CH 3

Chapter 3
Determinants
3.1 The Determinant of a Matrix
3.2 Evaluation of a Determinant using
Elementary Operations
3.3 Properties of Determinants
3.4 Introduction to Eigenvalues
3.5 Application of Determinants
Elementary Linear Algebra
R. Larsen et al. (6 Edition)
2/62
3.1 The Determinant of a Matrix
the determinant of a 2 2 matrix:
Note:
(
=
22 21
12 11
a a
a a
A
12 21 22 11
| | ) det( a a a a A A = =
=
(
22 21
12 11
a a
a a
22 21
12 11
a a
a a
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.1, p.123
3/62
Ex. 1: (The determinant of a matrix of order 2)
2 1
3 2
2 4
1 2
4 2
3 0
Note: The determinant of a matrix can be positive, zero, or negative.
) 3 ( 1 ) 2 ( 2 = 3 4+ = 7 =
) 1 ( 4 ) 2 ( 2 = 4 4 = 0 =
) 3 ( 2 ) 4 ( 0 = 6 0 = 6 =
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Minor of the entry :
The determinant of the matrix determined by deleting the ith row
and jth column of A
Cofactor of :
ij
a
ij
j i
ij
M C
+
= ) 1 (
nn j n j n n
n i j i j i i
n i j i j i i
n j j
ij
a a a a
a a a a
a a a a
a a a a a
M

) 1 ( ) 1 ( 1
) 1 ( ) 1 )( 1 ( ) 1 )( 1 ( 1 ) 1 (
) 1 ( ) 1 )( 1 ( ) 1 )( 1 ( 1 ) 1 (
1 ) 1 ( 1 ) 1 ( 1 12 11
+
+ + + + +
+
+
=
ij
a
5/62
Ex:
(
(
(
=
33 32 31
23 22 21
13 12 11
a a a
a a a
a a a
A
33 32
13 12
21
a a
a a
M =
21 21
1 2
21
) 1 ( M M C = =
+
33 31
13 11
22
a a
a a
M =
22 22
2 2
22
) 1 ( M M C = =
+
6/62
(
(
(
+ +
+
+ +
Notes: Sign pattern for cofactors
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
+ + +
+ +
+ + +
+ +
+ + +


(
(
(
(
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
3 3 matrix 4 4 matrix n n matrix
Notes:
Odd positions (where i+j is odd) have negative signs, and
even positions (where i+j is even) have positive signs.
7/62
Ex 2: Find all the minors and cofactors of A.
, 5
1 4
2 3
12
= = M
, 1
1 0
2 1
11
=
= M
Sol: (1) All the minors of A.
4
0 4
1 3
13
=
= M
, 2
1 0
1 2
21
= = M , 4
1 4
1 0
22
= = M 8
1 4
2 0
23
= = M
, 5
2 1
1 2
31
=
= M , 3
2 3
1 0
32
= = M
6
1 3
2 0
33
=
= M
(
(
(
=
1 0 4
2 1 3
1 2 0
A
8/62
, 5
1 4
2 3
12
= = C , 1
1 0
2 1
11
=
+ = C
4
0 4
1 3
13
=
+ = C
ij
j i
ij
M C
+
= ) 1 (
, 2
1 0
1 2
21
= = C
, 4
1 4
1 0
22
= + = C
8
1 4
2 0
23
= = C
, 5
2 1
1 2
31
=
+ = C , 3
2 3
1 0
32
= = C 6
1 3
2 0
33
=
+ = C
Sol: (2) All the cofactors of A.
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Thm 3.1: (Expansion by cofactors)
=
+ + + = = =
n
j
in in i i i i ij ij
C a C a C a C a A A a
1
2 2 1 1
| | ) det( ) (
(Cofactor expansion along the i-th row, i=1, 2,, n )
=
+ + + = = =
n
i
nj nj j j j j ij ij
C a C a C a C a A A b
1
2 2 1 1
| | ) det( ) (
(Cofactor expansion along the j-th row, j=1, 2,, n )
Let A is a square matrix of order n.
Then the determinant of A is given by
or
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Ex: The determinant of a matrix of order 3
(
(
(
=
33 32 31
23 22 21
13 12 11
a a a
a a a
a a a
A
33 33 23 23 13 13
32 32 22 22 12 12
31 31 21 21 11 11
33 33 32 32 31 31
23 23 22 22 21 21
13 13 12 12 11 11
) det(
C a C a C a
C a C a C a
C a C a C a
C a C a C a
C a C a C a
C a C a C a A
+ + =
+ + =
+ + =
+ + =
+ + =
+ + =
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.1, Addition
11/62
Ex 3: The determinant of a matrix of order 3
14 ) 6 )( 1 ( ) 8 )( 2 ( ) 4 )( 1 (
14 ) 3 )( 0 ( ) 4 )( 1 ( ) 5 )( 2 (
14 ) 5 )( 4 ( ) 2 )( 3 ( ) 1 )( 0 (
14 ) 6 )( 1 ( ) 3 )( 0 ( ) 5 )( 4 (
14 ) 8 )( 2 ( ) 4 )( 1 ( ) 2 )( 3 (
14 ) 4 )( 1 ( ) 5 )( 2 ( ) 1 )( 0 ( ) det(
33 33 23 23 13 13
32 32 22 22 12 12
31 31 21 21 11 11
33 33 32 32 31 31
23 23 22 22 21 21
13 13 12 12 11 11
= + + = + + =
= + + = + + =
= + + = + + =
= + + = + + =
= + + = + + =
= + + = + + =
C a C a C a
C a C a C a
C a C a C a
C a C a C a
C a C a C a
C a C a C a A
(
(
(
=
1 0 4
2 1 3
1 2 0
A
6 , 3 , 5
8 , 4 , 2
4 , 5 , 1
33 32 31
23 22 21
13 12 11
2 E
= = =
= = =
= = =
C C C
C C C
C C C
x
Sol:
12/62
Ex 5: (The determinant of a matrix of order 3)
? ) det( = A
(
(
(
=
1 4 4
2 1 3
1 2 0
A
1
1 0
2 1
) 1 (
1 1
11
=
=
+
C
Sol:
5 ) 5 )( 1 (
1 4
2 3
) 1 (
2 1
12
= = =
+
C
4
0 4
1 3
) 1 (
3 1
13
=
=
+
C
14
) 4 )( 1 ( ) 5 )( 2 ( ) 1 )( 0 (
) det(
13 13 12 12 11 11
=
+ + =
+ + = C a C a C a A
13/62
Ex 4: (The determinant of a matrix of order 4)
(
(
(
(

=
2 0 4 3
3 0 2 0
2 0 1 1
0 3 2 1
A
? ) det( = A
Notes:
The row (or column) containing the most zeros is the best choice
for expansion by cofactors .
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Sol:
) )( 0 ( ) )( 0 ( ) )( 0 ( ) )( 3 ( ) det(
43 33 23 13
C C C C A + + + =
2 4 3
3 2 0
2 1 1
) 1 ( 3
3 1
=
+
13
3C =
| |
39
) 13 )( 3 (
) 7 )( 1 )( 3 ( ) 4 )( 1 )( 2 ( 0 3
4 3
1 1
) 1 )( 3 (
2 3
2 1
) 1 )( 2 (
2 4
2 1
) 1 )( 0 ( 3
3 2 2 2 1 2
=
=
+ + =
(
=
+ + +
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The determinant of a matrix of order 3:
(
(
(
=
33 32 31
23 22 21
13 12 11
a a a
a a a
a a a
A
32 31 33 32 31
22 21 23 22 21
12 11 13 12 11
a a a a a
a a a a a
a a a a a
12 21 33 11 23 32
13 22 31 32 21 13 31 23 12 33 22 11

| | ) det(
a a a a a a
a a a a a a a a a a a a A A

+ + = =
Add these three products.
Subtract these three products.
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Ex 5:
(
(
(
=
1 4 4
2 1 3
1 2 0
A
4 4
1 3
2 0
4
0
2 6 0 ) 4 ( 12 16 0 | | ) det( = + = = A A
16
12
0 6
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Upper triangular matrix:
Lower triangular matrix:
Diagonal matrix:
All the entries below the main diagonal are zeros.
All the entries above the main diagonal are zeros.
All the entries above and below the main diagonal are zeros.
Note:
A matrix that is both upper and lower triangular is called diagonal.
18/62
(
(
33
23 22
13 12 11
0 0
0
a
a a
a a a
(
(
33 32 31
22 21
11
0
0 0
a a a
a a
a
Ex:
upper triangular
(
(
33
22
11
0 0
0 0
0 0
a
a
a
lower triangular
diagonal
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Thm 3.2: (Determinant of a Triangular Matrix)
If A is an n n triangular matrix (upper triangular,
lower triangular, or diagonal), then its determinant is the
product of the entries on the main diagonal. That is
nn
a a a a A A
33 22 11
| | ) det( = =
20/62
Ex 6: Find the determinants of the following triangular matrices.
(a)
(
(
(
(

=
3 3 5 1
0 1 6 5
0 0 2 4
0 0 0 2
A
(b)
(
(
(
(
(
(
=
2 0 0 0 0
0 4 0 0 0
0 0 2 0 0
0 0 0 3 0
0 0 0 0 1
B
|A| = (2)(2)(1)(3) = 12
|B| = (1)(3)(2)(4)(2) = 48
(a)
(b)
Sol:
21/62
Keywords in Section 3.1:
determinant :
minor :
cofactor :
expansion by cofactors :
upper triangular matrix:
lower triangular matrix:
diagonal matrix:
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3.2 Evaluation of a determinant using elementary operations
Thm 3.3: (Elementary row operations and determinants)
) ( ) ( A r B a
ij
=
Let A and B be square matrices.
) det( ) det( A B =
) ( ) (
) (
A r B b
k
i
= ) det( ) det( A k B =
) ( ) (
) (
A r B c
k
ij
=
) det( ) det( A B =
) ) ( (i.e. A A r
ij
=
) ) ( (i.e.
) (
A k A r
k
i
=
) ) ( (i.e.
) (
A A r
k
ij
=
23/62
(
(
(
=
1 2 1
4 1 0
3 2 1
A
Ex:
(
(
(
=
1 2 1
4 1 0
12 8 4
1 A
(
(
(
=
1 2 1
3 2 1
4 1 0
2 A
(
(
(
=
1 2 1
2 3 2
3 2 1
3 A
2 ) det( = A
8 ) 2 )( 4 ( ) det( 4 )) ( det( ) det( ) (
) 4 (
1
1
) 4 (
1
1 = = = = = A A r A A r A
2 ) 2 ( ) det( )) ( det( ) det( ) (
12
2
12
2 = = = = = A A r A A r A
2 ) det( )) ( det( ) det( ) (
) 2 (
12
3
) 2 (
12
3 = = = =

A A r A A r A
24/62
Notes:
)) ( det( ) det( ) det( )) ( det( A r A A A r
ij ij
= =
)) ( det(
1
) det( ) det( )) ( det(
) ( ) (
A r
k
A A k A r
k
i
k
i
= =
)) ( det( ) det( ) det( )) ( det(
) ( ) (
A r A A A r
k
ij
k
ij
= =
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.2, pp.134-135
25/62
Note:
A row-echelon form of a square matrix is always upper triangular.
Ex 2: (Evaluation a determinant using elementary row operations)

(
(
=
3 1 0
2 2 1
10 3 2
A
? ) det( = A
Sol:
3 1 0
10 3 2
2 2 1

3 1 0
2 2 1
10 3 2
) det(
12
=
r
A
26/62
7 ) 1 )( 1 )( 1 )( 7 (
1 0 0
2 1 0
2 2 1
7
) 1 (
23
= =
r
3 1 0
2 1 0
2 2 1
)
1
)( 1 (
3 1 0
14 7 0
2 2 1

7
1
)
7
1
(
2
) 2 (
12
r r

27/62

Notes:
A E EA =
ij
R E = ) 1 (
1 = =
ij
R E
( ) A E A R A A r EA
ij ij
= = = =
) (
) 2 (
k
i
R E = k R E
k
i
= =
) (
( ) A E A R A k A r EA
k
i
k
i
= = = =
) ( ) (
) (
) 3 (
k
ij
R E =
1
) (
= =
k
ij
R E
( ) A E A R A A r EA
k
ij
k
ij
= = = =
) ( ) (
1
28/62
Determinants and elementary column operations
) ( ) ( A c B a
i j
=
Let A and B be square matrices.
) det( ) det( A B =
) ( ) (
) (
A c B b
k
i
= ) det( ) det( A k B =
) ( ) (
) (
A c B c
k
ij
=
) det( ) det( A B =
) ) ( (i.e. A A c
ij
=
) ) ( (i.e.
) (
A k A c
k
i
=
) ) ( (i.e.
) (
A A c
k
ij
=
Thm: (Elementary column operations and determinants)
29/62
(
(
(

=
2 0 0
1 0 4
3 1 2
A
Ex:
(
(
(

=
2 0 0
1 4 0
3 2 1
2
A
(
(
(

=
2 0 0
1 0 2
3 1 1
1
A
(
(
(
=
2 0 0
1 0 4
0 1 2
3 A
8 ) det( = A
4 ) 8 )(
2
1
( ) det(
2
1
)) ( det( ) det( ) (
) 4 (
1
1
)
2
1
(
1
1 = = = = = A A c A A c A
8 ) 8 ( ) det( )) ( det( ) det( ) (
12
2
12
2 = = = = = A A c A A c A
8 ) det( )) ( det( ) det( ) (
) 3 (
23
3
) 3 (
23
3 = = = = A A c A A c A
30/62
Thm 3.4: (Conditions that yield a zero determinant)
(a) An entire row (or an entire column) consists of zeros.
(b) Two rows (or two columns) are equal.
(c) One row (or column) is a multiple of another row (or column).
If A is a square matrix and any of the following conditions is true,
then det (A) = 0.
31/62
0
6 5 4
0 0 0
3 2 1
= 0
0 6 3
0 5 2
0 4 1
= 0
6 5 4
2 2 2
1 1 1
=
0
2 6 1
2 5 1
2 4 1
= 0
6 4 2
6 5 4
3 2 1
=

0
6 12 3
5 10 2
4 8 1
=
Ex:
32/62
Cofactor Expansion Row Reduction
Order n Additions Multiplications Additions Multiplications
3 5 9 5 10
5 119 205 30 45
10 3,628,799 6,235,300 285 339
Note:
33/62
Ex 5: (Evaluating a determinant)
(
(
(
=
6 0 3
1 4 2
2 5 3
A
Sol:
3 ) 1 )( 3 (
3 4
4 5
) 1 )( 3 (
0 0 3
3 4 2
4 5 3

6 0 3
1 4 2
2 5 3
) det(
1 3
) 2 (
13
= =
=
+
C
A
3 )
5
3
)( 5 (
6 3
) 1 )( 5 (
6 0 3
0
2 5 3

6 0 3
1 4 2
2 5 3
) det(
5
3
5
2
2 1
5
3
5
2
)
5
4
(
12
= =
r
A
34/62
Ex 6: (Evaluating a determinant)

Sol:
(
(
(
(

=
0 2 3 1 1
3 4 2 1 3
3 2 1 0 1
1 2 3 1 2
2 3 1 0 2
A
1 0 0 3
4 6 5 1
3 2 1 1
2 3 1 2
1) (1)(

1 0 0 0 3
4 6 5 0 1
3 2 1 0 1
1 2 3 1 2
2 3 1 0 2
0 2 3 1 1
3 4 2 1 3
3 2 1 0 1
1 2 3 1 2
2 3 1 0 2
) det(
2 2
) 1 (
25
) 1 (
24

=

=
+
r
r
A
35/62

6 5 13
2 1 8
5 0 0

6 5 13
2 1 8
3 1 8
) 1 (1)(
1 0 0 0
4 6 5 13
3 2 1 8
2 3 1 8
) 1 (
21
4 4
) 3 (
41
= =

=
+
r
C
135
) 27 )( 5 (
5 13
1 8
1) 5(
3 1
=
=

=
+
36/62
3.3 Properties of Determinants
Notes:
) det( ) det( ) det( B A B A + = +
Thm 3.5: (Determinant of a matrix product)
(1) det (EA) = det (E) det (A)
(2)
(3)
33 32 31
23 22 21
13 12 11
33 32 31
23 22 21
13 12 11
a a a
b b b
a a a
a a a
a a a
a a a
+ =
33 32 31
23 23 22 22 22 22
13 12 11
a a a
b a b a b a
a a a
+ + +
det (AB) = det (A) det (B)
37/62
Ex 1: (The determinant of a matrix product)
(
(
(

=
1 0 1
2 3 0
2 2 1
A
(
(
(
=
2 1 3
2 1 0
1 0 2
B
7
1 0 1
2 3 0
2 2 1
| | =
= A
11
2 1 3
2 1 0
1 0 2
| | =
= B
Sol:
Find |A|, |B|, and |AB|
38/62
(
(
(
=
(
(
(

(
(
(

=
1 1 5
10 1 6
1 4 8
2 1 3
2 1 0
1 0 2
1 0 1
2 3 0
2 2 1
AB
77
1 1 5
10 1 6
1 4 8
| | =
= AB
|AB| = |A| |B|
Check:
39/62
Ex 2:
5
1 3 2
5 0 3
4 2 1
,
10 30 20
50 0 30
40 20 10
=

(
(
(
= A
Find |A|.
Sol:
(
(
(
=
1 3 2
5 0 3
4 2 1
10 A
5000 ) 5 )( 1000 (
1 3 2
5 0 3
4 2 1
10
3
= =

= A
Thm 3.6: (Determinant of a scalar multiple of a matrix)
If A is an n n matrix and c is a scalar, then
det (cA) = c
n
det (A)
40/62
Ex 3: (Classifying square matrices as singular or nonsingular)
= 0 A
(
(
(

=
1 2 3
1 2 3
1 2 0
A
(
(
(

=
1 2 3
1 2 3
1 2 0
B
A has no inverse (it is singular).
= = 0 12 B
B has an inverse (it is nonsingular).
Sol:
Thm 3.7: (Determinant of an invertible matrix)
A square matrix A is invertible (nonsingular) if and only if
det (A) = 0
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Ex 4:
?
1
=
A
(
(
(
=
0 1 2
2 1 0
3 0 1
A
? =
T
A (a)
(b)
4
0 1 2
2 1 0
3 0 1
| | = = A
4
1 1
1
= =

A
A
4 = = A A
T
Sol:
Thm 3.8: (Determinant of an inverse matrix)
.
) A det(
1
) A det( then invertible is If
1
=
, A
Thm 3.9: (Determinant of a transpose)
). det( ) det( then matrix, square a is If
T
A A A =
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If A is an n n matrix, then the following statements are equivalent.
(1) A is invertible.
(2) Ax = b has a unique solution for every n 1 matrix b.
(3) Ax = 0 has only the trivial solution.
(4) A is row-equivalent to I
n
(5) A can be written as the product of elementary matrices.
(6) det (A) = 0
Equivalent conditions for a nonsingular matrix:
43/62
Ex 5: Which of the following system has a unique solution?
(a)
4 2 3
4 2 3
1 2
3 2 1
3 2 1
3 2
= +
= +
=
x x x
x x x
x x

(b)
4 2 3
4 2 3
1 2
3 2 1
3 2 1
3 2
= + +
= +
=
x x x
x x x
x x
44/62
Sol:
b x = A
(a)
0 = A
This system does not have a unique solution.
(b)
b x = B
0 12= = B
This system has a unique solution.
45/62
3.4 Introduction to Eigenvalues
Eigenvalue problem:
If A is an nn matrix, do there exist n1 nonzero matrices x
such that Ax is a scalar multiple of x
Eigenvalue and eigenvector:
Aan nn matrix
a scalar
x a n1 nonzero column matrix
x Ax =
Eigenvalue
Eigenvector
(The fundamental equation for
the eigenvalue problem)
46/62
Ex 1: (Verifying eigenvalues and eigenvectors)
(
=
3 2
4 1
A
(
=
1
1
1
x
1 1
5
1
1
5
5
5
1
1
3 2
4 1
x Ax =
(
=
(
=
(
=
Eigenvalue
2 2
) 1 (
1
2
1
1
2
1
2
3 2
4 1
x Ax =
(
=
(
=
(
=
Eigenvalue
Eigenvector
Eigenvector
(
=
1
2
2
x
47/62
Question:
Given an nn matrix A, how can you find the eigenvalues and
corresponding eigenvectors?
Characteristic equation of AeM
nn
:
0 ) I ( ) I det(
0 1
1
1
= + + + + = =

c c c A A
n
n
n

If has nonzero solutions iff . 0 ) I ( = x A 0 ) I det( = A
0 ) I ( = = x A x Ax
Note:
(homogeneous system)
Elementary Linear Algebra: section 3.4, p.153
48/62
Ex 2: (Finding eigenvalues and eigenvectors)
(
=
3 2
4 1
A
Sol: Characteristic equation:
0 ) 1 )( 5 ( 5 4
3 2
4 1
I
2
= + = =

=

A
Eigenvalues: 1 , 5
2 1
= =
1 , 5 =
49/62
1 ) 2 (
2
=
0 ,
1
2 2

0
0
4 2
4 2
) I (
2
1
2
1
2
=
(
=
(
=
(
=
(

=
t t
t
t
x
x
x
x
x A
5 ) 1 (
1
=
0 ,
1
1

0
0
2 2
4 4
) I (
2
1
2
1
1
=
(
=
(
=
(
=
(

=
t t
t
t
x
x
x
x
x A
50/62
Ex 3: (Finding eigenvalues and eigenvectors)
(
(
(
=
0 1 1
1 2 1
2 2 1
A
Sol: Characteristic equation:
0 ) 3 )( 1 )( 1 (
1 1
1 2 1
2 2 1
I = + =

=
A
3 , 1 , 1 : s eigenvalue The
3 2 1
= = =
51/62
1
1
=
(
(
(
(
(
(

=
0 0 0
1 1 0
2 0 1
~
1 1 1
1 1 1
2 2 0
I
1
A
0 ,
1
1
2
: rs eigenvecto
2
3
2
1
=
(
(
(
(
(
(
=
(
(
(
t t
t
t
t
x
x
x
1
2
=
(
(
(

(
(
(

=
0 0 0
1 1 0
2 0 1
~
1 1 1
1 3 1
2 2 2
I
2
A
0 ,
1
1
2
: rs eigenvecto
2
3
2
1
=
(
(
(

(
(
(
=
(
(
(
t t
t
t
t
x
x
x
52/62
3
3
=
(
(
(
(
(
(

=
0 0 0
1 1 0
2 0 1
~
3 1 1
1 1 1
2 2 2
I
3
A
0 ,
1
1
2
: rs eigenvecto
2
3
2
1
=
(
(
(
(
(
(
=
(
(
(
t t
t
t
t
x
x
x
53/62
3.5 Applications of Determinants
Matrix of cofactors of A:
| |
(
(
(
(
=
nn n n
n
n
ij
C C C
C C C
C C C
C
2 1
2 22 21
1 12 11
ij
j i
ij M C
+
= ) 1 (
| |
(
(
(
(
= =
nn n n
n
n
T
ij
C C C
C C C
C C C
C A adj
2 1
2 22 12
1 21 11
) (
Adjoint matrix of A:
54/62
Thm 3.10: (The inverse of a matrix given by its adjoint)
bc ad A = ) det(
If A is an n n invertible matrix, then
) (
) det(
1
1
A adj
A
A =
=
d c
b a
A
(

=
a c
b d
A adj ) (
( )
) (
det
1
1
A adj
A
A =

Ex:
(
=
a c
b d
bc ad
1
55/62
Ex 1 & Ex 2:
1
A
(
(
(
=
2 0 1
1 2 0
2 3 1
A
(a) Find the adjoint of A.
(b) Use the adjoint of A to find
, 4
2 0
1 2
11
=
+ = C
Sol:
, 1
2 1
1 0
12
=
= C 2
0 1
2 0
13
=
+ = C
ij
j i
ij
M C
+
= ) 1 (
, 6
2 0
2 3
21
= = C , 0
2 1
2 1
22
=
+ = C 3
0 1
3 1
23
=
= C
, 7
1 2
2 3
31
=
+ = C , 1
1 0
2 1
32
=
= C 2
2 0
3 1
33
=
+ = C
56/62
cofactor matrix of A
| |
(
(
(
=
2 1 7
3 0 6
2 1 4
ij
C
adjoint matrix of A
| |
(
(
(
= =
2 3 2
1 0 1
7 6 4
) (
T
ij
C A adj
(
(
(
=
2 3 2
1 0 1
7 6 4
3
1
inverse matrix of A
( )
) (
det
1
1
A adj
A
A =
( ) 3 det = A
(
(
(
=
3
2
3
2
3
1
3
1
3
7
3
4
1
0
2
Check: I AA =
1
57/62
Thm 3.11: (Cramers Rule)
1 1 2 12 1 11
b x a x a x a
n n
= + + +
n n nn n n
n n
b x a x a x a
b x a x a x a
= + + +
= + + +
2 2 1 1
2 2 2 22 1 21
b x = A
| | | |
) ( ) 2 ( ) 1 (
, , ,
n
n n
ij
A A A a A = =

(
(
(
(
=
n
x
x
x
2
1
x
(
(
(
(
=
n
b
b
b
2
1
b
0 ) det(
2 1
2 22 21
1 12 11
= =
nn n n
n
n
a a a
a a a
a a a
A
(this system has a unique solution)

58/62
| |
) ( ) 1 ( ) 1 ( ) 2 ( ) 1 (
, , , , , , ,
n j j
j
A A b A A A A
+
=
(
(
(
(
=
+
+
+
nn j n n j n n
n j j
n j j
a a b a a
a a b a a
a a b a a

) 1 ( ) 1 ( 1
2 ) 1 ( 2 2 ) 1 ( 2 21
1 ) 1 ( 1 1 ) 1 ( 1 11
nj n j j j
C b C b C b A + + + =
2 2 1 1
) det( ( i.e. )
,
) det(
) det(
A
A
x
j
j
=
n j , , 2 , 1 =
59/62
Pf:
0 ) det( = A A x = b,
b x
1
= A b ) (
) det(
1
A adj
A
=
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
=
n nn n n
n
n
b
b
b
C C C
C C C
C C C
A
2
1
2 1
2 22 12
1 21 11
) det(
1
(
(
(
(
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
=
nn n n n
n n
n n
C b C b C b
C b C b C b
C b C b C b
A
2 2 1 1
2 22 2 12 1
1 21 2 11 1
) det(
1
60/62
) det(
) det(
A
A
j
=
) (
) det(
1
2 2 1 1 nj n j j j
C b C b C b
A
x + + + =
n j , , 2 , 1 =
61/62
Ex 4: Use Cramers rule to solve the system of linear equations.
8
4 4 2
1 0 0
3 2 1
) det(
1
=
= A
2 4 4 3
0 2
1 3 2
= +
= +
= +
z y x
z x
z y x
Sol:
10
4 4 3
1 0 2
3 2 1
) det( =

= A
, 15
4 2 3
1 0 2
3 1 1
) det(
2
=

= A 16
2 4 3
0 0 2
1 2 1
) det(
3
=
= A
5
4
) det(
) det(
1
= =
A
A
x
2
3
) det(
) det(
2

= =
A
A
y
5
8
) det(
) det(
3

= =
A
A
z
62/62
Keywords in Section 3.5:
matrix of cofactors :
adjoint matrix :
Cramers rule : Cramer

CH 3

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CH 3

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Chapter 3

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.1, p.124

Ex 2: (Evaluation a determinant using elementary row operations)

(this system has a unique solution)

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