f t he duty r at i o i s constant so d = D , t he
dc regime can be found e as i l y by considering
inductance L t o be short and capacitance C t o be
open f or dc, and t he transformer t o have a D' :l
r at i o. Hence t he dc vol t age gain ( 19) can be
di r e c t l y seen from F i g . 6 . Si mi l arl y, a l l l i ne
t r ans f e r f unct i ons corresponding t o ( 10) can be
e as i l y found from Fig. 6 .
I t i s i nt er es t i ng now t o compare t h i s i deal
d ' : l transformer wi t h the usual ac transformer.
While i n t he l a t t e r t he t urns r at i o i s f i x e d, t he
one employed i n our model has a dynamic t urns r at i o
d ' : l which changes when t he dut y r at i o i s a func-
t i on o f t i me, d ( t ) . I t i s through t hi s i deal
transformer t hat t he actual cont rol l i ng f unct i on i s
achieved when t he feedback loop i s cl osed. In
addi t i on t he i deal transformer has a dc t rans-
formation r at i o d ' : l , while a real transformer
works f or ac si gnal s onl y. Nevert hel ess, t he
concept o f t he i deal transformer i n Fig. 6 wi t h
such properties i s a very us e f ul one, si nce a f t e r
a l l t he switching converter has t he overal l
property o f a dc-to-dc transformer whose t urns
r at i o can be dynamically adjusted b y dut y r at i o
modulation t o achieve t he cont rol l i ng f unct i on.
We wi l l , however, see i n t he next sect i on how
t hi s can be more e x pl i c i t l y modelled i n terms of
dut y- rat i o dependent generators onl y.
Following t he procedure out l i ned i n t h i s
sect i on one can e as i l y obt ai n t he basi c averaged
c i r c ui t models o f t hree common converter power
stages, as shown i n t he summary o f Fig. 7 .
(a) buck power St e qe :
(b) boos t Power s t a a r : buck
(c) buck b o o s t power s
boost
R
Fig. 7. Summary of basi c ci r cui t averaged models
f or t hree common power stages: buck,
boost , and buck-boost.
The two switched ci r cui t state-space models
f or t he power stages i n Fig. 7 are such t hat t he
general equations ( 1) reduce t o t he speci al cases
A1 - A2 - A, bl # b2 = 0 (zero vect or) f or t he
buck parer st age, and A1 # A2, b - b2 = b f or t he
boost power st age, whereas f or t he buck-boost
power stage A + A2 and bl # b2 = 0 so t hat t he
general case 3s retained.
4. CIRCUIT AVERAGING
As indicated i n t he Introduction, in t h i s
section t he al t ernat i ve path b i n t he Flowchart
o f F i g . 1 wi l l be followed, and equivalence
wi t h t he previously developed path a f i rml y
established. The f i nal ci r cui t averaged model
f or t he same example o f t he boost power stage
wi l l be arrived a t , which i s equivalent t o i t s
corresponding state-space deacription given by
(17) and (18) .
The averaged ci r cui t models shown i n ' Fi g .
7 could have been obtained as i n [ 2 ] by di r ect l y
averaging t he corresponding components of t he two
switched models. However, even f or some simple
cases such as t he buck-boost or tapped inductor
boost [l ] t hi s presents some d i f f i c u l t y owing t o
t he requirement o f having two switched ci r cui t
models t opol ogi cal l y equi val ent , while t here i s
no such requirement i n t he outlined procedure.
4.1 Perturbation
I f t he averaged model i n F i g . 7b i s perturbed
according t o v g - v +G iA- I+$, d - m-a,
d' ,- D' - a, v - ~ 4 , ~ ~ H'Y+~ t he nonlinear model
i n F i g . 8 r es ul t s .
F i g . 8. Perturbation o f t he basi c averaged ci r cui t
model i n F i g . 6 includes t he duty r at i o
modulation e f f e c t 2, but r es ul t s i n t h i s
nonlinear ci r cui t model.
4.2 Linearization
Under t he small-signal approximation ( 12) ,
t he following l i near approximations are obtained:
and t he f i nal averaged ci r cui t model of F i g . 9
r es ul t s . In t h i s ci r cui t model we have f i nal l y
obtained t he cont rol l i ng f unct i on separated i n
terms o f duty r at i o a dependent generators e,
and j , , while t he transformer t urns r at i o i s
dependent on t he dc duty r at i o D onl y. The
ci r cui t model obtained i n F i g . 9 i s equivalent t o
the state-space descri pt i on given by (17) and ( 18) .
F i g . 9 . Under small-signal assumption (121, the
model i n F i g . 8 i s l i neari zed and t h i s
f i nal averaged ci r cui t model of t he boost
stage i n F i g . 3 i s obtained.
5 . THE CANONICAL CIRCUIT MODEL
Even though t he general f i nal state-space
In t hi s sect i on we proceed with t he perturba-
averaged model i n (13) and (14) gives t he complete
t i on and l i neari zat i on steps applied t o t he ci r -
descri pt i on o f t he system behaviour, one might s t i l l
cui t model, continuing wi t h t he boost power stage
wish t o derive a ci r cui t model describing i t s
as an example i n order t o include expl i ci t l y t he
input-output and cont rol properties as i l l ust rat ed
duty r at i o modulation e f f e c t .
i n F i g . 10.
(a)
state - space
i n p u t output
bas is
'0'
cont r ol
-7G
cont rol
F i g . 10. Def i ni t i on o f t he modelling obj ect i ve:
ci r cui t averaged model describing input-
output and control properties.
In going from t he model o f F i g . 10a t o t hat o f
F i g . l ob some information about t he i nt ernal
behaviour o f some o f t he s t at es wi l l cert ai nl y be
l o s b b u t , on t he other hand, important advantages
wi l l be gained as were br i e f l y outlined i n t he
Int roduct i on, and as t hi s sect i on wi l l i l l us t r at e.
We propose t he following f i xed topology
ci r cui t model, shown i n F i g . 11, as a real i zat i on
control f u ~ t i o n basic dc-to-dc effective low-pass
vi a d transforrrration f I l ter network
F i g . 11. Canonical ci r cui t model real i zat i on o f t he
"black box" i n F i g . l ob, modelling t he
three essent i al functions o f any dc-to-dc
converter: cont rol , basic dc conversion,
and l w- pass f i l t e r i ng.
o f t he "black box" i n F i g . l ob. We cal l t h i s model
t he canonical ci r cui t model, because any switching
converter input-output model, regardless o f i t s
det ai l ed conf i gurat i on, could be represented i n
t h i s form. Di f f er ent converters are represented
simply by an appropriate s et o f formulas f or t he
four elements e ( s ) , j ( s ) , p . He(s) i n t he general
equivalent ci r cui t . The pol ari t y o f t he i deal
p:1 transformer i s determined by.whether or not
t he power stage i s pol ari t y i nvert i ng. I t s t ur ns
r at i o p i s dependent on t he dc duty r at i o D , and
since f or modelling purposes t he transformer i s
assumed t o operate down t o dc, it provides t he
basi c dc-to-dc l evel conversion. The single-sec-
t i on low-pass LeC f i l t e r i s shown i n F i g . 11
only f or i l l us t r at i on purposes, because t he actual
number and conf i gurat i on of t he L' s and C' s i n t he
e f f e c t i v e f i l t e r t r ans f er function real i zat i on
depends on t he number o f storage elements i n t he
ori gi nal converter.
The resi st ance Re i s included i n t he model
o f F i g . 11 t o represent t he damping properties
o f t he e f f e c t i v e low-pass f i l t e r . I t i s an
" ef f ect i ve" resi st ance t hat accounts f or various
seri es ohmic resi st ances i n t he actual ci r cui t
(such as RE i n t he boost ci r cui t example), t he
additional "switching" resi st ances due t o di s -
cont i nui t y o f t he output vol t age (such as
Rl = DD'(R 1 1 R) i n t he boost ci r cui t example),
and al so a "modulation" resi st ance t hat ari ses
from a modulation of t he svitching t ransi st or
storage time 111.
5.1 Derivation of t he Canonical Model through
State-Space
From t he general state-space averaged model (13)
and ( 14) , we obtain di r ect l y using t he Laplace
transform:
Now, from t he complete set o f t ransf er functions
we si ngl e out those which describe t he converter
input-output properties, namely
,. A
i n which t he G's are known expl i ci t l y i n terms o f
t he matrix and vector elements i n ( 23) .
Equations (24) are analogous t o t he two-port
network representation of t he terminal properties
o f t he n:twork (output voltage y ( s ) and input
current i ( s ) ) . The subscripts designate t he
corresponding t ransf er f unst i ons. For example ,
Gv i s t he source voltage v t o output voltage y
t r %ns f er funct;on, Gid i s tfFe duty r at i o 8 t o
input current i ( s ) t r ans f er f unct i on, and so on.
For t he proposed canonical ci r cui t model i n
F i g . 11, we di r ect l y get :
or , af t e r rearrangement i nt o t he form o f (24) :
Direct cornoarison o f ( 24) and (26) ~r o v i d e s t he
. - - - .
sol ut i ons f or He( s) , e ( s ) , and j ( s ) i n terms of
t he known t ransf er f unct i ons Gvg, Gvd, Gig and
Gid as:
Note t hat i n (27) t he parameter 1/ p represents
t he i deal dc voltage gain when a l l t he parasi t i cs
are zero. For t he previous boost power stage
example, from (19) we get u - 1-D and t he correc-
t i on factor i n (19) i s then associated wi t h t he
e f f e c t i v e f i l t e r network He(s). However, l~
could be found from
1
?- = - cT~- l b - - X (correction f act or) (28)
v
8
u
by set t i ng a l l parasi t i cs t o zero and reducing
t he correction f act or t o 1.
The physical si gni f i cance of t he i deal dc
gain p i s t hat it ari ses as a consequence of t he
switching act i on, so it cannot be associated with
t he e f f e c t i v e f i l t e r network which at dc has a
gain ( act ual l y attenuation) equal t o t he cor-
rect i on f act or.
The procedure f or finding t he four elements
i n the canonical model of F i g . 11 i s now b r i e f l y
reviewed. Fi r s t , from (28) t he basi c dc-to-dc
conversion f act or p i s found as a f unct i on o f dc
duty r at i o D. Next, from t he set o f a l l t r ans f er
functions (23) only those defined by (24) are
actually calculated. Then, by use of t hese
four t r ans f er functions G
vd' ' v " d' ' i f
(27) the frequency dependent geherators e s
and j ( s ) as, wel l as t he low-pass f i l t e r t ransf er
function H ( s ) are obtained.
The two generators could be f urt her put
i nt o t he form
where f l ( 0) - f 2 ( 0 ) = 1 , such t hat t he parameters
E and J could be i dent i f i ed as dc gains o f t he
frequency dependent functions e ( s ) and j ( 6) .
Fi nal l y, a general synt hesi s procedure 1101
f or real i zat i on of L,C t r ans f er f unct i ons
terminated i n a si ngl e load R could be used t o
obtain a low-pass ladder-network ci r cui t
real i zat i on o f t he e f f e c t i v e low-pass network
He(s).
Though f or t he second-order example of
He(s) t h i s step i s t r i v i a l and could be done by
i nspect i on, f or higher-order t r ans f er functions
the orderly procedure o f t he synt hesi s [ l o ] i s
almost mandatory.
5.2 Example: Ideal Buck-boost Power Stage
For t he buck-boost ci r cui t shorn i n Fin. 7c
,-.
i n which the output voltage y coinc!des wi t h the
state-variable capacitance voltage v .
From (28) and ( 29) one obtains p = D ' / D .
Wi t h use o f (29) t o derive t ransf er f unct i ons, and
upon subst i t ut i on i nt o ( 27) . there r es ul t s
i n which V i s t he dc output voltage.
The e f f e c t i v e f i l t e r t r ans f er f unct i on i s
eas i l y seen as a low-pass LC f i l t e r wi t h Le =
LID'^ and wi t h load R. The two generators i n t he
canonical model of F i g . 11 are i dent i f i ed by
We now derive the same model but t hi s time
using t he equivalent ci r cui t transformations and
path b i n t he Flowchart of F i g . 1.
Af t er perturbation and l i neari zat i on o f the
ci r cui t averaged model i n F i g . 7c (wi t h
Re-0) the seri es o f equivalent ci r cui t s %-;ip. 12
i s obtained.
p i g . 12. Equivalent ci r cui t transformations of t he
f i nal ci r cui t averaged model ( a ) , leading
t o i t s canonical ci r cui t real i zat i on (c)
demonstrated on t he buck-boost example of
Pig. 7c ( wi t h Rf-0 , Rc-0 ).
The obj e c t i ve of t he t r ans f ormat i ons i s t o
reduce t h e o r i g i n a l f our dut y- r at i o dependent gen-
e r a t o r s i n Fi g. 12a t o j u s t two gener at or s ( vol t -
age and cur r ent ) i n Fi g. 1 2 ~ which a r e a t t he i n-
put por t of t he model.
As t hes e c i r c u i t t r ans -
format i ons unfol d, one s e e s .how t h e frequency de-
pendence i n t he gener at or s a r i e e s n a t u r a l l y , as
i n ~ i g . 12b. Al so, by t r a n s f e r of t he two gen-
e r a t o r s i n Fi g. 32b from t he secondary t o t he
pri mary of t he l : D t r ansf or mer , and t he i nduct ance
L t o t he secondary of t he D' : l t r ansf or mer , t he
cascade of two i d e a l t ransformers is reduced t o
t he s i n g l e t ransformer wi t h equi val ent t ur ns
r a t i o D' :D.
A t t he same t i me t he e f f e c t i v e f i l t e r
network Le, C, R is generat ed.
Expresei one f o r t he el ement s i n t he canoni cal
equi val ent c i r c u i t can be found i n a s i mi l a r way
f o r any conver t er conf i gur at i on. Resul t s f o r t he
t hr e e f a mi l i a r conver t er s , t he buck, boost , and
buck-boost power s t a g e s a r e summarized i n Tabl e I.
Tabl e I Def i ni t i on of t h e el ement s i n t h e
canoni cal c i r c u i t model of Fi g. 11
f o r t h e t h r e e common power s t a ge s
of Fi g. 7.
It may be not ed i n Tabl e I t h a t , f o r t h e buck-
boost power s t a ge , paramet ers E and J have negat i ve
s i gns , namely E = - v / D~ and J = - v/ ( D' ~R) .
However, as seen from t he p o l a r i t y of t h e i d e a l
D' :D t r ansf or mer In Fi g. 12c t h i s s t a ge is an
i nve r t i ng one. Hence, f o r p o s i t i v e i nput dc
vol t a ge V , t h e out put d c vol t a ge V is negat i ve
(V < 0 ) s f nce V/Vg - -D/D8. Therefore E > 0,
J > 0 and consequent l y t he p o l a r i t y of t he vol t age
and c ur r e nt dut y- r at i o dependent gener at or s i s
not changed but i s as shown i n Fi g. 12c. Hore-
over , t h i s i s t r u e i n general : r e ga r dl e s s of
any i nver s i on pr oper t y of t h e power s t a ge , t he
p o l a r i t y of two gener at or s s t a y s t he same a s
In Fi g. 11.
5.3 Si gni f i cance of t he Canoni cal Ci r c ui t Model
and Rel at ed Gener al i zat i ons
= . - . - - - . - - .
pass f i l t e r i n g ( r epr esent ed by t h e e f f e c t i v e low-
pass f i l t e r net vor k H,(s)). Note a l s o t h a t t he
c ur r e nt gener at or j ( s ) a i n t he canoni cal c i r c u i t
model, eyen though euperfl uoue when t he sour ce
vol t age v (a) i e i d e a l , i s necessar y t o r e f l e c t
t he i n f l u k c e of a mn i d e a l sour ce gener at or (wi t h
some i n t e r n a l impedance) o r of an i nput f i l t e r [ 7]
upon t he behavi our of t he conver t er . Its presence
enabl es one e a s i l y t o i ncl ude t he l i n e a r i z e d c i r -
c u i t model of a swi t chi ng conver t er power s t a ge i n
ot her l i n e a r c i r c u i t s , aa t he next s e c t i o n w i l l
i l l u s t r a t e .
Another s i g n i f i c a n t f e a t ur e of t he canon-
i c a l c i r c u i t model i s t h a t any s wi t chi ng dc-to-dc
conver t er can be reduced by use of ( 23) , (24).
(27) and (28) t o t h i s f i xed t opol ogy form, a t
l e a s t a s f a r a s i t s i nput -out put and c ont r ol prop-
e r t i e s a r e concerned. Hence t he p o s s i b i l i t y
a r i s e s f o r use of t h i s model t o compare i n an easy
and uni que way var i ous performance c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
of d i f f e r e n t conver t er s. Some examples of such
comparisons a r e gi ven below.
1. The f i l t e r net works can be compared wi t h
r es pect t o t h e i r e f f e c t i ve ne s s t hroughout t he
dynamic dut y c yc l e D range, because i n gener al
t he e f f e c t i v e f i l t e r el ement s depend on t he
st eady s t a t e dut y r a t i o D. Thus, one has t he
oppor t uni t y t o choose t he conf i gur at i on and t o
opt i mi ze t he s i z e and wei ght .
2. Basi c dc-to-dc conversi on f a c t o r s pl(D) and
p2(D) can be compared as t o t h e i r e f f e c t i v e
range. For some conver t er s, t r a v e r s a l of t he
range of dut y r a t i o D from 0 t o 1 gener at es
any conversi on r a t i o ( a s i n t he i d e a l buck-
boost conver t er ) , whi l e i n ot he r s t h e conver-
s i on r a t i o might be r e s t r i c t e d ( a s i n t he
Weinberg conver t er [ 4 ] , f o r which kp- 3) .
2
3. I n t h e c ont r ol s e c t i on of t h e canoni cal
model one can compare t h e frequency dependences
of t he gener at or s e ( s ) and j ( s ) f o r d i f f e r e n t
conver t er s and s e l e c t t he conf i gur at i on t h a t
be s t f a c i l i t a t e s s t a b i l i z a t i o n of a feedback
r egul at or . For example, i n t he buck-boost con-
v e r t e r e ( ~ ) i s a pol ynomi al , cont ai ni ng
a c t u a l l y a r e a l zer o i n t he r i g h t hal f - pl ane,
which undoubt edl y causes some s t a b i l i t y
problems and need f o r proper compensation.
4. Fi nal l y, t h e canoni cal model af f or ds a
very conveni ent means t o s t o r e and f i l e i nf or -
mat i on on var i ous dc-to-dc conver t er s i n a com-
put er memory i n a form comparable t o Tabl e I.
Then, t hanks t o t he f i xed t opol ogy of t he
canoni cal c i r c u i t model, a s i n g l e computer pro-
gram can be used t o c a l c ul a t e and p l o t var i ous
q u a n t i t i e s as f unct i ons of frequency ( i nput and
out put impedance, audi o s u s c e p t i b i l i t y , dut y
r a t i o t o out put t r a n s f e r response, and s o on).
Al so, var i ous i nput f i l t e r s and/ or a ddi t i ona l
out put f i l t e r networks can e a s i l y be added i f
desi r ed.
f unct i ons of complex frequency s.
Hence,
ge ne r a l bot h some new zer os and pol es a r e i nt r o-
duced i n t o t he dut y r a t i o t o out put t r a n s f e r
f unct i on owing t o t he swi t chi ng a c t i on, i n
a ddi t i on t o t h e pol es and zer os of t he e f f e c t i v e
f i l t e r network ( or l i n e t o out put t r a n s f e r fun-
c t i on) .
However, i n s p e c i a l c a s e s , a s i n a l l
t hose shown i n Tabl e I, t h e frequency dependence
mi ght reduce si mpl y t o pol ynomi al s, and even f ur -
t he r it might show up onl y i n t h e vol t age
dependent gener at or s ( a s i n t h e boost , o r buck-
boost ) and reduce t o a const ant ( f ( s ) i 1)
f o r t h e c ur r e nt gener at or . ~ e v e r t g e l e s s , t h i s
does not pr event us from modi fyi ng any of t he s e
Ci r c ui t s i n a vay t h a t would e x h i b i t t h e gener al
r e s u l t -- i nt r oduct i on of bot h a ddi t i ona l zer os a s
v e l l as pol es.
Let ue now i l l u s t r a t e t h i s gener al r e s u l t on
a climple modi f i cat i on of t h e f a mi l i a r boost c i r -
c u i t , wi t h a r esonant L1,C1 c i r c u i t i n s e r i e s wi t h
t he i nput i nduct ance L, a s shown i n Fi g. 13.
Fi g. 13. Modified boost c i r c u i t a s an i l l u s t r a t i o n
of gener al frequency behavi our of t h e
gener at or s i n t h e canoni cal c i r c u i t model
of Fi g. 11.
By i nt r oduct i on of t h e canoni cal c i r c u i t
model f o r t h e boost power s t a ge ( f o r t h e c i r c u i t
t o t he r i g h t of c r os s s e c t i on AA') and use of d a t a
from Tabl e I, t h e equi val ent averaged c i r c u i t
model of Fi g. 14a i s obt ai ned. Then, by appl i ca-
t i on of t h e equi val ent c i r c u i t t r ansf or mat i on a s
out l i ned pr evi ousl y, t h e averaged model i n t he
canoni cal c i r c u i t form i s obt ai ned i n Fi g. 14b.
As can be seen from Fi g. 14b, t h e vol t age
generat or ha s . a doubl e pol e a t t he r esonant f r e -
quency U r = 1/m of t h e p a r a l l e l L1,C, net -
work. However, t h e e f f e c t i v e f i l t e r t r a k f e r
f unct i on has a doubl e zer o ( n u l l i n magnitude) a t
Pr eci s el y t h e same l oc a t i on such t h a t t h e two
Fi g. 14. Equi val ent c i r c u i t t r ansf or mat i on l eadi ng
t o t h e canoni cal c i r c u i t model (b) of t he
c i r c u i t i n Fi g. 13.
p a i r s e f f e c t i v e l y cancel . Hence, t h e r esonant
n u l l i n t he magnitude r esponse, whi l e pr esent i n
t he l i n e vol t age t o out put t r a n s f e r f unct i on, i s
not seen i n t h e dut y r a t i o- t o out put t r a n s f e r func-
t i on. Therefore, t he pos i t i ve e f f e c t of r e j e c t i on
of c e r t a i n i nput f r equenci es around t he r esonant
frequency w i s not accompanied by a det r i ment al
e f f e c t on t ge l oop gai n, which wi l l not con-
t a i n a n u l l i n t he magnitude response.
Thi s example demonst rat es y e t anot her impor-
t a n t as pect of model l i ng wi t h use of t he averagi ng
t echni que. I ns t ead of appl yi ng i t d i r e c t l y t o t he
whole c i r c u i t i n Fi g. 13, we have i ns t ead imple-
mented i t onl y wi t h r es pect t o t he s t or age el ement
network which e f f e c t i v e l y t akes p a r t i n t he swi t ch-
i n g a c t i on, namely L, C, and R. Upon s u b s t i t u t i o n
of t he swi t ched p a r t of t h e net work by t h e averaged
c i r c u i t model, a l l ot he r l i n e a r c i r c u i t s of t h e
complete model a r e r e t a i ne d a s t hey appear i n t he
o r i g i n a l c i r c u i t (such as L1,C1 i n Fi g. 14a) .
Again, t h e cur r ent gener at or i n Fi g. 14a i s t h e
one which r e f l e c t s t he e f f e c t of t he i nput r esonant
c i r c u i t .
I n t he next s e c t i on, t he same pr oper t y i s
c l e a r l y di spl ayed f o r a cl osed-l oop r egul at or -
conver t er wi t h o r wi t hout t he i nput f i l t e r .
6. SWITCHING MODE REGULATOR MODELLING
Thi s s e c t i on demonst rat es t h e eas e wi t h
which t h e d i f f e r e n t conver t er c i r c u i t models
developed i n previ ous s e c t i ons can be i ncor por at ed
i n t o more compl i cat ed syst ems such a s a swi t chi ng-
mode r egul at or . I n a ddi t i on, a b r i e f di s cus s i on
of model l i ng of modul at or s t a ge s in gener al i s
i ncl uded, and a compl et e gener al switching-mode
r egul at or c i r c u i t model i s gi ven.
A gener al r epr es ent at i on .of a swi t chi ng-mode
r e gul a t or i s shown i n Fi g. 15.
For concr et eness,
t h e swi t chi ng-mode conver t er i s r epr esent ed by a
buck-boost power s t age, and t h e i nput and pos s i bl e
a ddi t i ona l out put f i l t e r a r e r epr esent ed by a
,unrroulated nnout rrquf at ed output 7
i nput and out put f i l t e r s . The bl ock
gram i s gener al , and si ngl e- sect i on
dia-
LC
f i l t e r s and a buck-boost conver t er a r e
shown a s t y p i c a l r e a l i z a t i ons .
si ngl e-sect i on low-pass LC conf i gur at i on, but t h e
di scussi on appl i es t o any convert er and any
f i l t e r conf i gur at i on.
The main d i f f i c u l t y i n anal ysi ng t h e swi t ch-
ing
r egul at or l i e s . i n t he model l i ng of i t s non-
l i n e a r Pa r t , t he switching-mode conver t er . HOW-
ever, we have succeeded i n previ ous s e c t i ons i n
obt ai ni ng t h e smal l -si gnal low-frequency c i r c u i t
model of any "two-state" swi t chi ng dc-t o-dc con-
ver t er , oper at i ng i n t he cont i nuous conduct i on
mode, i n t h e Canonical Ci r c ui t form. The out put
f i l t e r i s shown s epar at el y, t o emphasize t he f a c t
t h a t i n averaged model l i ng of t he switching-mode
conver t er onl y t he st or age el ement s which a r e
act ual l y involved i n t he swi t chi ng act i on need
be t aken i n t o account , t hus minimizing t h e e f f o r t i n
i t s model l i ng.
The next s t e p i n development of t he regul a-
tor equi val ent c i r c u i t is t o obt ai n a model f o r
t he modulator.
Thi s i s e a s i l y done by wr i t i ng an
expressi on f or t he e s s e n t i a l f unct i on of t he modu-
l a t o r , which i s t o Convert an (analog) cont r ol
vol t age Vc t o t he swi t ch dut y r a t i o D. Thi s ex-
pr essi on can be wr i t t e n D = V /Vm i n which, by
de f i ni t i on, Vm i s t he range oh cont r ol s i g n a l
requi red t o sweep t he dut y r a t i o over i t s f u l l
range from 0 t o 1. A smal l va r i a t i on vc super-
imposed upon Vc t her ef or e produces a correspon-
di ng var i at i on a = Gc/vm i n D, which can be
general i zed t o account f or a nonuniform frequency
response as
'm
C
i n which fm(0) 1. Thus, t he cont r ol vol t age t o
dut y r a t i o smal l -si gnal transmission char act er -
i s t i c of t he modulator can be represent ed i n gen-
e r a l by t he two paramet ers Vm and f m( s ) , regard-
l e s s of t he det ai l ed mechanism by which t he modu-
l a t i o n i s achieved. Hence, by s ubs t i t ut i on f o r
a from (32) t he two gener at or s i n t he canoni cal
c i r c u i t model of t he swi t chi ng conver t er can be
expressed i n terms of t h e a c cont r ol vol t age cc,
sad t he r e s ul t i ng model is t hen a l i n e a r a c equi -
val ent c i r c u i t t h a t r epr esent s t he smal l -si gnal
t r a ns f e r pr oper t i es of t he nonl i near processes
i n t he modulator and convert er.
It remains si mpl y t o add t he l i n e a r ampli-
f i e r and t he i nput and out put f i l t e r s t o obt ai n
t he a c equi val ent c i r c u i t of t he complete cl osed-
loop r egul at or as shown i n Fi g. 16.
The modulator t r a ns f e r f unct i on has been i n-
corporat ed i n t he gener at or desi gnat i ons, and t he
gener at or symbol has been changed from a c i r c l e
t o a square t o emphasize t he f a c t t ha t , i n t h e
closed-loop r egul at or , t he gener at or s no l onger
a r e independent but a r e dependent on anot her s i g-
n a l i n t he same system.
The connect i on from
poi nt Y t o t he e r r o r ampl i f i er , v i a t he r ef er ence
vol t age summing node, r epr esent s t he b a s i c v01-
t age feedback necessary t o e s t a bl i s h t h e syst em
as a vol t age r egul at or .
The dashed connect i on
from Poi nt Z i ndi cat es a poes i bl e a ddi t i ona l
feedback sensi ng ; t h i s second feedback s i g n a l may
V, + cg
converter and modulator model
E
e,(s)= - f , ( ~ ) f ~ ( s ) ~ ~ -------
Vm dc ref
Pig. 16. General smal l -si gnal a c equi val ent
c i r c u i t f o r t h e swi t chi ng-mode r egul at or
of Fi g. 15.
be deri ved, f o r example, from t he i nduct or f l ux,
i nduct or cur r ent , o r capaci t or c ur r e nt , a s i n
var i ous "two-loop" conf i gur at i ons t h a t a r e i n use
t91.
Once agai n t he c ur r e nt gener at or i n Fi g. 16
i s r esponsi bl e f o r t he i nt e r a c t i on between t he
switching-mode r egul at or - conver t er and t he i nput
f i l t e r , t hus causi ng performance degradat i on and/
o r s t a b i l i t y problems when an a r b i t r a r y i nput
f i l t e r is added. The problem of how pr oper l y t o
desi gn t he i nput f i l t e r is t r e a t e d i n d e t a i l i n
(71
As shown i n Fi g. 16 we have succeeded i n ob-
t a i ni ng t he l i n e a r c i r c u i t model of t he complete
swi t chi ng mode-regulator. Hence t he we l l - k n m
body of l i n e a r feedback t heory can be we d f or
bot h anal ys i s and desi gn of t h i s t ype of regul a-
t or .
7. CONCLUSIONS
A gener al method f o r model l i ng power s t ages
of any swi t chi ng dc-to-dc conver t er ha s been
developed through t h e st at e- space approach.
The
fundamental s t e p is i n repl acement of t he s t a t e -
space des cr i pt i ons of t he two swi t ched networks
by t h e i r average over t he s i n g l e swi t chi ng per i od
T, which r e s u l t s i n a s i n g l e cont i nuous s t a t e -
space equat i on des cr i pt i on (3) desi gnat ed t he
bas i c averaged s t at e-space model.
The e s s e n t i a l
approxi mat i ons made a r e i ndi cat ed i n t he Appen-
di ces , and a r e shown t o be j u s t i f i e d f o r any
p r a c t i c a l dc-to-dc swi t chi ng conver t er .
The subsequen t per t ur bat i on and l i n e a r i -
zat i on step under t he smal l -si gnal aesumption
(12) l eads t o t he f i n a l st at e- space averaged
model gi ven by (13) and (14). These equat i ons
t hen s e r ve as t he b a s i s f o r development of t he
most i mport ant q u a l i t a t i v e r e s u l t of t h i s vork,
t he canoni cal c i r c u i t model of Fi g. 11.
Di f f er ent
conver t er s a r e r epr esent ed si mpl y by an appropri -
a t e s e t of formulas ((27) and (28)) f o r f our
el ement s i n t h i s gener al equi val ent c i r c u i t . Be-
s i de s i t s uni f i ed des cr i pt i on, of which s ever al
examples a r e gi ven i n Tabl e I, one of t he sdvan-
t ages of t he canoni cal c i r c u i t model is t h a t
vari ous performance c ha r a c t e r i s t i c s of di f f e r e nt
swi t chi ng conver t er s can be compared i n a qui ck
and easy manner.
Although t he st at e- space model l i ng approach
has been developed i n t h i s paper f o r t wo-st at e
swi t chi ng conver t er s, t he method can be extended
t o mul t i pl e- st at e conver t er s. Examples of t hree-
s t a t e conver t er s a r e t he f ami l i ar buck, boost ,
and buck-boost power s t ages operat ed i n t he dl s -
cont i nuous conduct i on mode, and dc-to-ac swi t ch-
i ng i nve r t e r s i n which a s p e c i f i c out put wave-
form i s "assembled" from d i s c r e t e segments a r e
examples of mul t i pl e- s t at e conver t er s.
I n c ont r a s t wi t h t he st at e- space model l i ng
approach, f o r any p a r t i c u l a r convert er an a l t e r -
nat i ve pat h v i a hybri d model l i ng and c i r c u i t
t ransformat i on could be fol l owed, which a l s o ar -
r i ves f i r s t a t t he f i n a l c i r c u i t averaged model
equi val ent of (13) and (14) and f i n a l l y , a f t e r
equi val ent c i r c u i t t ransformat i ons, agai n a r r i ve s
a t t he canoni cal c i r c u i t model.
Regardl ess of t he der i vat i on pat h, t he
canoni cal c i r c u i t model can e a s i l y be i ncorpora-
t ed i n t o an equi val ent c i r c u i t model of a com-
pl e t e swi t chi ng r egul at or , a s i l l u s t r a t e d i n Fi g.
16.
Perhaps t he most i mport ant consequence of
t he canoni cal c i r c u i t model der i vat i on v i a t he
gener al st at eyapace averaged model (13). ( 14) ,
(23) and (24) i s i t s pr edi ct i on through (27) of
addi t i onal zeros a s we l l a s pol es i n t he dut y
r a t i o t o out put t r a ns f e r f unct i on. I n addi t i on
frequency dependence i s ant i ci pat ed i n t he dut y
r a t i o dependent cur r ent gener at or of Fi g. 11,
even though f o r p a r t i c u l a r conver t er s consi dered
i n Tabl e I, i t reduces merely t o a const ant .
Furthermore f o r some awi t chi ng networks vhi ch
would e f f e c t i ve l y i nvol ve more t han two s t or age
el ement s, hi gher or der polynomials shoul d be ex-
pect ed i n f l ( s ) and/ or f 2( s ) of Fi g. 11.
The i ns i ght s t h a t have emerged from t he
gener al st at e- space model l i ng approach suggest
t h a t t her e i s a whole f i e l d of new swi t chi ng dc-
to-dc convert er pover s t ages yet t o be conceived.
Thi s encourages a renewed sear ch f o r i nnovat i ve
c i r c u i t desi gns i n a f i e l d which is y e t young,
and promises t o yi e l d a s i g n i f i c a n t number of i n-
vent i ons i n t he st ream of i t s f u l l development.
This progress wi l l na t ur a l l y be f u l l y support ed
by new t echnol ogi es coming a t an ever i ncr eas i ng
pace. However, even though t h e ef f i ci ency and
performance of cur r ent l y e xi s t i ng conver t er s wi l l
i ncr ease through bet t er , , f a s t e r t r a n s i s t o r s , more
i d e a l capaci t or s (wi t h lower ear ) and s o on, it
wi l l be pr i mar i l y t he r e s pons i bi l i t y of t he c i r -
c u i t desi gner and i nvent or t o put t hese components
t o bes t use i n an o p t i ~ l topology. Search f or
new c i r c u i t conf i gur at i ons, and h w be s t t o use
pr esent and f ut ur e t echnol ogi es, w i l l be of prime
importance i n achi evi ng t he ul t i mat e goal of near-
i de a l gener al swi t chi ng dc-to-dc convert ers.
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