Engineering Science-2

Engineering Science - 02
HNDCV/MT/02/18 BTEC Higher National Diploma in Civil Engineering

International College of Business and Technology Page 1

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First of all, I would like to thank my parents for their massive support and guidance to
complete this assignment and also I would like to thank Dr. T.S.S.Jayawardene, who is
who is our assessor lecturer of Engineering Science for the first semester in BTEC HND
in Engineering for guiding us to do this assignment. In addition I would thankful to all of
my friends and specially Mr. Rushantha and Mr. Mahesh who were there with me when I
need them.



CONTENT
Introduction 03
Bending movements and diagrams 04
Task 1 07
Task 2 13
Task 3 20
Task 4 22
Task 5 32
Task 6 40
Reference list 45



INTRODUCTION
This assignment briefly describes about static engineering systems and DC-AC theory. In task 1,
task 2 and task 3 questions based on static engineering system and these tasks included about
bending movements, shear forces, bending movement diagrams, shear force diagrams, how to
identify and draw deflected shapes and how to calculate maximum bending stress.
And in task 4, task 5 and task 6 based on DC-AC theory. These tasks are included V
c
and i
c
,
waveforms and speed control devices.



CREATE BENDING MOVEMENT DIAGRAMS
The shear force diagram of the above example looks like below:

step-1: Get the Reaction Forces: While creating shear force diagram of the beam you
already have calculated the vertical reaction forces at different points as below:
Rc = 60 KN
Re = -20 KN
These reaction forces will be useful for calculating the bending moments at different
points on the beam.



Step-3: Calculate the Bending Moments: You need to calculate the bending moments
at the different points on the beam. For calculating the bending moment you need to start
from the extreme left (point A) and gradually you have to approach toward right hand
side support (point A). You will use the following formula for calculating bending
moment:
Bending moment (M) = (Force) X (Distance between the point of application of the
force and the point at which you need to calculate bending moment)
Bending moment @ A:
Ma = -20 * 0
= 0
Bending moment @ B:
Mb = -20 * 1
= 20 KN-M
Bending moment @ C:
Mc = bending moment due to the 20KN force + bending moment due to the 10KN\M
UDL
= 20 * (1+1) (10*1*0.5)
= 45 KN-M
Bending moment @ D:
Md = bending moment due to the 20KN force + bending moment due to the 10KN \
M UDL + bending moment due to the reaction force Rc
= 20 * (1+1+1) (10*2X1) + (60*1)
= -20 KN-M
Bending moment @ E:
Me = bending moment due to the 20KN force + bending moment due to the 10KN \
M UDL + bending moment due to the reaction force Rc
= 20 * (1+1+1+1) (10*2X2) + (60*2)



= 0

Step-4: Plot the Bending Moments: Just now you have calculated the bending moment
values at different points of the beam, now plot the values and you will get the bending
moment diagram like below:



TASK 1
For the beam shown in the figure below, sketch the deflected shape, draw to scale
the shear force diagram and draw to scale the bending movement diagram. Label all
maximum and minimum values on your shear force and bending movement
diagrams.

( )
()

4m 5m 5m 6m
A B
C
D
70kN 10kN/m
5kN/m
4m 2.5m 2.5m
70kN 50kN
30kN
A B C D
5m 6m
P Q



Taking movements at B:

( ) ( ) ( )

;(from (1) )
Then we have to find out bending movements and shear forces for 5 sections. Because
forces are acting on 5 locations.
Section 1

* ( )+

( )

[ ( )
( )
] , ( )-
( )

Where (4 9)
When
( )



When
( ) ( )

Section 2

( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
Where (9 )
When
( )

When



( )

Section 3

( ) ( )
( )

( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ( )

Where (14 )
When
( )
()

When
()
() ( )



Shear Force Diagram
X (m) V (kN)
0 0
4 63.5
9 13.5
9 -56.5
14 -56.5
14 30
20 0

-80
-60
-40
-20
0
20
40
60
80
0 5 10 15 20 25
S
h
e
a
r

f
o
r
c
e

(
k
N
)

Distance x (m)



Bending Movement Diagram
x (m)
M
(kN/m)
0 0
4 0
9 192.5
14 -90
20 0

-150
-100
-50
0
50
100
150
200
250
0 5 10 15 20 25
B
e
n
d
i
n
g

m
o
m
e
n
t

M

(
k
N
/
m
)

DIstance x(m)



TASK 2
A beam with T cross-section is subject to design loads shown in the following figure. If
the maximum compressive stress of the beam is limited to 50 Nmm
2
and the maximum
tensile stress to 10 N/mm
2
, calculate the maximum bending stress of the beam at all
possible locations and check whether the beam will fall.

We have to find out movement of inertia (I) and center of gravity of the T section. For
that we have to calculate the mass, x and y .

According to the figure, 0 x .
= uniform density of the section

Object mass

= b
1
d
1

=
2
1
2
d
d

y
d
1

b
1

b
2

d
2

x
b
1

d
1



(
)
,( ) ( )- ( ) ( )

Movement of inertia can be found from the parallel axis theorem.

Neutral axis

= b
2
d
2

=
2
2
d

= (b
1
d
1
+ b
2
d
2
)

=
b
2

d
2

b
2

d
2

d
1

b
1

301.89mm
=118.11mm
=111.89mm



) () (
) ()

Then we have to find out the maximum bending movement.

=118.11mm
x x
=111.89mm
10kN
n
10kN
n
11.25 kN/m
n
8m
n
5m
n
5m
n
10kN
n
10kN
n
11.25 kN/m
n



()
Taking movements at B:

( ) ( ) ( )

;(from (1) )
Then we have to find out bending movements for 5 sections (AB, BC, CD).

Section 1

When (0 5)

x (m) M
1
(kN/m)
0 0
1 -10
2 -20
3 -30
4 -40
5 -50
P Q
A
B C
D

10kN
n



Section 2

( )
( )
( )

When (5 13)

Section 2

( ) ( ) ( )

Where (13 18)
x (m) M
3
(kN/m)
13 -50
14 -40
15 -30
16 -20
17 -10
18 0

x (m) M
2
(kN/m)
5 -50
6 -10.625
7 17.5
8 34.375
9 40
10 34.375
11 17.5
12 -10.625
13 -50
10kN
n

10kN
n



From this chart we can find out the maximum bending movement.
Maximum bending movement is = 40 kN/m
Upper section of T section is subjected to tension and the lower section of T section is
subjected to compression.

Maximum tensile stress can be found by:

-60
-40
-20
0
20
40
60
0 5 10 15 20
M(kN/m)
M(kN/m)



Maximum compressive stress can be found by:
.



TASK 3
A two feet long hollow steel shaft with an outer diameter of 2 inches and an inner
diameter of 1.5 inches is to transmit power while being driven a 3000rpm.
If the allowable shear stress in the shaft is 15000 lb/in
2
, what is the maximum horsepower
which can be transmitted down the shaft.

[(



The maximum horse power can transmitted = 766.68



TASK 4
If
(0) = 30v, t0, determine expressions for
and
for t 0 for the circuit

shown below,

1
st
Way
()

t =0;
()

t =1;
()



t =2;
()

t =3;
()

t =4;
()



t =5;
()

t =6;
()

t =7;
()

t =8;
()



t =9;
()

t =10;
()

0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Vc
Vc
time V
c

0 30
1 23.36
2 18.19
3 14.17
4 11.04
5 8.59
6 6.69
7 5.21
8 4.06
9 3.16
10 2.46



time i
c

0 2.5
1 1.94
2 1.51
3 1.18
4 0.92
5 0.71
6 0.56
7 0.43
8 0.34
9 0.26
10 0.21

2
nd
way
Appling K.V.L
()
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
ic
ic



For capacitors:
( )

Differentiate:
()

()

Substituting values:

()
Let,
(where k
1
and k
2
are constants)
Differentiate:

()

Equaling constants:



Initial conditions ; t=0,

Substituting initial conditions;

()

30=

Differentiate:

()
()
Let

Differentiate:

()



Equaling coefficients of

Equaling constants:
( )

Initial conditions t=0,

Substituting initial conditions:

Q=10



T

V
1 23.36
2 18.19
3 14.17
4 11.036
5 8.60
6 6.69
7 5.21
8 4.06
9 3.16
10 2.46
11 1.92



t
c
i
1 -1.95
2 -1.51
3 -1.18
4 -0.92
5 -0.71
6 -0.56
7 -0.43
8 -2.20
9 -0.26
10 -0.21
11 -0.16



TASK 5
Often circuits are produce complex waveforms; show how theses can be made up of
different sinusoidal signals. Give typical example for these waveforms.

A basic sinusoid
As shown in the diagram, the amplitude is the difference between the high value and the
low value. The waveform may have different units, depending upon what the waveform
is. If the waveform is measuring a voltage as a function of time, then the amplitude will
be in Volts; if it were current as a function of time, amplitude would be in Amps. The
frequency is equal to and is a measure of how quickly the waveform cycles. If the
waveform is a function of time, then frequency will usually be measured in Hertz (Hz).
Since frequency is a measure of how rapidly the waveform cycles, frequency is
sometimes (usually in older texts) given as cycles.
Making waves
Sine waves can be mixed with DC signals, or with other sine waves to produce new
waveforms. Here is one example of a complex waveform:
A waveform like this can be thought of as consisting of a DC component with a
superimposcompon easy to separate these two components using a capacitor.



More dramatic results are obtained by mixing a sine wave of a particular frequency with
exact multiples of the same frequency, (adding harmonics to the fundamental frequency).
The V/t graphs below show what happens when a sine wave is mixed with its 3rd
harmonic (3 times the fundamental frequency) at reduced amplitude, and subsequently
with its 5th, 7th and 9th harmonics:



The Sinusoidal Waveform. (Horizontal time is in milliseconds, vertical axis -5 to +5
volts)

Examples for waveforms.
Ocean waves
Sound waves
Light waves
Daily temperature(rough sinusoidal pattern
Each day of the yr.)
A cosine wave is said to be "sinusoidal", because cos(x) = sin(x + / 2), which is also a
sine wave with a phase-shift of /2.
There are three basic characteristics of sinusoidal waveforms (hereafter sinusoids):
amplitude, frequency, and phase.



sine wave generator

D.C. stands for direct current i.e. the signal is always a fixed value. A.C. signal
sources can be made up of different types of Waveforms. The most common
waveforms are the
Sinusoidal waveform, the Square waveform and the Triangle waveform. There is
other kind of A.C
waveforms which will be encountered as one becomes more involved with
electronics.
An example of each of these A.C. waveforms is shown below :



There 3 are three types of wave forms that is The Square Waveform and The
Triangle Waveform



The Sinusoidal Waveform.
The Sawtooth Wave form
Examples
Sine wave: sin (2 t). The amplitude of the waveform follows
a trigonometric sine function with respect to time.

Triangle wave: (t 2 floor ((t + 1) /2)) (1)
floor ((t + 1) /2)
. It contains
odd harmonics that fall off at 12 dB/octave.



Sawtooth wave: 2 (t floor(t)) 1. This looks like the teeth of a saw. Found often
in time bases for display scanning. It is used as the starting point for subtractive
synthesis, as a sawtooth wave of constant period contains odd and
even harmonics that fall off at 6dB/octave.



A pulse wave or pulse train is a kind of non-sinusoidal waveform that is similar to
a square wave, but does not have the symmetrical shape associated with a perfect
square wave.



TASK 6

For speed control device select individual components, you should include product
details and specification. You should include details how you are going to interface the
components and how you will monitor and check the performance of the system.
The purpose of a motor speed controller is to take a signal representing the demanded
speed, and to drive a motor at that speed. The controller may or may not actually measure
the speed of the motor. If it does, it is called a Feedback Speed Controller or Closed Loop
Speed Controller, if not it is called an Open Loop Speed Controller..
Motors come in a variety of forms, and the speed controller's motor drive output will be
different dependent on these forms. The speed controller presented here is designed to
drive a simple cheap starter motor from a car. Below is a simple block diagram of the
speed controller.

Theory of DC motor speed control
The speed controller works by varying the average voltage sent to the motor. It could do
this by simply adjusting the voltage sent to the motor, but this is quite inefficient to do. A
better way is to switch the motor's supply on and off very quickly. If the switching is fast
enough, the motor doesn't notice it, it only notices the average effect.



SCR or thyristor drive
SCR controls for DC motors convert AC power to direct current, with adjustable voltage.
Small DC drives are common in industry, running from line voltages, with motors rated
at 90V for 120V line, and 180V for a 240V line. Larger drives, up to thousands of
horsepower, are powered by three phase supplies and are used in such applications as
rolling mills, paper machines, excavators, and ship propulsion. DC drivers are available
in reversing and non-reversing models. The waveform of the current through the motor
by a single-phase drive will have strong ripple components due to the switching at line
frequency. This can be reduced by use of a polyphase supply or smoothing inductors in
the motor circuit; otherwise the ripple currents produce motor heating, excess noise, and
loss of motor torque.
PWM or chopper drives
PWM controls use pulse width modulation to regulate the current sent to the motor.
Unlike SCR controls which switch at line frequency, PWM controls produce smoother
current at higher switching frequencies, typically between 1 and 20 kHz. At 20 kHz, the
switching frequency is inaudible to humans, thereby eliminating the hum which
switching at lower frequency produces. However, some motor controllers for radio
controlled models make use of the motor to produce audible sound, most commonly
simple beeps.
A PWM controller typically contains a large reservoir capacitor and an H-bridge
arrangement of switching elements (thyristors, Mosfets, solid state relays, or transistors).
The speed controller works by varying the average voltage sent to the motor. It could do
this by simply adjusting the voltage sent to the motor, but this is quite inefficient to do. A
better way is to switch the motor's supply on and off very quickly. If the switching is fast
enough, the motor doesnt notice it, it only notices the average effect.



The amount of time that the voltage is on increases compared with the amount of time
that it is off, the
average speed of the motor increases.

This on-off switching is performed by power MOSFETs. A MOSFET (Metal-Oxide-
Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor) is a device that can turn very large currents on
and off under the control of allow signal level voltage. For more detailed information, see
the dedicated chapter on MOSFETs)
The time that it takes a motor to speed up and slow down under switching conditions is
dependent on the inertia of the rotor (basically how heavy it is), and how much friction
and load torque there is. The graph below shows the speed of a motor that is being turned
on and off fairly slowly:

Inductors

An inductor or a reactor is a passive electrical component that can store energy in a
magnetic field created by the electric current passing through it. An inductor's ability to
store magnetic energy is measured by its inductance, in units of henries. Typically an
inductor is a conducting wire shaped as a coil, the loops helping to create a strong
magnetic field inside the coil due to Ampere's Law. Due to the time-varying magnetic
field inside the coil, a voltage is induced, according to Faraday's law of electromagnetic
induction, which by Lenz's Law opposes the change in current that created it. Inductors
are one of the basic electronic components used in electronics where current and voltage
change with time, due to the ability of inductors to delay and reshape alternating currents.
In everyday speak inductors are sometimes called chokes, but this refers to only a
particular type and purpose of inductor

Choosing a frequency based on motor characteristics
One way to choose a suitable frequency is to say, for example, that we want the current
waveform to be stable to within p percent. Then we can work out mathematically the
minimum frequency to attain this goal. This section is a bit mathematical so you may
wish to miss it out and just use the final equation.
The following shows the equivalent circuit of the motor, and the current waveform as the
PWM signal switches on and off. This shows the worst case, at 50:50 PWM ratio, and the
current rise is shown for a stationary or stalled motor, which is also worst case.



T is the switching period, which is the reciprocal of the switching frequency. Just
taking the falling edge of the current waveform, this is given by the
equation(shown follow of tha paragraph) is the time constant of the circuit,
which is L / R.
So the current at time t = T/2 (i
1
) must be no less than P% lower than at t = 0 (i
0
).
This means there is a limiting condition:



Speed control circuits
We will start off with a very simple circuit (see the figure below). The inductance of the
field windings and the armature windings have been lumped together and called L
a
. The
resistance of the windings and brushes is not important to this discussion, and so has not
been drawn.
Q1 is the MOSFET. When Q1 is on, current flows through the field and armature
windings, and the motor rotates. When Q1 is turned off , the current through an inductor
cannot immediately turn off, and so the inductor voltage drives a diminishing current in
the same direction, which will now flow through the armature, and back through D1 as
shown by the red arrow in the figure below. If D1 wasnt in place, a very large voltage
would build up across Q1 and blow it up.



REFERENCE LIST

http://www.mechguru.com
http://mathworld.wolfram.com/TriangleWave.html
http://homepages.which.net/~paul.hills/SpeedControl/SpeedControllersBody.html
http://mathworld.wolfram.com/SquareWave.html
http://crca.ucsd.edu/~msp/techniques/latest/book-html/node24.html
Hanna, J and Hillier, M (1995) Mechanical Engineering Science. Longman. ISBN
0582326753
Bolton(2006).Engineering science.5
th
edn. Oxford.uk



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Engineering Science - 02

HNDCV/MT/02/18 BTEC Higher National Diploma in Civil Engineering

= uniform density of the section

(0) = 30v, t0, determine expressions for

for t 0 for the circuit

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