Thermodynamics & Fluid Mechanics (Thermofluids )

Thermodynamics
1- Thermodynamics Systems:
Properties, pressure, temperature, thermodynamic equilibrium, work,
kinetic energy, potential energy, heat, internal energy.
2- First Law of Thermodynamics, Joules experiment, energy equation
for a non-flow process, energy equation for steady state flow process,
application.
3- Ideal Gas:
Characteristic equation of state, specific heats, relationship between
specific heats, reversible processes of ideal gas, constant volume,
constant pressure, isothermal adiabatic, polytropic for flow and nonflow process.
4- Second Low of Thermodynamic & Energy:
Heat engine coefficient of performance of heat pump, Kelvinplanck and clausius statements of 2nd law of thermodynamic, Camots
cycle, Entropy.
Heat Transfer
5- Modes of heat transfer ( conduction, convention and radiation),
Fouriers law of conduction, conduction through single & composite
cylinders.
6- Steady-state unidirectional heat conductors with heat generation.
7- Heat transfer through rectangle fin.
8- Unsteady-state heat conduction in one and more dimensions.
9- Convection:
Natural convention & forced convention.
10-Radiation:
Law of black body radiation, radiation exchange between tow black
surfaces and tow grey surfaces, combined modes of heat transfer.
Fluids Mechanics
11-Hydro and Aerostatics:
Density and compressibility, viscosity, the concept of fluid presser,
hydrostatic pressure, aerostatics.
12-Fundamental of Hydrodynamics:
Steady and unsteady flows, streamlines, path lines, and equation of
continuity, Eulers equation, Bernoullis equation, theorem of
momentum.
13-Flow Equation:
Loss in pressure head, laminate & turbulent flow, Reynolds number,
Froude's number and Machs number, critical Reynolds number,
measurement of volume flow by means Venture's meter.

Thermodynamics
Definitions
Adiabatic process is a process during which there is no heat transfer. The word
adiabatic comes from the Greek word adiabatos, which means not to be passed.
Air conditioners are refrigerators whose refrigerated space is a room or a building
instead of the food compartment.
Bar is the unit of pressure equal to 105 pascal.
Barometer is a device that measures the atmospheric pressure; thus, the atmospheric
pressure is often referred to as the barometric pressure.
Bernoulli equation is the result of the energy analysis for the reversible, steady-flow of
an incompressible liquid through a device that involves no work interactions (such as a
nozzle or a pipe section). For frictionless flow, it states that the sum of the pressure,
velocity, and potential energy heads is constant. It is also a form of the conservation of
momentum principle for steady-flow control volumes.
Boiler is basically a large heat exchanger where the heat originating from combustion
gases, nuclear reactors, or other sources is transferred to the water essentially at constant
pressure.
Boiling is the phase change process that occurs at the solidliquid interface when a liquid
is brought into contact with a surface maintained at a temperature sufficiently above the
saturation temperature of the liquid.
Boundary is the real or imaginary surface that separates the system from its
surroundings. The boundary of a system can be fixed or movable.
Boundary work (PdV work) is the work associated with the expansion or compression
of a gas in a piston-cylinder device. Boundary work is the area under the process curve
on a P-V diagram equal, in magnitude, to the work done during a quasi-equilibrium
expansion or compression process of a closed system.
Bourdon tube, named after the French inventor Eugene Bourdon, is a type of commonly
used mechanical pressure measurement device which consists of a hollow metal tube bent
like a hook whose end is closed and connected to a dial indicator needle.
British thermal unit BTU is the energy unit in the English system, representing the
energy needed to raise the temperature of 1 lbm of water at 68F by 1F.
Calorie (cal) is the amount of energy in the metric system needed to raise the
temperature of 1 g of water at 15 C by 1C.

Carnot cycle was first proposed in 1824 by French engineer Sadi Carnot. It is composed
of four reversible processestwo isothermal and two adiabatic, and can be executed
either in a closed or a steady-flow system.
Carnot efficiency is the highest efficiency a heat engine can have when operating
and T H ;
between the two thermal energy reservoirs at temperatures T L
th, rev = 1 - T L / T H .
Carnot heat engine is the theoretical heat engine that operates on the Carnot cycle.
Carnot principles are two conclusions that pertain to the thermal efficiency of reversible
and irreversible (i.e., actual) heat engines and are expressed as follows:
1. The efficiency of an irreversible heat engine is always less than the efficiency of a
reversible one operating between the same two reservoirs.
2. The efficiencies of all reversible heat engines operating between the same two
reservoirs are the same.
Celsius scale (formerly called the centigrade scale; in 1948 it was renamed after the
Swedish astronomer A. Celsius, 17011744, who devised it) is the temperature scale used
in the SI system. On the Celsius scale, the ice and steam points are assigned the values of
0 and 100 C, respectively.
Chemical energy is the internal energy associated with the atomic bonds in a molecule.
Classical thermodynamics is the macroscopic approach to the study of thermodynamics
that does not require knowledge of the behavior of individual particles.
Clausius statement of the second law is expressed as follows: It is impossible to
construct a device that operates in a cycle and produces no effect other than the transfer
of heat from a lower-temperature body to a higher-temperature body.
Closed system consists of a fixed amount of mass (control mass), and no mass can cross
its boundary. But energy, in the form of heat or work, can cross the boundary.
Coefficient of performance COP is the measure of performance of refrigerators and
heat pumps. It is expressed in terms of the desired result for each device (heat absorbed
from the refrigerated space for the refrigerator or heat added to the hot space by the heat
pump) divided by the input, the energy expended to accomplish the energy transfer
(usually work input).
Compression ratio r of an engine is the ratio of the maximum volume formed in the
cylinder to the minimum (clearance) volume. Notice that the compression ratio is a
volume ratio and should not be confused with the pressure ratio.

Compressor is a device that increases the pressure of a gas to very high pressures
(typical pressure ratios are greater than 3).
Condenser is a heat exchanger in which the working fluid condenses as it rejects heat to
the surroundings. For example, in the condenser of a steam power plant steam leaving
the turbine as a vapor condenses to the saturated liquid state as the result of heat transfer
to a cooling medium such as the atmosphere or water from a lake or river.
Conduction is the transfer of energy from the more energetic particles of a substance to
the adjacent less energetic ones as a result of interaction between particles.
Conservation of energy principle states that during an interaction, energy can change
from one form to another but the total amount of energy remains constant. That is, energy
cannot be created or destroyed (see first law of thermodynamics).
Control surface is the boundary of a control volume, and it can be real or imaginary.
Control volume (also see open system) is any arbitrary region in space through which
mass and energy can pass across the boundary. Most control volumes have fixed
boundaries and thus do not involve any moving boundaries. A control volume may also
involve heat and work interactions just as a closed system, in addition to mass interaction.
Convection is the mode of energy transfer between a solid surface and the adjacent fluid
that is in motion, and it involves the combined effects of conduction and fluid motion.
Cycle is a process, or series of processes, that allows a system to undergo state changes
and returns the system to the initial state at the end of the process. That is, for a cycle the
initial and final states are identical.
Density is defined as mass per unit volume.
Diesel cycle is the ideal cycle for compress-ignition reciprocating engines, and was first
proposed by Rudolf Diesel in the 1890s. Using the air-standard assumptions, the cycle
consists of four internally reversible processes:
1-2 Isentropic compression,
2-3 Constant pressure heat addition,
3-4 Isentropic expansion,
4-1 Constant volume heat rejection.
Diffuser is a device that increases the pressure of a fluid by decreasing the fluid velocity.
Efficiency is defined as the ratio of desired result for an event to the input required to
accomplish the event. Efficiency is one of the most frequently used terms in
thermodynamics, and it indicates how well an energy conversion or transfer process is
accomplished.

Electrical power is the rate of electrical work done as electrons in a wire move under the
effect of electromotive forces, doing work. It is the product of the potential difference
measured in volts and the current flow measured in amperes.
Electrical work is work done on a system as electrons in a wire move under the effect of
electromotive forces while crossing the system boundary.
Energy Balance is the net change (increase or decrease) in the total energy of the system
during a process is equal to the difference between the total energy entering and the total
energy leaving the system during that process.
English system, which is also known as the United States Customary System (USCS),
has the respective units the pound-mass (lbm), foot (ft), and second (s). The pound
symbol lb is actually the abbreviation of libra, which was the ancient Roman unit of
weight.
Enthalpy H (from the Greek word enthalpien, which means to heat) is a property and is
defined as the sum of the internal energy U and the PV product.
Entropy can be viewed as a measure of molecular disorder, or molecular randomness. is
a property designated S and is defined as dS =(Q/T) int rev .
Environment refers to the region beyond the immediate surroundings whose properties
are not affected by the process at any point.
Equation of state is any equation that relates the pressure, temperature, and specific
volume of a substance. Property relations that involve other properties of a substance at
equilibrium states are also referred to as equations of state.
Equilibrium implies a state of balance. In an equilibrium state there are no unbalanced
potentials (or driving forces) within the system. A system in equilibrium experiences no
changes when it is isolated from its surroundings.
First law of thermodynamics is simply a statement of the conservation of energy
principle; it may be expressed as follows: Energy can be neither created nor destroyed; it
can only change forms. The net change (increase or decrease) in the total energy of the
system during a process is equal to the difference between the total energy entering and
the total energy leaving the system during that process. The energy balance can be
written explicitly as
E in - E out =(Q in -Q out ) + (W in -Wout ) + (E mass, in - E mass, out ) = E system
First law of thermodynamics for a closed system using the classical thermodynamics
sign convention is
Q net, in - Wnet, out = E system or Q - W =E

where Q = Q net, in = Q in - Q out is the net heat input and W = W net, out = W out - W in is the net
work output. Obtaining a negative quantity for Q or W simply means that the assumed
direction for that quantity is wrong and should be reversed.
Gage pressure is the difference between the absolute pressure and the local atmospheric
pressure.
Gas constant R is different for each gas and is determined from R = R u /M.
Heat engines are devices designed for the purpose of converting other forms of energy
(usually in the form of heat) to work. Heat engines differ considerably from one another,
but all can be characterized by the following:
1. They receive heat from a high-temperature source (solar energy, oil furnace,
nuclear reactor, etc.).
2. They convert part of this heat to work (usually in the form of a rotating shaft).
3. They reject the remaining waste heat to a low-temperature sink (the atmosphere,
rivers, etc.).
4. They operate on a cycle.
Heat exchangers are devices where two moving fluid streams exchange heat without
mixing. Heat exchangers are widely used in various industries, and they come in various
designs. The simplest form of a heat exchanger is a double-tube (also called tube-andshell) heat exchanger composed of two concentric pipes of different diameters. One fluid
flows in the inner pipe, and the other in the annular space between the two pipes. Heat is
transferred from the hot fluid to the cold one through the wall separating them.
Sometimes the inner tube makes a couple of turns inside the shell to increase the heat
transfer area, and thus the rate of heat transfer.
Heat pump is a cyclic device which operates on the refrigeration cycle and discharges
energy to a heated space to maintain the heated space at a high temperature. It is a cyclic
device which causes the transfer of heat from a low-temperature region to a hightemperature region.
Heat pump coefficient of performance is the efficiency of a heat pump, denoted by
COP HP , and expressed as desired output divided by required input or COP HP = Q H /W net,
in .
Heat transfer (heat) is defined as the form of energy that is transferred between two
systems (or a system and its surroundings) by virtue of a temperature difference.
Ideal gas is a gas that obeys the ideal-gas equation of state.
Ideal-gas equation of state (or ideal-gas relation) predicts the P-v-T behavior of a gas
quite accurately within some properly selected region where Pv = RT.
Ideal gas specific heat relation is C p = C v + R.

Internal energy U of a system is the sum of all the microscopic forms of energy.
Internal energy change of an ideal gas is given as u
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v

v, av

(T2 T1 ) .

Irreversible processes are processes which, once having taken place in a system, cannot
spontaneously reverse themselves and restore the system to its initial state.
Irreversibilities are the factors that cause a process to be irreversible. They include
friction, unrestrained expansion, mixing of two gases, heat transfer across a finite
temperature difference, electric resistance, inelastic deformation of solids, and chemical
reactions.
Isentropic process is an internally reversible and adiabatic process. In such a process
the entropy remains constant.
Iso- prefix is often used to designate a process for which a particular property remains
constant.
Isobaric process is a process during which the pressure P remains constant.
Isochoric process (isometric process) is a process during which the specific volume v
remains constant.
Isolated system is a closed system in which energy is not allowed to cross the boundary.
Isometric process (see isochoric process).
Isothermal process is a process in which the temperature is maintained constant.
Joule (J) is a unit of energy and has the unit newton-meter (Nm).
kelvin is the temperature unit of the Kelvin scale in the SI.
Kelvin-Planck statement of the second law of thermodynamics is expressed as
follows: It is impossible for any device that operates on a cycle to receive heat from a
single reservoir and produce a net amount of work. This statement can also be expressed
as no heat engine can have a thermal efficiency of 100 percent, or as for a power plant to
operate, the working fluid must exchange heat with the environment as well as the
furnace.
Kinetic energy KE is energy that a system possesses as a result of its motion relative to
some reference frame. When all parts of a system move with the same velocity, the
kinetic energy is expressed as KE = m V2/2.

Mach number, named after the Austrian physicist Ernst Mach (18381916), is the ratio
of the actual velocity of the fluid (or an object in still air) to the speed of sound in the
same fluid at the same state.
Manometer is a device based on the principle that an elevation change of z of a fluid
corresponds to a pressure change of P/ g, which suggests that a fluid column can be
used to measure pressure differences. The manometer is commonly used to measure
small and moderate pressure differences.
Mass flow rate is the amount of mass flowing through a cross section per unit time.
Mechanical efficiency of a device or process is the ratio of the mechanical energy output
to the mechanical energy input.
Mechanical energy is the form of energy that can be converted to mechanical work
completely and directly by an ideal mechanical device such as an ideal turbine.
Newton (N), in SI, is the force unit defined as the force required to accelerate a mass of 1
kg at a rate of 1 m/s2.
Open system is any arbitrary region in space through which mass and energy can pass
across the boundary.
Otto cycle is the ideal cycle for spark-ignition reciprocating engines. It is named after
Nikolaus A. Otto, who built a successful four-stroke engine in 1876 in Germany using the
cycle proposed by Frenchman Beau de Rochas in 1862. The ideal Otto cycle, which
closely resembles the actual operating conditions, utilizes the air-standard assumptions.
It consists of four internally reversible processes:
1-2 Isentropic compression,
2-3 Constant volume heat addition,
3-4 Isentropic expansion,
4-1 Constant volume heat rejection.
Pascal (Pa) is the unit of pressure defined as newtons per square meter (N/m2 ).
Polytropic process is a process in which pressure and volume are often related by
PVn= C, where n and C are constants, during expansion and compression processes of
real gases.
Potential energy PE is the energy that a system possesses as a result of its elevation in a
gravitational field and is expressed as PE = mgz.
Power is the work done per unit time is called and has the unit kJ/s, or kW.
Pressure is defined as the force exerted by a fluid per unit area.

Pressure ratio is the ratio of final to initial pressures during a compression process.
Process is any change that a system undergoes from one equilibrium state to another. To
describe a process completely, one should specify the initial and final states of the
process, as well as the path it follows, and the interactions with the surroundings.
Pump is a steady flow device used to increase the pressure of a liquid while compressors
increase the pressure of gases.
Pure substance is a substance that has a fixed chemical composition throughout.
Radiation is the transfer of energy due to the emission of electromagnetic waves (or
photons).
Rankine cycle is the ideal cycle for vapor power plants. The ideal Rankine cycle does
not involve any internal irreversibilities and consists of the following four processes:
1-2 Isentropic compression in a pump,
2-3 Constant pressure heat addition in a boiler,
3-4 Isentropic expansion in a turbine,
4-1 Constant pressure heat rejection in a condenser.
Refrigerant is the working fluid used in the refrigeration cycle.
Refrigerator is a cyclic device which causes the transfer of heat from a low-temperature
region to a high-temperature region. The objective of a refrigerator is to maintain the
refrigerated space at a low temperature by removing heat from it.
Refrigerator coefficient of performance is the efficiency of a refrigerator, denoted by
COP R , and expressed as desired output divided by required input or COP R = Q L /W net, in .
Regeneration is the process of transferring energy with in a cycle from a working fluid
in a high temperature in part of the cycle to a lower temperature part of the cycle to
reduce the amount of external heat transfer required to drive the cycle.
Reversed Carnot cycle is a reversible cycle in which all four processes that comprise the
Carnot cycle are reversed during operation. Reversing the cycle will also reverse the
directions of any heat and work interactions. The result is a cycle that operates in the
counterclockwise direction. The reversed Carnot cycle is the Carnot refrigeration cycle.
Reversible process is defined as a process that can be reversed without leaving any trace
on the surroundings. Reversible processes are idealized processes, and they can be
approached but never reached in reality.
Second law of thermodynamics (increase of entropy principle) is expressed as the
entropy of an isolated system during a process always increases or, in the limiting case of
a reversible process, remains constant. In other words, the entropy of an isolated system

never decreases. It also asserts that energy has quality as well as quantity, and actual
processes occur in the direction of decreasing quality of energy.
Specific heat is defined as the energy required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of a
substance by one degree. In general, this energy will depend on how the process is
executed.
Specific heat at constant pressure C p is the energy required to raise the temperature of
the unit mass of a substance by one degree as the pressure is maintained constant. C p is a
measure of the variation of enthalpy of a substance with temperature. C p can be defined
as the change in the enthalpy of a substance per unit change in temperature at constant
pressure.
Specific heat at constant volume C v is the energy required to raise the temperature of
the unit mass of a substance by one degree as the volume is maintained constant. C v is
related to the changes in internal energy. It would be more proper to define C v as the
change in the internal energy of a substance per unit change in temperature at constant
volume.
Specific heat ratio k is defined as the ratio C p /C v .
Specific heats for solids and liquids, or incompressible substances, are equal.
Specific properties are extensive properties per unit mass. Some examples of specific
properties are specific volume (v=V/m) and specific total energy (e= E/m).
State is the condition of a system not undergoing any change gives a set of properties that
completely describes the condition of that system. At this point, all the properties can be
measured or calculated throughout the entire system.
Steady implies no change with time. The opposite of steady is unsteady, or transient.
Surroundings are everything outside the system boundaries.
Thermal efficiency th is the ratio of the net work produced by a heat engine to the total
heat input, th = Wnet /Q in .
Thermodynamics can be defined as the science of energy. Energy can be viewed as the
ability to cause changes. The name thermodynamics stems from the Greek words therme
(heat) and dynamis (power), which is most descriptive of the early efforts to convert heat
into power. Today the same name is broadly interpreted to include all aspects of energy
and energy transformations, including power production, refrigeration, and relationships
among the properties of matter.
Uniform implies no change with location over a specified region.

Unsteady-flow, or transient-flow, processes are processes that involve changes within a

control volume with time.
Work is the energy transfer associated with a force acting through a distance.
Working fluid is the fluid to and from which heat and work is transferred while
undergoing a cycle in heat engines and other cyclic devices.
Zeroth law of thermodynamics states that if two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with
a third body, they are also in thermal equilibrium with each other.

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Thermodynamics
Definitions
Adiabatic process is a process during which there is no heat transfer. The word
adiabatic comes from the Greek word adiabatos, which means not to be passed.
Air conditioners are refrigerators whose refrigerated space is a room or a building
instead of the food compartment.
Bar is the unit of pressure equal to 105 pascal.
Barometer is a device that measures the atmospheric pressure; thus, the atmospheric
pressure is often referred to as the barometric pressure.
Bernoulli equation is the result of the energy analysis for the reversible, steady-flow of
an incompressible liquid through a device that involves no work interactions (such as a
nozzle or a pipe section). For frictionless flow, it states that the sum of the pressure,
velocity, and potential energy heads is constant. It is also a form of the conservation of
momentum principle for steady-flow control volumes.
Boiler is basically a large heat exchanger where the heat originating from combustion
gases, nuclear reactors, or other sources is transferred to the water essentially at constant
pressure.
Boiling is the phase change process that occurs at the solidliquid interface when a liquid
is brought into contact with a surface maintained at a temperature sufficiently above the
saturation temperature of the liquid.
Boundary is the real or imaginary surface that separates the system from its
surroundings. The boundary of a system can be fixed or movable.
Boundary work (PdV work) is the work associated with the expansion or compression
of a gas in a piston-cylinder device. Boundary work is the area under the process curve
on a P-V diagram equal, in magnitude, to the work done during a quasi-equilibrium
expansion or compression process of a closed system.
Bourdon tube, named after the French inventor Eugene Bourdon, is a type of commonly
used mechanical pressure measurement device which consists of a hollow metal tube bent
like a hook whose end is closed and connected to a dial indicator needle.
British thermal unit BTU is the energy unit in the English system, representing the
energy needed to raise the temperature of 1 lbm of water at 68F by 1F.
Calorie (cal) is the amount of energy in the metric system needed to raise the
temperature of 1 g of water at 15 C by 1C.

Carnot cycle was first proposed in 1824 by French engineer Sadi Carnot. It is composed
of four reversible processestwo isothermal and two adiabatic, and can be executed
either in a closed or a steady-flow system.
Carnot efficiency is the highest efficiency a heat engine can have when operating
and T H ;
between the two thermal energy reservoirs at temperatures T L
th, rev = 1 - T L / T H .
Carnot heat engine is the theoretical heat engine that operates on the Carnot cycle.
Carnot principles are two conclusions that pertain to the thermal efficiency of reversible
and irreversible (i.e., actual) heat engines and are expressed as follows:
1. The efficiency of an irreversible heat engine is always less than the efficiency of a
reversible one operating between the same two reservoirs.
2. The efficiencies of all reversible heat engines operating between the same two
reservoirs are the same.
Celsius scale (formerly called the centigrade scale; in 1948 it was renamed after the
Swedish astronomer A. Celsius, 17011744, who devised it) is the temperature scale used
in the SI system. On the Celsius scale, the ice and steam points are assigned the values of
0 and 100 C, respectively.
Chemical energy is the internal energy associated with the atomic bonds in a molecule.
Classical thermodynamics is the macroscopic approach to the study of thermodynamics
that does not require knowledge of the behavior of individual particles.
Clausius statement of the second law is expressed as follows: It is impossible to
construct a device that operates in a cycle and produces no effect other than the transfer
of heat from a lower-temperature body to a higher-temperature body.
Closed system consists of a fixed amount of mass (control mass), and no mass can cross
its boundary. But energy, in the form of heat or work, can cross the boundary.
Coefficient of performance COP is the measure of performance of refrigerators and
heat pumps. It is expressed in terms of the desired result for each device (heat absorbed
from the refrigerated space for the refrigerator or heat added to the hot space by the heat
pump) divided by the input, the energy expended to accomplish the energy transfer
(usually work input).
Compression ratio r of an engine is the ratio of the maximum volume formed in the
cylinder to the minimum (clearance) volume. Notice that the compression ratio is a
volume ratio and should not be confused with the pressure ratio.

Compressor is a device that increases the pressure of a gas to very high pressures
(typical pressure ratios are greater than 3).
Condenser is a heat exchanger in which the working fluid condenses as it rejects heat to
the surroundings. For example, in the condenser of a steam power plant steam leaving
the turbine as a vapor condenses to the saturated liquid state as the result of heat transfer
to a cooling medium such as the atmosphere or water from a lake or river.
Conduction is the transfer of energy from the more energetic particles of a substance to
the adjacent less energetic ones as a result of interaction between particles.
Conservation of energy principle states that during an interaction, energy can change
from one form to another but the total amount of energy remains constant. That is, energy
cannot be created or destroyed (see first law of thermodynamics).
Control surface is the boundary of a control volume, and it can be real or imaginary.
Control volume (also see open system) is any arbitrary region in space through which
mass and energy can pass across the boundary. Most control volumes have fixed
boundaries and thus do not involve any moving boundaries. A control volume may also
involve heat and work interactions just as a closed system, in addition to mass interaction.
Convection is the mode of energy transfer between a solid surface and the adjacent fluid
that is in motion, and it involves the combined effects of conduction and fluid motion.
Cycle is a process, or series of processes, that allows a system to undergo state changes
and returns the system to the initial state at the end of the process. That is, for a cycle the
initial and final states are identical.
Density is defined as mass per unit volume.
Diesel cycle is the ideal cycle for compress-ignition reciprocating engines, and was first
proposed by Rudolf Diesel in the 1890s. Using the air-standard assumptions, the cycle
consists of four internally reversible processes:
1-2 Isentropic compression,
2-3 Constant pressure heat addition,
3-4 Isentropic expansion,
4-1 Constant volume heat rejection.
Diffuser is a device that increases the pressure of a fluid by decreasing the fluid velocity.
Efficiency is defined as the ratio of desired result for an event to the input required to
accomplish the event. Efficiency is one of the most frequently used terms in
thermodynamics, and it indicates how well an energy conversion or transfer process is
accomplished.

Electrical power is the rate of electrical work done as electrons in a wire move under the
effect of electromotive forces, doing work. It is the product of the potential difference
measured in volts and the current flow measured in amperes.
Electrical work is work done on a system as electrons in a wire move under the effect of
electromotive forces while crossing the system boundary.
Energy Balance is the net change (increase or decrease) in the total energy of the system
during a process is equal to the difference between the total energy entering and the total
energy leaving the system during that process.
English system, which is also known as the United States Customary System (USCS),
has the respective units the pound-mass (lbm), foot (ft), and second (s). The pound
symbol lb is actually the abbreviation of libra, which was the ancient Roman unit of
weight.
Enthalpy H (from the Greek word enthalpien, which means to heat) is a property and is
defined as the sum of the internal energy U and the PV product.
Entropy can be viewed as a measure of molecular disorder, or molecular randomness. is
a property designated S and is defined as dS =(Q/T) int rev .
Environment refers to the region beyond the immediate surroundings whose properties
are not affected by the process at any point.
Equation of state is any equation that relates the pressure, temperature, and specific
volume of a substance. Property relations that involve other properties of a substance at
equilibrium states are also referred to as equations of state.
Equilibrium implies a state of balance. In an equilibrium state there are no unbalanced
potentials (or driving forces) within the system. A system in equilibrium experiences no
changes when it is isolated from its surroundings.
First law of thermodynamics is simply a statement of the conservation of energy
principle; it may be expressed as follows: Energy can be neither created nor destroyed; it
can only change forms. The net change (increase or decrease) in the total energy of the
system during a process is equal to the difference between the total energy entering and
the total energy leaving the system during that process. The energy balance can be
written explicitly as
E in - E out =(Q in -Q out ) + (W in -Wout ) + (E mass, in - E mass, out ) = E system
First law of thermodynamics for a closed system using the classical thermodynamics
sign convention is
Q net, in - Wnet, out = E system or Q - W =E

where Q = Q net, in = Q in - Q out is the net heat input and W = W net, out = W out - W in is the net
work output. Obtaining a negative quantity for Q or W simply means that the assumed
direction for that quantity is wrong and should be reversed.
Gage pressure is the difference between the absolute pressure and the local atmospheric
pressure.
Gas constant R is different for each gas and is determined from R = R u /M.
Heat engines are devices designed for the purpose of converting other forms of energy
(usually in the form of heat) to work. Heat engines differ considerably from one another,
but all can be characterized by the following:
1. They receive heat from a high-temperature source (solar energy, oil furnace,
nuclear reactor, etc.).
2. They convert part of this heat to work (usually in the form of a rotating shaft).
3. They reject the remaining waste heat to a low-temperature sink (the atmosphere,
rivers, etc.).
4. They operate on a cycle.
Heat exchangers are devices where two moving fluid streams exchange heat without
mixing. Heat exchangers are widely used in various industries, and they come in various
designs. The simplest form of a heat exchanger is a double-tube (also called tube-andshell) heat exchanger composed of two concentric pipes of different diameters. One fluid
flows in the inner pipe, and the other in the annular space between the two pipes. Heat is
transferred from the hot fluid to the cold one through the wall separating them.
Sometimes the inner tube makes a couple of turns inside the shell to increase the heat
transfer area, and thus the rate of heat transfer.
Heat pump is a cyclic device which operates on the refrigeration cycle and discharges
energy to a heated space to maintain the heated space at a high temperature. It is a cyclic
device which causes the transfer of heat from a low-temperature region to a hightemperature region.
Heat pump coefficient of performance is the efficiency of a heat pump, denoted by
COP HP , and expressed as desired output divided by required input or COP HP = Q H /W net,
in .
Heat transfer (heat) is defined as the form of energy that is transferred between two
systems (or a system and its surroundings) by virtue of a temperature difference.
Ideal gas is a gas that obeys the ideal-gas equation of state.
Ideal-gas equation of state (or ideal-gas relation) predicts the P-v-T behavior of a gas
quite accurately within some properly selected region where Pv = RT.
Ideal gas specific heat relation is C p = C v + R.

Internal energy U of a system is the sum of all the microscopic forms of energy.
Internal energy change of an ideal gas is given as u
=

C (T )dT C
v

v, av

(T2 T1 ) .

Irreversible processes are processes which, once having taken place in a system, cannot
spontaneously reverse themselves and restore the system to its initial state.
Irreversibilities are the factors that cause a process to be irreversible. They include
friction, unrestrained expansion, mixing of two gases, heat transfer across a finite
temperature difference, electric resistance, inelastic deformation of solids, and chemical
reactions.
Isentropic process is an internally reversible and adiabatic process. In such a process
the entropy remains constant.
Iso- prefix is often used to designate a process for which a particular property remains
constant.
Isobaric process is a process during which the pressure P remains constant.
Isochoric process (isometric process) is a process during which the specific volume v
remains constant.
Isolated system is a closed system in which energy is not allowed to cross the boundary.
Isometric process (see isochoric process).
Isothermal process is a process in which the temperature is maintained constant.
Joule (J) is a unit of energy and has the unit newton-meter (Nm).
kelvin is the temperature unit of the Kelvin scale in the SI.
Kelvin-Planck statement of the second law of thermodynamics is expressed as
follows: It is impossible for any device that operates on a cycle to receive heat from a
single reservoir and produce a net amount of work. This statement can also be expressed
as no heat engine can have a thermal efficiency of 100 percent, or as for a power plant to
operate, the working fluid must exchange heat with the environment as well as the
furnace.
Kinetic energy KE is energy that a system possesses as a result of its motion relative to
some reference frame. When all parts of a system move with the same velocity, the
kinetic energy is expressed as KE = m V2/2.

Mach number, named after the Austrian physicist Ernst Mach (18381916), is the ratio
of the actual velocity of the fluid (or an object in still air) to the speed of sound in the
same fluid at the same state.
Manometer is a device based on the principle that an elevation change of z of a fluid
corresponds to a pressure change of P/ g, which suggests that a fluid column can be
used to measure pressure differences. The manometer is commonly used to measure
small and moderate pressure differences.
Mass flow rate is the amount of mass flowing through a cross section per unit time.
Mechanical efficiency of a device or process is the ratio of the mechanical energy output
to the mechanical energy input.
Mechanical energy is the form of energy that can be converted to mechanical work
completely and directly by an ideal mechanical device such as an ideal turbine.
Newton (N), in SI, is the force unit defined as the force required to accelerate a mass of 1
kg at a rate of 1 m/s2.
Open system is any arbitrary region in space through which mass and energy can pass
across the boundary.
Otto cycle is the ideal cycle for spark-ignition reciprocating engines. It is named after
Nikolaus A. Otto, who built a successful four-stroke engine in 1876 in Germany using the
cycle proposed by Frenchman Beau de Rochas in 1862. The ideal Otto cycle, which
closely resembles the actual operating conditions, utilizes the air-standard assumptions.
It consists of four internally reversible processes:
1-2 Isentropic compression,
2-3 Constant volume heat addition,
3-4 Isentropic expansion,
4-1 Constant volume heat rejection.
Pascal (Pa) is the unit of pressure defined as newtons per square meter (N/m2 ).
Polytropic process is a process in which pressure and volume are often related by
PVn= C, where n and C are constants, during expansion and compression processes of
real gases.
Potential energy PE is the energy that a system possesses as a result of its elevation in a
gravitational field and is expressed as PE = mgz.
Power is the work done per unit time is called and has the unit kJ/s, or kW.
Pressure is defined as the force exerted by a fluid per unit area.

Pressure ratio is the ratio of final to initial pressures during a compression process.
Process is any change that a system undergoes from one equilibrium state to another. To
describe a process completely, one should specify the initial and final states of the
process, as well as the path it follows, and the interactions with the surroundings.
Pump is a steady flow device used to increase the pressure of a liquid while compressors
increase the pressure of gases.
Pure substance is a substance that has a fixed chemical composition throughout.
Radiation is the transfer of energy due to the emission of electromagnetic waves (or
photons).
Rankine cycle is the ideal cycle for vapor power plants. The ideal Rankine cycle does
not involve any internal irreversibilities and consists of the following four processes:
1-2 Isentropic compression in a pump,
2-3 Constant pressure heat addition in a boiler,
3-4 Isentropic expansion in a turbine,
4-1 Constant pressure heat rejection in a condenser.
Refrigerant is the working fluid used in the refrigeration cycle.
Refrigerator is a cyclic device which causes the transfer of heat from a low-temperature
region to a high-temperature region. The objective of a refrigerator is to maintain the
refrigerated space at a low temperature by removing heat from it.
Refrigerator coefficient of performance is the efficiency of a refrigerator, denoted by
COP R , and expressed as desired output divided by required input or COP R = Q L /W net, in .
Regeneration is the process of transferring energy with in a cycle from a working fluid
in a high temperature in part of the cycle to a lower temperature part of the cycle to
reduce the amount of external heat transfer required to drive the cycle.
Reversed Carnot cycle is a reversible cycle in which all four processes that comprise the
Carnot cycle are reversed during operation. Reversing the cycle will also reverse the
directions of any heat and work interactions. The result is a cycle that operates in the
counterclockwise direction. The reversed Carnot cycle is the Carnot refrigeration cycle.
Reversible process is defined as a process that can be reversed without leaving any trace
on the surroundings. Reversible processes are idealized processes, and they can be
approached but never reached in reality.
Second law of thermodynamics (increase of entropy principle) is expressed as the
entropy of an isolated system during a process always increases or, in the limiting case of
a reversible process, remains constant. In other words, the entropy of an isolated system

never decreases. It also asserts that energy has quality as well as quantity, and actual
processes occur in the direction of decreasing quality of energy.
Specific heat is defined as the energy required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of a
substance by one degree. In general, this energy will depend on how the process is
executed.
Specific heat at constant pressure C p is the energy required to raise the temperature of
the unit mass of a substance by one degree as the pressure is maintained constant. C p is a
measure of the variation of enthalpy of a substance with temperature. C p can be defined
as the change in the enthalpy of a substance per unit change in temperature at constant
pressure.
Specific heat at constant volume C v is the energy required to raise the temperature of
the unit mass of a substance by one degree as the volume is maintained constant. C v is
related to the changes in internal energy. It would be more proper to define C v as the
change in the internal energy of a substance per unit change in temperature at constant
volume.
Specific heat ratio k is defined as the ratio C p /C v .
Specific heats for solids and liquids, or incompressible substances, are equal.
Specific properties are extensive properties per unit mass. Some examples of specific
properties are specific volume (v=V/m) and specific total energy (e= E/m).
State is the condition of a system not undergoing any change gives a set of properties that
completely describes the condition of that system. At this point, all the properties can be
measured or calculated throughout the entire system.
Steady implies no change with time. The opposite of steady is unsteady, or transient.
Surroundings are everything outside the system boundaries.
Thermal efficiency th is the ratio of the net work produced by a heat engine to the total
heat input, th = Wnet /Q in .
Thermodynamics can be defined as the science of energy. Energy can be viewed as the
ability to cause changes. The name thermodynamics stems from the Greek words therme
(heat) and dynamis (power), which is most descriptive of the early efforts to convert heat
into power. Today the same name is broadly interpreted to include all aspects of energy
and energy transformations, including power production, refrigeration, and relationships
among the properties of matter.
Uniform implies no change with location over a specified region.

Unsteady-flow, or transient-flow, processes are processes that involve changes within a

control volume with time.
Work is the energy transfer associated with a force acting through a distance.
Working fluid is the fluid to and from which heat and work is transferred while
undergoing a cycle in heat engines and other cyclic devices.
Zeroth law of thermodynamics states that if two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with
a third body, they are also in thermal equilibrium with each other.

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Thermodynamics & Fluid Mechanics (Thermofluids )

Thermodynamics
1- Thermodynamics Systems:
Properties, pressure, temperature, thermodynamic equilibrium, work,
kinetic energy, potential energy, heat, internal energy.
2- First Law of Thermodynamics, Joules experiment, energy equation
for a non-flow process, energy equation for steady state flow process,
application.
3- Ideal Gas:
Characteristic equation of state, specific heats, relationship between
specific heats, reversible processes of ideal gas, constant volume,
constant pressure, isothermal adiabatic, polytropic for flow and nonflow process.
4- Second Low of Thermodynamic & Energy:
Heat engine coefficient of performance of heat pump, Kelvinplanck and clausius statements of 2nd law of thermodynamic, Camots
cycle, Entropy.
Heat Transfer
5- Modes of heat transfer ( conduction, convention and radiation),
Fouriers law of conduction, conduction through single & composite
cylinders.
6- Steady-state unidirectional heat conductors with heat generation.
7- Heat transfer through rectangle fin.
8- Unsteady-state heat conduction in one and more dimensions.
9- Convection:
Natural convention & forced convention.
10-Radiation:
Law of black body radiation, radiation exchange between tow black
surfaces and tow grey surfaces, combined modes of heat transfer.
Fluids Mechanics
11-Hydro and Aerostatics:
Density and compressibility, viscosity, the concept of fluid presser,
hydrostatic pressure, aerostatics.
12-Fundamental of Hydrodynamics:
Steady and unsteady flows, streamlines, path lines, and equation of
continuity, Eulers equation, Bernoullis equation, theorem of
momentum.
13-Flow Equation:
Loss in pressure head, laminate & turbulent flow, Reynolds number,
Froude's number and Machs number, critical Reynolds number,
measurement of volume flow by means Venture's meter.

PROBLEM 4.1
KNOWN: Method of separation of variables (Section 4.2) for two-dimensional, steady-state conduction.

FIND: Show that negative or zero values of , the separation constant, result in solutions which
cannot satisfy the boundary conditions.
SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Two-dimensional, steady-state conduction, (2) Constant properties.

2

ANALYSIS: From Section 4.2, identification of the separation constant leads to the two ordinary
differential equations, 4.6 and 4.7, having the forms
d 2X
d 2Y
+ 2X = 0
2Y = 0
(1,2)
2
2

dx
dy
and the temperature distribution is

( x,y ) = X ( x ) Y (y ).

(3)

Consider now the situation when = 0. From Eqs. (1), (2), and (3), find that
X = C1 + C 2x,
Y = C3 + C 4y and ( x,y ) = ( C1 + C 2x ) ( C3 + C 4y ) .

(4)

Evaluate the constants - C1, C2, C3 and C4 - by substitution of the boundary conditions:
x = 0:
( 0,y) = ( C1 + C 2 0 )( C3 + C4 y ) = 0
C1 = 0
y =0:
( x,0) = ( 0 + C2 X)( C3 + C4 0 ) = 0
C3 = 0
x = L:
( L,0) = ( 0 + C2 L)( 0 + C4 y ) = 0
C2 = 0
y = W:
( x,W ) = ( 0 + 0 x )( 0 + C4 W ) = 1
01
2

The last boundary condition leads to an impossibility (0 1). We therefore conclude that a value
of zero will not result in a form of the temperature distribution which will satisfy the boundary
2
conditions. Consider now the situation when < 0. The solutions to Eqs. (1) and (2) will be

and

X = C5e- x + C6e + x ,
Y = C7cos y + C8sin y
( x,y ) = C5 e- x + C6 e + x [ C7 cos y + C8 sin y ] .

Evaluate the constants for the boundary conditions.

y = 0 : ( x,0) = C5 e- x + C6 e- x [ C7 cos 0 + C8 sin 0 ] = 0

C e0 + C e 0 [ 0 + C sin y] = 0
x = 0 : ( 0,y) = 5
6
8

(5,6)
(7)
C7 = 0
C8 = 0

If C8 = 0, a trivial solution results or C5 = -C6.

x = L: ( L,y ) = C5 e-xL e+xL C8 sin y = 0.

From the last boundary condition, we require C5 or C8 is zero; either case leads to a trivial solution
with either no x or y dependence.

PROBLEM 4.2
KNOWN: Two-dimensional rectangular plate subjected to prescribed uniform temperature boundary
conditions.
FIND: Temperature at the mid-point using the exact solution considering the first five non-zero terms;
assess error resulting from using only first three terms. Plot the temperature distributions T(x,0.5) and
T(1,y).
SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Two-dimensional, steady-state conduction, (2) Constant properties.

ANALYSIS: From Section 4.2, the temperature distribution is
n +1
+ 1 n x sinh ( n y L )
T T1 2 ( 1)
( x, y )
sin
.
(1,4.19)
=

T2 T1
n
L sinh ( n W L )
n =1
Considering now the point (x,y) = (1.0,0.5) and recognizing x/L = 1/2, y/L = 1/4 and W/L = 1/2,
n +1
+ 1 n sinh ( n 4 )
T T1 2 ( 1)
(1, 0.5)
sin
.
=

T2 T1
n
2 sinh ( n 2 )
n =1
When n is even (2, 4, 6 ...), the corresponding term is zero; hence we need only consider n = 1, 3, 5, 7
and 9 as the first five non-zero terms.

(1, 0.5) =

sinh ( 4 ) 2 3
+ sin
2sin

2 sinh ( 2 ) 3 2

2 5
sin
5 2

(1, 0.5) =

sinh (5 4 ) 2 7
+ sin

sinh (5 2 ) 7
2

sinh (3 4 )
+

sinh (3 2 )

sinh (7 4 ) 2 9
+ sin

sinh (7 2 ) 9
2

sinh (9 4 )

sinh (9 2 )

2
[0.755 0.063 + 0.008 0.001 + 0.000] = 0.445

(2)

T (1, 0.5) = (1, 0.5)( T2 T1 ) + T1 = 0.445 (150 50 ) + 50 = 94.5 C .

<

Using Eq. (1), and writing out the first five

terms of the series, expressions for (x,0.5) or
T(x,0.5) and (1,y) or T(1,y) were keyboarded
into the IHT workspace and evaluated for
sweeps over the x or y variable. Note that for
T(1,y), that as y 1, the upper boundary,
T(1,1) is greater than 150C. Upon examination
of the magnitudes of terms, it becomes evident
that more than 5 terms are required to provide
an accurate solution.

T(x,0.5) or T(1,y), C

If only the first three terms of the series, Eq. (2), are considered, the result will be (1,0.5) = 0.46; that is,
there is less than a 0.2% effect.
150
130
110
90
70
50
0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

x or y coordinate (m)
T(1,y)
T(x,0.5)

PROBLEM 4.3
KNOWN: Temperature distribution in the two-dimensional rectangular plate of Problem 4.2.
FIND: Expression for the heat rate per unit thickness from the lower surface (0 x 2, 0) and result
based on first five non-zero terms of the infinite series.
SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Two-dimensional, steady-state conduction, (2) Constant properties.

ANALYSIS: The heat rate per unit thickness from the plate along the lower surface is
x =2

x =2

x =2

q = dqy ( x, 0 ) = k
dx = k ( T2 T1 )
dx
out
y y =0
y
x =0
x =0
x =0
y =0

(1)

where from the solution to Problem 4.2,

n +1
+ 1 n x sinh (n y L )
T T1 2 ( 1)

sin
.
=

T2 T1
n
L sinh ( n W L )

(2)

n =1

Evaluate the gradient of from Eq. (2) and substitute into Eq. (1) to obtain

q = k ( T2 T1 )
out

x=2

x =0

n +1
+ 1 n x ( n L ) cosh ( n y L )
2 ( 1)
sin

n
sinh ( n W L )
L
n =1

dx
y =0

n +1
2

+1
2 ( 1)
1
cos n x

q = k ( T2 T1 )
out

n
sinh ( n W L )
L x =0

n =1

n +1
+1
2 ( 1)
1
1 cos ( n )
q = k ( T2 T1 )
out

n
sinh ( n L )

<

n =1

To evaluate the first five, non-zero terms, recognize that since cos(n) = 1 for n = 2, 4, 6 ..., only the nodd terms will be non-zero. Hence,
Continued ..

PROBLEM 4.3 (Cont.)


q = 50 W m K (150 50 ) C
out

( 1)6 + 1
5

1
sinh (5 2 )

( 1) + 1
2 ( 1) + 1
1
1

(2)
(2) +

1
sinh ( 2 )
3
sinh (3 2 )

(2 ) +

( 1)8 + 1
7

1
sinh ( 7 2 )

(2 ) +

( 1)10 + 1
9

1
sinh ( 9 2 )

q = 3.183kW m [1.738 + 0.024 + 0.00062 + (...)] = 5.611kW m

out

( 2 )

<

COMMENTS: If the foregoing procedure were used to evaluate the heat rate into the upper surface,

qin =

x =2

dqy ( x, W ) , it would follow that

x =0

q = k ( T2 T1 )
in

n +1
+1
2 ( 1)
coth ( n 2 ) 1 cos ( n )

n
n =1

However, with coth(n/2) 1, irrespective of the value of n, and with

(1)n +1 + 1

n =1

n being a

divergent series, the complete series does not converge and q . This physically untenable
in
condition results from the temperature discontinuities imposed at the upper left and right corners.

PROBLEM 4.4
KNOWN: Rectangular plate subjected to prescribed boundary conditions.
FIND: Steady-state temperature distribution.
SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Steady-state, 2-D conduction, (2) Constant properties.

ANALYSIS: The solution follows the method of Section 4.2. The product solution is

T ( x,y ) = X ( x ) Y ( y ) = ( C1cos x + C2 sin x ) C3e - y + C4e + y

and the boundary conditions are: T(0,y) = 0, T(a,y) = 0, T(x,0) = 0, T(x.b) = Ax. Applying
BC#1, T(0,y) = 0, find C1 = 0. Applying BC#2, T(a,y) = 0, find that = n/a with n = 1,2,.
Applying BC#3, T(x,0) = 0, find that C3 = -C4. Hence, the product solution is
n
T ( x,y ) = X ( x ) Y ( y ) = C2 C4 sin x e + y e- y .
a

Combining constants and using superposition, find

T ( x,y ) =

n x
n y
Cn sin
sinh a .
a

n =1

To evaluate Cn, use orthogonal functions with Eq. 4.16 to find

a
n x
n b a
2 n x
Cn = Ax sin
a dx/sinh a 0 sin a dx,
0

noting that y = b. The numerator, denominator and Cn, respectively, are:

a

2
2
a 2
n x ax cos n x = Aa cos n = Aa 1 n+1 ,
A x sin
dx = A
sin

[ ( ) ] n ( )
a n
a
0
a
n

n

0
a

n x

a
1
a
n b a 2 n x
n b 1
2n x
n b
sinh
0 sin a dx = sinh a 2 x 4n sin a = 2 sinh a ,
a

Aa 2
a
n b
n b
( 1) n+1 / sinh = 2Aa ( 1) n+1 / n sinh
a
a .
n
2

Hence, the temperature distribution is

n y
sinh
1 n+1
2 Aa
( )
n x
a .

T ( x,y ) =
n sin a
n =1

sinh n b
a

Cn =

<