Andkhui

Andhkui was a Khanate in present north Afghanistan.

List of Khans of Andkhui Khanate
Ali Mardan Khan was a Khan of Andkhui Khanate from 1730/31 until 1736.
Sulaiman Khan (from 1750 Mukhless Khan) was a Khan of Andkhui Khanate from 1736 until 1790.
Rahmatullah Khan was a Khan of Andkhui Khanate from 1790 until 1812.
Yulduz Khan was a Khan of Andkhui Khanate from 1812 until 1830.
Abd'al Aziz Khan was a Khan of Andkhui Khanate from 1830 until 1835.
Shah Wali Khan was a Khan of Andkhui Khanate from 1835 until 1844.
Ghazanfar Khan was a Khan of Andkhui Khanate from 1844 until 1845, from 1845 until 1847 and from 1847 until 1869.
Sufi Khan was a Khan of Andkhui Khanate in 1845 and in 1847.
Daulat Beg Khan was a Khan of Andkhui Khanate from 1869 until 1880.

Badakhshan
Badakhshan was a state in present Afghanistan. Badakhshan (Pashto/Persian: , Chinese: , meaning "Badakh Mountains") is a historic region
comprising parts of what is now northeastern Afghanistan and southeastern Tajikistan. The name is retained in Badakhshan Province which is one of the thirty-
fourprovinces of Afghanistan, in the far northeast of Afghanistan, and contains the Wakhan Corridor. Much of historic Badakhshan lies within
Tajikistan's Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Province located in the in south-eastern part of the country. The music of Badakhshan is an important part of the
region's cultural heritage.
List of rulers of Badakhshan
Shansabanids Dynasty
Fakhr al- Din Masud was a ruler of Badakhshan from 1145 until 1163.
Shams al -Din Muhammad was a ruler of Badakhshan from 1163 until 1192.
Baha al- Din Sam was a ruler of Badakhshan from 1192 until 1206.
Jalal al -Din Ali was a ruler of Badakhshan from 1206 until 1215.
The first Local dynasty
Ali Shah was a ruler of Badakhshan around 1291.
Dawlat Shah ibn Ali Shah was a ruler of Badakhshan from 1291 until 1292.
Sultan Bakhtin was a ruler of Badakhshan in 1303.
Arghun Shah was a ruler of Badakhshan from 1307 until 1311.
Ali Shah II was a ruler of Badakhshan from 1311 until 1318.
The second Local dynasty
Baha al- Din Shah was a ruler of Badakhshan from 1344 until 1358.
Muhammad Shah was a ruler of Badakhshan from 1358 until 1369.
Shaykh Ali was a ruler of Badakhshan from 1368 until 1369.
Bahramshah was a ruler of Badakhshan from 1358 until 1374 or 1375.
Timurid Dynasty
Sultan Muhammad Shah was a ruler of Badakhshan from 1450 until 1467. He was the last of a series of kings who traced their descent
to Alexander the Great. He was killed by Abu Sa'id Mirza the ruler of Timurid Empire and took possession of Badakhshan, which after his
death fell to his son, Sultan Mahmud.


Abu Bakr ibn Abi Said Mirza was a ruler of Badakhshan from 1460 until 1480.
Abu Said ibn Sultan Mahmud was a ruler of Badakhshan from 1480 until 1495. He had three sons, Baysinghar Mirza, Ali Mirza and Khan Mirza.
When Mahmud died, Amir Khusroe Khan, one of his nobles, blinded Baysinghar Mirza, killed the second prince, and ruled as usurper. He submitted to
Mughal Emperor Babur in 1504.
Mahmud ibn Mas'ud was a ruler of Badakhshan from 1495 until 1497.
Baysunkur Mirza ibn Mahmud was a ruler of Badakhshan from 1497 until 1499. When Mahmud died, Amir Khusroe Khan, one of his nobles, blinded
Baysinghar Mirza, killed the second prince, and ruled as usurper.
Sultan Mahmud ibn Ali was a ruler of Badakhshan from 1499 until 1500.
Mubarek Muzaffar Shah was a ruler of Badakhshan from 1505 until 1507.
Nasir Mirza Miran Shah was a ruler of Badakhshan from 1507 until 1520.
Uways Mirza Sultan ibn Sultan Mahmud was a ruler of Badakhshan 1507 until 1520.
Abu Nasr Muhammad ibn Hindal Babur was a ruler of Badakhshan in 1529 and from 1546 until 1547 (also ruler in Kunduz from 1545 until 1550).
Mirzah Shah Sulayman ibn Sultan Uways (died 1589) was a ruler of Badakhshan from 1529 until 1546 and from 1547 until 1575. After the death of
Khan Mirza, Badakhshan was governed for Babur by Prince Humayun, Sultan Wais Khan (Mirza Sulaiman's father-in-law), Prince Hindal, and lastly, by Mirza
Sulaiman, who held Badakhshan till October 8, 1541, when he had to surrender himself and his son, Mirza Ibrahim, to Prince Kamran Mirza. They were
released by Emperor Humayun in 1545, and took again possession of Badakhshan. When Humayun had taken Kabul, he made war upon and defeated Mirza
Sulaiman who once in possession of his country, had refused to submit; but when the return of Prince Kamran Mirza from Sindh obliged Emperor Humayun to
go to Kabul, he reinstated Mirza Sulaiman, who held Badakhshan till 1575. Bent on making conquests, he invaded Balkh in 1560, but had to return. His son,
Mirza Ibrahim, was killed in battle. When Akbar became Mughal Emperor, his stepbrother Mirza Muhammad Hakim's mother had been killed by Shah Abul
Ma'ali. Mirza Sulaiman went to Kabul, and had Abul Ma'ali hanged; he then had his own daughter married to Mirza Muhammad Hakim, and appointed Umed
Ali, a Badakhshan noble, as Mirza Muhammad Hakim's agent in 1563. But Mirza Muhammad Hakim did not go on well with Mirza Sulaiman, who returned
next year to Kabul with hostile intentions; but Mirza Muhammad Hakim fled and asked Akbar for assistance, so that Mirza Sulaiman, though he had
taken Jalalabad, had to return to Badakhshan. He returned to Kabul in 1566, when Akbar's troops had left that country, but retreated on being promised tribute.
Mirza Sulaiman's wife was Khurram Begum, of the Kipchak tribe. She was clever and had her husband so much in her power, that he did nothing without her
advice. Her enemy was Muhtarim Khanum, the widow of Prince Kamran Mirza. Mirza Sulaiman wanted to marry her; but Khurram Begum got her married,
against her will, to Mirza Ibrahim, by whom she had a son, Mirza Shahrukh. When Mirza Ibrahim fell in the war with Balkh, Khurram Begum wanted to send
the Khanum to her father, Shah Muhammad of Kashgar; but she refused to go. As soon as Shahrukh had grown up, his mother and some Badakhshi nobles
excited him to rebel against his grandfather Mirza Sulaiman. This he did, alternately rebelling and again making peace. Khurram Begum then died. Shahrukh
took away those parts of Badakhshan which his father had held, and found so many adherents, that Mirza Sulaiman, pretending to go on a pilgrimage to Makkah,
left Badakhshan for Kabul, and crossing the Indus went to India in 1575 CE. Khan Jahan, governor of the Punjab, received orders from Emperor Akbar to
invade Badakhshan, but was suddenly ordered to go to Bengalinstead, as Mun'im Khan had died and Mirza Sulaiman did not care for the governorship of
Bengal, which Akbar had offered him. Mirza Sulaiman then went to Ismail II of Safavid Iran. When the death of that monarch deprived him of the assistance
which he had just received, he went to Muzaffar Husain Mirza at Kandahar, and then to Mirza Muhammad Hakim at Kabul. Not succeeding in raising
disturbances in Kabul, he made for the frontier of Badakhshan, and luckily finding some adherents, he managed to get from his grandson the territory between
Taiqan and the Hindu Kush. Soon after Muhtarim Khanum died. Being again pressed by Shahrukh, Mirza Sulaiman applied for help to Abdullah Khan Uzbek,
king of Turan, who had long wished to annex Badakhshan. He invaded and took the country in 1584; Shahrukh fled to the Mughal Empire, and Mirza Sulaiman
to Kabul. As he could not recover Badakhshan for himself, and rendered destitute by the death of Mirza Muhammad Hakim, he followed the example of his
grandson, and repaired to the court of Akbar who made him a Commander of six thousand. He lived out his life at Akbar's court in Lahore where he died in
1589.
Shah Rukh ibn Ibrahim was a ruler of Badakhshan from 1575 until 1584.
List of Rulers (Mirs) of Badakhshan
Yarid Dynasty
Mir Yari Beg Sahibzada was a ruler (Mir) of Badakhshan from 1657 until 1708. Mir Yar Beg Sahibzada was a Central Asian ruler who, in 1651 became
chief of the Tajik tribes in Yaftal, as they had invited him to come to them from Samarkand. However two years later his dissatisfied subjects rebelled against him,
built a fort at Lai Aba, and raised the Tajik Shah Imad as their chief. Mir Yar Beg then retired to the court of Aurungzeb in India via Chitral. He was later invited
to return to Yaftal, and did so, waging war against Shah Imad and defeating him. Mir Yar Beg was then appointed chief of Badakhshan bySabhan Kuli
Khan of Kunduz. Mir Yar Beg later failed to pay the required tribute to Sabhan Kuli Khan, who then sent Mahmud Bi Atalik, chief of Balkh and Bokhara,
against Mir Beg. Mir Beg, buckling under pressure, agreed to pay tribute for two years. In 1695, the Sahibzadas (religious group) were conveying Islamic relics to
India. They were set upon by Mir Yar Beg's forces, and the relics carried away to Faizabad, where a shrine was erected. Mir Yar Beg died leaving behind ten sons
and dividing the province of Badakhshan among his nine sons. The eldest son Qazi Arab was settled in Chitral.
Sulaiman Shah was a ruler (Mir) of Badakhshan from 1708 until 1713.
Yusuf Ali was a ruler (Mir) of Badakhshan from 1713 until 1718.
Diya' ad-Din was a ruler (Mir) of Badakhshan from 1718 until 1736.
Sulaiman Beg was a ruler (Mir) of Badakhshan from 1736 until ?
Mirza Kalan I was a ruler (Mir) of Badakhshan from ? until 1748.
Sultan Beg was a ruler (Mir) of Badakhshan from 1748 until 1765. In 1750, Mir Sultan Shah ruler of Badakhshan rebelled against Khizri Beg, Governor
of Balkh. After consulting Ahmad Shah Durrani, Khizri Beg marched against Sultan Shah and the Wazir Shah Wali aided the invading column. The pickets of
Badakhshan, Chief of Talakan, fled from their postal approach of enemy and men of Badakhshan disgusted with their Chief because of his partiality
to Kalmakand Kashghar foreigners waited on Wazir Shah Wali and hailed him as deliverer. Sultan Shah finding resistance hopeless fled to Ailu Basit in hills
between Chiab and Pasakoh. The Wazir Shah Wali returned with force to Kabul leaving his country in charge of Afghan Governor. Sultan Shah returned slew
the Governor and regained his country He was attacked by another rival Turrah Baz Khan who supported by Khizri Beg advanced on Faizabad and besieged it.
Sultan Shah was taken prisoner. Kunduz Chief was unwilling to lose opportunity seized Turrah Baz Khan and sent both captives to Kunduz and annexed
Badakhshan. In 1751 Sultan Shah was restored to liberty and his country. He punished marauders of Saki tribe who had desolated Chiab, Takhta
Band, Khalpan in Badakhshan. He slew a large portion and 700 horses were taken Place was marked by 200 heads of raiders on Kotalof Khoja Jarghatu and Saki
gave no more trouble during Sultan Shah's lifetime This Chief built a fortress at Mashad in which he settled 600 families He made a rest house for travelers
at Daryun. In 1756 he made the Chinese recognize Akskal of Badakhshan at Alti inXinjiang and levied taxes from Badakhshan families in city. In 1759 another
enemy appeared led by Kabad Khan the Kataghans attacked Fayzabad, Badakhshan took and put to death Sultan Shah and Turrah Baz Khan.
Burhan ad-Din was a ruler (Mir) of Badakhshan from 1765 until ?
Mirza Kalan II was a ruler (Mir) of Badakhshan in the second half 18th century.
Ahmad Shah Khan was a ruler (Mir) of Badakhshan in the second half 18th century.
Mirza Kalan III was a ruler (Mir) of Badakhshan in the second half 18th century.
Zaman ad-Din was a ruler (Mir) of Badakhshan from ? until 1792.
Mir Mohammed Shah was a ruler (Mir) of Badakhshan from 1792 until 1822.
Mirza Kalan IV was a ruler (Mir) of Badakhshan from 1822 until 1828.
Mirza Abd al-Ghaful was a ruler (Mir) of Badakhshan from 1828 until 1829.
Murad Beg was a ruler (Mir) of Badakhshan from 1829 until 1832.
Mirza Sulaiman was a ruler (Mir) of Badakhshan from 1832 until 1838
Sultan Shah was a ruler (Mir) of Badakhshan from 1838 until 1847 (jointly with Mir Shah Nizam ad-Din from 1844 until 1847).
Mir Shah Nizam ad-Din (died 1862) was a ruler (Mir) of Badakhshan from 1944 until his death in 1862 (jointly with Sultan Shah from 1844 until 1847).
Ghahandar Shah was a ruler (Mir) of Badakhshan from 1862 until 1869. Jahandar Shah came to power through his close relations with Muhammad Afzal
Khan, who was Governor of Afghan Turkestan from 1852 until 1864. At one point Jahandar Shah raised forced in Badakhshan and briefly took control
of Kunduz in 1866-67. He was ousted from power in 1869 by Sardar FaizMuhammad Khan, an ally of Sher Ali Khan, the Amir of Afghanistan. Faiz Muhammad
Khan appointed Jahandar Shah's nephew, Mizrab Shah, in power.
Mir Mizrab Shah was a ruler (Mir) of Badakhshan in 1869. He was installed in power by Faiz Muhammad Khan, but his reign lasted less than a year. He was
the nephew of Jahandar Shah.
Shighnan
Shighnan was the region that occasionally was politically independent and at other times was subservient to Badakhshan, the Khanate of Kokand,
and Afghanistan. The seat of power of the Mir of Shighnan was at Qaleh Barpanjeh ( ). In 1883 the last Mir of Shighnan, Yusuf Ali Khan, was
ousted from power by the Afghan government and Shighnan became the Shighnan District in the Afghan Province of Badakhshan. In the 1890s Afghanistan
transferred control of half of Shighnan to Russia. This area became the Shughnon District and today is a district in Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous
Province in Tajikistan.
List of mirs of Shighnan
Shah Mir was a ruler (Mir) of Shighnan in 18th century.
Shah Wanji was a ruler (Mir) of Shighnan in late 18th century. He was son of Shah Mir. The name Wanji is derived from the fact that his mother was
from Vanj. Ney Elias reported seeing a marker stone dating from 1786 commemorating a canal built by Shah Wanji.
[1]

Kuliad Khan was a ruler (Mir) of Shighnan in the first half 19th century. He was son of Wanji.
Abdur Rahim was a ruler (Mir) of Shighnan in the first half 19th century, He was grandson of Shah Wanji.
Yusuf Ali Khan was a ruler (Mir) of Shighnan in the second half 19th century. He was on of Abdur Rahim. He was dethroned by the Afghan military in 1883
and imprisoned in Kabul.

Ghurian Khanate
Ghurian was a Khanate in present Afghanistan.
List of Khans of Ghurian Khanate
Yusef Ali Khan Qaraei-Torbati was a Khan of Ghurian Khanate from 1803 until 1813.
Sardar Mohammad Khan Qaraei-Torbati (c.1790 - 1850) was a Khan of Ghurian Khanate fro 1813 until 1816.

Konduz (Qonduz)
Konduz (Qonduz) was a state in presenet Afghanistan.
List of Rulers of Konduz (Qonduz)
Beg Murad was a ruler of Konduz (Qonduz) from 1647 until 1657.
Mahmud B was a ruler of Konduz (Qonduz) from 1657 until 1714.
Sohrab Biy was a ruler of Konduz (Qonduz) from 1740 until ?
Yusuf Biy was a ruler of Konduz (Qonduz) from ? until 1740.
Hazara Biy was a ruler of Konduz (Qonduz) from 1740 until 1753.
Mizrab Biy was a ruler of Konduz (Qonduz) from 1753 until 1780.
Kokan Biy was a ruler of Konduz (Qonduz) from 1800 until 1815.
Murad Beg was a ruler of Konduz (Qonduz) from 1815 until 1846.
Sultan Murad was a ruler of Konduz (Qonduz) from 1846 until 1860.
Sultan Ali Murad Beg was a ruler of Konduz (Qonduz) from 1869 until 1888.

Khulm (Kholm)
Khulm (Kholm) was a state in present Afghanistan.
List of Rulers of Khulm (Kholm)
Qilij Ali Beg Khan was a ruler of Khulm (Kholm) from 1800 until 1817.
Muhammad Amin Beg was a ruler of Khulm (Kholm) from 1817 until 1849.

Maymana Khanate
Maymana was the independent Uzbek khanate in northern Afghanistan. During the 18th and 19th centuries, Maymana was the centre of an independent
Uzbek khanate and an important centre for commerce, as well as being the gateway to Turkistan from Herat and Persia. In 1876 the city fell to the Afghans and
was put in ruins, and only ten percent of the population was left.
List of Governors of Maymana Khanate
Haji Khan was the Governor of Maymana Khanate from 1747 until ?
Ghan was the Governor of Maymana Khanate from ? until 1790.
Ahmad was the Governor of Maymana Khanate from 1790 until 1810.
Allah Yar was the Governor of Maymana Khanate from 1810 until 1826.
Mizrab was the Governor of Maymana Khanate from 1826 until 1845.
Hikmat was the Governor of Maymana Khanate from 1845 until 1853.
Husain Kahn was the Governor of Maymana Khanate from 1853 until 1876 and from 1883 until ?
Dilwar Khan was the Governor of Maymana Khanate from 1879 until 1883.
Kemal Khan was the Governor of Maymana Khanate from ? until around 1900.

Sar-i-Pol (Sar-i-Pul)
Sar- i - Pol, also spelled Sari Pul (Persian: ), was the small state in Afghanistan, located in the north of the country.
List of Rulers (title Beglarbegis) of Sar-i-Pol (Sar-i-Pul)
Zu'l-Faqar Sher Khan was a ruler of Sar-i-Pol (Sar-i-Pul) from 1800 until 1840.
Mahmud Khan was a ruler of Sar-i-Pol (Sar-i-Pul) from 1840 until 1851.
Qilij Khan was a ruler of Sar-i-Pol (Sar-i-Pul) from 1851 until 1862.
Muhammad Khan was a ruler of Sar-i-Pol (Sar-i-Pul) from 1862 until 1864 and from 1866 until 1875.


Sheberghn (Shaburghn)
Sheberghn or Shaburghn (Pastho, Persian: ), also spelled Shebirghan and Shibarghan was the small state in northern Afghanistan.
List of Rulers (Hakims) of Sheberghn (Shaburghn)
Izbasar was a ruler (Hakim) of Sheberghn (Shaburghn) from 1747 until 1757.
Daulat Khan was a ruler (Hakim) of Sheberghn (Shaburghn) from 1757 until 1800.
Erich Khan was a ruler (Hakim) of Sheberghn (Shaburghn) from 1800 until 1820.
Manwar Khan was a ruler (Hakim) of Sheberghn (Shaburghn) from 1820 until 1829.
Rustam Khan (from 1846 Husain Khan) was a ruler (Hakim) of Sheberghn (Shaburghn) from 1829 until 1851 and from 1859 until 1875.
Hakim Khan was a ruler (Hakim) of Sheberghn (Shaburghn) from 1851 until 1855.
Nizam al Daula was a ruler (Hakim) of Sheberghn (Shaburghn) from 1851 until 1855.
Sardar Wali Muhammad Khan Barakzai was the Afghan military governor of Sheberghn (Shaburghn) from 1855 until 1859.

Kabul
List of Chief Ministers (Wazir-i-azam) of Kabul Kingdom
Haji Jamal Khan Barakzai was the Chief Minister (Wazir-i-azam) of Kabul Kingdom from 1747 until ?
Shah Wali Khan was the Chief Minister (Wazir-i-azam) of Kabul Kingdom from before 1757 until 1772.
Payinda Khan Mohammadzai was the Chief Minister (Wazir-i-azam) of Kabul Kingdom from ? until 1793.
Wafadar Khan was the Chief Minister (Wazir-i-azam) of Kabul Kingdom from 1793 until 1900.
Shir Mohammad Khan was the Chief Minister (Wazir-i-azam) of Kabul Kingdom from 1803 until 1808.
Nawab Mohammad Usman Khan was the Chief Minister (Wazir-i-azam) of Kabul Kingdom from 1808 until 1809.
Fateh Khan was the Chief Minister (Wazir-i-azam) of Kabul Kingdom from 1809 until 1818.
Mohammad Azim Khan was the Chief Minister (Wazir-i-azam) of Kabul Kingdom from 1818 until 1823.
Habibullah Khan was the Chief Minister (Wazir-i-azam) of Kabul Kingdom in 1823.
Yar Mohammad Khan Alikozay was the Chief Minister (Wazir-i-azam) of Kabul Kingdom from 1823 until 1824.
Sultan Muhammad Khan Telai was the Chief Minister (Wazir-i-azam) of Kabul Kingdom from 1824 until 1826.
Mirza Sami Khan was the Chief Minister (Wazir-i-azam) of Kabul Kingdom from 1826 until 1839.
Mulla Shakur Ishakzai was the Chief Minister (Wazir-i-azam) of Kabul Kingdom from 1839 until 1840.
Mohammad Usman Khan Sadozai was the Chief Minister (Wazir-i-azam) of Kabul Kingdom from 1840 until 1841.
Aminullah Khan Logari was the Chief Minister (Wazir-i-azam) of Kabul Kingdom in rebellion with Mohammad Zaman Khan from 1841 until May 1842.
Mohammad Akbar Khan was the Chief Minister (Wazir-i-azam) of Kabul Kingdom from June 1842 until September 1842.
Gholam Mohammad Khan Bamizai was the Chief Minister (Wazir-i-azam) of Kabul Kingdom jointly with Khan Shirin Khan Jawansher from October
until December 1842.
Khan Shirin Khan Jawansher was the Chief Minister (Wazir-i-azam) of Kabul Kingdom jointly with Mohammad Akbar Khan from October until
December 1842.
Mohammad Akbar Khan (died around 1848) was the Chief Minister (Wazir-i-azam) of Kabul Kingdom from 1842 until his death around 1848.
Gholam Haydar Khan (died 1858) was the Chief Minister (Wazir-i-azam) of Kabul Kingdom from around 1848 until 1855.
Mohammad Rafiq Khan was the Chief Minister (Wazir-i-azam) of Kabul Kingdom from 1863 until ?
Sayyid Nur Muhammad Khan was the Chief Minister (Wazir-i-azam) of Kabul Kingdom from around 1869 until March 1878.
Mirza Mohammad Hasan Khan was the Chief Minister (Wazir-i-azam) of Kabul Kingdom from around 1878 until 1880.

Herat
Herat was a city state situated in the valley of the Hari River, which flows from the mountains of central Afghanistan to the Karakum Desert in Turkmenistan.
In 1717, the city was captured by the Hotaki dynasty until they were defeated by the Afsharids in 1736. From 1725 to 1736 Herat was controlled by
the Hotaki Pashtuns until King Nader Shah's of Persia retook the city and destroyed the Hotakis for good. After Nader Shah's death in 1747, Ahmad Shah
Durrani took possession of the city and became part of the Durrani Empire. Ahmad Shah Durrani's father, Zaman Khan, was the governor of Herat province
before the Ghilzai's conquer of the region. Zaman Khan and several of his family members were killed while his son Ahmad Khan (Durrani) and Zulfiqar Khan
were taken as prisoners to Kandahar in the south. In 1816 the Persians captured the city but abandoned it shortly after. Two years later a second Persian
campaign against the city was defeated at the Battle of Kafir Qala. In 1824, Herat became independent for several years when the Afghan empire was split
between the Durranis and the Barakzais. Qajarsof Persia tried to take city from the Durranis in 1838 and again in 1856; both times the British helped to repel the
Persians, the second time through the Anglo-Persian War. The city fell to Dost Mohammad Khan of the Barakzai dynasty in 1863. Most of the Musallah
complex in Herat was cleared in 1885 by the British army to get a good line of sight for their artillery against Russian invaders who never came. This was but one
small sidetrack in the Great Game, a century-long conflict between the British Empire and the Russian Empirein 19th century.
List of Rulers of Herat
Kamran Shah was the King of Herat from 1826 until March 1842 and King of Kandahar (Qandahar)from 1804 until 1805.
Yar Mohammad Khan Alikozay was Chief Minister (Wazir) of Herat from 1828/1829 until 1842 and Minister Regent of Herat from March 1842 until
June 1, 1851.
Sayyed Mohammad Khan Alikozay was the Minister Regent of Herat from June 1, 1851 until September 15, 1855.
Mohammad Yusuf Khan Mohammadzay was the Regent of Herat from September 15, 1855 until June 1856.
Isa Khan Bardorani was the Minister Regent of Herat from June until October 1856.
Soltan Ahmad Khan (died May 26 1863) Sultan Jan, also known as Sultan Ahmed Khan was the Emir of Herat Emirate from July 27, 1857 until his death
on May 26, 1863. He was installed by the Persians, as they evacuated Herat on March 4, 1857 in accordance with the Treaty of Paris. Sultan Jan
captured Farah soon after, but it was recaptured by Dost Mohammad Khan, who then went on to lay siege to Herat. During the 10-month siege Sultan Jan died,
and at the conclusion of the siege Herat returned to Afghan control.
List of Chief Ministers (Wazirs) of Herat
Fateh Khan Barakzai was Chief Minister (Wazir) of Herat from 1801 until 1808.
Ata Mohammad Khan was Chief Minister (Wazir) of Herat from 1818 until 1828/1829.

Kandahar (Qandahar)
Kandahar or Qandahar (Pashto: Kandahr, Persian: Qandahr, known in older literature as Candahar was the city state in Afghanistan. Ahmad
Shah Durrani, chief of the Durrani tribe, gained control of Kandahar and made it the capital of his new Afghan Empire in October 1747. Previously, Ahmad
Shah served as a military commander of Nader Shah Afshar. His empire included present-day Afghanistan, Pakistan, theKhorasan and Kohistan provinces of
Iran, along with Punjab in India. In October 1772, Ahmad Shah retired and died from a natural cause. A new city was laid out by Ahmad Shah and is dominated
by his mausoleum, which is adjacent to the Mosque of the Cloak in the center of the city. By 1776, his eldest son Timur Shah had transferred Afghanistan's main
capital from Kandahar to Kabul, where the Durranilegacy continued. In September 1826, Syed Ahmad Shaheed's followers arrived to Kandahar in search of
volunteers to help them wage jihad against the Sikh invaders to what is now Pakistan. Led by Ranjit Singh, the Sikhs had captured several of Afghanistan's
territories in the east, including what is now Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Kashmir. More than 400 local Kandahar warriors assembled themselves for the jihad.
Sayed Din Mohammad Kandharai was appointed as their leader. British-led Indian forces from neighboring British India invaded the city in 1839, during
the First Anglo-Afghan War, but withdrew in 1842. The British and Indian forces returned in 1878 during the Second Anglo-Afghan War. They emerged from
the city in July 1880 to confront the forces of Ayub Khan, but were defeated at the Battle of Maiwand. They were again forced to withdraw a few years later,
despite winning the Battle of Kandahar.
List of Kings/Regents of Kandahar (Qandahar)
Solayman Shah was the King of Kandahar (Qandahar) in 1772.
Homayun Shah was the King of Kandahar (Qandahar) from May 18 until June 19, 1793.
Shirdil Khan Mohammadzay was regent of Kandahar (Qandahar) from 1819 until 1826.
Purdil Khan Mohammadzay was regent of Kandahar (Qandahar) from 1826 until 1839.
Shoja` al-Molk Shah was the King of Kandahar (Qandahar) from April 1839 until April 5, 1842.
Safdar Jang Khan Saddozay was regent of Kandahar (Qandahar) in 1842.
Kohandil Khan Mohammadzay (died 1855) was regent of Kandahar (Qandahar) from 1842 until his death in August 1855.
Mohammad Sadeq Khan Mohammadzay was regent of Kandahar (Qandahar) from August until November 1855.
Gholam Haydar Khan Mohammaday (died July 1858) was regent of Kandahar (Qandahar) from November 1855 until his death in July 1858.
List of Emirs of Kandahar (Qandahar)
Mohammad Amin Khan (died 1865) was the Emir of Kandahar (Qandahar) from 1863 until his death in 1865.
Mohammad Afzal Khan was the Emir of Kandahar (Qandahar) from January until October 7, 1867.
Mohammad A`zam Khan was the Emir of Kandahar (Qandahar) from October 7, 1867 until April 1868.
Shir `Ali Khan Barakzay was the Minister Regent of Kandahar (Qandahar) from 1880 until April 21, 1881.

Quba
The Quba Khanate was a quasi-independent khanate on the territory of modern day Azerbaijan from 1747-1806. The Quba Khanate was founded in the mid-
1680s by Hoseyn Khan. He was the sole survivor of the massacre around 1665, when the Majales branch of the ruling Usmi family of the Qaytaq killed the Yeki-
kend branch. Hoseyn Khan was a small boy who was smuggled to Iran by a few family retainers. He stayed at Shah Soleyman's court and returned to his
homeland in the mid-1680s and settled in Quba where he built Ft. Khudadad. In the year 1689, he came to Bashli and took back the hereditary governorship
from Ali Soltan Usmi of the Yeki-kand branch. He was evicted by his relatives, but his son Ahmad took Bashli in 1706 where he ruled until 1710, when the rival
Majales branch of the family killed him. Under Nader Shah (1736-47) Hoseyn Khan son of Ahmad became governor of Qubeh and Saliyan. Hoseyn Khan was
well respected, and although under his son, Fath Ali Khan, his daughter married the Usmi (the chief of the rival family branch) the relationship remained hostile.
The Khanate achieved quasi-independence after the assassination of Nader Shah in 1747 and achieved its greatest prominence under Fath Ali Khan (Feteli
Khan) (1758-1789). As a result of conquests and successful alliances, Fath Ali Khan seized the important port of Baku, Darband, the Shamakha Khanate and the
Salyan Khanate and organized expeditions as far south as Ardabil in his fight against the Zand dynasty. The Quba Khanate received military assistance from
Russia in 1775, when Russia decided to take action against the Usmi of the Qaytaq, who had kidnapped Samuel Gottlieb Gmelin, a German scientist in Russian
service and who had died in captivity. After Fath Ali Khan's death, the Khanate's influence declined. As a result of Mohammad Khan Qajar's conquests and the
devastation its brought, the Alliance of Northern khanates disintegrated. The Khanate was conquered by Russia in 1806, and was fully incorporated into newly
created Shamakha Governorate by 1816.
List of Saytaq Khans of Quba Khanate
Husayn (I) Khan was a Khan of Quba Khanate from 1680 until September 1721. The Quba Khanate was founded in the mid-1680s by Hoseyn Khan. He
was the sole survivor of the massacre around 1665, when the Majales branch of the ruling Usmi family of the Qaytaq killed the Yeki-kend branch. Hoseyn Khan
was a small boy who was smuggled to Iran by a few family retainers. He stayed at Shah Soleyman's court and returned to his homeland in the mid-1680s and
settled in Quba where he built Ft. Khudadad. In the year 1689, he came to Bashli and took back the hereditary governorship from Ali Soltan Usmi of the Yeki-
kand branch. He was evicted by his relatives, but his son Ahmad took Bashli in 1706 where he ruled until 1710, when the rival Majales branch of the family
killed him.
Ahmad Khan was a Khan of Quba Khanate in 1721.
Chulaq Surkhay was a Khan of Quba Khanate from 1721 until 1722. He was also ruler of Qazi Qumuq in Daghestan.
Husayn `Ali Khan ibn Ahmad Khan was a Khan of Quba Khanate from 1722 until 1758.
Fath `Ali Khan (1736 - 1789) was a Khan of Quba Khanate from 1758 until his death in March 1789.Hoseyn Khan son of Ahmad became governor of
Qubeh and Saliyan. Hoseyn Khan was well respected, and although under his son, Fath Ali Khan, his daughter married the Usmi (the chief of the rival family
branch) the relationship remained hostile. The Khanate achieved quasi-independence after the assassination of Nader Shah in 1747 and achieved its greatest
prominence under Fath Ali Khan (Feteli Khan) (1758-1789). As a result of conquests and successful alliances, Fath Ali Khan seized the important port of Baku,
Darband, the Shamakha Khanate and the Salyan Khanate and organized expeditions as far south as Ardabil in his fight against the Zand dynasty. The Quba
Khanate received military assistance from Russia in 1775, when Russia decided to take action against the Usmi of the Qaytaq, who had kidnapped Samuel
Gottlieb Gmelin, a German scientist in Russian service and who had died in captivity. After Fath Ali Khan's death, the Khanate's influence declined.
Ahmad Khan was a Khan of Quba Khanate from 1789 until 1791.
Shaykh `Ali Agha was a Khan of Quba Khanate from 1791 until 1806.
Husayn (II) Khan was a Khan of Quba Khanate from 1806 until 1816.

Ghazni
Ghazni (Pashto/Persian: - azn; historically known as / aznn and / azna) was Emirate in Afghanistan
Emir of Ghazni
Musa Jan Khan was the Emir of Ghazni from December 24, 1879 until April 21, 1880.

Salyan Khanate
Salyan (Azerbaijani: Salyan, Russian: ) was the Khanate in present Salyan Rayon of Azerbaijan. The city has been a continuous settlement of sal tribe,
after whom the city named and occupied by Kura river. Salyan was part ofQuba Khanate during 1680 to 1782 and ruled by various khans.
List of Khans of Salyan Khanate
Hasanbay Khan was a Khan of Salyan Khanate from 1729 until 1748.
Ibrahim' Khan was a Khan of Salyan Khanate from 1748 until 1757.
Kalb `Ali Khan was a Khan of Salyan Khanate from 1757 until 1768.
Qubad Khan was a Khan of Salyan Khanate from 1768 until 1782.

Kashgaria
Kashgaria was a khanate in western China, located near the border with Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan. The Khojas of Eastern Turkistan claimed to be Sayyids and
it is to that fraternity people of Eastern Turkistan still regard them as belonging. Although Ahmad Kasani himself, known as Makhdm-i-Azam or "Great Master"
to his followers, never visited East Turkestan (today's Xinjiang), many of his descendants, known as Makhdmzdas, and bearing the title of Khoja (properly
written and pronounced as Khwaja) played important parts in the region's politics during 17th through 19th century. At the death of Makhdm-i 'Azam (as
Amad Ksn was sometimes known) a division took place among the Khojas which resulted in one party becoming followers of the Makhdum's elder son
called Khoja Muhammad Amin better known as Ishan-i-Kalan and another attaching themselves to his younger son Khoja Muhammad Ishaq Wali. The party
of Ishan-i-Kalan seem to have acquired the name of Aq Taghliqs or White mountaineers and that of Ishaq Qara Taghliqs or Black mountaineers but these
names had no reference to the localities where their adherents lived. All were inhabitants of the lowlands and cities of Eastern Turkistan but each section made
allies among the Kyrgyz of the neighboring mountains and apparently subsidized them to fight their party battles. The Kyrgyz tribes of the Western Tien
Shan ranges lying to the north of Kashghar were known as the White mountaineers and Kyrgyz tribes of the Pamir,Karakoram and Kunlun as the Black
mountaineers with Yarkand as their main city of influence, so that the Khojas came to assume the designations of their Kyrgyz allies.
List of Khans of Kashgaria
Abakh Khoja (died 1693/94) (Uyghur: ), born Hidayat al-Lah, a.k.a. Apaq Xoja, or more properly fq Khwja (Persian: ) was a
religious and political leader with the title of Khwaja in Kashgaria (in modern-day southern Xinjiang). He was also known as Khwja Hidyat Allh. In Chinese,
Afaq Khoja's name is usually written as (pk Huji) or (pk Hzhu ), occasionally just (p Huji); khoja may also
appear as (hzhu). Afaq Khoja was a great-grandson of the famous Naqshbandi Sufi teacher, Ahmad Kasani (14611542) (also known as Makhdm-
i`Azam, "the Great Master"), and was revered as a Sufi teacher in his own right. He was born in 1626 year in Kumul, where his father Muhammad Yusuf Khoja
was preaching, his mother was Zuleiha Begum, the daughter of a rich Bek from the village of Beshkerim in Kashgar vilayet, who settled in Kumul after fleeing
from Kashgar several years before. In 1638, at the age of 12, he came with his father to Kashgar and settled there. Among some Uyghur Muslims, he was
considered a sayid, who is a relative of the prophet Muhammad. As a highly respected religious figure, he was in a clash with ruling elite of Chagatai dynasty and
this conflict does have both religious and secular nature, for the religious part he was an advocator of implementing Islamic law against Mongol Yassa law which
was legal law at that time, for secular part he heavily criticized the luxurious lifestyle which the ruling elites enjoying. This clash was very serious due to the fact
that Chagatai Khan (c. 11851241 or 1242) had been appointed by Genghis Khan to see if the Yassa was observed so it eventually resulted expelling of Afaq
Khoja by Ismail Han,the later ruler of Chagatai Khanate. Since Ishaki khojas is another offshoot ofNaqshbandi Sufi, Ismail Han purposefully approached
to Ishaki khojas ( known also as Kara Taghliks, i.e. "Black Mountaineers") for balancing Afaq Khoja influences at aim of preventing dangerous propaganda against
him by followers of Afaq Khoja . This way a clash between religious sects had successfully created at Ismail Han's benefit .However exiled Afaq Khoja had
accomplished a diplomatic mission that had led collapse of Chagatay dynasty in 1678. In this diplomatic mission Tibet Muslims played a crucial role by
convincing write a letter of introduction to Dzungar. Using this recommendation letter Afaq Khoja allied with Dzungar and formed a strong coalition
forces which included some Chagatay (Moghul) royal family members like Abdirishit Han,Muhammad Imin Han, Muhammad Momin Akbash who were against
Ismail Han, Moreover there were significant numbers of followers of Afaq Khoja inside the Khanate,the profile of the Afaq Khoja had raised considerably. He
made himself a powerful ruler, controlling several cities around the Tarim Basin, including Khotan, Yarkand, Korla, Kucha and Aksu as well as Kashgar.
According to sources from Ishaki khojas Afaq Khoja paid 100,000 tangas (silver coins) to Dzungar for his military assistants and accepted the mandate of
Dzungars, led by Galdan Boshughtu Khan(16701697). Afak Khoja died in 1694 and was succeeded in Kashger by his son Yahya Khoja (r. 1694-1695). After
Yahya Khoja death (he was killed by Apak Khoja's wife Khanam Padshah) the Yarkand Khan Muhammad Imin (Akbash Khan, r. 1695-1706) restored Chagatay
dynasty of Yarkand, attempting to get rid of the Dzungar mandate, but finally he was killed by Kyrgyz leader Arzu Muhammad. Kashgaria was soon reconquered
by Dzungar Khan Tsewang Rabtan. Afaq Khoja's influence spread far outside of Xinjiang. From 1671-72, he was preaching in Gansu (which then included parts
of modernQinghai province), where his father Muhammad Yusuf had preached before. On that tour, he visited Xining (today's Qinghai province),Lintao, and
Hezhou (now Linxia), and was said to convert some Hui and many Salars there to Naqshbandi Sufism. According to the Chinese (Hui) followers of
the Qadiriyya Sufi school, when Afq Khoja was in Xining in 1672, he gave his blessing to 16-year-old Qi Jingyi (later also known as Hilal al-Din, or Qi Daozu
(16561719)), who was then to introduce Qadiriyya into China proper. His two other spiritual descendants, Ma Laichi and Ma Mingxin, went to study in Central
Asia and Arabia, and upon return to China founded two other Naqshbandi menhuans (brotherhoods) there: the Khufiyya and the Jahriyya, respectively. Khoja
Afaq's descendants, known as the fqi khojas, or the Aq Taghliqs, i.e. 'White Mountaineers', played an important part in the local politics south of the Tian
Shan range for almost two centuries after Afq's death.
Yahya Khoja (died 1694) was a Khan of Kashgaria from 1693 until his death in 1694. Afak Khoja died in 1694 and was succeeded in Kashger by his son
Yahya Khoja. After Yahya Khoja death (he was killed by Apak Khoja's wife Khanam Padshah) the Yarkand Khan Muhammad Imin (Akbash Khan, r. 1695-
1706) restored Chagatay dynasty of Yarkand, attempting to get rid of the Dzungar mandate, but finally he was killed by Kyrgyz leader Arzu Muhammad.
Ahmed Khan (died after 1720) was a Khan of Kashgaria from around 1695 until 1720.
Daniyal Khwaja was a Khan of Kashgaria briefly around 1693/1694 and from 1720 until 1754. The Zunghar Khanate under Tsewang Arabtan had in 1720
appointed Khoja Daniyal as administrator of Altishahr (or the Six Cities) but with Oirat overseers, thus making the Qara Taghliq as overall masters.
Yusuf ibn Daniyal was a Khan of Kashgaria from 1754 until 1757. He would unite his brothers and the cities after an attempt was made on his life and his
brother Khoja Chagan was kidnapped and imprisoned by the Oirats and chiefs of the cities who were against the authority of the Khojas. Yusuf was successful
and in 175455 C.E. he freed the territory of Zunghar Khanate's hold.
`Abd Allah Badshah Khwaja ibn Yusuf was a Khan of Kashgaria in 1757.
Burhan ad-Din ibn Ahmad (died 1760) was a Khan of Kashgaria from 1757 until 1759. He along with his brother Khan Khoja rebelled against their Oirat
and subsequently Qing Dynasty Chinese overlords. But were eventually driven out of the region to Badakhshan where the ruler Sultan Shah killed them both.
Kashghar was annexed as an integral part of the Chinese Empire under the Provincial Governor of Ili (region around Ili River). In this war four of the sons of the
Aq Taghliq family were killed in fight and two were taken prisoners to Beijing for execution there. Only one son of Khoja Burhan-ud-din escaped; His name was
Khoja Sa'adat Ali commonly called Sarimsak. He had escaped to Khanate of Kokand. He had three sons there; Yusuf Khoja who lived at Bukhara then there
was Bahauddin and lastly Jahangir Khoja who would raise a rebellion against the Chinese in 1825 C.E.
Jahanghir Khoja, Jhangr Khwja, or Jihangir Khoja (Uyghur: , Chinese: ; pinyin: Zhngg'r) (1783 - 1828) was a Khan of Kashgaria
from 1820 until his death in 1820 (in rebellion). He was a member of the influential East Turkestan fq khoja clan, who managed to wrest Kashgaria from
the Qing Empire's power for a few years in the 1820s. Burhan ad-Din, a Khoja of the White Mountain faction, was the grandfather of Jahangir. Before
a rebellion had broken out in May, 1826, Jahangir Khoja managed to flee toKashgar from Kokand (where he had been held in prison in accordance with a secret
agreement, concluded between the Khanate of Kokand and Qing dynasty China, concerning descendants of Appak khoja), taking the opportunity offered by an
earthquake that destroyed most towns in the Ferghana Valley. Among Jahangir's followers were Kirghiz, Tajiks, and White Mountain fighters. After appearing in
Kashgar with only several hundreds of his followers he then quickly increased his force by volunteers, and within several months he collected under his banner
about 200,000 troops, with which he had overthrown Qing power in Kashgar, Yarkand, Khotan, and Yangihissar, having Qing garrisons annihilated in these
cities. This led to an increase in Slavery in China due to Jahangir enslaving captives. Jahangir's forces captured several hundred Chinese Muslims (tungan or hui)
who were taken to Kokand. Tajiks bought two Chinese slaves from Shaanxi, they enslaved for a year before being returned by the Tajik Beg Ku-bu-te to China.
All Chinese captured, both merchants and the 300 soldiers Janhangir captured in Kashgar had their queues cut off when brought to Kokand and Central Asia as
prisoners. It was reported that many of the Chinese Muslim merchant captives became slaves, accounts of Chinese Muslim slaves in Central Asia increased. The
queues were removed from Chinese Muslim prisoners and then sold or given to various owners, one of them, Nian, ended up as a slave to Prince Batur Khan of
Bukhara, Omar Khan ended up possessing Liu Qifeng and Wu Erqi, the others, Zhu, Tian Li, and Ma Tianxi ended up in various owners but plotted an escape.
The Russians record an incident where they rescued these Chinese muslimmerchants who escaped, after they were sold by Jahangir's Army in Central Asia, and
sent them back to China. Nevertheless, Qing China managed to mobilize "all forces of Empire, that were put into motion" and by September, 1827, collected
in Aksu an army of 70,000, under command of military governor of Ili Chang Ling, that in January, 1828, moved against Jahangir Khoja. Other sources say that
the Chinese Governor lead 80,000 Chinese Muslim troops against Jahangir. His forces were defeated within one month, decisive battle occurred on the shore
of Tuman river north of Kashgar where Jahangir was defeated. Jahangir troops on this battle were more numerous than Qing troops, but the latter was much
better organized being a regular state Army, while Jahangir didn't create a regular Army and disbanded his voluntary Army after gaining control of power in
Western Kashgaria and taking Gulbagh Qing Fortress in Kashgar in the beginning of 1827 and slaughtering of all its defenders (about 12,000 Manchu and
Chinese troops and members of their families). After receiving messages of approaching of Qing Army to Kashgar he again collected voluntary troops, but they
didn't have any artillery units, even 6 big cannons standing on Gulbagh fortress, previously captured from Qings, were not brought and used in the battle, contrary
Qing troops applied well-organized intense cannon fire across Tuman River on positions of Jahangir troops, bringing them into confusion. Mercenaries from
Badakhshan, Kokand, Kunduz fled first, then Kashgarians lost ground, Qing troops rushed to Kashgar and upon entering the city performed the whole-scale
massacre of local population, about 20,000 civilians had been slaughtered. Jahangir himself managed to escape and hide in mountainous Alai valley among
Kyrgyz, it happened on January 29, 1828. Qing Emperor was dissatisfied with such outcome and wrote to Chang Ling: I sent Army to eliminate the Evil, you
were at the lair of the beast, but let him to escape, now all previous victories have no any values, because he is still alive, the germ of the future rebellions.
Jahangir's capture was affair of the former Hakim of Kashgar Ishak Khoja, who sent false Letter to Jahangir, notifying him of departure of main body of Qing
troops and inviting him to Kashgar to regain power. When Jahangir heard this good message, he hurried back to Kashgar, but was attacked by Qing troops from
ambush, captured and delivered to Beijing. There he was exposed to the attention of China's capital's population, being carried for several weeks in a mobile iron
cage through the main streets of Beijing. Finally he was brought to the Daoguang Emperor for interrogation, but, having gone mad due to bad treatment, he
couldn't answer any questions. Immediately after the interrogation was completed he was executed. Jahangir Khoja's body was cut into numerous pieces and his
bones were thrown to dogs. His portrait was buried in the hill near Beijing. He was forty years old at the time of his death.
Muhammad Yusuf Khoja was a Khan of Kashgaria from September until December 1830 (in rebellion). Muhammad Ali Khan, the Khan of Kokand had
recently annexed Kyrgyz territories and now decided in 1829 to attack the Chinese. For this purpose he invited Yusuf Khoja the elder brother of Jahangir Khoja
from Bukhara and set him on the throne of his ancestors. Yusuf took the field in September 1830 with a force of 20,000 men mostly Andijan and Tashkent
troops with some Karatigin levies and Kashghar refugees all under the command of Mingbashi Haq Quli Beg, a brother in law of Muhammad Ali Khan. The
Chinese with 3,000 men advanced to oppose them but were defeated at Mingyol and the invaders pushing on seized Kashghar where Yusuf was at once set on
the throne. Yangihissar, Yarkand, Khotan and Aksu up to the Muzart Pass quickly fell into his possession and the Chinese as before were everywhere massacred
while the arrival of their troops from Ghulja was delayed for want of carriage. This advance of the Kokand army roused the hostility of Emirate of Bukhara
against Andijan and Muhammad Ali Khan to avert the attack threatened by Nasr-Allah Khan bin Haydar Tora at once recalled his General Haq Quli Beg and
Yusuf unable to hold his position unsupported amongst the fickle Muslims of Kashghar returned with him in November or December after a rule of only ninety
days.
Zuhur-ud-din was a Khan of Kashgaria from 1832 until 1846.
Eshan Khan Khoja was a Khan of Kashgaria briefly in 1846. He and his kinsmen began to pillage the houses of the government officials appointed by the
Chinese and seizing their wives and daughters to stock their harems at once abandoned themselves to a course of unbridled licentiousness and debauchery their
troops the while besieging the Chinese garrison shut up in the Mangshin. But within 75 days the Chinese arrived and defeated the Khojas at the Battle of Kok
Rabat.
Ahmed Wang was a Khan of Kashgaria from 1846 until 1857.
Wali Khan (sometimes spelled Vl-khan) was a Khan of Kashgaria from May until August 1857 (in rebellion). He was a member of the Ak Taghliq clan
of East Turkestan Khojas, who invaded Kashgaria from Kokand on several occasions in the 1850s, and succeeded in ruling Kashgar for a short while. Although
Ak Taghliks had been expelled from Kashgaria by the Qing in the 1760s, they had not abandoned their hopes of reconquering the region, and regularly invaded
it from their base in Khanate of Kokand. Wali Khan followed in the footsteps of his father, Jahangir Khoja, his uncle Yusuf, and cousin Katti Torah, who had all
invaded Kashgaria with various success through the first half of the 19th century. He invaded Kashgaria in 1852 (with Divan Quli), 1855 (with Husayn Ishan
Khoja), and most famously in 1857. In the West Wali Khan is mostly known for his execution of the German explorer Adolf Schlagintweit in 1857, but his
cruelty found many other reflections in the local legends. It is said that he killed so many innocent Muslims that four or six minarets were built from the skulls of
the victims ( kala minara ); or that once, when an artisan made a sabre for him, he instantly tested the weapon with the words, "Well, I'll try it now," by cutting off
the artisan's son head, who had come with his father and was standing nearby. Then, with the words, "Yes, it's a really good sabre," he presented artisan with a gift.
This treatment did not make Kashgarians miss the khoja too much when he was defeated by the Chinese troops after ruling the city for four months. In 1865,
after Kokand Khanate had been successfully invaded by the Russian and its ruler Alimqul killed, Wali Khan joined a large group of Kokandian officials who
decided to try their luck in Kashgaria. They appeared in Kashgar in September 1865, but had to submit to the fellow Kokandian Yaqub Beg, who had already
firmly established himself as the ruler of the city. Wali Khan's followers attempts to bring him to power again very easily foiled by Yaqub Beg, who had Wali
Khan arrested and sent to Yangihissar under armed guard, where he was later poisoned.
Qutlugh Beg was a Khan of Kashgaria from 1864 until February 1865.
Buzurg Khwaja ibn Jahangir Khan was a Khan of Kashgaria from February 1865 until 1866 and from 1866 until 1867.
Muhammad Amin ibn Jahangir Khan was a Khan of Kashgaria in 1866.
Muhammad Ya`qub Beg ibn Pir Muhammad Mirza (c.1820 May 29, 1877) was a Khan of Kashgaria from 1867 until his death on May 29,
1877.
Quli Beg ibn Muhammad Ya`qub Beg (1821 December 28, 1877) was a Khan of Kashgaria from May 29 until his death on December 28, 1877.


Jurchens (Jurcheds)
The Jurchens or Jurcheds (Jurchen language: juen) were a Tungusic people who inhabited the region of Manchuria (present-day Northeast China) until
the 17th century, when they adopted the name Manchu. They established the Jin Dynasty (11151234)(Ancun gurun in ancient Jurchen and Aisin
gurun in Standard Manchu) between 1115 and 1122, which lasted until 1234 with the arrival of the Mongols. In 1127 the Jurchens during the JinSong
wars conquered the Northern Song and gained control of most of northern China, where they migrated and adopted the practices of the local Confucian culture.
The form Jurchen dates back to at least the beginning of the tenth century AD, when the Balhae kingdom was destroyed by the Khitans. However, cognate
ethnonyms like Sushenor Jichen () have been recorded in pre-Christian Era geographical works like the Shan Hai Jing and Book of Wei. It comes from the
Jurchen word juen, the original meaning of which is unclear. The standard English version of the name, "Jurchen," is an Anglicized transliteration of
the Mongolian equivalent of the Jurchen term juen (Mongolian: Jrchin, plural is Jrchid), and may have arrived in the West via Mongolian texts. A less
common English transliteration is "Jurched". It is thought by a number of Russian linguists and historians that the Ducher people encountered by Russian
explorers on the middle Amur and lower Sungari in the early 1650s (who were evacuated by the Qing authorities further south a few years later) were the
descendants of the Amur Jurchens, and that the word "Ducher" itself is simply a variation ofjuen.
[7]
Mongolian Jrchin and Jurchen/Manchu Juen are also similar
to Joseon (), one of the several names of Korea.

List of Jurchen Chieftains

"Wild" Jurchens or Sheng Jurchen ()

Hanpu (), later Wanyan Hanpu, was a Jurchen leader from 941 until 960. According to the ancestral story of the Wanyan clan, Hanpu came
from Goryeo when he was sixty-years old, reformed Jurchen customary law, and then married a sixty-year-old local woman who bore him three children. His
descendants eventually united Jurchen tribes into a federation and established the Jin Dynasty in 1115. In 1136 or 1137, Hanpu was retrospectively given
the temple name Jin Shizu (), or "first ancestor of Jin." Historians usually call the story of Hanpu's founding of the Wanyan clan a legend, but agree that it
indicates the existence of contacts between some Jurchen clans and the states of Goryeo and Balhae in the tenth century. Because Hanpu was supposedly the
sixth-generation ancestor of Wanyan Wugunai (10211074), historians postulate that Hanpu lived in the early tenth century, when theJurchens still consisted of
independent tribes. Because the Jurchens had no written records at the time, the story of Hanpu was first transmitted orally.
[2]
According to the History of
Jin (compiled in the 1340s), Hanpu arrived from Goryeo at the age of sixty and settled among the Wanyan clan. To resolve an endless cycle of vendettas between
two families, he managed to make both parties accept a new rule: from then on, the family of a killer would compensate the victim's relatives with a gift of horses,
cattle, and money. HistorianHerbert Franke has compared this law to the old Germanic practice of Wergeld. In recompense for putting an end to the feud,
Hanpu was married to a sixty-year-old woman who then bore him one daughter and two sons. Hanpu and his descendants were then formally received into the
Wanyan clan. The same story recounts that when Hanpu left Goryeo, his two brothers remained behind, one in Goryeo and one in the Balhae area. Herbert
Franke explains that this Jurchen "ancestral legend" probably indicates that the Wanyan clan absorbed immigrants from Goryeo and Balhae sometime in the
tenth century. Frederick W. Mote, who calls this account of the founding of the Wanyan clan a "tribal legend", claims that Hanpu's two brothers (one who stayed
in Goryeo and one in Balhae) might have represented "the tribe's memory of their ancestral links to these two peoples." The Wanyan clan rose to prominence
among the Jurchens after 1000 CE. It was Hanpu's sixth-generation descendant Wanyan Wugunai (10211074) who started to consolidate the dispersed Jurchen
tribes into a federation. Wugunai's grand-son Aguda (10681123) defeated the Jurchens' Khitan overlords of the Liao dynasty and founded the Jin dynastyin
1115. In 1136 or 1137, soon after Emperor Xizong of Jin (r. 11351150) had been crowned, Hanpu was given the posthumous name "Jingyuan Emperor"
() and thetemple name "Shizu" (), or "first ancestor." In 1144 or 1145, Hanpu's burial site was named "Guangling" (). In December 1145 or
January 1146, his posthumous title was augmented to that of "Yihui Jingyuan Emperor" (). Hanpu's wife posthumously received the title of
Empress Mingyi in 1136. The History of Jin, an official history that was compiled by Mongol scholar Toqto'a in the 1340s, lists Hanpu's family
members as follows. He had three children: Wulu (eldest son and successor), Wolu (second son) and Zhusiban (daughter).

Wanyan Wulu (or Wanyan Oro) was a Jurchen leader from 960 until 962. He was the eldest son of Wanyan Hanpo. When Emperor Xizong of Jin was
crowned on 1135, Wanyan Wulu was given posthumous name "Emperor De" (). On 1144, Wanyan Wulu's buried site was named as "Xiling" (). He
had wife Empress Si and two children Wanyan Bahai and Wanyan Beilu.

Wanyan Bahai was a Jurchen Chieftain from 962 until 983. He was son of Jurchen leader Wanyan Wulu, When Emperor Xizong of Jin was crowned at
1135, Wanyan Bahai was given the posthumous name of "Emperor An" (). In 1144, Wanyan Bahai's burial site was named "Jianling" (). He had wife
Empress Jie and five children: Wanyan Suike, Wanyan Xinde, Wanyan Xiekude, Wanyan Xieyibao and Wanyan Xielihu.

Wanyan Suike was a Jurchen Chieftain from 983 until 1005. In 1003, under his leadership the Wanyan tribe united five tribes in a federation called the "Five
Nations" (wuguobu : Punuli (//), Tieli , Yuelidu (), Aolimi (), and Puali ). He was son
of Jurchen leader Wanyan Bahai. Wanyan Suike was a prominent officer (, Bojin) in the Wanyan Tribe. When Emperor Xizong of Jin was crowned at
1135, Wanyan Suike was given posthumous name "Emperor Dingzhao" () and temple name "Xianzu" (). At 1144, Wanyan Suike's buried site was
named as "Huiling" (). He had wife Empress Gongjing and had seven children: Wanyan Shilu, Wanyan Pudu, Wanyan Abaohan, Wanyan Diku, Wanyan
Digunai, Wanyan Salinian and Wanyan Sagezhou.

Wanyan Shilu(Chinese: ; pinyin: Wnyn Shl) was the chieftain of the Wanyan () tribe of the Jurchen people in today's Northeast China and
Russian Maritime Province from 1005 until 1021. He was eldest son of Wanyan Suike. Wanyan Shilu was the Khitan Liao Empire appointed chieftain (,
Taishi) of the Wanyan Tribe. When Emperor Xizong of Jin was crowned at 1135, Wanyan Shilu was given posthumous name "Emperor Chengxiang"
() and temple name "Zhaozu" (). At 1144, Wanyan Shilu's buried site was named as "Anling" (). With wife Empress Weishun (with surname
Tudan) he had two children: Wanyan Wugunai and Wanyan Wuguchu, with Concubine Dahumo (from Wusaza Tribe) he had three children: Wanyan Bahei,
Wanyan Pulihei and Wanyan Wolian. With anonymous concubine (from Goryeo) he had one children Wanyan Hushida

Wanyan Wugunai (Chinese: or ) (died 1074) was the chieftain of the Wanyan () tribe of the Jurchen people in
today's Northeast China and Russian Maritime Province from 1021 until his death in 1074. Wugunai was the eldest son of Wanyan Shilu. Like his father,
Wanyan Wugunai was the Khitan Liao Empire appointed chieftain (, Taishi) of the Wanyan Tribe. Moreover, Wugunai became Liao Empire's "Jiedushi", a
powerful military governor in the region of Wanyan Tribe. Later on, Wugunai's successors - his son Wanyan Helibo and grandsonWanyan Aguda - held that title
as well. Eventually, in the 12th century Aguda overthrew the Liao Empire and established the Jurchen Jin Empire in northern China. Historical sources describe
Wugunai as a brave warrior, great eater and hard drinker, and a lover of women. When Emperor Xizong of Jin was crowned at 1135, Wanyan Wugunai was
given posthumous name "Emperor Huihuan" () and temple name "Jingzu" (). At 1144, Wanyan Wugunai's buried site was named as "Dingling"
(). With wife Empress Zhaosu (with surname Tangkuo) he had five children: Wanyan Hezhe (father of Wanyan Sagai and grandfather of Wanyan
Nianhan), Wanyan Helibo (father of Wanyan Aguda, the founder of the Jin Dynasty), Wanyan Hesun, Wanyan Polashu and Wanyan Yingge. With Concubine
Zhusihui (from Khitan) he had one children Wanyan Hezhenbao and with Concubine Diben (with surname Wendihen) he had three children: Wanyan Mapo,
Wanyan Alihemen and Wanyan Manduhe.

Wanyan Helibo (Chinese: ; pinyin: Wanyan Hlb; WadeGiles: Wan-yen Ho-li-po
[1]
) (10391092) was the chieftain of the Wanyan ()
tribe of the Jurchen people from 1074 until his death in 1092. was the second son of Wanyan Wugunai. Like his grandfather, Wanyan Helibo was
the Khitan Liao Empire appointed chieftain (, Taishi) of the Wanyan tribe. Like his father, Helibo was a powerful military leader in the region around the
Wanyan tribe. In the 12th century, three of Helibo's sons - Wuyashu, Aguda, and Wanyan Wuqimai - were to rule the Jurchen in succession. When Emperor
Xizong of Jin was crowned in 1135, Wanyan Helibo was given the posthumous name "Emperor Shengsu" () and temple name "Shizu" (). In 1144,
Wanyan Helibo's burial site was named "Yongling" ().With wife Empress Yijian (with surname Nalan) he had five children: Wanyan Wuyashu, Wanyan
Aguda, Wanyan Wodai, Wanyan Wuqimai and Wanyan Xieye. With Concubine (with surname Tudan) he had two children Wanyan Wosai and Wanyan
Wozhe, with Concubine (with surname Pusan) he had one children Wanyan Wugunai, with Concubine (with surname Zhuhu) he had one children Wanyan
Dumu, with Concubine (also with surname Zhuhu) he had on children Wanyan Chala and with Concubine (with surname Wugulun) he had one children
Wanyan Wudubu.

Wanyan Pochishu, () was the chieftain of the Wanyan () tribe of the Jurchen people from 1092 until 1094.

Wanyan Yingge () Muzong () (10941103) was the chieftain of the Wanyan () tribe of the Jurchen people from 1094 until 1103.

Wanyan Wuyashu (; 1061 1113) was the chief of the Jurchen Wanyan tribe from 1103 until his death in 1113. He was the elder brother of
Taizu (Wanyan Aguda), founder of the Jin Dynasty. He was given the temple name Kangzong (). Wuyashu was born to Shizu (Wanyan Helibo) in 1061 and
inherited from his uncle Muzong (Wanyan Yingge) in 1104. Muzong died in the middle of the conquest of Helandian (, Hamgyngdo, North Korea)
after pacifying the Tumen River basin. Wuyashu resumed the project in the next year. Under his order, Shi Shihuan () led Jurchen army of the Tumen
River basin, subdued Jurchen in Helandian and advanced southward to chase about 1,800 remnants who defected to Goryeo. Goryeo did not hand them over
but sent Im Gan () to intercept the Wanyan army. However, Shi Shihuan defeated Im Gan north of the Chngp'yng wall and invaded northeastern frontier
of Goryeo. Goryeo dispatched Yun Gwan () but lost a battle again. As a result, Wuyashu subjugated the Jurchen in Helandian. In 1107, Goryeo sent
delegate Heihuanfangshi () to celebrate Wanyan Wuyashu's inheritance of the chieftainship of the Wanyan Tribe, and promised to return those
Helandian Jurchens who escaped to Goryeo. However, when Wanyan's delegate Wanyan Aguo() and Wulida Shenkun() arrived in
Goryeo, they were killed and Goryeo dispatched five large armies led by Yun Gwan to Helandian. The Goryeo army destroyed a hundred Jurchen villages and
built nine fortresses there. Wanyan Wuyashu thought about giving up Helandian, but Wanyan Aguda convinced Wanyan Wuyashu to dispatch Wanyan
Wosai() to fight Goryeo. Wosai also built nine fortresses facing the Goryeo's nine fortresses. After one-year battle, the Wanyan army won two fortresses and
eliminated Goryeo reinforcements. Goryeo and the Jurchen achieved settlement and, as a result, Goryeo withdrew from the occupied areas. He also pacified
the Suifen River basin. When he died in 1113, his younger brother Aguda succeeded.

List of Jianzhou Jurchens Chieftains

The Jianzhou Jurchens (Chinese: ) were a grouping of the Jurchens as identified by the Chinese of the Ming Dynasty. They were the southernmost
group of the Jurchen people (the others being the Wild Jurchens (Chinese: ) and Haixi Jurchens (Chinese: ) in the fourteenth century,
inhabiting modern Jilin (Chinese: ) province in China.

Odoli Clan (14051616) ( or or or or )

Bukri Yongon () was the chieftain of Jianzhou Jurchen of the Odoli Clan people in early 15th century.

Mngke Temr (Hanzi : /) or Dudu Mentemu ( ; Hanzi: ) (1370 1433) was the Jianzhou Jurchen chieftain of
the Odoli tribe, one of the three tribes of the lower Sunggari river valley in Manchuria from 1405 until his death on November 30, 1433. In the 1380s the tribe
migrated southward towards the lower valley of the Tumen River and settled in Womuho (present day Hoeryong). In 1388, the Hongwu Emperor established
contact with three tribes of the Jianzhou Jurchens, the Odoli, Huligai and Tuowen and attempted to enlist them as allies against the Mongols. There was a general
migration south of the various Jurchen groups around the start of the 15th century and the three tribes established themselves around the Tumen River (near the
modern border of China, Russia and North Korea). Not long afterwards, the various Jurchens began accepting Ming titles from the Yongle Emperor as the
Military Commanders of the three Wei, namely Jianzhou Wei (), Jianzhou Left Wei () and Jianzhou Right Wei (). The Wei () was
military unit composed of 5 Suo (), and each Suo was staffed with 1100 soldiers. As Military Commanders of Wei, they were required to go to Beijing every
year to pay tribute to the Emperor. In 1395, he visited the Korean court to present tribute to the Korean king. As a result in 1404, he was awarded an honorary
military position by the Koreans. During this time, the Ming court frequently sent envoys to local chieftains to presuade local chieftains to recognize the
suzerainity of the Ming emperor, however Mngke Temr did not respond. This was to the delight of the Korean court and in 1405, he was nominated to be a
myriarch under the Korean king. In April 1405, a Ming envoy of Jurchen origin Wang Jiaohuati, was sent to Korea to persuade the Korean king along with
Mngke Temr to enter into tributary relations with the Ming. Ahacu (, later also known as Li Sicheng ), chief of the Huligai, became commander
of the Jianzhou Wei () in 1403, named after a Yuan Dynasty political unit in the area. Mngke Temr of the Odoli became leader of the Jianzhou Left
Wei () and accepted the Chinese surname of Tng () not long afterward. The Korean king ordered Mngke Temrnot to comply with the request of
Ming, he first complied with this order only to capitulate, visiting Nanjing in September 1405, leaving with an appointment as regional commissioner. In the
following years, the Jurchen tribes along with Mngke Temr's Odoli tribe fought skirmishes and battles with the Koreans. With the constant insecurity in the
presence of the Koreans, Meng and his followers migrated westward, settling in May 1411 in Fengzhou, in the valley of the Hoifa river, an affluent of the Sunggari
river, where the Jianzhou guard under igiyanu (Li Xianzhong) was located. Here the Ming government would establish the Jianzhou Left Guard from the
existing Jianzhou guard with Mngke Temr as the regional commander of the new guard. During this time, the Yongle Emperor began frequently sending
expeditionary forces towards the Mongols, Mngke Temr and his followers would take part in one such expedition in 1422. With the threat of retaliatory
invasions of the Mongols and the growing dominance of Li Manzhu, Mngke Temr and his followers, who numbered more than six thousand were forced to
leave Fengzhou and head back to Womuho in 1423. After his return, Mngke Temr decided that the best policy of self-preservation would be to serve both
Ming and Korean interests. In 1426, he visited Beijing and awarded a promotion as assistant commissioner in chief. His half brother Fanca visited Beijing in
1432, presented tribute, and was promoted to assistant commissioner. In 1432, Mngke Temr visited Beijing again and was promoted to commissioner in chief
while Fanca was made a regional commissioner. Starting in 1427, Mngke Temr had began sending his eldest son Agu to visit the Korean court with the hopes
that Agu would become a royal bodyguard in Korea. On November 30, 1433, Mngke Temr and his son Agu were killed in a riot led by Yang Mutawuta, a
Jurchen battalion commander from a different tribe in the area of Kaiyuan. Yang Mutawuta had followed Mongke Temur and his son. Temple name : Zhoz
(Hanzi : ).

Cungan (Hanzi: , 1419 - 1467) was a chieftain of the Jianzhou Jurchens of Odoli clan from 1433 until his death in 1467. Temple name: (Hanzi: ) In
1442, a succession dispute between Cungan and his half brother Fanca led to a division in the Jianzhou Left Guard. Cungan inherited his father's position as
head of the Jianzhou Left Guard while his brother Fanca was made head of a new separate Jianzhou Right Guard by the Ming Dynasty. After the death of his
half-brother Fanca, Cungan brought the Right Guard under his control.

Fanca (died 1458) was a chieftain of the Jianzhou Jurchens of the Odoli clan (head of a new separate Jianzhou Right Guard by the Ming Dynasty) from 1442
until his death in 1458. In 1442, a succession dispute between Cungan and his half brother Fanca led to a division in the Jianzhou Left Guard. Cungan
inherited his father's position as head of the Jianzhou Left Guard while his brother Fanca was made head of a new separate Jianzhou Right Guard by the Ming
Dynasty. After the death of his half-brother Fanca, Cungan brought the Right Guard under his control.

Tolo () (died 1481) was the Jianzhou Jurchen chieftain of the Odoli tribe from 1467 until his death in 1481. His Temple name was Xngd ().

Sibeoci Fiyangg () (died 1522) was the Jianzhou Jurchen chieftain of the Odoli tribe from 1481 until his death in 1522. His Temple name was
Zhngd ().

Fuman () (died 1542) was the Jianzhou Jurchen chieftain of the Odoli tribe from 1522 until his death in 1542. His Temple name was Xingzu ().
Giocangga (Manchu: ; Chinese: ; pinyin: Juchng'n) (died 1582) was the Jianzhou Jurchen chieftain of the Odoli tribe from 1542 until 1571. He
was the grandfather of Nurhaci, the man who was to unify the Jurchen peoples and begin building what later became the Manchu state. Both he and his
son Taksi went to the aid of Nurhaci's uncle Atai ( ti) whose city was being besieged by a rival Jurchen chieftain Nikan Wailan ( ;
Nkn Wiln), who promised the governance of the city to whoever would kill Atai. One of Atai's underlings rebelled and murdered him. Both
Giocangga and Taksi were originally under the command of the Ming general Li Chengliang who was siding with Nikan Wailan. In the mist of battle Li thought
they had mutinied as they were left in the battlefield. They were killed in the aftermath by Nikan Wailan. His temple name was Jngz (). In 2005, a study
led by a researcher at the British Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute suggested that Giocangga might be the ancestor of over 1.5 million people, mostly in
northeastern China and Mongolia. This was attributed to Giocangga's and his descendants' many wives and concubines. It was estimated that the average man in
the time of Giocangga would have only 20 offspring as of 2005. He had five brothers: Soocangga ( Suchng'), Boosi ( Bosh), Desik
( Dshk), Leodan ( Lichn) and Boolungga ( Bolng'). He had also five sons: Lidun Baturu ( Ldn Btl), Argun
( rgn), Jaikan ( Jikn), Taksi and Taca Fiyangg ( Tch Ping).
Taksi (Manchu: ; Chinese: ; pinyin: Tksh, died 1583) was a Jianzhou Jurchen chieftain of the Odoli Tribe from 1571 until his death in 1583 and
father of Nurhaci, founder of the Qing Dynasty, and the fourth son of Giocangga. A member of the Gioro clan, he was killed in an attack on Gure ( Gl)
by a rival Jurchen chieftain Nikan Wailan in 1582. His temple name was Xinz (). His posthumous name was the Xun Emperor ( Xun
Hungd). He had five sons: Nurhaci, Murhaci ( Mrhq) (15611620), urhaci, Yarhaci ( Yrhq) (15651589) and Bayara
( Byl) (15821624). He had also four daughters.

Huligai Clan () (1403?)

Ahacu () (Li Sicheng) () (died 1409 or 1410) was a Jurchen chieftain of the Huligai Tribe in early 15th century.

igiyanu () (Li-Hsien-chung/Li Xianzhong) () was a Jurchen chieftain of the Huligai Tribe in the first half 15th century.

Li-Man-chu (Li Manzhu () (1407 1467) was a Jurchen chieftain of the Huligai Tribe in early 15th century.

Suksuhu River / Suksuhu bira ( or ) Clan: Aisin Gioro

Wang Gao () (died 1575) was a Jurchen chieftain of the Aisin Gioro Tribe in the second half 16th century.

Atai () (died 1583) was a Jurchen chieftain of the Aisin Gioro Tribe from 1575 until his death in 1583.

Nikan Wailan () (died 1586) was a Jurchen chieftain of the Aisin Gioro Tribe from 1583 until his death in 1586.

List of Haixi Jurchens Chieftains

The Haixi Jurchens (Chinese: ) were a grouping of the Jurchens as identified by the Chinese of the Ming Dynasty. They were inhabiting an area that
consists of parts of modern day Jilin, Heilongjiang, Liaoning and Inner Mongolia in China.

Hulun confederation ()

Hlun (Chinese: ) was a powerful alliance of Jurchen tribes in the late 16th century, based primarily in what is today Jilin province of China. The Hlun
alliance was formed by Wan (d. 1582), the leader of the Hada tribal federation, which had drawn its importance from the control of commerce between the late-
MingLiaodong and Jurchen tribes to the east via Guangshun Pass (east of Kaiyuan, which is located near the northern tip of today's Liaoning Province). Besides
the Hada themselves, the Hlun included three other tribal federations, known as Ula, Yehe, and Hoifa. While the Hlun people were mostly of Jurchen origin,
they had been heavily influenced by the Mongol language and culture, and intermarried with the neighboring Khorchin andKharchin Mongols. Therefore, were
viewed by their southern neighbors Jianzhou Jurchens, which were in the late 16th century led by Nurhaci as Monggo ("Mongols"). The Hlun's khan Wan
aspired to paramount leadership in the region, establishing a network of political and business relations with Jurchen and Mongol leaders, as well as with
theMing governor of Liaodong, Li Chengliang. Nurhaci, the chief of Jianzhou Jurchens, was Wan's son-in-law, and, in Pamela Crossley's view, viewed Wan and
his Hlun as role models for himself and his (Late) Jin Empire. Many years later, long after Nurhaci had renamed Jurchens to Manchus, and both Wan and
Nurhaci were dead, Qing historians referred to Wan as one of the first great leaders of the "Manchu nations". In the closing years of the 16th century, Hlun
tribes started recognizing Nurhaci's supremacy although, in some cases, the Nurhaci-appointed chief of a tribe would then try to assert his independence, and a
new war would result, as it was the case with Bujantai, the leader of the Ula. Eventually, all four tribes were fully incorporated into Nurhaci's empire (Hada 1601,
Hoifa 1607, Ula 1613, Yehe 1619).

Kesina () was a leader Hlun Confederation (Chinese: ) powerful alliance of Jurchen tribes in late 16th century.

Yehe or Yehe Nara ( / ) Clan

Singgen Darhan (/) was a Haixi Jurchen chieftain of the Yehe or Yehe Nara Tribe (within Hulun Confederation) in late 16th
century.

irugeminggedo (/) was a Haixi Jurchen chieftain of the Yehe or Yehe Nara Tribe (within Hulun Confederation) in late 16th
century.

Cirugani (/) was a Haixi Jurchen chieftain of the Yehe or Yehe Nara Tribe (within Hulun Confederation) in late 16th century.

Jukungge ( /) was a Haixi Jurchen chieftain of the Yehe or Yehe Nara Tribe (within Hulun Confederation) in late 16th century.

Taicu () was a Haixi Jurchen chieftain of the Yehe or Yehe Nara Tribe (within Hulun Confederation) in late 16th century.

Yangginu () & Cinggiyanu () (died 1584) was a Haixi Jurchen chieftain of the Yehe or Yehe Nara Tribe (within Hulun Confederation) in late
16th century.

Narimbulu () (died 1613) was a Haixi Jurchen chieftain of the Yehe or Yehe Nara Tribe (within Hulun Confederation) from 1584 until his death in
1613.
Gintaisi (Manchu: ; Chinese: , , alternatively Jintaiji Chinese: ) (died September 29, 1619), was a Haixi Jurchen beile (chieftain) of the
Yehe tribal confederation (within Hulun Confederation) from 1613 until his death on September 29, 1619. He was the younger brother of Narimbulu, and
became one of the two beile of the Yehe tribe after the death of his brother which took place sometime before 1613. In 1613, Bujantaithe beile of the Ula tribe
had fled to the Yehe after the defeat of his forces at the hands of Nurhaci. Gintaisi gave him protection and when attacked by Nurhaci, he appealed to theMing
Chinese for help. In 1615, he attempted to appease the Mongols on the west by marrying his cousin (who had eighteen years before been promised to Nurhaci)
to the Khalkabeile. The alliance with the Chinese in the end proved to be a futile arrangement, for in 1619 Nurhaci defeated a large Chinese army, together with
its Yehe auxiliaries at the Battle of Sarhu and then proceeded to besiege Gintaisi in his own stronghold. Despite attempts at a settlement by Nurhaci's son, Hong
Taiji the future emperor who was also Gintaisi's nephew, the fighting continued until both Gintaisi and his cousin Buyanggu () had been captured. Gintaisi
was either executed by hanging by he committed suicide, but not before he allegedly cursed Nurhaci that as long as one of his descendants lived, even a female
one, he or she would remember the clan's vendetta and bring down the Aisin Gioro. With his death, the independent existence of the Yehe tribe came to an end
and the last of the Jurchen tribes under the Hlun (alliance) were brought under the control of Nurhaci, but many of its members, including his descendants,
became prominent in the service of Nurhaci and of the succeeding Manchu emperors. Even the Empress Dowager Cixi traced her descent back to the Yehe
division of the Nara clan, and recognized Yangginu, the father of Gintaisi, as her great ancestor.

Hata/Hada Clan ( / ) (15431601)

Wangji Wailan (()) was a Haixi Jurchen chieftain of the Hata/Hada Tribe in the first half 16th century.

Wang Tai (/, died 1582) was a Haixi Jurchen chieftain of the Hata/Hada Tribe from 1548 until his death in 1582. The Hlun alliance was formed
by Wang Tai, the leader of the Hada tribal federation, which had drawn its importance from the control of commerce between the late-MingLiaodong and
Jurchen tribes to the east via Guangshun Pass (east of Kaiyuan, which is located near the northern tip of today's Liaoning Province). Besides the Hada themselves,
the Hlun included three other tribal federations, known as Ula, Yehe, and Hoifa.

Fan Shang () was a Haixi Jurchen chieftain of the Hata/Hada Tribe (within Hulun Confederation) from 1582 until 1594.

Hurhan () was a Haixi Jurchen chieftain of the Hata/Hada Tribe (within Hulun Confederation) from 1594 until 1596.

Menggebulu () was a Haixi Jurchen chieftain of the Hata/Hada Tribe (within Hulun Confederation) from1596 until 1599.

Urgudai () was a Haixi Jurchen chieftain of the Hata/Hada Tribe (within Hulun Confederation) from 1599 until 1601.

Ula (/) Clan (14051616)

Buyan () was a Haixi Jurchen chieftain of the Ula Tribe.

Buyangan () was a Haixi Jurchen chieftain of the Ula Tribe.

Mantai () (?1596) was a Haixi Jurchen chieftain of the Ula Tribe (within Hulun Confederation) in the late 16th century. He was the father of Lady
Abahai ().
Bujantai (Manchu: ; Chinese: ) (died 1618) was a Jurchen beile (chieftain) of the Ula tribal confederation (within Hulun Confederation) from 1596
until his death in 1618. Bujantai was descended from Nacibulu (), the ancestor of the Nara lineages of Ula and Hada. Tradition spoke of Nacibulu as
having attracted the attention of some Mongols who desired to make him subservient to them. When the Mongola attempted to capture him, however, he
successfully subdued them, and when they shouted to inquire his name he responded with a defiant challenge, "Nara". In this manner the important Nara clan is
supposed to have received its name. Nacibulu settled near modern Jilin on theSungari river, which was often called simply the Ula, or "the river". There he
became a successful hunter and trapper who attracted many followers. Several generations later, two brothers among his descendants, Kesina () and
Gudui Juyan (), became the ancestors of the Hada and Ula branches of the Nara clan. Buyan (), grandson of Gudui juyan, fortified the settlement
on the Sungari and named himself beile of the Ula tribe. Two of his grandsons were Mantai () and Bujantai, both of whom would succeed to the position of
beile of the Ula. The Yehe tribe under the beile Bujai (,) and Narimbulu assembled the various groups in the Hlun alliance, along with
some Khorchin Mongols, to oppose the rising power of Nurhaci. Bujantai led the Ula contingent, but was taken prisoner by Nurhaci when the confederation was
defeated at Mt. Gure in October 1593. Nurhaci refrained from killing Bujantai and after holding him for three years as a retainer sent him back under escort to
the Ula. The Ula beile Mantai, and his son having recently been executed by their tribesmen, Bujantai was released by Nurhaci, established as beile in his
brother's place and as tributary to the lord of the Jianzhou, Nurhaci. In order to cement ties with Nurhaci, he sent a sister as wife to Nurhaci's brother, urhaci,
and in 1597 joined the Yehe and other tribes in a formal truce with Nurhaci. Two years Bujantai would received a daughter of urhaci as a wife, and in 1601 he
arranged the marriage of his niece, the future Empress Xiao Lie Wu to Nurhaci. Two years later after unsuccessful attempts to secure a daughter of the Mongol,
Minggan , chief of the Borjigit tribe, he requested another wife from Nurhaci and was given a second daughter of urhaci. Even though these matrimonial
ties existed between the Ula and Nurhaci, a war broke out in 1607 between Nurhaci and the Ula in which the latter were defeated with the loss of some towns.
Bujantai then promised Nurhaci that if he was given another wife then a truce would be called for. Nurhaci then sent one of his own daughters to him and this
would secured a peace between the two for four years. In 1612 Bujantai tried to bribe the Yehe beile, Bujai, into giving him for a wife a daughter who had been
promised to Nurhaci. He also subjected Nurhaci's daughter whom he had married to indignity by "shooting whistling arrows at her". Enraged by these acts,
Nurhaci took personal command of an expedition which completely defeated the Ula tribe in 1613. Bujantai fled to the Yehe under the beile Gintaisi who gave
him refuge. He died before the Yehe tribe also fell into Nurhaci's hands.

Hoifa Clan ( / ) (?1607)

Wangginu ( () was a Haixi Jurchen chieftain of the Hoifa Tribe (within Hulun Confederation) in late 16th century.
Baindari (Manchu: ; Chinese: ) (?-1607) was a Jurchen beile (chieftain) of the Hoifa tribal confederation (within Hulun Confederation) in early
17th century. He was a member of the Nara clan although his ancestors were originally members of the Ikderi clan and belonged originally to the Nimaca tribe
on the banks of the Amur river. Migrating southward, they put themselves under the protection of some Nara clansmen. Then, after slaying seven oxen in a
sacrifice to Heaven, they exchanged their own name for that of their protectors. Six generations later, his grandfather Wangginu, consolidated his position by
establishing a settlement at Mount Hrki on the Huifa river, where the natural advantages of his location enabled him to withstand repeated attacks from the
Mongols. On the death of his grandfather Wangginu, who was beile of the Hoifa, Baindari murdered seven uncles who might have stood in his way and
proclaimed himself beile of the Hoifa. In 1593, he joined the Hoifa with the tribes of Yehe, Hada, Ula, Khorchin, Sibe, Guwalca, Jueri, and Neyen
against Nurhaci. This alliance led by Narimbulu of the Yehe would prove unsuccessful as Nurhaci defeated the allied tribes at the Battle of Gure. In 1595,
Nurhaci retaliated by killing two of Baindari's generals and taking the town of Dobi. In 1597 theHlun tribes agreed on a truce with Nurhaci and thereafter
Baindari, whose territory was situated between the Yehe towns and Nurhaci's center of operations, wavered in allegiance from one to the other, finally deciding to
trust in the impregnability of his city to defend him against both. In 1607, however, Nurhaci invaded the region, killed Baindari and his son, and thus conquered
the Hoifa tribe.


Zhongshan

Zhongshan (Chinese: ; pinyin: Zhngshn, c. 6th century BC c. 296 BC) was a Di state created by the nomadic Xianyu tribe
[1]
in China during the
later Zhou Dynasty. It was located on the plain east of the Shanxi plateau near the modern city of Baoding inHebei. Its name means "Central Mountains", as
opposed to the Western Mountains of Shanxi or the Eastern Mountains of Shandong. In Chinese sources, it is called a state of the Baidi.
[2]
The state was founded
in the sixth century BC (or in 414 BC
[3]
) by descendants of the Baidi (lit. "White Di") who had been driven from Shaanxi into Hebei, where they founded their
first city with assistance from the State of Wei.
[4]
By around 400 BC, it had adopted much of Chinese culture, but it was not considered fully Chinese. Around 300
BC, Zhongshan's capital was at either Pingshan or Lingshou, both about 75 miles southwest of Baoding and 25 miles northwest of Shijiazhuang. It was
surrounded by the State of Zhao to the west and the State of Yan to the east. It had fortified cities and 1,000 war chariots in its army. Archeology shows a material
culture similar to the rest of China at that time. In 408 BC, Zhongshan was attacked by Marquis Wen of Wei who first had to get permission to cross the territory
of the State of Zhao. It was conquered by Wei in 406 but regained its independence in 377 BC. It reached the peak of its power during the reign of King Cuo of
Zhongshan (323-309) who had proclaimed himself king in 323 BC. Zhongshan forces, together with the State of Qi, invaded the State of Yan and captured
dozens of its cities. Later, King Cuo invaded the State of Zhao and broke it into two parts. In 307 BC Zhao annexed parts of Zhongshan. After King Cuo died,
his descendants proved less capable, leading to the overthrow of Zhongshan by Zhao in (probably
[5]
) 296 BC. The area of today's Ding County was part of
the Zhongshan Commandery during the Han Dynasty. The commandery capital, Zhongshan, was an economic center from the Eastern Han Dynasty until
the Tang Dynasty. It was the capital of Later Yan during the reign of its first emperor, Murong Chui. In the 1970s, the tomb of King Cuo was excavated.

List of rulers of Zhongshan

Wengong of Zhongshan (died 415 BC) was a ruler of the state of Zhongshan from ? until his death in 415 BC.

Shanwu Gong of Zhongshan (died 406 BC) was a ruler of the state of Zhongshan from 414 BC until his death in 407 BC.

Huangong of Zhongshan was a ruler of the state of Zhongshan from 380 BC until 350 BC.

Cheng of Zhongshan was a ruler of the state of Zhongshan from 349 BC until 328 BC.

Cuo of Zhongshan was a ruler of the state of Zhongshan during the Warring States period in ancient China from 327 BC until 310 BC. As the son of Duke
Cheng of Zhongshan, he inherited the state from his father and expanded it to its peak size. He attacked Yan to the north and Zhao to the south and expanded
his territory to nearly double what he inherited. His new gains from Zhao broke the state of Zhao into North and South pieces, laying the future cause for the
state of Zhao to destroy the country. The Tomb of King Cuo of Zhongshan is an archaeological site located in Sanji, Pingshan, Hebei, China. The tomb was built
near the ancient city of Lingshou () on the Hutuo River. The tomb contained the burial of King Cuo. Initially, farmers discovered a large river rock
inscribed in archaic (large seal) characters during the 1940s or 1950s and stored it for several decades. In the early 1970s, local artifact administrators received
news of this rock and examined it. A copy was sent to Li Xueqin, a renowned expert on ancient Chinese writing. He immediately recognized its importance. The
inscription was about two men, Gongsheng De and Jiujiang Man, who were servants and fishers during the king's life and later guarded his tomb after his death.
Later, the king was known to be King Cuo from inscriptions on bronze ware. The plans for the tomb complex was engraved on a bronze diagram found inside
the tomb (this is the earliest architectural drawing known from ancient China). The original plan was designed to house five tomb complexes (xiangtang ) in a
row, with the tomb of the king in the center, flanked by tombs of two queens, then flanked by outer tombs of two consorts; the tomb complex was never
completed as designed. The site was excavated in the 1970s. Although the central burial chamber had already been looted in antiquity, archaeologists were still
able to uncover hundreds of bronze, jade, lacquer and pottery artifacts. Six others were buried alongside the king. Two horse and chariot pits were included in
King Cuo's burial complex. Three boats were uncovered, and an underground canal linked the tomb to the Hutuo River. The style and usage of bronze artifacts
underwent a drastic change during the fourteenth year of King Cuo's reign. Among the changes was a de-emphasis on ritual bronze vessels and a new focus on
luxury bronze objects. A bronze vessel from the tomb recorded a previously unrecorded invasion of Yan during that year that may have contributed to the change
in style; some archaeologists believe that the new techniques may have been introduced by Yan artisans or copied from looted Yan bronzes.
[1]
The new technique
included the use of inlaid silver and gold onto bronze objects, often portraying mythical beasts.

Wang of Zhongshan was a ruler of the state of Zhongshan from 309 BC until 299 BC.

Wang Shang of Zhongshan was a ruler of the state of Zhongshan from 298 BC until 296 BC.



Kumul Khanate

The Kumul Khanate was a semi-autonomous feudal khanate within the Qing dynasty and then the Republic of China until it was abolished by Xinjiang
governor Jin Shuren in 1930. The khans of Kumul were direct descendants of the khans of the Chagatai Khanate. It came under Qing rule in 1757 after theTen
Great Campaigns and remained a Khanate as a part of the Qing empire. The Ming dynasty established a tributary relationship with the Kumul Khanate, which
was heavily involved in the MingTurpan conflict. The Khanate paid tribute to the Ming. The Kumul Khanate under Sa'id Baba supported Chinese
Muslim Ming loyalists during the 1646 Milayin rebellion against the Qing dynasty. After the defeat of the Ming loyalists, during which the Kumul Prince
Turumtay was killed at the hands of Qing forces, Kumul submitted to the Qing. Beiginning in 1647, the rulers of Hami submitted to the Qing dynasty and sent
tribute. The title "Jasak Darhan", was granted to Abdullah Beg, ruler of Hami. The khanate had fought against the Zunghars for the Qing. Kumul continued as a
vassal khanate when Xinjiang was changed into a province in 1884 after the Dungan revolt. The khans also were given the title of Qinwang (Prince of the First
Rank Chinese: ; pinyin: qn wng), by the Qing empire. The khans were allowed enormous power by the Qing court, with the exception of administering
execution, which had to be allowed by a Chinese official posted in Kumul. The khans were officially vassals to the Emperor of China, and every six years were
required to visit Beijing to be a servant to the Emperor during a period of 40 days. It was also known as the principality of Kumul, and the Chinese called it
Hami. The khans were friendly to Chinese rule and authorities. The Khan Muhammad and his son and successor Khan Maqsud Shah heavily taxed his subjects
and extorted forced labor, which resulted in two rebellions against his rule in 1907 and 1912. The Kumul Khanate was the only part of Xinjiang which was not
opened to settlement by Han Chinese. All other parts were subject to settlement encouraged by the government. The khan was assisted by a
chancellor/vizer/chief minister in his court. The last khan, Maqsud Shah, had Yulbars Khan, the tiger Prince of Hami as his chancellor. The khan paid tribute to
the Xinjiang government in rmqi. The Han Chinese Governor of Xinjiang, Yang Zengxin was a monarchist, and tolerated the khanate, and was friendly
toward the khan Maqsud Shah. Around the 1920s Japanese secret agents began exploring the Kumul area. It was the fact that the khanate existed which
prevented the Uyghurs from rebelling, since the khanate represented a government where a man of their ethnicity and religion was reigning. The abolition of the
khanate led to a bloody rebellion. Upon Maqsud Shah's death in 1930 Jin Shuren replaced the khanate with three normal provincial administrative districits
Hami, Yihe, Yiwu. This set off the Kumul Rebellion, in which Yulbars Khan attempted to restore the heir Nasir to the throne.

List of Khans (with the title Qinwang) of Kumul Khanate

Muhammmad Shah was the Uyghur Jasagh Prince (Qinwang) of the Kumul Khanate from ? until 1908.

Maqsud Shah (1864 - 1930) (Shah Mexsut, Chinese: ) (Uyghur: ) was the Uyghur Jasagh Prince (Qinwang) of the Kumul Khanate
from 1908 until his death in March 1930. He succeeded his father Muhammmad Shah in 1908 as Khan of Kumul. The Khans were officially vassals to the Qing
DynastyEmperor of China, and every six years were required to visit Beijing to be a servant to the Emperor during a period of 40 days. In 1912, Qing Dynasty
was replaced by Republic of China, and Yang Zengxin became Governor in Xinjiang. Yang was a monarchist and supported the Khanate The Kumul maintained
its status as a vassal Khanate of the Republic of China. In 1912 a rebellion also broke out against his oppressive rule. Maqsud spoke fluent Chinese. He had
Chinese and Uyghur troops at his disposal. He sent melons as tribute to the Emperor. The Kumul Khanate was the only part of Xinjiang which was not opened
to settlement by Han Chinese. All other parts were subject to settlement encouraged by the government. Maqsud's family was descended from Chaghatai Khan,
and they ruled since the Ming Dynasty. Maqsud Shah was 47 years old in 1911. All the other Khans in Turkestan had gone, the Kumul Khanate was the only one
left. Maqsud spoke Turki in Chinese accent and had Chinese clothing. Maqsud also drank enormous amounts of alcohol, and did not allow anyone to take
pictures of him. Maqsud Shah had Yulbars Khan, the Tiger Prince of Hami as his chancellor at court. Twenty one Begs administered Kumul under the Khan,
and he received 1,200 taels in silver from the Xinjiang government after he sent tribute. He was also called King of the Gobi. His son Nasir was designated as his
heir. When Yang Zengxin was assassinated in 1928, he was replaced by the intolerant Jin Shuren. Upon Maqsud Shah's death in 1930 Governor Jin
Shuren replaced the Khanate with three normal provincial administrative districts Hami, Yihe, Yiwu. Nasir was not allowed to succeeded him to the throne. This
set off the Kumul Rebellion.

Chancellor of Kumul Khanate

Yulbars Khan (Uyghur: 'Tiger'; Chinese: ; pinyin: Yoyubs), courtesy name Jingfu () was the
Chancellor of Kumul Khanate from 1922 until March 1930. He was a Uighur warlord born in Yangi Hissar in 1888. He entered the
service in the Kumul Khanate of Muhammad Khan of Kumul and later his sonMaksud Shah. He served as an advisor at the court,
until when Maksud died in March 1930, governor Jin Shuren abolished the khanate. Yulbars then conspired with Khoja
Niyaz and Ma Zhongying to overthrow Jin in the Kumul Rebellion. According to some people, Ma restrained Yulbars from traveling
to Nanking to ask the Kuomintang for help, Ma earlier had an agreement with the Kuomintang that if he seized Xinjiang, he would
be recognized by the Kuomintang as its leader. Jin was eventually ousted by Sheng Shicai on April 12, 1933, who seized control of
the province during 1934-1937. In May 1933 Khoja Niyaz concluded Peace Agreement with Sheng Shicai under mediation of newly
appointed Soviet Consul-General in Urumchi Garegin Apressof, close associate of Joseph Stalin, and agreed to turn his Uyghur
forces against Ma Chung-ying in exchange for granting of control over the Southern Xinjiang ( Kashgaria or Tarim Basin ), which
already was lost by Chinese and where bloody struggle for power between different rebel forces was being developed, also
over Turpan Basin and Kumul Region, which currently were occupied by Ma Chung-ying forces. All territory south of Tengritagh
Mountains was granted the " autonomous status " inside of Xinjiang Province, Chinese promised in Agreement not to cross
Tengritagh. Yulbars Khan not followed Khoja Niyaz in this decision and remained to be ally of Ma Chung-ying, who appointed him
to be the Chief of Procurement Department of Kuomintang (KMT) 36th Division. In summer 1934, after retreating of Ma to the Southern Xinjiang and his
following interning on Soviet territory on July 7, 1934, Yulbars Khan managed to conclude peace agreement with Sheng Shicai and was left as commander of
Uyghur regiment in Kumul and also given high post of Commissioner for Reconstruction Affairs in Xinjiang Provincial Government. In May 1937, after 6th
Uyghur Division and 36th Tungan Division mutinied against Xinjiang Provincial Government in Southern Xinjiang, rebels in Kashgaria appealed to Yulbars
Khan to cut off communications between Xinjiang and China from his base in Kumul. During suppression of rebellion by Sheng Shicai with Soviet military
support ( that included 5,000 Soviet intervention troops) in summer 1937 he fled to Nanjing and returned to Kumul in 1946. He led Chinese Muslim cavalry and
White Russians against People's Liberation Army (PLA) forces taking over Xinjiang in 1949. He fought at the Battle of Yiwu. In 1951, after most of his troops
deserted, he fled to Calcutta in India via Tibet, where his men were attacked by the Dalai Lama's forces. He then took a steamer to Taiwan. The KMT
government then appointed him Governor of Xinjiang, which he held until he died in 1971 in Taiwan. His memoirs were published in 1969. Yulbars Khan was
declared a traitor by Uyghur figures in the East Turkestan Independence Movement like Muhammad Amin Bughraand Isa Yusuf Alptekin for siding with Chiang
Kai-shek and the Kuomintang, who continued to claim Xinjiang as a part of the Republic of China.


Cheng

Cheng was an oppositional state in China from 1851 to 1864, established by Chen Kai (styled Ping Xun wang) and Li Wenmao each of leaders of the Taiping
Rebellion (18501864). On September 27, 1855 Great Cheng Realm inaugurated and on August 21, 1861 extinguished by Qing empire.

List of Kings of Cheng Kingdom

Chen Kai (styled Ping Xun wang) (1822 August 21, 1861) was a King of Cheng Kingdom from September 27, 1855 until his death on August 21, 1861.

Li Wenmao (died 1858) was a King of Cheng Kingdom from 1855 until his death in 1858.


Pingnan Guo

Pingnan Guo (Ping-nan Kuo; Chinese: ; literally "Pacified Southern State") was the major Islamic rebellious polity in western Yunnan province, also called
the Panthay rebellion, their leader Sulayman ibn `Abd ar-Rahman, known as Du Wenxiu [originally Yang Xiu]) (died 1873) was styled Qaid Jami al-
Muslimin ('Leader of the Community of Muslims'), but is usually referred to in foreign sources as Sultan) and ruled 1856 - 26 December 1872. Governorships of
the sultanate were also created in a few important cities, such as Momein (Tengyue), which were a few stages from the Burmese border town of Bhamo. The
sultanate reached the high-water mark of their power and glory in 1860. The eight years from 1860 to 1868 were the heyday of the Sultanate. The Yunnanese
Muslim rebels had either taken or destroyed forty towns and one hundred villages.
[23]
Various rebel forces besieged the city of Kunming repeatedly: in 1857, 1861,
1863, and 1868. Ma Rulong, a Hui rebel leader from southern Yunnan, besieged the city in 1862, but he defected to the central government's forces after being
offered a military post. His decision to quit the siege was not accepted by his followers, who took the opportunity of his absence to kill the Governor-General
(Pan Duo) and to wrest control of the city from the Qing in 1863, with the intention of handing the city over to Du Wenxiu. However, before Du's forces could
arrive, Ma Rulong with the assistance of a rising Qing military officier, Cen Yuying raced back to Kunming and regained control of the provincial capital. The
Sultanate's power declined after 1868. The Chinese Imperial Government had succeeded in reinvigorating itself. By 1871, it was directing a campaign for the
annihilation of the obdurate Hui Muslims of Yunnan. By degrees the Imperial Government had tightened the cordon around the Sultanate. The Sultanate
proved unstable as soon as the Imperial Government made a regular and determined attack on it. Town after town fell under well-organized attacks made by the
imperial troops. Dali itself was besieged by the imperial Chinese. Sultan Sulayman found himself caged in by the walls of his capital. He now desperately looked
for outside help. He turned to the British for military assistance. He realized that only British military intervention could have saved his Sultanate.

Qaid Jami al-Muslimin (Leader of the Community of Muslim,usually referred to in foreign sources as Sultan) of Pingnan Guo

Sulayman ibn `Abd ar-Rahman (Du Wenxiu [orig. Yang Xiu) (simplified Chinese: ; traditional Chinese: ; pinyin: D Wnxi; Wade
Giles:) (1823 December 26, 1872) was the Chinese Muslim leader of the Panthay Rebellion and Leader of the Community of Muslim (Sultan) of Pingnan Guo
from 1856 until his death on December 26, 1872. He was Muslim separatist movement in China during the Qing Dynasty. Born in Yongchang (nowBaoshan,
Yunnan), Yunnan Du Wenxiu was the son of a Han Chinese who converted to Islam. His original surname was Yang Xiu before he changed it to Du Wenxiu.
He styled himself as the Sultan of Dali and reigned for 16 years. He was beheaded by Qing troops after his death. His body is entombed in Xiadui.


Shengping

Shengping was an oppositional state in China from October 9, 1854 when is inaugurated Shengping tianguo (Heavenly Realm of Ascending Peace) until July 24,
1858 when is state extinguished by Qing empire.

List of Kings of Shengping

Hu Youlu (died 1855) was a King of Shengping Kingdom from October 9, 1954 until his death in 1855.

Zhu Hongying (died 1874) was a King of Shengping Kingdom from October 9, 1854 until 1858.


Manchukuo

Manchukuo (simplified Chinese: ; traditional Chinese: ; pinyin: Mnzhugu; literally "State of Manchuria", Japanese Mansh koku,
literally "Manchu State"}}) was a puppet state in northeast China and Inner Mongolia, which was governed under a form of constitutional monarchy. The area,
collectively known as Manchuria, was designated by China's erstwhile Qing Dynasty as the "homeland" of the ruling family's ethnic group, the Manchus. In 1931,
Japan seized the region following the Mukden Incident and installed a pro-Japanese government one year later with Puyi, the last Qing emperor, as the nominal
regent and emperor. Manchukuo's government was abolished in 1945 after the defeat ofImperial Japan at the end of World War II. The territories formally
claimed by the puppet state were first seized in the Soviet invasion of Manchuria in August 1945, and then formally transferred to Chinese administration in the
following year. Manchus formed a minority in Manchukuo, whose largest ethnic group were Han Chinese. The population of Koreansincreased during the
Manchukuo period, and there were also Japanese, Mongols, White Russians and other minorities. The Mongol regions of western Manchukuo were ruled under
a slightly different system in acknowledgement of the Mongolian traditions there. The southern part of the Liaodong Peninsula was ruled by Japan as
the Kwantung Leased Territory.

List of Premiers of Manchukuo

Zheng Xiaoxu (Cheng Hsiao-hsu; simplified Chinese: ; traditional Chinese: ; pinyin: Zhng Xiox; WadeGiles:
Cheng Hsiao-hsu; Hepburn: Tei Ksho) (April 2, 1860 - March 28, 1938) was the Premier of Manchukuo from March 9, 1932
untilMay 21, 1935. He was Chinese statesman, diplomat and calligrapher. Although Zheng traced his ancestral roots to Minhou, a
small town near Fuzhou, he was born in Suzhou, Jiangsu. In 1882, he obtained the intermediate degree in the imperial examinations,
and three years later he joined the secretariat of the prominent statesman Li Hongzhang. In 1891, he was appointed secretary to the
Chinese legation in Tokyo, and in the following years he performed consular duties at the Chinese consulates in Tsukiji,
Osaka and Kobe respectively. During his tenure in Kobe, he worked closely with the Chinese community and played an
instrumental part in establishing the Chinese guild (Zhnghu hugun ) there. In Japan, Zheng also interacted with a
number of influential politicians and scholars, such as It Hirobumi, Mutsu Munemitsu and Nait Torajir. Following the outbreak
of the First Sino-Japanese war in 1894, Zheng was forced to leave Japan. Having returned to China, Zheng joined the secretariat of
the reformist statesman Zhang Zhidong in Nanjing and followed him to Beijing, where Zheng obtained a position in the Qing foreign
office, the Zongli Yamen. Following the abortive Hundred Days' Reform in 1898, Zheng left his post in Beijing and took up a number of important government
positions in central and southern China. After the collapse of the imperial system in 1911, Zheng remained loyal to the Qing dynasty and refused to serve under
China's Republican government. Instead he withdrew from public life entirely and retired comfortably in Shanghai, where he devoted his time to
calligraphy,poetry and art, while also writing extensive articles critical of the Kuomingtang leadership, whom he characterized as thieves. In 1923, the former
Qing emperor Puyi summoned Zheng to Beijing in order to reorganize the imperial household. Zheng became a close adviser of Puyi and helped arrange for his
flight to the foreign concession at Tianjin after his expulsion from the Forbidden City. Zheng remained loyal to the throne and secretly met with Japanese officials
and groups such as the Black Dragon Society to discuss a restoration of the Qing dynasty in Manchuria. Following the Mukden Incident and the occupation of
Manchuria by the Imperial Japanese Army in 1931, Zheng played an important role in the establishment of Manchukuo, becoming its first prime minister the
following year. Zheng also composed the lyrics of theNational Anthem of Manchukuo. Zheng had hoped that Manchukuo would become a springboard for the
restoration of Qing rule in the whole of China, but he soon found out that the real rulers of Manchukuo, the Japanese Kwantung Army, did not share his
ambitions. As Prime Minister of Manchukuo, Zheng frequently disagreed with the Japanese Army leadership. In May 1935, he resigned from his office and three
years later he died suddenly under unclear circumstances. He was accorded a state funeral in April 1938. Although Zheng Xiaoxu is mostly remembered today
for his collaboration with the Japanese, he is still recognized as an accomplished poet and calligrapher. Zheng was one of the most respected and influential
calligraphers of the 20th. Century. His calligraphy brought high prices during his lifetime and he supported himself in later life with the proceeds from its sale.
His calligraphy continues to be influential in China and his style has been incorporated into the logos of current Chinese corporations. Zheng kept an extensive
diary, which is still valued by historians as important source material.

Zhang Jinghui (Chang Ching-hui; simplified Chinese: ; traditional Chinese: ; pinyin: Zhng Jnghu; WadeGiles:
Chang Ching-hui; Hepburn: Ch Keikei); 1871 November 1, 1959) was the Premier of Manchukuo from May 21, 1935 until
August 1945 and Foreign Minister of Manchukuo from May until July 1937. He was also Defence Minister of Manchukuo from
March 1932 until May 1935, Chinese general and politician during the Warlord era. He is noted for his role in the Japanese puppet
regime of Manchukuo in which he served as its second and final Prime Minister. Zhang Jinghui was born in Tai'an, southwest
of Mukden, Liaoning Province. The area was a battlefield in the First Sino-Japanese War, and Zhang joined the Honghuzi irregular
cavalry forces of the Manchurian warlord Zhang Zuolin at an early age. These forces were recruited as mercenaries by the Japanese
during the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1904. In the final years of the Qing dynasty, Zhang Zuolin was appointed Viceroy of Three
Northeast Provinces with his base at Fengtian, and with the Xinhai Revolution, managed to obtain recognition of his forces as part
of the new Republic of China military. At that time, Zhang Jinghui was appointed commander of the Beiyang Armys 27th Infantry
Brigade. However, with the death of Yuan Shikai in 1916, the Beiyang Army split into several mutually hostile factions. Zhang
Jinghui deserted Zhang Zuolin to join with Wu Peifu's Zhili clique. He later rejoined Zhang Zuolin and served as his Minister of
War in the Beiyang Government from May 1926 to June 1927. He then served as Minister of Enterprises in the Beiyang
Government from June 1927 to June 1928. Within the year he was appointed governor of the Harbin and China Eastern Railway Special District in
northern Manchuria. However, following the death of Zhang Zuolin in the Huanggutun Incident on June 4, 1928 Zhang Jinghuis relations with his
successor, Zhang Xueliang and Zhang Jinghui participated in a national unity conference called by Kuomingtangleader Chiang Kai-shek in January 1929
in Nanjing. However, the political balance was changed after the Mukden Incident and the successful invasion of Manchuria by the JapaneseKwantung Army in
1931, Zhang called a conference in his office on 27 September 1931 to organize an "Emergency Committee of the Special District", with the goal of achieving
the secession of Manchuria from China. Following the expulsion of pro-Kuomintang GeneralMa Zhanshan from Qiqihar, Zhang proclaimed his territory to be
self-governing, and was inaugurated as governor on 7 January 1932.
[1]
Uncertain of the intentions of the Soviet Union to the north, and unable to withstand
the Japanese military presence to the south, Zhang reached an agreement with Japanese, and accepted an appointment as governor of Heilongjiang Province in
the new Japanese-run state of Manchukuo. However, his refusal to leave his stronghold in Harbin to take up residence in Qiqihar created friction with the
Kwangtung Army leadership. However, when Ma Zhanshan agreed to terms with the Japanese on February 14, 1932 in exchange for the post of Governor of
Heilongjiang Province, Zhang was set aside. Ma later revolted in April 1932 and Zhang took his place as Minister of Defense of the Empire of Manchukuo. On
May 21, 1935, Zhang succeeded Zheng Xiaoxu as Prime Minister of Manchukuo at the instigation of the Kwantung Army over the objections of Emperor Puyi.
As Prime Minister of Manchukuo, Zhang preferred to take a passive figurehead role, allowing the Japanese advisors seconded from the Kwantung Army to
handle all aspects of day-to-day administration, while he spent his days copying Buddhist sutras. Reviled by modern Chinese historians for his pro-Japanese
stance, and nicknamed the Tofu Prime Minister even in his lifetime, Zhang was recorded to have only once spoken out against the Japanese administration to
criticize the forced sale of lands to Japanese colonists. In 1943, he was the official delegate from Manchukuo to the Greater East Asia Conference held in Tokyo.
Also in 1943, a false report was published in Time Magazine stated that Zhang had poisoned his family and killed his Japanese advisor and other members of the
Manchukuo government before committing suicide. Zhang held the position of Prime Minister until the collapse of Manchukuo following the Soviet Red
Army's invasion of Manchuria in August 1945. Following World War II Zhang was held in custody by the Soviet Union in Siberia and was extradited to
the People's Republic of China in 1950, where he was imprisoned at theFushun War Criminals Management Centre. He died of heart failure nine years later in
1959.


Two Regents of the Shunzi Emperor
Dorgon (Manchu: ; literally "badger" in Manchu;
[1]
November 17, 1612 December 31, 1650) was
a Manchu prince and regent of the early Qing Dynasty from 1643 until his death on December 31, 1650. Dorgon was
born of the Manchu Aisin Gioro clan as the 14th son of Nurhaci, khan of the Later Jin Dynasty (later renamed
to Qing Dynasty by Nurhaci's successor Hong Taiji). His mother was Nurhaci's primary consort Lady
Abahai. Ajige and Dodo were his full brothers, and Hong Taiji was his half-brother. Dorgon was one of the most
influential of Nurhaci's sons, and his role was instrumental to the occupation of Ming Dynasty's capital Beijing by
Qing forces in 1644. During Hong Taiji's reign, Dorgon participated in many military campaigns, including the
conquests of Mongolia and Korea. After Hong Taiji died in 1643, Dorgon became involved in a power struggle with
Hong Taiji's eldest son Hooge over the succession to the throne. The conflict was resolved with a compromise - both
backed out, and Hong Taiji's ninth son Fulin ascended the throne as theShunzhi Emperor. Since the Shunzhi
Emperor was only six years old at that time, Dorgon was appointed regent and became the de facto ruler. Dorgon was
conferred the title of "Emperor's Uncle and Prince Regent" (), which was later changed to "Emperor's Father and Prince Regent" (). It
was rumoured that Dorgon had a romantic affair with the Shunzhi Emperor's mother Empress Dowager Xiaozhuang and even secretly married her, but this
claim has been disputed. On February 17, 1644, Jirgalang, who was a capable military leader but looked uninterested in managing state affairs, willingly yielded
control of all official matters to Dorgon. After an alleged plot by Hooge to undermine the regency was exposed on May 6 of that year, Hooge was stripped of his
title of Imperial Prince and his co-conspirators were executed. Dorgon soon replaced Hooge's supporters (mostly from the Yellow Banners) with his own, thus
gaining closer control of two more Banners. By early June 1644, he was in firm control of the Qing government and its military. In early 1644, just as Dorgon
and his advisors were pondering how to attack the Ming, peasant rebellions were dangerously approaching Beijing. On April 24 of that year, rebel leader Li
Zicheng breached the walls of the Ming capital, pushing the Chongzhen Emperor to hang himself on a hill behind the Forbidden City. Hearing the news,
Dorgon's Chinese advisors Hong Chengchou and Fan Wencheng (; 15971666) urged the Manchu prince to seize this opportunity to present themselves
as avengers of the fallen Ming and to claim the Mandate of Heaven for the Qing. The last obstacle between Dorgon and Beijing was Ming general Wu Sangui,
who was garrisoned at Shanhai Pass at the eastern end of the Great Wall. Himself caught between the Manchus and Li Zicheng's forces, Wu requested Dorgon's
help in ousting the bandits and restoring the Ming. When Dorgon asked Wu to work for the Qing instead, Wu had little choice but to accept. Aided by Wu
Sangui's elite soldiers, who fought the rebel army for hours before Dorgon finally chose to intervene with his cavalry, the Qing won a decisive victory against Li
Zicheng at the Battle of Shanhai Pass on May 27, 1644. Li's defeated troops looted Beijing for several days until Li left the capital on June 4 with all the wealth he
could carry. After six weeks of mistreatment at the hands of rebel troops, the Beijing population sent a party of elders and officials to greet their liberators on June
5, 1644. They were startled when, instead of meeting Wu Sangui and the Ming heir apparent, they saw Dorgon, a horseriding Manchu with his shaved forehead,
present himself as the Prince Regent. In the midst of this upheaval, Dorgon installed himself in the Wuying Palace (), the only building that remained
more or less intact after Li Zicheng had set fire to the palace complex on June 3, 1644 . Banner troops were ordered not to loot; their discipline made the
transition to Qing rule "remarkably smooth." Yet at the same time as he claimed to have come to avenge the Ming, Dorgon ordered that all claimants to the Ming
throne (including descendants of the last Ming emperor) should be executed along with their supporters. On June 7, 1644 just two days after entering the city,
Dorgon issued special proclamations to officials around the capital, assuring them that if the local population accepted to shave their forehead, wear a queue, and
surrender, the officials would be allowed to stay at their post. He had to repeal this command three weeks later after several peasant rebellions erupted around
Beijing, threatening Qing control over the capital region. Dorgon greeted Shunzhi at the gates of Beijing on October 19, 1644. On October 30, 1644 the six-
year-old monarch performed sacrifices to Heaven and Earth at the Altar of Heaven. A formal ritual of enthronement for Fulin was held on November 8, 1644
during which the young emperor compared Dorgon's achievements to those of the Duke of Zhou, a revered regent from antiquity. During the ceremony,
Dorgon's official title was raised from "Prince Regent" to "Uncle Prince Regent" (Shufu shezheng wang ), in which the Manchu term for "Uncle"
(ecike) represented a rank higher than that of imperial prince. Three days later Dorgon's co-regent Jirgalang was demoted from "Prince Regent" to "Assistant
Uncle Prince Regent" (Fu zheng shuwang ). In June 1645, Dorgon eventually decreed that all official documents should refer to him as "Imperial Uncle
Prince Regent" (Huang shufu shezheng wang ), which left him one step short of claiming the throne for himself. One of Dorgon's first orders in
the new Qing capital was to vacate the entire northern part of Beijing to give it to Bannermen. The Yellow Banners were given the place of honor north of the
palace, followed by the White Banners east, the Red Banners west, and the Blue Banners south. This distribution accorded with the order established in the
Manchu homeland before the conquest and under which "each of the banners was given a fixed geographical location according to the points of the compass."
Despite tax remissions and large-scale building programs designed to facilitate the transition, in 1648 many Chinese civilians still lived among the newly arrived
Banner population and there was still animosity between the two groups. Agricultural land outside the capital was also marked off (quan ) and given to Qing
troops. Former landowners now became tenants who had to pay rent to their absentee Bannermen landlords. This transition in land use caused "several decades
of disruption and hardship." In 1646, Dorgon also ordered that the civil examinations for selecting government officials be reestablished. From then on they were
held regularly every three years as under the Ming. In the very first palace examination held under Qing rule in 1646, candidates, most of whom were northern
Chinese, were asked how the Manchus and Han Chinese could be made to work together for a common purpose. The 1649 examination inquired about "how
Manchus and Han Chinese could be unified so that their hearts were the same and they worked together without division." Under the Shunzhi reign the average
number of graduates per session of the metropolitan examination was the highest of the Qing dynasty ("to win more Chinese support"), until 1660 when lower
quotas were established. Under the reign of Dorgonwhom historians have variously called "the mastermind of the Qing conquest" and "the principal architect of
the great Manchu enterprise"the Qing subdued almost all of China and pushed loyalist "Southern Ming" resistance into the far southwestern reaches of China.
After repressing anti-Qing revolts in Hebei and Shandong in the Summer and Fall of 1644, Dorgon sent armies to root out Li Zicheng from the important city
of Xi'an (Shaanxi province), where Li had reestablished his headquarters after fleeing Beijing in early June 1644. Under the pressure of Qing armies, Li was
forced to leave Xi'an in February 1645, and he was killedeither by his own hand or by a peasant group that had organized for self-defense in this time of
rampant banditryin September 1645 after fleeing though several provinces. From newly captured Xi'an, in early April 1645 the Qing mounted a campaign
against the rich commercial and agricultural region ofJiangnan south of the lower Yangtze River, where in June 1644 a Ming imperial prince had established a
regime loyal to the Ming. Factional bickering and numerous defections prevented the Southern Ming from mounting an efficient resistance. Several Qing armies
swept south, taking the key city of Xuzhou north of the Huai River in early May 1645 and soon converging on Yangzhou, the main city on the Southern Ming's
northern line of defense. Bravely defended by Shi Kefa, who refused to surrender, Yangzhou fell to Manchu artillery on May 20, 1645 after a one-week
siege. Dorgon's brother Prince Dodo then ordered the slaughter of Yangzhou's entire population. As intended, this massacre terrorized other Jiangnan cities into
surrendering to the Qing. Indeed Nanjing surrendered without a fight on 16 June after its last defenders had made Dodo promise he would not hurt the
population. The Qing soon captured the Ming emperor (who died in Beijing the following year) and seized Jiangnan's main cities,
including Suzhou and Hangzhou; by early July 1645, the frontier between the Qing and the Southern Ming had been pushed south to the Qiantang River. On
July 21, 1645, after Jiangnan had been superficially pacified, Dorgon issued a most inopportune edict ordering all Chinese men to shave their forehead and to
braid the rest of their hair into a queue identical to those of the Manchus. The punishment for non-compliance was death. This policy of symbolic submission
helped the Manchus in telling friend from foe. For Han officials and literati, however, the new hairstyle was shameful and demeaning (because it breached a
common Confucian directive to preserve one's body intact), whereas for common folk cutting their hair was the same as losing their virility. Because it united
Chinese of all social backgrounds into resistance against Qing rule, the hair cutting command greatly hindered the Qing conquest. The defiant population
of Jiading andSongjiang was massacred by former Ming general Li Chengdong (; d. 1649), respectively on August 24 and September 22. Jiangyin also
held out against about 10,000 Qing troops for 83 days. When the city wall was finally breached on October 9, 1645, the Qing army led by Ming defector Liu
Liangzuo (; d. 1667) massacred the entire population, killing between 74,000 and 100,000 people. These massacres ended armed resistance against the
Qing in the Lower Yangtze. A few committed loyalists becamehermits, hoping that for lack of military success, their withdrawal from the world would at least
symbolize their continued defiance against foreign rule. After the fall of Nanjing, two more members of the Ming imperial household created new Southern
Ming regimes: one centered in coastalFujian around the "Longwu Emperor" Zhu Yujian, Prince of Tanga ninth-generation descendant of Ming founder Zhu
Yuanzhangand one in Zhejiang around "Regent" Zhu Yihai, Prince of Lu. But the two loyalist groups failed to cooperate, making their chances of success even
lower than they already were. In July 1646, a new Southern Campaign led by Prince Bolo sent Prince Lu's Zhejiang court into disarray and proceeded to attack
the Longwu regime in Fujian. Zhu Yujian was caught and summarily executed in Tingzhou(western Fujian) on October 6. His adoptive son Koxinga fled to the
island of Taiwan with his fleet. Finally in November, the remaining centers of Ming resistance in Jiangxi province fell to the Qing. In late 1646 two more
Southern Ming monarchs emerged in the southern province ofGuangzhou, reigning under the era names of Shaowu () and Yongli. Short of official
costumes, the Shaowu court had to purchase robes from local theater troops. The two Ming regimes fought each other until January 20, 1647, when a small Qing
force led by Li Chengdong captured Guangzhou, killed the Shaowu Emperor, and sent the Yongli court fleeing to Nanning in Guangxi. In May 1648, however,
Li mutinied against the Qing, and the concurrent rebellion of another former Ming general in Jiangxi helped Yongli to retake most of south China. This
resurgence of loyalist hopes was short-lived. New Qing armies managed to reconquer the central provinces of Huguang (present-day Hubei and Hunan), Jiangxi,
and Guangdong in 1649 and 1650. The Yongli emperor had to flee again. Finally on November 24, 1650, Qing forces led by Shang Kexi captured Guangzhou
and massacred the city's population, killing as many as 70,000 people. Meanwhile in October 1646, Qing armies led by Hooge (the son of Hong Taiji who had
lost the succession struggle of 1643) reached Sichuan, where their mission was to destroy the kingdom of bandit leader Zhang Xianzhong. Zhang was killed in a
battle against Qing forces near Xichong in central Sichuan on February 1, 1647. Also late in 1646 but further north, forces assembled by a Muslim leader known
in Chinese sources as Milayin () revolted against Qing rule in Ganzhou (Gansu). He was soon joined by another Muslim named Ding Guodong
(). Proclaiming that they wanted to restore the Ming, they occupied a number of towns in Gansu, including the provincial capital Lanzhou. These rebels'
willingness to collaborate with non-Muslim Chinese suggests that they were not only driven by religion. Both Milayin and Ding Guodong were captured and killed
by Meng Qiaofang (; 15951654) in 1648, and by 1650 the Muslim rebels had been crushed in campaigns that inflicted heavy casualties. Dorgon died in
1650 during a hunting trip in Kharahotun (present-day Chengde, Hebei). He was posthumously granted the title of Emperor Yi (Chinese: ) and
the temple name"Chengzong" (), even though he was never emperor throughout his life. The Shunzhi Emperor even bowed thrice in front of Dorgon's
coffin during the funeral. In 1651 Dorgon's rivals, led by former co-regent Jirgalang, submitted to the Shunzhi Emperor a long memorial listing a series of crimes
committed by Dorgon, which included: possession of yellow robes, which were strictly for use only by the emperor; plotting to seize the throne from the Shunzhi
Emperor by calling himself "Emperor's Father"; killingHooge and taking Hooge's concubines for himself. The Shunzhi Emperor posthumously stripped Dorgon
of his titles and even had Dorgon's corpse exhumed and flogged in public. It is believed that the Shunzhi Emperor hated Dorgon and saw him as a threat to the
throne. Dorgon was posthumously rehabilitated during the reign of the Kangxi Emperor. In 1778 the Qianlong Emperor granted Dorgon a posthumous
name zhong (; "loyal"), so Dorgon's full posthumous title became "Prince Ruizhong of the First Rank" (). Dorgon was survived by only a
daughter. However he had adopted his nephew Dorbo (fifth son of Dorgon's brother Dodo), so Dorbo inherited Dorgon's princely title. He had following rimary
spouses: Lady Borjigit (), a Khorchin Mongol, daughter of Jisang'a'erzhai () and sister of Bumbutai known as Xiao Yu Er. When she
died Dorgon posthumously granted her the title of "Grand Consort Jingxiaozhonggong" (). After Dorgon died and was posthumously granted the
title of an emperor, she received the posthumous title of Empress Chengzongyi (), Lady Tunggiya (), from the Jurchen tribe of Jianzhou
(), daughter of Imperial Secretary () Menggetu (), Lady Borjigit (), from the Zha'ermang () Mongol tribe, daughter of
Gendu'ertaiji (), Lady Borjigit (), a Khorchin Mongol, daughter of Labuxixitaiji (), Lady Borjigit (), a
Khorchin Mongol, daughter of Suonuobutaiji () and a relative of Empress Dowager Xiaozhuang. Originally Hooge's wife, she married Dorgon after
her husband lost to Dorgon in a power struggle and died and Yi Ae-suk (), a princess of the Korean Joseon Dynasty, daughter of Yi Gae-eum ().
Secondary spouses: Lady Gongqite (), from the Chaha'er () tribe. The identity of her father is unknown, Lady Borjigit (), from an
unknown Mongol tribe. The identity of her father is unknown, Lady Ji'ermote (), origins unknown and Lady Yi (), a Korean, daughter of Yi Si-
seo (). He had two children: Donggo (), Dorgon's daughter, born to Yi Ae-suk and Dorbo (), fifth son of Dorgon's brother Dodo, adopted by
Dorgon. He inherited Dorgon's princely title.
Jirgalang or Jirhalang (Manchu: 1599 - June 11, 1655) was a Manchu noble, regent of the early Qing Dynasty from 1643 until 1647, and political and
military leader of the early Qing Dynasty. Born of the Manchu Aisin Gioro clan, he was the sixth son of urhaci, a younger brother of the Qing Dynasty's
founderNurhaci. From 1638 to 1643, he took part in many military campaigns that helped bring down the fall of the Ming Dynasty. After the death of Hong
Taiji (Nurhaci's successor) in September 1643, Jirgalang became one of the young Shunzhi Emperor's two co-regents, but he soon yielded most political power to
co-regent Dorgon in October 1644. Dorgon eventually purged him of his regent title in 1647. After Dorgon died in 1650, Jirgalang led an effort to clean the
government of Dorgon's supporters. Jirgalang was one of ten "Princes of the First Rank" () whose descendants were made "Iron-cap Princes"
(), who had the right to transmit their princely titles to their direct male descendants perpetually. In 1627, Jirgalang took part in the first Manchu
campaign against Korea under the command of his older brother Amin.
[1]
In 1630, when Amin was stripped of his titles for having failed to fight an army of
the Ming Dynasty, Hong Taiji gave Jirgalang control of the Bordered Blue Banner, which had been under Amin's command. As one of "four senior beile" (the
other three were Daian, Manggltai, and Hung Taiji himself), Jirgalang participated in many military campaigns against the Ming Dynasty and the Chahar
Mongols. In 1636 he was granted the title of "Prince Zheng of the First Rank" (), with rights of perpetual inheritance. In 1642, Jirgalang led the siege
of Jinzhou, an important Ming city inLiaodong that surrendered to Qing forces in April of that year after more than one year of resistance. While Dorgon was
staying in Mukden, in November or December 1643 Jirgalang was sent to attack Shanhai Pass, a fortified Ming position that guarded access to the plain
around Beijing. In January or February 1644, Jirgalang requested that his name be placed after Dorgon's in all official communications. On February 17, 1644,
Jirgalang, who was a capable military leader but looked uninterested in managing state affairs, willingly yielded control of all official matters to Dorgon. He was
not present when Qing forces entered Beijing in early June 1644. In 1647 he was removed from his post of regent and replaced by Dorgon's
brother Dodo. Despite his removal, Jirgalang continued to serve as a military leader. In March 1648, Dorgon ordered the arrest of Jirgalang on various charges
and had Jirgalang degraded from a Prince of the First Rank () to a Prince of the Second Rank (). Later in the same year, however, Jirgalang was sent to
southern China to fight troops loyal to the Southern Ming Dynasty. In early 1649, after one of his military victories, he ordered a six-day massacre of the
inhabitants of the city ofXiangtan in present-day Hunan. He returned victorious to Beijing in 1650 after having defeated the forces of the Yongli Emperor, the last
ruler of the Southern Ming regime. The group led by Jirgalang that historian Robert Oxnam has called the "Jirgalang faction" was composed of Manchu princes
and nobles who had opposed Dorgon and who returned to power after the latter died on December 31, 1650. Concerned that Dorgon's brother Ajige may try to
succeed Dorgon, Jirgalang and his group arrested Ajige in early 1651. Jirgalang remained a powerful figure at the Qing imperial court until his death in
1655. The four future regents of the Kangxi Emperor - Oboi, Ebilun, Sonin, and Suksaha - were among his supporters. Soon after Jirgalang died of illness on
June 11, 1655, his second son Jidu (simplified Chinese: ; traditional Chinese: ; pinyin: Jd; 16331660) inherited his princely title, but the name of the
princehood was changed from "Zheng" () to "Jian" (). The title "Prince Zheng" was re-established in 1778 when the Qianlong Emperor praised Jirgalang for
his role in the Qing defeat of Ming and granted Jirgalang a place in the Imperial Ancestral Temple. Jirgalang's second son Jidu and Jidu's second son Labu
(Chinese: ; pinyin: Lb; d. 1681) participated in military campaigns in the second half of the Shunzhi Emperor's reign and the early reign of the Kangxi
Emperor, notably against Koxinga and Wu Sangui. Jirgalang's 13th generation descendants Duanhua (Prince Zheng) and Sushun (Duanhua's younger brother)
were politically active during the reign of the Xianfeng Emperor (r. 1851-1861). They were appointed as two of eight regents for the infant Tongzhi Emperor (r.
1862-1874), but were quickly overthrown in 1861 in the Xinyou Coup that brought Empress Dowager Cixi and the young emperor's uncle Prince Gong to power.

Four Regents of the Kangxi Emperor

The Four Regents of the Kangxi Emperor were nominated by the Shunzhi Emperor to oversee the government of the Qing Dynasty during the early reign of the
Kangxi Emperor, before Kangxi came to of age. The four were Sonin, Ebilun, Suksaha, and Oboi.
Sonin (16011667) also known as Soni, and rarely Sony (Manchu: ; Chinese: ; pinyin: Sun), was a senior regent of the Four Regents during
Chinese Kangxi Emperor's minority in the Qing Dynasty from 1661 until his death in 1667. Sonin was from the Heeri clan, belonged to the Plain Yellow
Banner. Sonin was already a leading official during the reign of Kangxi's grandfather, Huang Taiji. His father, Shuose(Chinese:)and uncle Xifu
(Chinese:) were both fluent in Mandarin, Mongolian and Manchu, and therefore were awarded the Grand Councillors. Before theShunzhi Emperor died,
Sonin was appointed as one of the four regents to support the young Kangxi Emperor, along with Suksaha,Ebilun and Oboi. Sonin was the top of these four
regents and ably helped the young emperor defend against Oboi (Oboi wanted to increase his own power over the Emperor). During the first years of Kangxi's
reign, a power struggle ensued among the regents. Sonin was too old to exert his leadership. His son, Songgotu helped the young emperor to get rid of Oboi.
Sonin died in 1667.
Ebilun (Manchu: ; Chinese: ; pinyin: blng, died 1673) was a minor Manchu noble who worked as one of the Four Regents and an assistant
minister for the young Kangxi (r. 16611722) from 1661 until 1667, during the Qing Dynasty. Ebilun was from the Niohuru clan, which lived north of the
Korean border belonged to the Bordered Yellow Banner. He was the sixteenth and last son of Eidu (15621621), who had been a close associate of Nurhaci
(15591626). Ebilun's mother was a sister of Qing founder Nurhaci. In 1634, the second Qing emperor Hong Taiji gave Eidu a posthumous rank of viscount,
which Ebilun immediately inherited but lost in 1637 after he tried to interfere in a trial involving his niece. In 1643 he followed Abatai in forays inside North
China and was credited with the capture of several towns. In 1645 and 1646, Ebilun served under Lekedehun in campaigns to dislodge Ming loyalist He
Tengjiao (15921649) from Hubei and was rewarded with a minor hereditary rank. Yet his position was not solid because, as a member of the Yellow
Banners, he was treated with suspicion by Dorgon (16121650)the Prince Regent of the Shunzhi Emperor (r. 16431661)whose power base was in the
White Banners. In 1648 during the persecution of Hooge, Ebilun's nephew accused Ebilun of having opposed Dorgon during the 1643 succession. Ebilun was
sentenced to death, but his penalty was commuted. Nonetheless, half of Ebilun's property was confiscated and his minor title was revoked. Ebilun worked
with Oboi to defeat Suksaha.
Suksaha (Manchu: ; Chinese: ; pinyin: Sksh, died 1667) was a one of the Four Regents during the early reign of the Kangxi Emperor in
the Qing Dynasty from 1661 until his death in 1667. Like his father Suna, he was from the Nara clan, but the family fought under the White Banner of the
Manchu Eight Banners instead. During the Manchurian conquest of China, he was rewarded for his military successes and was made a Grand Councillor
(). During that time, Suksaha was loyal to the Prince Regent Dorgon. After the death of the Shunzhi Emperor, Suksaha was made one of the four
regents supporting the young Kangxi Emperor, alongsideSonin, Ebilun and Oboi, ranking second in the chain of command. He became entangled in political
and personal disputes with Oboi during the Emperor's minority, and he split decisively with Oboi. Oboi was looking to consolidate power in his own hands
through discrediting the other three regents; Sonin was old and frail, and Ebilun was seen as weak. Suksaha thus became Oboi's only serious political rival.
Ultimately, Oboi and his ally Banbursan produced a list of 24 crimes allegedly committed by Suksaha and ordered for him to be put to death by hanging in 1667.

Gwalgiya Oboi (Manchu: ; simplified Chinese: ; traditional Chinese: ; pinyin: Gurji
obi) (c. 1610
[
1669) was one of four regents nominated by the Shunzhi Emperor to oversee the government during the Kangxi
Emperor's minority from 1661 until his death in 1669. He was a highly decorated Manchu military commander and courtier who
served in various military and administrative posts under three successive emperors of the early Qing Dynasty. Eventually deposed and
imprisoned by the new emperor for having amassed too much power, he was posthumously rehabilitated. Oboi was born to a
distinguished military family of the Manchu Guwalgiya clan. Under the Manchu Banner organization created byNurhachi, Oboi's
branch of the family was registered under the Bordered Yellow division which came under the command of Nurhachi's son Hong
Taiji. Oboi's father Uici () (d. 1634) was a senior military officer who was once garrison commander of the Manchu capital
city Mukden while his paternal uncle Fiongdon () was one of Nurhachi's most trusted generals. Oboi's childhood and early
years are relatively obscure. Being his father's third son, he was not destined to inherit the family's hereditary seat in the Banner
hierarchy. Oboi was first mentioned in official Qing history in the Chronicles of Hong Taiji () in 1632, documenting his
triumphant return from a minor raid into Ming territories in which he was allowed to keep his spoils as reward. Oboi officially started his military career in 1634
during the reign of Hong Taiji as a junior officer in the Banner's cavalry guard unit
[2]
in which capacity he distinguished himself many times in battle
against Ming forces and was renowned for his personal bravery. For this, he was granted an hereditary commission as captain of a company (niru i janggin). In
1637 during the Manchus' second campaign against Korea, Oboi volunteered and succeeded in capturing a small but strategically important Pi Island
[3]
()
south of the Yalu River after a difficult amphibious landing followed by desperate hand-to-hand battle ending in the complete annihilation of the Ming garrison.
For this achievement he was promoted to the rank of a hereditary colonel third-class and bestowed the rare honorific title of "Baturu" (), which means
"(brave) warrior" in Manchu. In 1641 Oboi again distinguished himself in battle scoring five victories in as many encounters against Ming forces in the campaign
for Songshan (). He was promoted to full Colonel and given command of the Bayarai guards of the Bordered Yellow Banner. Oboi's raise in the Banner
hierarchy continued apace with the Manchus' war with the Ming Dynasty, in 1645 he was promoted to the rank of General. It was recorded in official Qing
history that in 1646 during the campaign to pacify Sichuan, Oboi was personally responsible for slaying the rebel chief Zhang Xianzhong in battle. As a member
of the Bordered Yellow Banner, Oboi's loyalty to his Banner master was crucial to his rapid advancement during the years when Hong Taiji commanded the
Banner. However after Hong Taiji's death, Oboi's loyalty to his new Banner master Hooge became a political liability. When Dorgon who commanded the
White and Bordered White Banners became regent to the young Shunzhi Emperor, he sought to weaken the influence of the other Banners at court by purging
the ranks of their senior commanders. Just as Hooge was arrested and eventually died in prison, in 1648 Oboi was stripped of his rank and titles under a charge
of claiming false victories in battle. Later he was found guilty of a more serious crime of conspiracy to elect Hooge as emperor during the succession dispute after
Hong Taiji's death. This later charge carried with it the death penalty, however the sentence was commuted while he continued to command troops
against Ming loyalists. The charges against Oboi were most likely politically motivated and were rehabilitated in 1651 after Dorgon's death. Oboi for his
unswerving loyalty to his Banner and services to the Qing government was appointed a cabinet minister by Shunzhi Emperor, who also bestowed on him the title
of Marquis of the First Rank. The extent of the Shunzhi Emperor's trust in Oboi's loyalty can be gauged by the honours the emperor showered on him. In 1652
after Shunzhi successfully purged the court of the more powerful elements in Dorgon's faction, Oboi was elevated to a hereditary Duke of the Second Rank and
more importantly appointed the commander of the imperial bodyguard (), a job which doubled as the de facto police chief in the capital. In this
capacity Oboi acted as Shunzhi's much feared enforcer against Dorgon's old cohorts and helped to consolidate power to the throne and the Emperor's own
"Upper Three Banners". During the period of Shunzhi's personal rule, Oboi was responsible for the arrest and execution of a number of noblemen found guilty
of one crime or another. Although there is no doubt that these executions were carried out with the approval of Shunzhi, it is not surprising that after the
emperor's death, Oboi, given his ruthless character and position in court, when left uncontrolled by a higher authority should eventually come to dominate court
politics creating unto himself a "state within a state". The Shunzhi Emperor died from smallpox on February 5, 1661, at the age of 24. On his deathbed he
appointed four "Executive Ministers" () commonly referred to as regents
[6]
to "assist" his eight-year-old son Xuanye to govern the country until the young
emperor reached the age of maturity at 16. The four ministers in their order of seniority
[7]
were Sonin of the Yellow Banner, who apart from being chief minister
of the Imperial Household Department () was also nominated by Empress Dowager Xiaozhuang to head the regency. The second minister on the
list was Suksaha of the White Banner. Originally a trusted deputy of Dorgon, Suksaha was politically astute enough to switch sides immediately after the former
regent's death when the court was still dominated by Dorgon's associates. By the time of the Shunzhi Emperor's death he was one of the emperor's most trusted
courtiers. Then came Ebilun and Oboi, both members of the Bordered Yellow Banner. The Shunzhi Emperor's succession plan set a precedence for the Qing
Dynastyof nominating courtiers who owed their loyalty to the crown to "assist" a young emperor during the years of minority in running the state. This reflected
the lesson learned from Dorgon's regency, when the regent grew almost too powerful for the emperor to control. Unfortunately, this system of appointing
ministers to oversee the government during an emperor's minority proved not to be a very stable political device after all. Three of the four
ministers, Sonin, Ebilun and Oboi were members of the "Two Yellow Banners" (i.e. Yellow Banner and Bordered Yellow Banner) previously under the
command of the Shunzhi Emperor's elder brother Hooge. Because of the personal and political rivalries between Hooge and Dorgon, all three men were
persecuted at one time or another during Dorgon's regency for their Banner affiliation. However their loyalty thus proven was also key to their rapid
advancement after Dorgon's death. It was a major factor in Shunzhi's choice of personnel to oversee his son's regency. However Shunzhi's arrangement
heightened the already sensitive relationship between the three members of the Yellow Banners and Suksaha who belonged to the White Banner. Suksaha was a
much despised figure at this point not only because he was a member of the White Banner in an imperial court dominated by the two Yellow Banners, but also
because he gained the Shunzhi Emperor's trust by denouncing his former master Dorgon, an action seen by his colleagues including members of the White
Banner as disloyal. In the first years of the regency, the tension between the Yellow Banners faction and Suksaha was kept in check by the even
handed Sonin and thus the four ministers maintained a relatively peaceful and efficient working relationship. But the dynamics of the regency began to change as
Sonin's health deteriorated due to old age. As Sonin gradually took more time off on sabbatical, Oboi monopolized decision making by dominating the
indecisive Ebilun and worked to sideline Suksaha during policy discussions especially on issues concerning welfare of the Manchu Eight Banners. By 1667 when
Sonin realized he did not have long to live, he tried a last-ditch effort to restore balance to the regency and neutralize Oboi's rapidly expanding power clique by
petitioning the then 14-year-old Kangxi Emperor to assume personal rule ahead of schedule. Thus Kangxi formerly took over the reins of power in an ascension
ceremony on August 25 1667, a month after Sonin's death. This was followed by an official decree technically downgrading the three remaining ministers to the
status of "advisers" () while still remaining at their posts. However even with the formal authority of office, the young Kangxi Emperor found it difficult
to curb the growing power of Oboi. Oboi forced the young Kangxi Emperor to execute Suksaha and his family. He controlled Ebilun completely and then finally
established a system of near absolute rule under himself. The Kangxi Emperor took power earlier than expected at the age of 14 in 1669. The emperor suddenly
had Oboi arrested on 30 charges. Oboi was sentenced to death but it was reduced to imprisonment in consideration of his achievements. Some sources say that
he displayed the many wounds on his body that had been received in the defense of Kangxi's great-grandfather Nurhaci, this act had apparently moved the
Kangxi Emperor to pardon Oboi. Oboi was posthumously rehabilitated. The Kangxi Emperor issued a pardon in 1713, while his successor, the Yongzheng
Emperor, granted Oboi the rank of a First Class Duke and the posthumous title Chaowu ( "exceedingly martial") but Yongzheng's successor, the Qianlong
Emperor, demoted Oboi to a First Class Baron after reviewing his merits and demerits. The Deer and the Cauldron (), a wuxia novel by Louis Cha. In
the story, Oboi was a cruel and power-hungry aristocrat who plotted to usurp the Kangxi Emperor's throne. He was removed from power by the protagonist Wei
Xiaobao and the young Kangxi Emperor and was imprisoned. He is later killed by Wei Xiaobao.

Regents of the Tonzhi and Guangxu Emperors

Sushun (Manchu: Uksun uun; simplified Chinese: ; traditional Chinese: ; pinyin: Sshn); Styled: Yuting (Chinese: ; pinyin: Ytng)
(November 26, 1816 1861) was one of the eight regents appointed by the Xianfeng Emperorto assist his successor, the Tongzhi Emperor in 1861. He was born
in the Manchu Aisin-Gioro Clan as the sixth son of Ulgungga (), thePrince Zheng. Although Sushun was born into nobility, the size of his family meant
that he received little attention during childhood, and little expectation from the family. He was neither well versed in literature nor exceptionally able in martial
arts. Sushun became a General during the late years of the Daoguang Emperor's reign. Following the death of Wenqing, one of the Xianfeng emperor's closest
aides, Sushun was increasingly consulted by the emperor on many important policy matters. His first position in the court was as a member of the Imperial
Guard and he subsequently served in a number of senior positions in the Qing government, including a term as the president of the Lifan Yuan. During
the Second Opium War, he was one of the chief architects of Qing foreign policy and he repudiated many of the treaties that were concluded in the late 1850s, in
particular the territorial concessions in the Sino-Russian Treaty of Aigun. Following the death of the Xianfeng Emperor in 1861, Sushun, his elder
brother Duanhua, and Zaiyuan, along with five other prominent people in the Qing Court, were appointedRegents to oversee administrative affairs during the
young Tongzhi Emperor's minority. However, without obtaining the seals of the two Empresses Dowager, the Regency could not carry out any important policy
decisions, which led to increased political friction in the imperial court. In November 1861, a triumvirate consisting of the half-brother of the deceased
emperor, Prince Gong and the two empresses dowager, Ci'an and Cixi, staged a coup d'tat, establishing themselves as the only rightful regents of the boy
emperor. All the members of the eight-man council were arrested and Sushun was beheaded in public in 1861 on charges of treason.

Zaiyuan (18161861) was a Manchu prince of the Qing Dynasty. He was one of the eight regents appointed by the Xianfeng Emperorto assist his successor,
the Tongzhi Emperor in 1861. His title was Prince Yi of the First Rank (). Zaiyuan was born of the Manchu Aisin Gioro clan as a fifth generation
descendant of Yunxiang, the 13th son of the Kangxi Emperor. He inherited his ancestors' title of "Prince Yi of the First Rank" in 1852. Zaiyuan took up important
positions during the reign of the Xianfeng Emperor, including being a minister in the Imperial Clan Court and imperial guard commander. In 1860 during
the Second Opium War, as the British and French armies closed in on Beijing, Zaiyuan fled together with the Xianfeng Emperor to Rehe Province. Before the
Xianfeng Emperor died in 1861, he appointed Zaiyuan, Sushun, Duanhua and five others as regents to assist his son and successor, the Tongzhi Emperor. Later
that year, Empress Dowager Cixi and Prince Gong initiated the Xinyou Coup and seized power from the eight regents. Zaiyuan was arrested in Beijing and
imprisoned. He was given a piece of white silk cloth to commit suicide by hanging himself with the cloth. After Zaiyuan's death, his princely title was inherited
by Zaidun (), a distant cousin.
Duanhua (Manchu: Duwanhwa; 1807 - 1861) was a Manchu prince and regent of the Qing Dynasty. Duanhua was born of the Manchu Aisin Gioro clan
as the third son of Ulgungga (), a descendant of Jirgalang (a nephew of theQing Dynasty's founder Nurhaci). He was from one of the Qing
Dynasty's "Iron-cap" princely lines and in 1846 he inherited the title of "Prince Zheng of the First Rank" () from his ancestors. He was under the Bordered
Blue Banner of the Eight Banners. Duanhua rose to prominence during the reign of the Xianfeng Emperor. Because of a scandal involving Grand
Councilor Mujangga, Duanhua gained Xianfeng's trust as a loyal confidant, and became one of the emperor's closest advisors. Duanhua also recommended his
brother Sushun to serve in the Qing imperial court. During the Second Opium War, Duanhua accompanied the ailing Xianfeng Emperor to Rehe to escape
from the foreign invaders. In 1861, before the Xianfeng Emperor died, he appointed eight regents to assist his successor, the young Tongzhi Emperor, in
administrating state affairs. Duanhua and Sushun were among the eight. Later that year, Duanhua and the other seven regents were ousted from power in the
Xinyou Coup () orchestrated by Prince Gong and Empress Dowager Cixi. Duanhua was arrested, imprisoned, and eventually forced to commit suicide.

Dowager Ci'an (Wade-Giles: Empress Dowager Tzu-an; Chinese: , Manchu: Hiyooungga Jekdun Iletu Hwanghu;
August 20, 1837 April 8, 1881), popularly known in China as the East Empress Dowager (simplified Chinese: ; traditional
Chinese: ), and officially known posthumously as Empress Xiao Zhen Xian (Wade-Giles: Empress Hsiao Chen
Hsien; simplified Chinese: ; traditional Chinese: ), was the second Empress Consort of the Xianfeng
Emperor (1831 1861) of the Manchu Qing Dynasty in China, and then Empress Dowager after 1861. She is known for being co-
de facto ruler of China with Empress Dowager Cixi for 20 years from November 11, 1861 until his death on April 8, 1881. Empress
Dowager Ci'an, ne Niuhuru (), was a Manchu. Her family belonged to the Manchu Bordered Yellow Banner Corps. They
were descendants of Prince Eidu of the Niuhuru clan through his third son Celge () (? 1647), who had once directed the
Board of Revenue. Lady Niuhuru was born in the seventeenth year of the Daoguang Emperor's reign. On February 15, 1850
the Daoguang Emperor died and his fourth son, Prince Yizhu, succeeded him as the Xianfeng Emperor. Xianfeng's principal wife,
Lady Sakda, had died the previous month and been given the posthumous title of Empress Xiaodexian (Chinese: ).
The selection of a new principal wife and concubines was delayed by two years due to the mourning period for the late Daoguang
Emperor. The elections took place in 1852 and Lady Niuhuru was one of those chosen to stay by Dowager Consort Kangci. Some
sources claim that Lady Niuhuru entered theImperial Palace in the late 1840s and became a concubine of Prince Yizhu. Lady Niuhuru's status within the palace
rose rapidly. In late March or early April 1852 she was made an Imperial Concubine () and given the name Zhen ( meaning "upright", "chaste", "virtuous",
or "faithful to the memory of one's husband", i.e., by remaining chaste after his death and not remarrying). In late June or early July 1852, she was promoted to
the rank of Noble Consort Zhen (). On July 24, 1852, she was officially created Empress Consort (). As Empress Consort, she was put in charge of
the women's quarters. Some sources claim that Lady Niohuru was already made primary wife after the death of Lady Sakda. Customs required that the emperor
had to spend one day a month with the empress. Lady Niuhuru stayed childless and it was the Imperial Concubine Yi () (the laterEmpress Dowager Cixi)
who bore the Xianfeng Emperor a son, the later Tongzhi Emperor, on 27 April 1856. Some biographers state that Lady Niuhuru gave birth to the Xianfeng
Emperor's only daughter, State Princess Rong'an, who was actually the daughter of the Xianfeng Emperor's concubine Consort Li. However, as Empress Consort,
she was considered to be the legal mother of all of the Emperor's children, regardless of whether or not she was their birth mother. Cixi had little to say in her
sons' upbringing. It was Lady Niuhuru who raised the Emperor's children and decided their punishment when they did not obey. Cixi once said: "I had...quite a
lot of trouble with (Empress Niuhuru) and found it very difficult to keep on good terms with her". On August 22, 1861, in the wake of the Second Opium War,
the Xianfeng Emperor died at the Rehe Traveling Palace (Chinese: ), 230 km (140 mi) northeast of Beijing, where the imperial court had fled. His
heir, the son of the Noble Consort Yi and the eventualTongzhi Emperor, was only five years old. As a consequence, the imperial family was shaken by a struggle
over who would assume the regency. Lady Niuhuru first agreed to cooperate with the corrupt Manchu official Sushun, but changed her mind after Noble Consort
Yi had chosen confrontation. Eventually, in November 1861, the Noble Consort Yi, with the help of Yixin, Prince Gong, staged a palace coup known as
the Xinyou Coup, had the opposing princes commit suicide and their leader Sushun beheaded, and succeeded in securing the regency for her and the Empress
Consort. Palace Daily Records do not explain why there was a difference of 24 hours in the naming of Lady Niuhuru and Noble Consort Yi to the position of
Empress Dowager. According to Tony Teng there was a sharp argument between Sushun and Noble Consort Yi about the granting of honors following
Xianfeng's death. It is likely that Lady Niuhuru chimed in on Noble Consort Yi's behalf and that Sushun capitulated in the face of the two women.
Eventually Noble Consort Yi was officially created "Holy Mother Empress Dowager" (), a great privilege considering that she had never been an
Empress Consort while the Xianfeng Emperor was alive; she was only able to become empress dowager because she was the biological mother of the new
Emperor. She was also given the honorific name of Cixi ( meaning "motherly and auspicious"). Lady Niuhuru, as former Empress Consort and the new
Emperor's legal mother, was created "Empress Mother Empress Dowager" (), a title which gave her precedence over Empress Dowager Cixi, and
given the honorific name of Ci'an ( meaning "motherly and calming"). Because she lived in the eastern part of the Forbidden City, Empress Dowager Ci'an
became popularly known as the East Empress Dowager (). Empress Dowager Ci'an spent most of her life in the Palace of Gathering Essence. On several
occasions after 1861, Empress Dowager Ci'an was given additional honorific names (two Chinese characters at a time), as was customary for emperors and
empresses, until by the end of her life her name was a long even string of characters beginning with Ci'an. Empress Dowager Ci'an and Empress Dowager Cixi
were appointed joint de facto regents for the minor Tongzhi Emperor. Because women were not allowed to be seen during audiences they sat behind a curtain.
Although in theory she had precedence over Empress Dowager Cixi, Empress Dowager Ci'an was in fact a self-effacing person and seldom intervened in politics,
unlike Empress Dowager Cixi, who was the actual master of China. As de facto ruler, Empress Dowager Ci'an had to learn about politics, so she and Cixi studied
history. In November 1861, in keeping with the imperial practice, they began to consult the records of their Manchu predecessors. In June 1863, they had the
contents of tng jin ji ln () explained to them. About a year earlier, an earlier compilation by the Hanlin scholars of the imperial libraries, entitled "A
valuable mirror for excellent government" (chih-p'ing pao-chien) became the text for a series of lectures by scholars and officials that Empress Dowager Ci'an and
Empress Dowager Cixi attended for over two years, the last lecture given in November 1866. It is thought by many biographers that Empress Dowager Cixi was
the actual power behind the throne. Despite this, for the first 20 years of her regency she was not allowed to make decisions on her own. Any decree needed the
approval of both regents. Both Ci'an and the Tongzhi Emperor were given a seal, but because Tongzhi was underage the seal was given to his mother, Empress
Dowager Cixi. Ci'an's seal was engraved with "Yushang" (Imperial Award) and Cixi's with "Tongdaotang" (Hall of Accord with the Way). The years after Emperor
Xianfeng's death were called the Tongzhi Restoration. It was a period of peace; the Taiping Rebellion and the war with United Kingdom ceased. The treasury
began growing again after decades of depletion. Ci'an was little mentioned during this period and her only notable intervention in politics was in 1869. The most
feared grand eunuch of the imperial court An Dehai(Chinese: ), close confidant of Empress Dowager Cixi, was on a trip south to buy some dragon robes
for Empress Dowager Cixi. While traveling in Shandong province, he used his power as an envoy of Empress Dowager Cixi to extort money from people, which
caused great trouble. The matter was reported to the court by the governor of Shandong, and Empress Dowager Ci'an who heard about it made up a
decree which read: Ding Baozhen () (18201886) reports that a eunuch has been creating disturbance on the province of Shandong. According to the
department of magistrate of Dezhou, a eunuch named An and his followers passed through that place by the way of the imperial canal, in two dragon barges, with
much display of pomp and pageantry. He announced that he had come on an imperial mission to procure dragon robes. His barges flew a black banner, bearing
in its center the triple imperial emblems of the sun, and there were also dragon and phoenix flags flying on both side, of his vessels. A goodly company of both
sexes were in the attendance on this person; there were female musicians, skilled in the use of string and wind instruments. The banks of the canal were lined
with crowds of spectators, who witnessed with amazement and admiration his progress. The twenty-first day of the last month happened to be this eunuch's
birthday, so he arrayed himself in dragon robes and stood on the foredeck of his barge, to receive the homage of his suite. The local magistrate was just about to
order his arrest when the barges set sail and proceeded southwards. The governor adds that he has already given orders for his immediate arrest. We are
dumbfounded at his report. How can we hope ever to purify the standard of morals in the palace and frighten evil-doers unless we make an example of this
insolent eunuch, who was dared to leave Beijing without permission and to commit these lawless deeds? The governors of these three provinces of Shandong,
Honan and Jiangsu are ordered to seek out and arrest the eunuch An whom we had formerly honored with the rank of the sixth grade and the decoration of the
crow's feather. Upon his being duly identified by his companions, let him be forth with beheaded, without further formalities, no attention is to be paid to any
crafty explanations which he may attempt to make. The governors concerned will be held responsible in the event of failure to affect his arrest . An was beheaded
on September 12, 1869. This was quite an unusual reaction for Empress Dowager Ci'an, and the execution of An Dehai is said to have greatly displeased
Empress Dowager Cixi. Some sources say that Prince Gong forced Ci'an to take an independent decision for a change. A several days after the arrest an edict was
issued by Ci'an: "Ding Baozhen now reports that the eunuch was arrested in the T'ai An prefecture and has been summarily beheaded. Our dynasty's house law is
most strict in regard to the proper discipline of eunuchs, and provides severe punishment for any offences to which they may commit. They have always been
sternly forbidden to make expeditions to the provinces, or to create trouble. Nevertheless, An Dehai actually had brazen effiontery to violate this law, and for his
crimes his execution is only a fitting reward. In future, let all eunuchs take warning by his example; should we have further cause of complaint, the chief eunuchs
of the several departments of the household will be punished as well as the actual offender. Any eunuch who may hereafter pretend that he has been sent on
imperial business to the provinces shall be cast into chains at once, and sent to Beijing for punishment". In 1872 both Ci'an and Cixi agreed it was time for
the Tongzhi Emperor to marry. As the highest-ranking woman in the Forbidden City, Empress Dowager Ci'an was put in charge of selecting the Tongzhi
Emperor's new empress and concubines. It was decided that a girl from the Mongolian Alute clan () (the later Empress Xiaozheyi) would become the
new empress. Lady Alute's mother was Empress Dowager Ci'an's cousin from her father's side. After the wedding, both Empress Dowagers Ci'an and Cixi
resigned as co-regents, but they resumed the regency in December 1874 during the Tongzhi Emperor's illness. In January 1875 the Tongzhi Emperor died and
Empress Dowager Cixi's nephew, Prince Zaitian, was appointed as successor with the regnal name of Guangxu. As the new Emperor was also a minor, Empress
Dowager Ci'an and Empress Dowager Cixi were appointed as de facto rulers for the second time. During the late 1870s, Empress Dowager Cixi became ill from
liver complaints, so Empress Dowager Ci'an had to rule on her own. During this time, she had to deal with the war with Russia over Ili. In 1871, Muslims
rebelled in Xinjiang. The Chinese soon lost power and Russia occupied the Ili basin region. China regained power over Xinjiang in 1877. In 1879, Russia
suggested that it maintain a strong presence in the region but China did not agree. The conflict ended with the signing of the Treaty of Saint Petersburg in
February 1881. Although Ci'an rarely left the Forbidden City, she did visit the Imperial tombs to pay respect to her husband and ancestors. In 1880, while at the
Eastern Qing tombs, Ci'an, probably prompted by Prince Gong to assert herself and her rights, took precedence in all the ceremonies. While at Xianfeng's tomb
a friction started between Ci'an and Cixi. Ci'an as Empress Consort of the deceased Emperor took centre spot. She told Cixi to stand to the right and reminded
her that she was only a concubine while her husband was alive. The vacant spot on the left was reserved for Xianfeng's first consort, Lady Sakda. No further
friction occurred that day. It is not recorded how Cixi felt about this. On April 8, 1881, during an audience at court, Empress Dowager Ci'an became ill and was
accompanied to her private apartments, where she died within a few hours. Her sudden death was a shock to many people. Although her health was good, Ci'an
had been seriously ill twice according to Weng Tonghe, tutor of the Guangxu Emperor, once in March 1863 for 24 days, and another time in January 1870. The
official cause of her death between 9PM and 11 PM was a sudden stroke. Thirty years after her death rumors would be spread that she had been poisoned by
Empress Dowager Cixi. However, such claims have never been substantiated and new evidence has not appeared in the many years since. Furthermore, Cixi
herself was ill to the point of being unable to serve her functions at court, making her involvement in Ci'an's death highly unlikely. One of the most believed
rumors is that Ci'an was given a secret edict by the Xianfeng Emperor just before his death. The edict was related to Cixi. If Cixi caused any problems she would
be executed. After many years Ci'an revealed the edict to Cixi. The nave Ci'an burned the edict which was the only thing that stood in Cixi's way for full power.
Later that evening Ci'an died. The posthumous name given to Empress Dowager Ci'an, which combines the honorific names which she gained during her
lifetime with new names added just after her death, was: (Chinese: ) which reads: "Empress Xiao -zhen Ci'an Yuqing
Hejing Chengjing Yitian Zuosheng
4
Xian
5
". This long name is still the one that can be seen on Ci'an's tomb today. The short form of her posthumous name is:
"Empress Xiao Zhen Xian" (Chinese: ). After her death a valedictory degree was written for Ci'an which reads as followed: "In spite of the ardious
duties of the State, which have fully occupied my time, I was naturally of robust constitution and had therefore fully expected to attain to a good old age and to
enjoy the Emperor's dutiful ministrations. Yesterday, however, I was suddenly stricken with a slight illness and his Majesty thereupon commanded his physician
to attend me; later his Majesty came in person to enquire as to my health. And now, most unexpectedly, I have had a most dangerous relapse. At 7PM this
evening I became completely confused in mind and now all hope of my recovery appears to be vain. I am forty-five years of age and for close on twenty years
have held the high position of a regent of the empire. Many honorific titles and ceremonies of congratulation have been bestowed upon me: what cause have I
therefore to regret?" Empress Dowager Ci'an was interred amidst the Eastern Qing Tombs (Chinese: ), 125 kilometers/75 miles east of Beijing. She was
denied burial next to her husband in the Dingling mausoleum.
[31]
Instead she was interred in the Dingdongling (Chinese: ) tomb complex (literally: the
"Tombs east of the Dingling tomb"), along with Empress Dowager Cixi. More precisely, Empress Dowager Ci'an lies in the Puxiangyu Dingdonling
(Chinese: ) (literally: the "Tomb east of the Dingling tomb in the Vale of wide good omen"), while Cixi built herself the much larger Putuoyu
Dingdongling (Chinese: ) (literally: the "Tomb east of the Dingling tomb in the Vale of Putuo"). The Dingling tomb (literally: the "Tomb of
quietude") is the tomb of the Xianfeng Emperor, the emperor of Empress Dowager Ci'an and Empress Dowager Cixi, which is located indeed west of the
Dingdongling. The Vale of Putuo owes its name to Mt Putuo (literally: the "Mountain of the Dharani of the Site of the Buddha's Enlightenment"), at the foot of
which the Dingdongling is located. A popular view of Empress Dowager Ci'an is that she was a highly respectable person, always quiet, never hot-tempered, and
that she treated everybody very well and was highly respected by the Xianfeng Emperor. Both Tongzhi and Guangxu preferred Ci'an above Cixi. Her good-
hearted personality was no match for Empress Dowager Cixi, who managed to sideline the naive and candid Empress Dowager Ci'an. This is still the popular
view in China, the image of a quiet Empress Dowager Ci'an perhaps stemming from the meaning of her honorific name. However, some historians have painted
a very different reality, mainly that of a self-indulgent and idle Empress Dowager Ci'an, who did not care as much for government and hard work as she cared for
the pleasures and sweet life inside the Forbidden City. Empress Dowager Cixi, on the other hand, was a shrewd and intelligent woman who was ready to make
sacrifices and work hard in order to obtain the supreme power, and who faced the complex problems that were besetting China at the time. As often, the reality
may lie in between these two extremes and some even claim that Ci'an is said to have exhibited temper and willpower. The popular view of Ci'an being a nice
simple girl was exaggerated by the reformer Kang Yu-wei and biographers Bland and Backhouse, to build up the contrast between her and Cixi. There are no
documented meetings between any foreigner and Ci'an, unlike Cixi, who met many foreigners after 1900. Katherine A. Carl, who spent 9 months with empress
dowager Cixi in 1903 described Ci'an, even though she never met her, as follows: Ci'an was known as the "Literary Empress". While Cixi handled all state affairs,
Ci'an gave herself up to literary pursuits and led the life of a student. She was a woman of such fine literary ability that she herself sometimes examined the essays
of the aspirants for the highest literary honors at the University of Beijing. She was also a writer of distinction. Ci'an and Cixi lived amicably together, appreciated
each other's qualities, and are said to have had a sincere affection for each other, which never weakened during the whole of their long association. Their
amicable relation ended with the death of Ci'an in 1881. Another view of Ci'an was written by Lim Boon Keng. The beautiful Yehenara, like the Jewess Hagar,
was the handmaid who was to bear a son for her master. Ci'an appears to have been like Sarah, who in her anxiety to make up for her own sterility, encouraged
her husband to show his favor to his maid. Perhaps Xianfeng didn't need encouragement, but Ci'an took great interest in the concubine as the prospective mother
of the emperor's son and heir. Cixi was quick-tempered and probably jealous of the empress. Just before the birth of Tongzhi, Cixi was nearly demoted in rank
for her bad temper and insolence. Ci'an intervened on her behalf. In contrast to Hager, Cixi did not openly despise her mistress. She was as tame as a lamb, and
for many years they lived on terms of friendship.

Dowager Cixi

(Empress Dowager Tzu-hsi; Chinese: ; pinyin: Cx Tihu; WadeGiles: Tz'u
2
-hsi
3
T'ai
4
-
hou
4
;Mandarin pronunciation: [ts t x ]; Manchu: Tsysi taiheo; November 29, 1835 November 15, 1908), of
the Manchu Yehenara clan, was a powerful and charismatic woman who unofficially but effectively controlled the Manchu
Qing Dynasty in China for 47 years, from 1861 to her death on November 15, 1908. Selected as an imperial concubine for
the Xianfeng Emperor in her adolescence, she gave birth to his son, in 1856, who became theTongzhi Emperor upon
Xianfeng's death in 1861. Cixi ousted a group of regents appointed by the late emperor and assumed regency over her young
son with the Empress Dowager Ci'an. Cixi then consolidated control over the dynasty when, at the death of the Tongzhi
Emperor, contrary to the rules of succession, she installed her nephew as the Guangxu Emperor in 1875. Although she refused
to adopt Western models of government, she nonetheless supported the technological and military Self-Strengthening
Movement. Cixi rejected the Hundred Days' Reforms of 1898 as impractical and detrimental to dynastic power and placed the Guangxu Emperor under house
arrest for supporting reformers. After the Boxer Rebellion and the invasion of Allied armies, external and internal pressures led Cixi to effect institutional
changes of just the sort she had resisted and appoint reform-minded officials. The dynasty collapsed in 1911, three years after her death (with the new Republican
Era commencing January 1, 1912). Historians both in China and abroad have generally portrayed her as a despot and villain responsible for the fall of the
Dynasty, while others have suggested that her opponents among the reformers succeeded in making her a scapegoat for problems beyond her control, that she
stepped in to prevent disorder, that she was no more ruthless than other rulers, and that she was even an effective if reluctant reformer in the last years of her life.
Cixi was born in the winter of 1835. According to the information listed on a red sheet (File No. 1247) within "Miscellaneous Pieces of the Palace" (a Qing
Dynasty documentation package retrieved from the First Historical Archives of China), Cixi was the daughter of Huizheng, an ordinary official from
the Manchu Yehenara clan. Palace archives also show that Huizheng was a member of the Bordered Blue Banner of the Eight Banners, and was working in
Beijing during the year of Cixi's birth, indicating that Cixi was born in Beijing. Also, the file recorded the location of Cixi's childhood home, which was Firewood
Alley of West Sipailou, Beijing (Chinese: ). In 1851, Cixi participated in the selection for consorts to the new Xianfeng Emperor alongside
sixty other candidates. Cixi was one of the few candidates chosen to stay. She was placed in the 6th rank of consorts, and styled "Noble Lady Lan" (Chinese:
). Among the other chosen candidates were Noble Lady Li of Tatala clan (later Consort Li), Concubine Yun of Wugiya clan, and Concubine Zhen of
Niuhuru clan (later Xianfeng's empress consort). In 1854, Cixi was elevated to the 5th rank of consorts and given a title, styled "Imperial Concubine Yi" (Chinese:
). In 1855, Cixi became pregnant. On 27 April 1856, she gave birth to Zaichun, the Xianfeng Emperor's only surviving son. Soon afterward, she was elevated
to the 4th rank of consorts, styled "Consort Yi" (Chinese: ). In 1857, when her son reached his first birthday, Cixi was elevated to the 3rd rank consorts, and
styled "Noble Consort Yi" (Chinese: ). This rank placed her second only to the Empresswithin Xianfeng's harem. Unlike many other women in the
imperial harem, Cixi was known for her ability to read and write Chinese. This granted her ample opportunities to help the ailing emperor in daily state
governing. On various occasions, the Xianfeng Emperor had Cixi read palace memorials for him, and leave instructions on the memorials according to his will.
As a result, Cixi became well-informed about state affairs, and learned the art of state governing from the ailing emperor. In September 1860, British and French
troops attacked Beijing during the closing stages of the Second Opium War, and by the following month had burned the Emperor's exquisite Old Summer
Palace to the ground. The attack, under the command of Lord Elgin, was mounted in retaliation for the arrest on 18 September of British diplomatic
envoy Harry Parkes and the torture and execution of a number of western hostages. The Xianfeng Emperor and his entourage, including Cixi, fled Beijing for the
safety of Rehe in Manchuria. On hearing the news of the destruction of the Old Summer Palace, the Xianfeng Emperor (who was already showing signs of
dementia) fell into a depression, turned heavily to alcohol and drugs, and became seriously ill. On August 22, 1861 the Xianfeng Emperor died at Rehe Palace in
the city of Rehe (now Chengde, Hebei). Before his death, he summoned eight of his most prestigious ministers, headed by Sushun, Zaiyuan, and Duanhua, and
named them the "Eight Regent Ministers" to direct and support the future Emperor. His heir, the son of Noble Consort Yi (future Empress Dowager Cixi), was
only five years old. On his deathbed, the Xianfeng Emperor summoned his Empress and Noble Consort Yi, and gave each of them a stamp. He hoped that
when his son ascended the throne, his Empress and Noble Consort Yi would cooperate in harmony and, together, help the young emperor to grow and mature.
It was also meant as a check on the power of the eight regents. Upon the death of the Xianfeng Emperor, his Empress Consort, aged 25, was elevated to the
title Empress Dowager Ci'an (popularly known as the East Empress Dowager because she lived in the Eastern Zhong-Cui Palace), and Noble Consort Yi, aged
27, was elevated to the title Empress Dowager Cixi (popularly known as the West Empress Dowager because she lived inside the Western Chuxiu Palace). By the
time of the Xianfeng Emperor's death, Empress Dowager Cixi had become a shrewd strategist. In Jehol, while waiting for an astrologically favorable time to
transport the coffin back to Beijing, Cixi liaised with powerful court officials and imperial relatives to seize power. Cixi's position as the lower-ranked Empress
Dowager had no political power attached. In addition, her son the young emperor was not a political force himself. As a result, it became necessary for her to ally
herself with other powerful figures. Taking advantage of the navet and good nature of the late emperor's principal wife, the Empress Dowager Ci'an, Cixi
suggested that they become co-reigning Empress Dowagers, with powers exceeding the Eight Regent Ministers. Tensions grew among the Eight Regent Ministers,
headed by Sushun, and the two Empresses Dowager. The ministers did not appreciate Cixi's interference in political affairs, and the frequent confrontations left
the Empress Dowager Ci'an frustrated. Ci'an often refused to come to court audiences, leaving Empress Dowager Cixi to deal with the ministers alone. Secretly,
Empress Dowager Cixi began gathering the support of talented ministers, soldiers, and others who were ostracized by the Eight Regent Ministers for personal or
political reasons. Among them was Prince Gong, who had great ambitions and was at that time excluded from the power circle, and thePrince Chun, the sixth
and seventh sons of the Daoguang Emperor, respectively. While she aligned herself with these Princes, amemorial came from Shandong asking for Cixi to "listen
to politics behind the curtains", i.e., asking Cixi to become the ruler. The same petition also asked Prince Gong to enter the political arena as a principal "aide to
the Emperor." When the Emperor's funeral procession left for Beijing, Cixi took advantage of her alliances with Princes Gong and Chun. She and the boy
Emperor returned to the capital before the rest of the party, along with Zaiyuan and Duanhua, two of the principal regents, while Sushun was left to accompany
the deceased Emperor's procession. Cixi's early return to Beijing meant that she had more time to plan with Prince Gong, and ensure that the power base of the
Eight Regent Ministers was divided between Sushun and his allies, Zaiyuan andDuanhua. History was re-written and the Regents were dismissed for having
carried out incompetent negotiations with the "barbarians" which had caused Xianfeng Emperor to flee to Jehol "greatly against his will," among other charges. To
display her high moral standards, Cixi executed only three of the eight regent ministers. Prince Gong had suggested that Sushun and others be executed by the
most painful method, known as slow slicing, but Dowager Cixi declined the suggestion and ordered that Sushun be beheaded, while the other two also marked
for execution, Zaiyuan and Duanhua, were given white silks to allow them to commit suicide. In addition, Cixi refused outright the idea of executing the family
members of the ministers, as would be done in accordance with Imperial tradition of an alleged usurper. Ironically, Qing Imperial tradition also dictated that
women and princes were never to engage in politics. In breaking with tradition, Cixi became the only Qing Dynasty Empress to rule from "behind the curtains"
(). This palace coup is known as the "Xinyou Palace Coup" (Chinese: ) in China after the name of the year 1861 in the Sexagenary cycle. In
November 1861, a few days following the coup, Cixi was quick to reward Yixin, the Prince Gong, for his help. He was made head of the General Affairs Office
and the Internal Affairs Office, and his daughter was made a Gurun Princess, a title usually bestowed only on the Empress's first-born daughter. Yixin's allowance
also increased twofold. However, Cixi avoided giving Yixin the absolute political power that princes such as Dorgon exercised during the Shunzhi Emperor's
reign. As one of the first acts from behind the curtains, Cixi (nominally along with Ci'an) issued two important Imperial Edicts on behalf of the Emperor. The first
stated that the two Empresses Dowager were to be the sole decision makers "without interference," and the second changed the boy Emperor's era
name from Qixiang(; "Auspicious") to Tongzhi (; "collective stable"). However, despite being the sole decision makers, both Ci'an and Cixi were forced
to rely on the Grand Council and a complex series of procedures in order to deal with affairs of state. When state documents came in, they were to be first
forwarded to the dowager empresses, and then referred back to the prince adviser and the Grand Council. Having discussed the matters, the prince and his
colleagues would seek the instruction of the dowager empresses at audiences and imperial orders would be drawn up accordingly, with drafts having to be
approved by the dowagers before edicts were issued. It also seems that their most important role during the regency was merely to apply their seals to edicts, a
merely mechanical role in a complex bureaucracy.
[9]
Cixi's entrance as the absolute power figure in China came at a time of internal chaos and foreign challenges.
The effects of the Second Opium War were still hovering over the country, as the Taiping Rebellion continued its seemingly unstoppable advance through
China's south, eating up the Qing Empire bit by bit. Internally, both the national bureaucracy and regional authorities were infested with rampant corruption.
1861 happened to be the year of official examinations, whereby officials of all levels presented their political reports from the previous three years. Cixi decided
that the time was ripe for a bureaucratic overhaul, where she personally sought audience with all officials above the level of provincial governor, who had to report
to her personally. Cixi took on part of the role usually given to the Bureaucratic Affairs Department (). Cixi also executed two prominent officials to serve as
examples as a more immediate solution: Qingying, a military shilang who had tried to bribe his way out of demotion, and He Guiqing, then Viceroy of Liangjiang,
who fledChangzhou in the wake of an incoming Taiping army as opposed to trying to defend the city. Another significant challenge Cixi faced was the
increasingly decrepit state of the country's Manchu elite. Since the beginning of the dynasty most major positions at court had been held by Manchus, and
Emperors had generally shown contempt for powerful Han Chinese. Cixi, again in a reversal of Imperial tradition, entrusted the country's most powerful military
unit against the Taiping army into the hands of a Han Chinese, Zeng Guofan. Additionally, in the next three years, Cixi appointed Han Chinese officials to
become governors of all southern Chinese provinces, raising alarm bells in an administration traditionally fond of Manchu dominance. Under the command of
Gen. Zeng Guofan, the victorious Xiang Army defeated the Taiping Army in a hard-fought battle at Tianjing (present-day Nanjing) in July 1864. Zeng Guofan
was rewarded with the title of "Marquess Yiyong, First Class," and his brother Zeng Guoquan, along with Li Hongzhang and Zuo Zongtang, all Han Chinese
generals from the war, were rewarded respectively with their decorations and titles. With the Taiping threat receding, Cixi was focused on new internal threats to
her power. Of special concern was the position of Yixin, the Prince Gong, and the Chief Policy Advisor () at Court. Yixin, whose loyalties stretched at
least half of the country, also had effectively gathered under his command the support of all outstanding Han Chinese armies. In addition, Yixin controlled daily
court affairs as the first-in-charge at the Grand Council as well as the Zongli Yamen, the de facto ministry of foreign affairs. With his increasing stature, Yixin was
considered a serious threat to Cixi and her power. Although the Prince was rewarded for his conduct and recommendation of Zeng Guofan before the Taiping
defeat, Cixi was quick to move after Cai Shaoqi, a little-known official who was the recorder at court, who filed a memorial asking for Yixin's resignation. Having
built up a powerful base and a network of allies at court, Yixin considered the memorial insignificant. Cixi, however, took the memorial as a stepping stone to
Yixin's removal. In April 1865, under the pretext that Yixin had "improper court conduct before the two Empresses," among a series of other charges, Yixin was
dismissed from all his positions, but was allowed to keep his title. The dismissal, however, surprised the nobility and court officials, and brought about numerous
petitions for his return. Yicong, Prince Tun, as well as Yixuan, the Prince Chun, both sought their brother's reinstatement. Yixin himself, in an audience with the
two Empresses, burst into tears . Bowing to popular pressure, Cixi allowed Yixin to return to his position as the head of the foreign ministry, but rid Yixin of his
title of Chief Policy Advisor. Yixin would never return to political prominence again, and neither would the liberal and pro-reform policies of his time. Yixin's
demotion showed Cixi's iron grip on Qing politics, and her lack of willingness to give up absolute power to anyone, including her most important ally in the
Xinyou Coup, Prince Gong. China's loss in the Second Opium War was undoubtedly a wake-up call for its imperial rulers. Cixi presided over a country whose
military strategies, both on land and sea, and in terms of weaponry, were vastly outdated. Sensing an immediate threat from foreigners and realizing that China's
agricultural-based economy could not hope to compete with the industrial prowess of the West, Cixi made a decision that for the first time in Imperial Chinese
history, China would learn from Western powers and import their knowledge and technology. At the time, three prominent Han Chinese officials, Zeng
Guofan, Li Hongzhang and Zuo Zongtang, had all begun industrial programs in the country's southern regions. In supporting these programs, Cixi also decreed
the opening of Tongwen Guan in 1862, a university-like institution in Beijing that hired foreigners as teachers and specialized in new-age topics such as astronomy
and mathematics, as well as the English, French, and Russian languages. Groups of young boys were also sent abroad to the United States. China's "learn from
foreigners" program quickly met with impediments. China's military institutions were in desperate need of reform, and Cixi's solution, under the advice of officials
at court, was to purchase seven British warships. When the warships arrived in China, however, they carried with them boatloads of British sailors, all under
British command. The Chinese were enraged at this "international joke," negotiations broke down between the two parties, and China returned the warships to
Britain, where they were to be auctioned off. Scholars sometimes attribute the failure of China's foreign programs to Cixi's conservative attitude and old methods
of thinking, and contend that Cixi would learn only so much from the foreigners, provided it did not infringe upon her own power. Under the pretext that a
railway was too loud and would "disturb the Emperor's tombs," Cixi forbade its construction. When construction went ahead anyway in 1877 under Li
Hongzhang's recommendation, Cixi asked that they be pulled by horse-drawn carts.
[12]
Cixi was especially alarmed at the liberal thinking of people who had
studied abroad, and saw that it posed a new threat to her power. In 1881, Cixi put a halt to sending children abroad to study, and withdrew her formerly open
attitude towards foreigners. In 1872, the Emperor turned 17. Under the guidance of the Empress Dowager Ci'an, Tongzhi was married to Empress Jiashun.
Empress Jiashun's grandfather, Prince Zheng, was one of the eight ministers selected by Xianfeng to guide Tongzhi. He had been Cixi's enemy during the Xinyou
Coup, and was ordered to commit suicide after Cixi's victory. As a consequence, tension existed in the relationship between Cixi and Empress Jiashun ever since
the beginning, and it was often a source of irritation for Cixi. Moreover, the Empress's zodiac symbol of tiger was perceived as life-threatening by the superstitious
Cixi, whose own zodiac symbol was a goat. According to Cixi's belief, it was a warning from God that she would eventually fall prey to the Empress. As the
principal consort of the Emperor, Empress Jiashun was well received by both Tongzhi and Empress Dowager Ci'an. Her personal consultants once warned her
to be more agreeable and docile to Cixi, as Cixi was the figure who truly held the power. She replied: "I am a principal consort, having been carried through the
front gate with pomp and circumstance, as mandated by our ancestors. Empress Dowager Cixi was a concubine, and entered our household through a side gate."
Since the very beginning of his marriage, the Emperor proceeded to spend most of his time with his empress at the expense of his four concubines, including the
Lady Fuca, Noble Consort Hui, who was the empress intended by Cixi. As hostility grew between Cixi and Empress Jiashun, Cixi suggested the couple spend
more time on studies, and spied on Tongzhi using eunuchs. After her warning was ignored, Cixi ordered the couple to separate, and Tongzhi purportedly spent
several months following Cixi's order in isolation at Qianqing Palace. The young emperor, who could no longer cope with his grief and loneliness, grew more and
more ill-tempered. He began to treat his servants with cruelty, and punished them physically for minor offenses. Under the joined influence of court eunuchs and
Zaicheng, eldest son of Prince Gong and Tongzhi's contemporary and best friend, Tongzhi managed to escape the palace in search of pleasure in the unrestricted
parts of Beijing. For several evenings the Emperor disguised himself as a commoner and secretly spent the nights in the brothels of Beijing. The Emperor's sexual
habits became common talk among court officials and commoners, and there are many records of Tongzhi's escapades. Tongzhi received a rigorous education
from four famous teachers of Cixi's own choosing, in addition to making Mianyu his supervisor. Namely, Li Hongzao, Qi Junzao, Weng Xincun (later his
son Weng Tonghe, and Woren) were all imperial teachers who instructed the Emperor in the classics and various old texts for which the Emperor displayed little
or no interest. The pressure and stress put upon the young Emperor made him despise learning for the majority of his life. According to Weng Tonghe's diary,
the Emperor could not read a memorandum in full sentences by age sixteen. Worried about her son's inability, Cixi only pressured Tongzhi more. When he was
given personal rule at age 18, in November 1873 (four years behind the usual custom), Tongzhi proved to be an incompetent Emperor. Tongzhi made two
important policy decisions during his short stint of rule, lasting from 1873 to 1875. First, he decreed that the Imperial Summer Palace, destroyed by the English
and French in the Second Opium War, would be completely rebuilt under the pretext that it was a gift to Cixi and Ci'an. Historians also suggest that it was an
attempt to drive Cixi from the Forbidden City so he could rule without interference in policy or his private affairs. The imperial treasury was almost depleted at
the time from internal strife and foreign wars, and as a result Tongzhi asked the Board of Finance to forage for the necessary funds, as well as members of the
nobility and high officials to donate their share. Once construction began, Tongzhi checked its progress on a monthly basis, and would often spend days away
from court, indulging himself in pleasures outside of the Forbidden City. Uneasy about the Emperor's neglect of national affairs, Princes Yixin and Yixuan
(Prince Chun), along with the Court's top officials, submitted a joint memorandum asking the Emperor to cease the construction of the Summer Palace, among
other recommendations. Tongzhi, unwilling to submit to criticism, issued an Imperial Edict in August 1874 to rid Yixin of his Prince title and be demoted to
become a commoner. Two days later, Yicong, Yixuan, Yihui, Jingshou, Yikuang, Wenxiang, Baoju, and Grand Councilors Shen Guifen and Li Hongzao were all
to be stripped of their respective titles and jobs. Seeing the mayhem unfold from behind the scenes, Cixi and Ci'an made an unprecedented appearance at court
directly criticizing the Emperor for his wrongful actions, and asked him to withdraw the Edict; Cixi said that "without Prince Gong, the situation today would not
exist for you and me." Feeling a grand sense of loss at court and unable to assert his authority, the Emperor returned to his former habits. It was rumored that the
Emperor caught syphilis and became visibly ill. The doctors spread a rumor that the Emperor had caught smallpox, and proceeded to give medical treatment
accordingly. Within a few weeks, on January 13, 1875, the Emperor died. The Jiashun Empress followed suit in March. Judging from a modern medical
perspective the onset of syphilis comes in stages, thus the Emperor's quick death does not seem to reflect its symptoms. Therefore most historians maintain that
Tongzhi did, in fact, die from smallpox. Regardless, by 1875, Cixi was back onto the helm of imperial power. Tongzhi died without a male heir, a circumstance
that created an unprecedented succession crisis in the dynastic line. Members of the generation above were considered unfit, as they could not, by definition, be
the successor of their nephew. Therefore, the new Emperor had to be from a generation below or the same generation as Tongzhi. After considerable
disagreement between the two Dowagers, Zaitian, the first-born of the Prince Chun Yixuan and Cixi's sister, then aged four, was to become the new Emperor.
1875 was declared the era of Guangxu, or the reign of Glorious Succession. Young Zaitian was taken from his home and for the remainder of his life would be
cut completely off from his family. While addressing Ci'an conventionally as Huang O'niang (Empress Mother), Zaitian was forced to address Cixi as Qin
Baba (; lit. "Biological Dad"), in order to enforce an image that she was the fatherly power figure in the house. The Guangxu Emperor began his education
when he was aged five, taught by Imperial Tutor Weng Tonghe, with whom he would develop a lasting bond. Shortly after the accession of the Emperor
Guangxu, Cixi fell severely ill, leaving Ci'an to attend to most of the affairs of state. Cixi was largely inaccessible to her young nephew, as well. The sudden death
of Ci'an in April 1881 brought Cixi a new challenge. Ci'an took little interest in running state business, but was the decision maker in most family affairs and as the
Emperor Xianfeng's empress, took seniority over Cixi, despite being two years Cixi's junior. Some have argued that there had been a possible conflict between
Cixi and Ci'an over the execution of An Dehai or a possible will from the late Xianfeng Emperor issued exclusively to Ci'an and that rumours began circulating at
court that Cixi had poisoned Ci'an. Because of a lack of evidence, however, historians are reluctant to believe that Ci'an was poisoned by Cixi, but instead choose
to believe that the cause of death was a sudden stroke, as validated by traditional Chinese medicine. In the years between 1881 and 1883, Cixi resorted to
communicating with her ministers in writing. Furthermore, the young Emperor Guangxu reportedly had been forced to conduct some audiences alone, without
Cixi. The once fierce and determined Prince Gong, frustrated by Cixi's iron grip on power, did little to question Cixi on state affairs, and supported Manchu
involvement in the Sino-French War. Cixi used China's loss in the war as a pretext for getting rid of Prince Gong and other important decision makers in the
Grand Council in 1885. She downgraded him to "advisor," and promoted the more easily influenced Yixuan, Prince Chun. After being appointed President of
the Navy, Prince Chun, in a sign of unswerving loyalty to Cixi, but in reality a move to protect his son, the new Emperor, moved funds from the military to
reconstruct the Imperial Summer Palace outside of Beijing city as a place for Cixi's retirement. Prince Chun did not want Cixi to interfere with his son Guangxu's
affairs once he came of age. Cixi showed no opposition to the construction of the palace. Guangxu technically gained the right to rule at the age of 16 in 1887
after Cixi issued an edict for Guangxu to have his accession to rule ceremony. Because of her prestige and power, however, court officials voiced their opposition
to Guangxu's personal rule, citing the Emperor's youth as the main reason. Shiduo, Yixuan, and Weng Tonghe, each with a different motive, asked Guangxu's
accession to be postponed until a later date. Cixi, with her reputed reluctance, accepted the "advice" and legitimized her continued rule through a new legal
document that allowed her to "aid" the Guangxu Emperor in his rule indefinitely. However, despite her prolonged regency, the Emperor Guangxu began to
slowly take on more responsibilities. In 1886, the emperor attended his first field plowing ceremony and also began commenting on imperial state documents
and by 1887, he began to rule under Cixi's supervision. Emperor Guangxu would eventually marry and take up the reigns of power in 1889. By then the Guangxu
Emperor was already 18, older than the conventional marital age for Emperors. Prior to the wedding, a large fire engulfed the Gate of Supreme Harmony at
the Forbidden City, following a trend of natural disasters in recent years, which according to Chinese political theory meant that the current rulers were losing the
"Mandate of Heaven". As his empress, Empress Dowager Cixi chose her niece & Guangxu's cousin, Jingfen, who would become the Empress Longyu. Cixi also
selected two concubines for him who were sisters, Consorts Jin and Zhen. Guangxu eventually would prefer to spend more time with Zhen, neglecting his
Empress, much to Cixi's dismay. In 1894, Cixi, citing intervention in political affairs as the main reason, degraded Zhen, and according to some reports, had her
flogged. Jin had also been implicated in Zhen's reported influence peddling, also apparently suffered a similar punishment and a cousin of theirs, an official
named Zhi Rui, was banished from the capital to a military outpost. On March 5, 1889, the dowager empress retired her second regency. However, despite no
longer being regent, she still was, effectively, head of the imperial family. Many officials, furthermore, owing in part to her seniority, along with her personalized
approach to court favorites, which had included giving them gifts of her artwork and inviting them to join her at the theater for opera and acrobatics, felt and
showed more loyalty to the dowager empress than they did to the emperor. Even after Guangxu began formal rule at age 19, Cixi continued to influence his
decisions and actions, despite residing for a period of time at the Imperial Summer Palace which she had ordered Guangxu's father to construct, with the official
intention not to intervene in politics. Guangxu paid visits to her, along with the entourage of court officials, every second or third day, where major political
decisions would be made. Weng Tonghe observed that while Guangxu dealt with day to day administration, in more complex cases, the Grand Councillors gave
their advice, and in the most complex cases, they sought the advice of Cixi. In 1894, the First Sino-Japanese War broke out between China and Korea. During
this period, Cixi was continuously called upon to arbitrate in policy decisions, with the emperor even being bypassed in the decision-making process. Cixi
eventually was given copies of the secret palace memorials, as well, and this practice was carried on until 1898 when it was rendered unnecessary. Cixi, in
November 1895, celebrated her sixtieth birthday. Borrowing from the plans for used for celebrations of the seventieth and eightieth birthdays of the mother of
the Qianlong Emperor, plans included a triumphal progress along the decorated road between the Forbidden City and the Summer Palace, decorations of the
Beijing city gates and monumental archways, free theatrical performances, remission of punishments and the restoration of degraded officials. However, the war
between China and Japan forced the dowager empress to cancel the lavish celebration and a much smaller celebration was held in the Forbidden City. After
taking power, the Guangxu Emperor was more reform-minded than the conservative-leaning Empress Dowager Cixi. After a humiliating defeat in the First Sino-
Japanese War of 1894, during which China's Beiyang Navy was crushed by the Japanese forces, the Qing government faced numerous unprecedented challenges
internally and abroad, with its very existence at stake. Under the influence of reformers Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao, Guangxu believed that by learning from
constitutional monarchies like Japan and Germany, China would become more powerful politically and economically. In June 1898, the Guangxu Emperor
began the Hundred Days' Reform(), aimed at a series of sweeping changes politically, legally, and socially. For a brief time, after the supposed
retirement of the Empress Dowager Cixi, the Guangxu Emperor issued edicts for a massive number of far-reaching modernizing reforms. The reforms, however,
were too sudden for a China still under significant neo-Confucian influence, and displeased Cixi as it served as a serious check on her power. Some government
and military officials warned Cixi that the ming-shih (reformation bureau) had been geared toward conspiracy. Allegations of treason against the Emperor, as well
as suspected Japanese influence within the reform movement, including a suspicious visit from the Japanese Prime Minister, led Empress Dowager Cixi to
resume the role of regent and once again take control of the country. In another coup d'etat carried out by General Ronglu's personnel on September 21, 1898,
the Guangxu Emperor was taken to Ocean Terrace, a small palace on an island in the middle of Zhongnanhai linked to the rest of the Forbidden City with only a
controlled causeway. Empress Dowager Cixi would follow with an edict dictating the Guangxu Emperor's total disgrace and "not being fit to be Emperor". The
Guangxu Emperor's reign had effectively come to an end. A crisis followed in the Qing court on the issue of abdication. However, bowing to increasing western
pressure and general civil discontent over the issue, Cixi did not forcibly remove Guangxu from the throne, although she attempted crowning Punji, a boy of
fourteen who was from a close branch of the Imperial family, as the crown prince. The Guangxu era nominally continued until 1908, but the Emperor lost all
honours, respect, power, and privileges, including his freedom of movement. Most of his supporters, including his former tutor Weng Tonghe, and the man he
had recommended, Kang Youwei, were exiled, while six prominent reformers led by Tan Sitong were executed in public by Empress Dowager Cixi. Kang
continued to work for a more progressive Qing Empire while in exile, remaining loyal to the Guangxu Emperor and hoping eventually to restore him to power.
His efforts would prove to be in vain. In 1900, the Boxer Uprising broke out in northern China. Perhaps fearing further foreign intervention, Cixi threw in her
support to these anti-foreign bands, making an official announcement of her support for the movement and a formal declaration of war on the European powers.
The Manchu General Ronglu deliberately sabotaged the performance of the Imperial army during the rebellion. Dong Fuxiang's Muslim troops were able and
eager to destroy the foreign military forces in the legations, but Ronglu stopped them from doing so. The Manchu prince Zaiyi was xenophobic and was friends
with Dong Fuxiang. Zaiyi wanted artillery for Dong Fuxiang's troops to destroy the legations. Ronglu blocked the transfer of artillery to Zaiyi and Dong,
preventing them from destroying the legations. When artillery was finally supplied to the Imperial Army and Boxers, it was only done so in limited amounts;
Ronglu deliberately held back the rest of them. The Chinese forces defeated the small 2,000 person Western relief force at the Battle of Langfang but lost several
decisive battles, including Battle of Beicang and the entire royal court was forced to retreat as the allied forces invaded Beijing. Due to the fact that moderates at
the Qing court tried to appease the foreigners by moving the Muslim Kansu Braves out of their way, the Allied army was able to march into Beijing and seize the
capital. During the war, Cixi displayed concern about China's situation and foreign aggression, saying, "Perhaps their magic is not to be relied upon; but can we
not rely on the hearts and minds of the people? Today China is extremely weak. We have only the people's hearts and minds to depend upon. If we cast them
aside and lose the people's hearts, what can we use to sustain the country?" The Chinese people were almost unanimous in their support for the Boxers due to
the Western Allied invasion. When Cixi received an ultimatum demanding that China surrender total control over all its military and financial affairs to
foreigners, she defiantly stated before the entire Grand Council, "Now they [the Powers] have started the aggression, and the extinction of our nation is imminent.
If we just fold our arms and yield to them, I would have no face to see our ancestors after death. If we must perish, why not fight to the death?" It was at this
point that Cixi began to blockade the legations with the Peking Field Force armies, which began the siege. Cixi stated that "I have always been of the opinion, that
the allied armies had been permitted to escape too easily in 1860. Only a united effort was then necessary to have given China the victory. Today, at last, the
opportunity for revenge has come", and said that millions of Chinese would join the cause of fighting the foreigners since the Manchus had provided "great
benefits" on China. During the Battle of Peking, the entire Chinese Imperial Court, including the Empress Dowager and Emperor Guangxu, fled Beijing and
evacuated to Xi'an in Shaanxi province as the allied forced invaded the city. After the fall of Beijing, the allied forces negotiated a treaty with the Qing dynasty,
sending messengers to the Dowager Empress in Xi'an. Included in the terms of the agreement was a guarantee that the China would not have to give up any
further territories to foreign powers. Many of the Dowager Empress's advisers in the Imperial Court insisted that the war against the foreigners be continued.
They recommended that Dong Fuxiang be given responsibility to continue the war effort. The Dowager was practical, however, and decided that the terms were
generous enough for her to acquiesce and stop the war, at least after she was assured of her continued reign when the war was concluded. The Western powers
needed a government strong enough to suppress further anti-foreign movements, but too weak to act on its own; they supported the continuation of the Qing,
rather than allowing it to be overthrown. Cixi turned once more to Li Hongzhang to negotiate. Li agreed to sign the Boxer Protocol, which stipulated the
presence of an international military force in Beijing and the payment of 67 million (almost $333 million) in war reparations. The United States used its share of
the war indemnity to fund the creation of China's prestigious Tsinghua University. The Emperor and the Empress Dowager did not return to the capital from
Xi'an until roughly eighteen months after their flight . In January 1902, the Empress Dowager, Emperor, Empress and the rest of the court made a ceremonious
return to Beijing. At the railhead at at Chengtingfu, Cixi and the court boarded a twenty-one car train to convey them the rest of the way to the capital. In Beijing,
many of the legation women turned out to watch the procession from Beijing's railroad station to the Forbidden City, and for the first time, ordinary Chinese
were permitted to watch, as well. Once back in the palace, Cixi implemented sweeping political reforms. High officials were dispatched to Japan and Europe to
gather facts and draw up plans for sweeping administrative reforms in law, education, government structure, and social policy, many of which were modeled on
the reforms of theMeiji Restoration. The abolition of the examination system in 1905 was only the most visible of these sweeping reforms. Ironically, Cixi
sponsored the implementation of a reform program more radical than the one proposed by the reformers she had beheaded in 1898. She also, in an attempt to
woo the foreigners, invited the wives of the diplomatic corps to a tea in the Forbidden City soon after her return, and in time, would hold summer garden parties
for the foreign community at the Summer Palace. In 1903, she acquiesced to the request of Sarah Conger, wife ofEdwin Conger, the American minister to China,
to have her portrait painted by American artist Katharine Carl for the St. Louis World's Fair. Between 1903 and 1905 Cixi had a western educated lady-in-waiting
by the name of Der Ling, along with her sister and mother, serve at her court. Der Ling, fluent in English and French, as well as Chinese, often served as
translator at meetings with the wives of the diplomatic corps. In 1903, Cixi allowed a young aristocratic photographer named Xunling, a brother of Der Ling, to
take elaborately staged shots of her and her court, designed to convey imperial authority, aesthetic refinement, and religious piety. As the only photographic series
taken of Cixithe supreme leader of China for more than forty-five yearsit represents a unique convergence of Qing court pictorial traditions, modern
photographic techniques, and Western standards of artistic portraiture. The rare glass plates have been blown up into full-size images, included in the
exhibition "The Empress Dowager" at the Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. Empress Dowager Cixi died in the Hall of
Graceful Bird at the Middle Sea (Chinese: ) ofZhongnanhai on November 15, 1908, after having installed Puyi as the new Emperor of the Qing
Dynasty on November 14, 1908. Her death came only a day after the death of the Guangxu Emperor. On November 4, 2008, forensic tests concluded that the
death of the Emperor was caused by acute arsenic poisoning. China Daily quoted a historian, Dai Yi, who speculated that Cixi may have known of her imminent
death and may have worried that Guangxu would continue his reforms after her death. CNN has recently reported that the level of arsenic in his remains was
2,000 times higher than that of ordinary people. Empress Dowager Cixi was interred amidst the Eastern Qing Tombs (Chinese: ), 125 km (78 mi) east of
Beijing, in the Dong Dingling (Chinese: ), along with Empress Dowager Ci'an. More precisely, Empress Dowager Ci'an lies in the Pu Xiang Yu Ding
Dong Ling (Chinese: ) (literally: the "Tomb East of the Ding Ling Tomb in the Broad Valley of Good Omen"), while Empress Dowager Cixi built
herself the much larger Pu Tuo Yu Ding Dong Ling (Chinese: ) (literally: the "Tomb East of the Ding Ling Tomb in the Potala Valley"). The
Dingling tomb (literally: the "Tomb of quietude") is the tomb of the Xianfeng Emperor, the spouse of Empress Dowager Ci'an and Empress Dowager Cixi, which
is located indeed west of the Ding Dong Ling. The Putuo Valley owes its name to Mount Putuo, one of the Four Sacred Buddhist Mountains of China. Empress
Dowager Cixi, unsatisfied with her tomb, ordered its destruction and reconstruction in 1895. The new tomb was a lavish grandiose complex of temples, gates, and
pavilions, covered with gold leaf, and with gold and gilded-bronze ornaments hanging from the beams and the eaves. In July 1928, Empress Dowager Cixi's
tomb was occupied by warlord and Kuomintang general Sun Dianying and his army who methodically stripped the complex of its precious ornaments, then
dynamited the entrance to the burial chamber, opened Empress Dowager Cixi's coffin, threw her corpse (said to have been found intact) on the floor, and stole
all the jewels contained in the coffin, as well as the massive pearl that had been placed in Empress Dowager Cixi's mouth to protect her corpse from decomposing
(in accordance with Chinese tradition). Urban legend states that the large pearl on Empress Dowager Cixi's crown was offered by Sun Dianying to Kuomintang
leader Chiang Kai-shekand ended up as an ornament on the gala shoes of Chiang's wife, Soong May-ling, but this is unconfirmed. After 1949, the complex of
Empress Dowager Cixi's tomb was restored by the People's Republic of China, and it is still today one of the most impressive imperial tombs of China. The name
by which she is most frequently known and the name used in most modern texts is simply "Cixi", which is neither her birth name nor family name. It is an
"honorific name" given to her in 1861 after her son ascended the throne. Empress Dowager Cixi's name at birth is not known, although a recent book published
by one of Cixi's brother's descendants seems to suggest that it was Xingzhen(Chinese: ; Wade-Giles: Hsingchen). The first occurrence of her name is at the
time she entered the Forbidden City in September 1851, where she was recorded as "the Lady Yehenara, daughter of Huizheng" (Chinese: ). Thus, she was
called by her clan's name, the Yehe-Nara clan, as was customary for Manchu girls. On entering the Forbidden City, she was a preparative concubine
(Chinese: ). After her sexual union with the Xianfeng Emperor, she was made a concubine of the fifth rank Noble Person, a.k.a. "Worthy Lady"
(Chinese: ), and was given the name Yi (meaning "good", "exemplary", "virtuous"). Her name was thus "Noble Person of Yi", orWorthy Lady
Yi (Chinese: ). At the end of December 1854 or the beginning of January 1855, she was promoted to concubine of the fourth rank, Imperial
Concubine (Chinese: ), so that her new name was Imperial Concubine Yi (Chinese: ). On April 27, 1856, Yehenara gave birth to a son, the only son
of Xianfeng, and was immediately made Noble Consort Yi" (Chinese: ). Finally, in February 1857 she was again elevated and made "Noble Imperial Consort
Yi" (Chinese: ). In the end of August 1861, following the death of the Xianfeng Emperor, her five-year-old son became the new Emperor, known as
theTongzhi Emperor. Empress Dowager Cixi, as biological mother of the new emperor, was officially made Divine Mother Empress
Dowager(Chinese: ). She was also given the honorific name Cixi (Chinese: ), meaning "Motherly and Auspicious". As for the Empress Consort,
she was made "Mother Empress Dowager" (Chinese: ), a title giving her precedence over Empress Dowager Cixi, and she was given the honorific
name Empress Dowager Ci'an (Chinese: ) meaning "Motherly and Calm". On 7 occasions after 1861, Empress Dowager Cixi was given additional
honorific names (two Chinese characters at a time), as was customary for Emperors and Empresses, until by the end of her reign her name was a long string of 16
characters starting with Cixi (as Empress Dowager she had the right to nine additions, giving a total of 20 characters, had she lived long enough for it). At the end
of her life, her official name was: (Chinese: ) which reads: "The Current Divine Mother
Empress Dowager Ci-Xi Duan-You Kang-Yi Zhao-Yu Zhuang-Cheng Shou-Gong Qin-Xian Chong-Xi of the Great Qing Empire". The short form was The
Current Divine Mother Empress Dowager of the Great Qing Empire (Chinese: ). At the time, Empress Dowager Cixi was addressed
as "Venerable Buddha" (Chinese: )literally "Master Old Buddha", a term used for all the Emperors of the Qing Dynasty. At official and ceremonial
occasions, the phrase Long Live the Empress Dowager for ten thousand years (Chinese: ), which is by convention,
only used by Emperors. The convention for Empress Dowagers of imperial China was usually Long live for one thousand years. At her death in 1908, Empress
Dowager Cixi was given a posthumous name which combines the honorific names that she gained during her lifetime with new names added just after her death.
This is the name that is usually used on official documents to refer to an Empress. This long form of the posthumous name is:
(Chinese: ), which reads: Empress Xiao-Qin Ci-Xi Duan-You Kang-Yi Zhao-Yu Zhuang-Cheng
Shou-Gong Qin-Xian Chong-Xi Pei-Tian Xing-Sheng Xian. This long name is still the one that can be seen on Cixi's tomb today. The short form of her
posthumous name is: Empress Xiao Qin Xian (). The traditional view of the Empress Dowager Cixi was that of a devious despot who contributed in
no small part to China's slide into corruption, anarchy, and revolution. During Cixi's time, she used her power to accumulate vast quantities of money, bullion,
antiques and jewelry, using the revenues of the state as her own. By the end of her reign she had amassed a huge personal fortune, stashing away some eight and a
half million pounds sterling in London banks. The lavish palaces, gardens and lakes built by Cixi were hugely extravagant at a time when China was verging on
bankruptcy. The recent discovery that her nephew died of acute arsenic poisoning casts a sinister shadow on the events of her reign, as do the many examples of
her ruthless elimination of enemies throughout her life, from Sushun and his entourage to the martyrs of the 100 Days' Reform to Empress Alute and the
Consort Zhen, whether or not the details were embellished by critics. Katharine Carl spent some ten months with the Empress Dowager Cixi in 1903 to paint her
portrait for the St. Louis Exposition. Two years later she published a book about her experience, titled With the Empress Dowager. In the book's introduction,
Carl says she wrote the book because "After I returned to America, I was constantly seeing in the newspapers (and hearing of) statements ascribed to me which I
never made." In her book, Katharine Carl describes the Empress Dowager Cixi as a kind and considerate woman for her station. Empress Dowager Cixi, though
shrewd, had great presence, charm, and graceful movements resulting in "an unusually attractive personality". Carl wrote of the Dowager's love of dogs and of
flowers, as well as boating, Chinese opera and her Chinese water pipes and European cigarettes. Carl also made note of Empress Dowager Cixi's loyalty,
describing the case of "a Chinese woman who nursed Her Majesty through a long illness, about twenty-five years since, and saved her life by giving her mother's
milk to drink. Her Majesty, who never forgets a favor, has always kept this woman in the Palace. Being a Chinese, she had bound feet. Her Majesty, who cannot
bear to see them even, had her feet unbound and carefully treated, until now she can walk comfortably. Her Majesty has educated the son, who was an infant at
the time of her illness, and whose natural nourishment she partook of. This young man is already a Secretary in a good yamen (government office)." Luke Kwong,
in his analysis of the Hundred Days of Reform, has argued that many of the allegations of being power-hungry and immoral cannot be verified. He also portrays
her as a relatively insecure woman, concerned about her legitimacy and haunted by her relatively humble origins in the palace. Yet, despite her concerns about
her legitimacy, she was not necessarily power-hungry tyrant who manipulated the court, but was rather content to remain as merely part of a coalition government
between the herself and the Grand Council, as well as a dynastic figurehead, so long as her sense of legitimacy was respected and unchallenged. He also argues
that her return to power in 1898 was driven less by Cixi's desire to gain power and opposition to reform, as she had been privy to dispatches from the Grand
Council and consulted by the emperor, but that her detachment from court politics and tendency to rely on second-hand accounts had made her subject to
manipulation by her informants to the point that she felt it urgent to resume her "tutelage" of the emperor. Seagrave, argues that most of the more sensational
stories of Empress Dowager Cixi's life can be traced to the boasting, self-important "Wild Fox" Kang Youwei and his cronies who, never having met the Empress
Dowager, concocted stories of plots and poisonings and passed them on to the Western press. Many other "details" of her life are based on accounts by J. O. P.
Bland and known forger Edmund Backhouse. As life in the Forbidden City remained a mystery for most Westerners, these stories created by Kang and
Backhouse (some up to 30 years after the supposed events) were used by many 20th-century historians to paint a misleading picture of the Empress Dowager. In
contrast, Seagrave portrays Empress Dowager Cixi as a woman stuck between the xenophobic Ironhats faction, made up of Manchu nobility wanting to maintain
Manchu dominance and remove Western influences from China at all cost, and more moderate influences trying to cope with China's problems on a more
realistic footing, such as Prince Gong in Cixi's earlier days. The Empress Dowager, Seagrave argues, did not crave power but simply acted to balance these
influences and protect the Dynasty as best she could. According to research by Professor Lei Chia-sheng (), during the Hundred Days'
Reform (), former prime minister of Japan It Hirobumi () arrived in China on September 11, 1898. Almost at the same time, British
missionary Timothy Richard was invited to Beijing by Kang Youwei. Richard suggested that China should hand over some political power to It in order to help
push the reforms further. On September 18, 1898 Richard convinced Kang Youwei to adopt a plan by which China would join a federation composed of China,
Japan, the United States, and England. This suggestion did not reflect the policies of the countries concerned. It was Timothy Richards (and perhaps It
Hirobumi's) trick to convince China to hand over national rights. Kang Youwei nonetheless asked fellow reformers Yang Shenxiu () and Song Bolu
() to report this plan to the Guangxu Emperor. On September 20, 1898 Yang sent a memorial to this effect to the Emperor. In another memorial written
the next day, Song Bolu also advocated the formation of a federation and the sharing of the diplomatic, fiscal, and military powers of the four countries under a
hundred-man committee. Still according to Lei Chia-sheng's findings, on October 13, 1898 British ambassador Sir C. MacDonald reported to his government
about the Chinese situation, saying that Chinese reforms had been damaged by Kang Youwei and his friends actions. British diplomat Baurne claimed in his own
report that Kang was a dreamer who had been seduced by Timothy Richards sweet words. Baurne thought Richard was a plotter. The British and American
governments were unaware of the "federation" plot, which seems to have been Timothy Richards personal idea. Because Richard's partner It Hirobumi had
been Prime Minister of Japan, the Japanese government might have known about Richard's plan, but there is no evidence to this effect. Der Ling, whose
Christian name was Elisabeth Antoinette, was born in Beijing in June 1885 and died in Berkeley, California in November 1944. She was the eldest daughter of
Yu Keng, an official of the Chinese-Martial (Han Jun) Plain White Banner, and his wife, Louisa Pierson, daughter of an American merchant in Shanghai and his
Chinese consort. When Der Ling's father was recalled from Paris, where he had been a Chinese minister, in 1903, Der Ling, her sister Rong Ling (later the wife
of General Dan Paochao) and their mother were summoned by Cixi to become court ladies something between ladies-in-waiting and translators/hostesses for
when the Empress Dowager had foreign female guests from Beijing's Legation Quarter. Der Ling served at court from March 1903 till October 1905, and
married an American, Thaddeus Cohu White, in 1907. After Cixi's death in 1908, Der Ling professed to be so angered by what she saw as false portraits of Cixi
appearing in books and periodicals that she wrote her own account of serving "Old Buddha", which she called "Two Years in the Forbidden City". This book
appeared in 1911, just before the fall of the Qing Dynasty, and was a popular success. In this book, Cixi is not the monster of depravity depicted in the popular
press and in the second and third hand accounts left by foreigners who had lived in Beijing, but an aging woman who loved beautiful things, had many regrets
about the past and the way she had dealt with the many crises of her long reign, and apparently trusted Der Ling enough to share many memories and opinions
with her. It was clearly Cixi's favouritism toward Der Ling, including permitting her to wear a "princess button" on her hat, that prompted Der Ling in later years,
when seeking an English equivalent to her office at court, to add "Princess" to her name, a move that undermined her credibility in China even as it drove up her
stock when she went before the American public in the 1920s to give lectures about life at court with the semi-legendary Cixi. Der Ling ultimately wrote a full-
length biography of Cixi titled 'Old Buddha.' Der Ling would go on to write seven more books about this relatively brief period in her youth when she had been
close to the centre of failing imperial Chinese power, and sharing this personal history and her habit of promoting herself and her writings caused most of her
family to turn against her. All of this has made it difficult to assess Der Ling's contribution to late Qing historiography. But the fact remains that she was the first
woman of Cixi's own ethnic background to live with and observe her and then write about what it was like; if many of Der Ling's recollections smack of the every
day minutiae of a court that thrived on details and form, her writings are no less valuable for focusing on them, particularly as life within the Forbidden City and
the Summer Palace was a closed book for most people in China, let alone in the rest of the world. It was misunderstanding of much of what emanated from the
throne that created so many of the problems Cixi has been wholly blamed for. Starting with Sterling Seagrave's biography of Cixi, 'Dragon Lady: The Life and
Legend of the Last Empress of China', Der Ling and her reminiscence of the imperial court have been rehabilitated in recent years, in tandem with reassessments
of the Empress Dowager herself. In January 2008, Hong Kong University Press published the first biography of Der Ling, 'Imperial Masquerade: The Legend of
Princess Der Ling'. Cixi appears frequently in ceremonies described in the diaries of Sir Ernest Satow for 190006 when Satow was British envoy in Peking.
Another well known but now widely questioned biography is "China Under The Empress Dowager" by J. O. P. Bland and Edmund Backhouse. Backhouse was
later found to have forged some of his source materials when he wrote this work. This is a book that gave rise to much of the negative perspective of the dowager
empress. Pearl S. Buck's novel Imperial Woman chronicles the life of the Empress Dowager from the time of her selection as a concubine until near to her
death. The novels Empress Orchid (2004) and The Last Empress (2007), by Anchee Min portray the life of Empress Dowager Cixi from a first-person
perspective. The Noble Concubine Yi is featured in George McDonald Fraser's novel, Flashman and the Dragon (1985). The 1968 novel Wij Tz'e Hsi Keizerin
Van China (We, Tz'e Hsi, Empress of China) by Dutch author Johan Fabricius is a fictional diary of the Empress. Cixi is portrayed by British actresses Flora
Robson in the 1963 film 55 Days At Peking. In the 1970s, she was portrayed by Lisa Lu in two Hong Kong made films, The Empress Dowager (set during the
Sino-Japanese War) and its sequel, The Last Tempest (set during the "Hundred Days of Reform"). Lu reprised her role as Cixi in the 1987 film The Last
Emperor, depicting the dowager on her deathbed. In the 1980s, she was portrayed by Liu Xiaoqing, in Burning of Imperial Palace (depicting her rise to power in
the 1850s & the burning of the Old Summer Palace by French & British troops in 1860), Reign Behind a Curtain (depicting the Xinyou Coup of 1861) and The
Empress Dowager (set during the later part of the reign of Tongzhi) and Li Lianying, the Imperial Eunuch. Lover of the Last Empress acted by Chingmy Yau.
The China Central Television production Towards the Republic portrayed Empress Dowager Cixi as a capable ruler, albeit not entirely positive, for the first time
in the history of Mainland Chinese television, although it also clearly demonstrated her political views as very conservative. Cixi is also found in the book History's
Monsters, written in 2008 by Simon Sebag Montefiore, which portrays the empress in a very negative light

Regents for the Puyi Emperor

Xiaodingjing (Chinese: ), better known as the Empress Dowager Longyu (Chinese: ), (given name:
Jingfen , January 28, 1868 February 22, 1913). She also had the nickname Xizi (). Empress Xiaodingjing was the Qing
Dynasty Empress Consortof the Guangxu Emperor who ruled China from 1875 to 1908 and Regent of the Qing Dynasty from
December 2, 1908 until February 12, 1912. She is best remembered for signing the abdication on behalf of the child
Emperor Puyi, in 1912, ending imperial rule in China. Empress Xiaodingjing ne Yehenara () was the second
daughter of Vice General Guixiang () by his wife of Mongolianorigin. Lady Yehenara was born in the seventh year
of Emperor Tongzhi's reign and lived from 1868 until February 22, 1913. In 1889, it was decided that the Guangxu Emperor had
to marry before ruling the country in his own right. Among many girls, Lady Yehenara was chosen as the Empress Consort
because her aunt, the Empress Dowager Cixi, wanted to strengthen the power of her own family. She married the Guangxu
Emperor, her cousin, on 26 February 1889, and became his Empress directly after the wedding ceremony. The wedding
ceremony of Guangxu and Longyu, an extremely extravagant and spectacular occasion, took place on February 26, 1889.
However, prior to the wedding, on 16 January 1889, the Forbidden City caught fire, and the Gate of Supreme Harmony was
burnt down. According to the traditions of the Qing Dynasty imperial court, the route of the Emperor's wedding procession had
to pass through the Gate of Supreme Harmony, which was completely destroyed. As a result, many people took this incident as a bad omen. Due to the fact that
the reconstruction of the gate would be extremely time-consuming, and the wedding date of the Emperor could not be postponed once decided, Empress
Dowager Cixi ordered a tent resembling the gate to be constructed. The artisans used paper and wood to build the tent, and after it was done, the tent had exactly
the same height and the same width as the original gate, with ornamentation extremely similar to the original. As a result, even people who walked through the
inner palace on a regular basis could not tell the difference between the original gate and the temporary tent at first. However, after their marriage, Yehenara was
detested and ignored by the Guangxu Emperor, who favoured Consort Zhen of the Tatara clan (Chinese: ). At first, Empress Dowager Cixi
regarded Consort Zhen favourably, but, after finding out she had overspent her allowance, she demoted her. Cixi eventually grew more hostile to the Imperial
Consort, and sent her to a "cold palace", a place reserved for an emperor's disfavoured consorts. Due to her opposition to the Guangxu Emperor's Hundred Days'
Reform of 1898, Empress Dowager Cixi had him imprisoned inside the former Imperial Residence. Lady Yehenara would frequently spy on the Emperor and
report his every action to Empress Dowager Cixi. In 1900, during the Boxer Rebellion, Lady Yehenara fled with the Empress Dowager and Emperor Guangxu
to Xi'an when Beijing was occupied by foreign armies. Upon their return, Consort Zhen drowned in a well within the Forbidden City. Both Princess Der
Ling and Katherine Carl, who spent time in Dowager Empress Cixi's court recalled Empress Longyu to be a gracious and pleasant figure. Both the Guangxu
Emperor and Cixi died within one day of each other in 1908, after which Empress Yehenara was made Empress Dowager, with the honorable titles Longyu,
meaning "Auspicious and Prosperous". Immediately after Emperor Guangxu's death, Empress Dowager Cixi appointed Puyi, a nephew of Guangxu, as the new
emperor. Longyu had no children of her own, and thus as Empress Dowager adopted Puyi. The Empress Dowager Cixi had decreed before her death that
the Qing Dynasty would never again allow the regency of women, but that Longyu was to remain the leading figure and was to be consulted on all major
decisions. When Longyu assumed the title of Empress Dowager, she was, theoretically, in a position to make all important decisions. However, because of her
inexperience in politics, in the first few years the Imperial Court was dominated by the young regent Zaifeng, Prince Chun, the father of the new emperor and
Longyu's brother-in-law, and then by Yuan Shikai; Longyu was dependent on both. On Yuan's advice in the fall of 1911, Empress Dowager Longyu agreed to sign
an abdication on behalf of the six-year-old Xuantong Emperor. She agreed only if the Imperial family were allowed to keep its titles. Other agreements were
these: The Imperial family could keep its possessions. They could stay in the Forbidden City temporarily, then would eventually move to the summer palace.
They would receive an annual stipend of 4,000,000 silver yuan. The Imperial graves would be protected and looked after. The new government would pay for
the funeral and tomb of the late Guangxu emperor. In 1912, the Qing Dynasty was abolished, making way for the new Republic of China. Within a few months
after the fall of the Qing Dynasty, on 22 February 1913, Longyu died in Beijing after an illness. She was 45 years old, and was the only Empress of China whose
coffin was transported from the Forbidden City to her tomb by train. At her funeral, the Vice President of the Republic of China, Li Yuanhong (), praised
Empress Dowager Longyu as the "most excellent among women".

Zaifeng (February 12, 1883 February 3, 1951), titled Prince Chun (Prince Ch'un in WadeGiles) or more formally Prince
Chun of the First Rank (), was the last member of the Qing Dynasty (aka Manchu Dynasty) who effectively ruled
China, as Prince-Regent for his son the emperor Puyi from December 2, 1908 until December 6, 1911. Zaifeng was a
younger half-brother of Puyi's predecessor, the Guangxu Emperor. Zaifeng was born of the Manchu Aisin Gioro clan as the
fifth son of Yixuan, Prince Chun. He was the second of Yixuan's sons who managed to survive into adulthood. Zaifeng's
mother was Lady Lingiya, who was a maid in the Prince Chun residence before becoming one of Yixuan's secondary spouses.
A Han Chinese by birth, her family name was Liu () but was later changed to the Manchu clan name Lingiya () after
she married Yixuan. In 1875 after the Tongzhi Emperor's death, Zaifeng's older half brother Zaitian was selected by Empress
Dowager Cixi and Empress Dowager Ci'an as the successor to the throne. Zaitian then became known as the Guangxu
Emperor. Zaifeng's father Yixuan, as father of the reigning emperor, received the highest honour and status in the Qing
imperial court. Besides, Yixuan also had a close relationship with Empress Dowager Cixi. In January 1891, upon the death of
Yixuan, a barely eight years old Zaifeng immediately inherited his father's title of "Prince Chun of the First Rank" (). In
1900 during the Boxer Rebellion, when the armies of the Eight-Nation Alliance occupied the capital Beijing, Zaifeng's fiance
reportedly committed suicide to prevent herself from being raped and dishonoured by the foreign invaders. Around late
February or early March 1901, Zaifeng was appointed as an Army Inspector by the Qing imperial court, which had moved toXi'an after evacuating Beijing as
the Eight-Nation Alliance's armies closed in on the capital. In June that year, at the insistence of the foreign powers, the 18-year-old Zaifeng was appointed by the
Qing court as a Special Ambassador to offer regrets on behalf of the Qing government to Germany for the murder of German diplomat Baron von Ketteler in
1900. In July, Zaifeng left for Germany by sea and metKaiser Wilhelm II in Berlin in September. He also toured Europe before returning to China, becoming
one of the first members of the Qing imperial clan ever to travel abroad. Empress Dowager Cixi was pleased with the way Zaifeng executed his diplomatic
mission in Germany. He allegedly refused to kneel in front of the Kaiser even when the Germans insisted. In China, however, it was mandatory for foreign
ambassadors to kneel in front of the Chinese emperor. For his success, Zaifeng was subsequently given several key appointments over the following years. At the
same time, Cixi grew wary of Zaifeng because the latter was favoured by the foreign powers. One of the reasons why Zaifeng took up so many important positions
in the Qing court after 1901 was that he was a protg of the foreign powers, which Cixi was careful not to displease. However, she was as intent as ever on
thwarting any challenge to her power, and so Zaifeng clearly posed a problem for her. Cixi saw an opportunity in 1902 on Zaifeng's return from Germany she
ordered Zaifeng to marry Youlan, the daughter of Ronglu, who was a conservative politician in the Qing court and a staunch supporter of Cixi. Ronglu played a
leading role in putting an end to theHundred Days' Reform in 1898, and in the subsequent internment of the Guangxu Emperor, so Zaifeng greatly disliked him,
and agreed to marry his daughter only because he felt it was unwise to oppose Cixi. The marriage between Zaifeng and Youlan was an unhappy one. With
Zaifeng now firmly tied to her, Cixi no longer viewed him as a threat, and when Zaifeng and Youlan's first son Puyi was born in 1906, Puyi became a likely heir to
the throne. Zaifeng and Youlan had another son, Pujie, and three daughters Yunying, Yunhe and Yunying. The Guangxu Emperor died on November 14,
1908, and on the same day, Empress Dowager Cixi issued an imperial edict proclaiming Zaifeng's eldest son Puyi as the successor. Zaifeng was appointed Prince-
Regent to assist his son. Cixi died the following day, ending her 47-year long control over China, while Zaifeng ruled as regent for the next three years. Zaifeng's
first concern was to punish the Beiyang Army's leader Yuan Shikai, who betrayed the Guangxu Emperor and supported Ronglu in putting an end to the Hundred
Days' Reform in 1898. Zaifeng was prevented from executing his plan of having Yuan Shikai assassinated, but Yuan was dismissed from office and ordered to
return to his hometown in Henan on an excuse of "curing his foot disease". Over the next three years from 1909 to 1911, Zaifeng carried out the economic and
political reforms that were initiated after theBoxer Rebellion ended in 1901, but he was torn between the conservative (mainly Manchu officials) and reformist
(mostly Han Chinese officials) factions in the Qing imperial court. The inexperienced Zaifeng concentrated more power in the hands of a small ruling court that
angered bureaucrats on lower levels. He promised a constitution by 1916 with preparatory stages in between. Beginning on February 5, 1909, China held its first
provincial assembly and local council elections (a council election was held inTianjin as early as 1907). 21 provincial assemblies took their seats on October 14,
1909. The vast majority elected were constitutional monarchists with a few crypto-revolutionaries and they turned the assemblies into hotbeds of dissent.
Alarmed, the national assembly, which convened in Beijing on October 3, 1910, had half of its 200 members appointed to balance the other half elected by the
provincial assemblies. The provinces sent 98 members to the capital since Xinjiang, the 22nd province, had yet to hold elections to form an assembly due to its
extreme underdevelopment. Zaifeng only appointed 96 members. Nevertheless, it was the elected members that dominated the floor and wooed the appointed
ones to their side. The national assembly urged Zaifeng to speed up the constitutional process and create a true parliament so Zaifeng responded by pushing
forth the expected deadline to 1913. The Grand Council was replaced by an Imperial Cabinet led by Prime Minister Yikuang on May 8, 1911. It dismayed
constitutionalists as the cabinet was not responsible to the national assembly and contained seven Manchu imperial kinsmen with only four Han Chinese among
its 13 members, breaking a long standing policy of appointing equal numbers of both ethnicity. More power was concentrated in the hands of the Manchu
minority than at any time since the dynasty's early years. The following day, the government announced that it will nationalise major railroads. The nationalisation
infuriated many businessmen who invested heavily in rail, and they were told that they would be compensated with only a portion of the amount they invested.
This alienated many bourgeoisie and gentry and turned them towards revolution. They started the Railway Protection Movement to oppose nationalisation. The
period saw the revolutionaries attempting several insurrections to overthrow the Qing Dynasty, and there was even one attempt by Wang Jingwei to assassinate
Zaifeng in February 1910. Zaifeng did not have the maneuvering talent nor the lust for power of the late Empress Dowager Cixi, and he proved often indecisive
and probably unfit for this troubled period. In 1910 Zaifeng ousted from Tibet the 13th Dalai Lama, who would not return from India until 1913, whereupon the
Dalai Lama declared Tibet independent. On October 10, 1911, the Wuchang Uprising marked the start of the Xinhai Revolution, which aimed to topple the
Qing Dynasty and end imperial rule in China. The Qing court was forced to recall back Yuan Shikai, despite Zaifeng's deep aversion for him, as Yuan was the
only one capable of suppressing the revolution. Yuan became prime minister on 16 November. Zaifeng, now deprived of any real power, stepped down on 6
December 1911, and was replaced by his sister-in-law Empress Dowager Longyu as regent. When he returned home that day, he told his family: "Now I'm back
in the family, and I can finally care for my children". The three years of regency were certainly the most painful years in Zaifeng's life; he never relished power the
way Empress Dowager Cixi or Yuan Shikai did, and witnesses say he was relieved when he left office. Even after returning to private life, Zaifeng remained a
respected figure, among both the Nationalist and later the Communist parties, who appreciated his peaceful stepping down from power and acceptance of China
becoming a republic. Sun Yat-sen even paid him a visit in Beijing in September 1912, during which he congratulated Zaifeng, and the latter formally declared his
support for the Republic of China. After the death of Empress Dowager Longyu in 1913, Zaifeng was put in charge of the small imperial court that remained
around his son Puyi (no longer a ruling emperor), and he managed all the court's affairs until 1924 when Puyi was expelled from the Forbidden City. In 1917,
when Puyi was briefly restored on the throne by the warlord Zhang Xun, Zaifeng played no significant role, as Zhang Xun's slogan for the restoration was "Do not
allow the relatives of the emperor to participate in the government" (). Zaifeng lived in the Northern Residence () in Beijing until 1928. He
spent most of his time in the library reading books on history and newly published magazines. Sometime after 1911, he married another wife, Lady Dengiya, with
whom he had several children. His primary spouse, Youlan, committed suicide in 1921 by swallowing opium after being publicly scolded by Dowager Consort
Duankang (the highest-ranked woman in the imperial court after Empress Dowager Longyu's death in 1913) for the misconduct of her sonPuyi. In 1928 Zaifeng
moved to Tianjin, where he lived in the British and Japanese concessions. In August 1939 he relocated back to the Northern Residence in Beijing when Tianjin
was flooded. During the Second Sino-Japanese War, Zaifeng was not in favour of establishing the Japanese puppet state of Manchukuo, and warned his
son Puyi not to be involved. However Puyi ignored his advice and was installed by the Japanese as the figurehead ruler of Manchukuo. Zaifeng visited his son
thrice in Manchukuo but ostensibly refused to participate in state affairs. Puyi wanted his father to live in Manchukuo but Zaifeng refused and returned to Beijing
on an excuse that he was ill. At the end of the Second Sino-Japanese War, when the National Revolutionary Army recovered Beijing from the Japanese, a letter
of sympathy was sent to Zaifeng by the Beijing Municipality in recognition of his attitude during the Japanese occupation. After the end of the Chinese Civil
War in 1949 and the Communist Party established the People's Republic of China, Zaifeng was held in high regard by the party's members. He sold the
Northern Residence to the government out of financial difficulties. He also donated his library and art collection to Peking University, and provided relief aid to
the victims of the Huai River flooding in 1950. Zaifeng died on February 3, 1951 in Beijing. Many of his descendants reside in Beijing, including Jin Youzhi, Jin
Yuzhang and Jin Yulan. Many have changed their Manchu clan name Aisin Gioro to a Chinese family name Jin (), which means "gold" ("Aisin" also means
"gold" in Manchu). Historians' opinions on Zaifeng and his regency vary. While some describe him as a conservative who tried to reassert Manchu grasp on
power in times of rapid changes, others insist that the reforms he implemented during his regency might have turned China into a liberal constitutional monarchy
if the 1911 Xinhai Revolution did not occur. He had two spouses: Youlan, from the Guwalgiya clan, daughter of Ronglu. Zaifeng married her on 2 February
1902. They had two sons and three daughters and Lady Denggiya (), Zaifeng's second spouse. They had two sons and four daughters. Zaifeng had a total
of 11 children with his two wives. Zaifeng's first five children were born to his first spouse Youlan.



Qing Dynasty
Grand Council or Junjichu
The Grand Council or Junjichu (simplified Chinese: ; traditional Chinese: ; pinyin: Jnjch; Manchu: coohai nashn i ba; literally,
"Office of Military Secrets") was an important policy-making body in the Qing Dynasty. It was established in 1733 by the Yongzheng Emperor. The Council was
originally in charge of military affairs, but gradually attained a more important role and eventually attained the role of a privy council, eclipsing the Grand
Secretariatin function and importance, which is why it has become known as the "Grand Council" in English. Despite its important role in the government, the
Grand Council remained an informal policy making body in the inner court and its members held other concurrent posts in the Qing civil service. Originally,
most of the officials serving in the Grand Council were Manchus, but gradually Han Chinese officials were admitted into the ranks of the council. One of the
earliest Han Chinese officials to serve in the Council was Zhang Tingyu. The chancellery was housed in an insignificant building just west of the gate to Palace of
Heavenly Purity in the Forbidden City.
List of Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty
Wang Xi (1628 - 1703) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from June 1682 until November 1701.
Hoang Ji (1611 - 1686) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from December 1682 until March 1683.
Wu Zhengzhi (1618 - 1691) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from December 1682 until February 1687.
Song Deyi (1626 - 1687) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from September 1684 until his death in 1687.
Yu Guozho was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from April 1687 until February 1688.
Li Zhifang (1622 - 1694) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from September 1687 until February 1688.
Liang Qingbao (1620 - 1691) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from February 1688 until his death in 1691.
Yiswang'a (1638 January 1703) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from February 1688 until his death in January 1703,
Alantai (died 1699) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China fromJuly 1689 until his death in 1699.
Xu Yuanwen (1634 - 1691) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from July 1689 until 1690.
Zhang Yushu (1642 July 1711) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from December 1692 until 1699 and from
December 1701 until his death in July 1711.
Li Tianfu (1635 - 1699) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from December 1692 until his death in 1699.
Wu Dian (died 1705) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from September 1698 until his death in 1705.
Xiong Cil (1635 - 1709) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from December 1699 until June 1703.
Folun (died 1701) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from December 1699 until May 1700.
Maqi (1651/52 - 1739) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from December 1699 until June 1709 and from June 1716
until November 1735.
Zhang Ying (1638 - 1708) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from December 1699 until 1701.
Sihana (Xihan) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from December 1702 until February 1708.
Cheng Tingjing (1639 - 1712) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from June 1703 until his death in 1712.
Li Guangdi (1642 - 1718) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from December 1705 until his death in 1718.
Wenda (died 1716) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from January 1708 until his death in 1716.
Xiao Yongzao (1644 - 1729) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from January 1711 until January 1723,
Songzhu (1657 - 1735) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from May 1712 until February 1723/
Wang Shan (1645 - 1728) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from May 1712 until February 1723.
Wang Xuling (1642 - 1725) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from September 1718 until his death in 1725.
Bai Huang (1660 - 1737) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from January 1723 until August 1725.
Funing'an (died 1728) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from January 1723 until his death in 1728.
Zhang Pengge (1649 - 1725) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from March 1723 until his death in 1725.
Zhang Tingyu (October 29, 1672 April 20, 1755) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from March 1725 until
December 1749. He was a Han Chinese politician and historian during the Qing Dynasty. Zhang Tingyu was born in Tongcheng in Anhui province. In 1700, he
was awarded the highest degree (jinshi) in the imperial examinations and shortly afterwards he was appointed to the Hanlin Academy. He subsequently rose
through the ranks in the Qing civil service and served under the Kangxi, Yongzheng and Qianlong emperors. Zhang Tingyu was especially trusted by the
Yongzheng emperor, who made him one of the first members of the Grand Council, an informal state organ which would, in due course, develop into the
emperor's own privy council. His colleagues included renowned figures like Ma Qi. Zhang was an upstanding civil service officer and highly praised for both his
upright character and principled background. Having considerable skill in literature, he compiled theHistory of Ming in 1739. There is some confusion as to
whether he or another trusted officer Longkodo was the principal announcer of the will of Kangxi. Zhang was the only official to survive the battles of succession
from Kangxi to Yongzheng to Qianlong, and was trusted by all three emperors.
Gao Qiwei (1646 - 1727) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from August 1725 until his death in January 1727.
Zhu Shi (1665 - 1736) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from October 1725 until his death in 1736.
Jiang Tingxi (1669 - 1732) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from May 1728 until February 1731.
Ma'ersai (died September 1733) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from October 1728 until his death in September
1733.
Chen Yuanlong (1652 - 1736) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from February 1729 until September 1733.
Yintai (1651 - 1738/39) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from February 1729 until 1738.
O-er-tai (1680 - 1745) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from February 1732 until his death in 1745.
Ji Zengyun (1671 - 1739) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from June 1733 until his death in 1739.
Jalangga (Chalang'a) (after 1680 - April 1747) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from September 1735 until his death in
April 1747.
Maizhu (1670 January 1738) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from September 1735 until his death in January 1738.
Xu Ben (1683 - 1747) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from December 1736 until August 1744.
Fumin (1673 - 1756) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from February 1738 until February 1746.
Zhao Guolin was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from February 1739 until 1741.
Chen Shiguan (1680 June 1758) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from September 1741 until February 1749 and
from February 1751 until his death in June 1758.
Shi Yizhi was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from February 1744 until July 1755.
Noqin was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from July 1745 until 1748.
(Dong) Qinfu (died 1749) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from February 1746 until February 1747.
Gao Bin (1683 - 1755) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from May 1747 until his death in 1755.
Laibao was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from February 1748 until 1764.
Fuheng (Chinese: ; pinyin: Fhng, Manchu: Fuhen, Burmese: ; died July 1770), style name Chunhe (),
was a Qing Dynasty official from the Manchu Fuca () clan and the Bordered Yellow Banner of the Eight Banners, and was a
brother of theEmpress Xiaoxianchun. He was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from November
1748 until his death in July 1770. He served as a senior minister at the court of his brother-in-law, the Qianlong Emperor from the
1750s to his death in 1770. He is best known for leading the Qing troops in the fourth and last invasion of Burma in the Sino-Burmese
War (17651769). Prior to his appointment as the commander-in-chief of the Burma campaign, Fuheng was chief grand councilor to
the emperor, and one of the emperor's most trusted advisers. Fuheng was one of the few senior officials that fully backed the Qianlong
Emperor's decision to eliminate the Dzungars in the 1750s when most at the court thought war was too risky. His nephew Mingrui was a
son-in-law of the emperor, and led the Burma campaign of 17671768. His son Fuk'anggan was a senior general in the Qing military.
Fuheng was unsuccessful in the Burma campaign. In December 1769, he signed a truce with the Burmese, which the emperor did not accept. He died
of malaria which he contracted during his three-month invasion of Burma, when he got back to Beijing.
Zhang Yunsui was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from February 1750 until May 1751.
Huang Tinggui (1691 - 1759) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from July 1755 until his death in 1759.
Jiang Bo (1708 - 1761) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from February 1759 until his death in 1761.
Liu Tongxun (1700 - 1773) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from July 1761 until his death in 1773.
Liang Shizheng (1697 - December 1763) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from August until December 1763.
Yang Tingzhang (1688 - 1772) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from December 1763 until 1764.
Yinjishan (1696 - 1771) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from 1764 until his death in 1771.
Yang Yinju (died 1767) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from September 1764 until his death in 1767.
Chen Hongmou (1696 April 1771) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from May 1767 until his death in April 1771.
A'ertai (died 1773) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from November 1770 until January 1772.
Liu Lun (1711 - 1773) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from April 1771 until his death in 1773.
Gao Jin was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from July 1771 until February 1779.
Winfu (died 1773) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from January/February 1772 until his death in June/August 1773.
Shuhede (1711 - 1777) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from August 1773 until his death in 1777.
Yu Minzhong (1714 - 1780) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from October 1772 until his death in 1780.
Li Siyao (died 1788) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from January 1774 until 1777.
Agui (1717 - 1797) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from July 1777 until his death in 1797.
Sanbao (died 1784) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from 1779 until his death in 1784.
Chen Jingyi (died 1786) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from January until October 1780.
Yinglian (1707 - 1783) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from Jun 1780 until his death in 1783.
Ji Huang (died 1794) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from September 1780 until his death in 1794.
Cai Xin (1707 - 1800) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from September 1783 until June 1785.
Wumitai (died 1786) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China September 1784 until his death in 1786.
Liang Guozhi (1723 - 1787) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from July 1785 until his death in 1787.




Niohuru Heshen (Niohuru Hesen; Manchu: ; Chinese: ; pinyin: Nihl Hshn; Wade
Giles: Niu
3
-hu
4
-lu
4
Ho
2
-shen
1
, 1746 February 22, 1799), commonly known mononymously as Heshen or Hesen, was from
the Manchu Niohuru clan and an official of the Qing Dynasty who was favoured by the Qianlong Emperor. He was the Grand
Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from July 4, 1786 until March 10, 1792. He was Minister of
Personnel of the Qing Dynasty from September 4, 1784 until September 16, 1786 and Minister of Revenue of the Qing Dynasty
from April 26, 1780 until September 4, 1784. Born Shanbao (Shan-pao; ), his given name was later changed to Heshen.
His courtesy name () was Zhizhai (Chih-chai; ). He was a member of the Plain Red Banner, as well as one of the most
corrupt officials in Chinese history. Heshen was born as the son of a Manchu military officer and was selected to go to the most
privileged school for Manchu aristocratic boys. He lost his mother when he was young and it was said he and his younger
brother had a hard life under his stepmother. However, it was reported that Heshen was an excellent student, knowing several
languages besides Mandarin and Manchu. In 1772, he began work in the Imperial Palace, assigned as an imperial bodyguard
and was stationed at the gates to the Forbidden City. At the age of 25, Heshen was noticed by the Qianlong Emperor. Heshen
was reportedly very attractive in appearance, with very fair skin and luscious, red lips. This invoked rumours of the reasons
behind the emperor's fascination with this man. It was said that when the Qianlong Emperor was still a young prince, he
accidentally ran into the room of an imperial concubine, just as she was putting on her make-up. As a young prince with a
childish nature, Qianlong decided to play a prank on the imperial concubine, tiptoeing from behind her and scaring her. The concubine jumped at the sudden
shock and whilst turning around, hit Qianlong (some say with her comb, some say with her fist). This was a direct breach of imperial protocol, and the action was
witnessed by another court lady who was passing by. The imperial concubine was then demoted, and in face of sudden humiliation, committed suicide by
hanging. It was said that Qianlong, in his guilt, bit his finger and left a bloody mark on her neck so he would recognize her even in her next life. This incident had
a profound impression on Qianlong, and it was said that he found Heshen to be very similar in appearance to the imperial concubine. It had been hypothesised
that Qianlong thought Heshen was the reincarnation of the imperial concubine, since he was born in the year of her death and carried a red birth mark on his
neck, and thus he attempted to overcome his guilt through indulging Heshen with gifts and promotions. Within a year, Heshen was promoted to vice-president of
the Ministry of Revenue, and two months later was made a Grand Councillor. Within three months, he was promoted even further to a minister of the Imperial
Household Department, a post usually filled with the most meritorious officials. In 1777, at the age of 27, Heshen was given the privilege of riding a horse within
the Forbidden City, a prestigious privilege given only to high-ranking officials of elderly age. It was not long before Heshen was given control of both the Ministry
of Revenue and the Civil Council, allowing him to control the revenue of the entire empire, and appoint his own henchmen to important posts within the
officials. Heshen's hold on the Qianlong Emperor was further strengthened when in 1790, his son was married to the emperor's tenth and favourite daughter.
Once secure of the Qianlong Emperor's favour and approbation, Heshen enjoyed almost complete freedom of his actions. He became openly corrupt and
practiced extortion on a grand scale. His supporters within the imperial system followed his lead, and his military associates prolonged campaigns in order to
continue the benefits of additional funds. He abrogated powers and official posts, including that of Grand Councillor, and regularly stole public funds and taxes.
Taxes were raised again and again, and this led to the suffering of the people. Unfortunately, their suffering was compounded by severe floods of the Yellow
River - an indirect result of the corruption where dishonest officials pocketed funds that were meant for the upkeep of canals and dams. Rising prices of rice led
to many that simply starved to death. This widespread corruption and nepotism was the start of a century that led to the downfall of the Qing Dynasty. In 1793,
Heshen was responsible for hosting the Macartney Embassy to the imperial court. The shame of Heshen's corruption came to play when the Qianlong Emperor
abdicated in February 1796, the full damage of the corruption was now in wide view. However, Qianlong continued to rule China behind the scenes under the
grand title of Taishang Huang (Retired Emperor). It was not until Qianlong's death on February 7, 1799 that his successor, theJiaqing Emperor, was able to
prosecute Heshen. On February 12, Heshen was arrested along with military officer Fuchang'an (). Declared guilty by an imperial edict, he was
condemned to slow slicing. The Jiaqing Emperor spared Heshen this horrible death, and instead ordered him to commit suicide (by hanging himself with a rope
of golden silk) in his home on February 22, sparing his family. From the 24 years that Heshen caught the Qianlong Emperor's attention and favour, he had
amassed an incredible fortune. In the Jiaqing Emperor's confiscation of Heshen's property, his wealth estate included: 3,000 rooms in his estates and mansions,
8,000 acres (32 km) of land, 42 bank branches, 75 pawnbroker branches, 60,000 taels of copper alloyed gold, 100 large ingots of pure gold, (1,000 taels each),
56,600 medium silver ingots, (100 taels each), 9,000,000 small silver ingots, (10 taels each), 58,000 livres/pounds of foreign currency, 1,500,000 copper coins, 600
lb of top-quality Jilin ginseng, 1,200 jade charms, 230 pearl bracelets (each pearl comparable in size to large cherries or longans), 10 large pearls (each the size of
apricots), 10 large ruby crystals, 40 large sapphire crystals, 40 tablefuls of solid-silver eating utensils, (serves 10 per table), 40 tablefuls of solid-gold eating utensils,
(serves 10 per table), 11 coral rocks (each over a metre in height), 14,300 bolts of fine silk, 20,000 sheets of fine sheep-fur wool, 550 fox hides, 850 raccoon dog
hides, 56,000 sheep and cattle hides of varying thickness, 7,000 sets of fine clothing (for all four seasons), 361,000 bronze and tin vases and vessels, 100,000
porcelain vessels made by famous masters, 24 highly decorative solid-gold beds (each with eight different types of inlaid gemstones), 460 top-quality European
clocks, 606 servants, 600 women in his harem. His total property was ultimately estimated at around 1,100 million taels of silver, reputedly estimated to be an
amount equivalent to the imperial revenue of the Qing government for 15 years. In his chief butler Liu Quan's quarters, a large quantity of treasures including
240,000 silver taels were also discovered. The Jiaqing Emperor charged Heshen with 20 crimes, of which "defiance of imperial supremacy" and "power
transcendence" accounted for half. The influence of Heshen however did not end with his death, as corruption continued to spread through different levels in
and out of the capital, among both civil and military personnel. Bannermen developed habits that made them useless as a military force. The Chinese Green
Standard Army was beset with irregular practice and had lost much of its fighting spirit shown in the early Qing Dynasty. The habits of luxury and big spending
led to moral degradation and the general decline of the dynasty. The Qianlong Emperor's Ten Great Campaigns were completed at the cost of 120 million taels,
against an annual revenue of some 40 million taels. The result of these massive spendings and increasing trend towards luxury set the path towards financial
instability within the later part of the Qing Dynasty. For hundreds of years, and right through to the present, Heshen has been the stock villain role in theatrical,
film and television productions. Chinese actors Wang Gang and Chen Rui are among the best known persons who have portrayed Heshen on screen: the former
gave the character of Heshen a comical touch with his plump figure; the latter, who played Heshen in the 2004 television series Qianlong Dynasty, was said to
resemble the historical Heshen more closely as compared to Wang Gang. The widespread view of Heshen as a corrupt official most likely originated from Qing
Dynasty historical records, and only the Qing emperor had the authority to determine what content was to be kept in the documents, presenting a possible case
of bias against Heshen. The alternative argument states that whatever the emperor dictates becomes the content of the records. The many official positions held
by Heshen could have posed a threat to the authority of the Jiaqing Emperor, and produced a sense of jealousy to his power and influence over the imperial
court, as well as the more legitimate threat to the emperor. Whether Heshen was an honest official that worked for the empire did not matter to the emperor,
because Heshen still held a prominent position. It is uncertain whether Heshen yielded significant respect from the other officials during the Qianlong Emperor's
reign or the administrations simply feared his power. The Jiaqing Emperor, whether acting from the threat of Heshen's overarching influence over the court or
from jealousy, with the influence of other officials who disliked Heshen, could have brought charges against Heshen through legal pretexts that would condemn
him to a death sentence. It is argued that the majority of Heshen's wealth were originally from gifts of the Qianlong Emperor, not from money siphoned by
corrupt actions. Several decades after Heshen's death, his former residence was later given to Prince Gong as the latter's official residence. The estate, known as
the Prince Gong Mansion, is now preserved as a museum and a tourist attraction. It is located at 17 Qianhai Road West in Beijing. He had wife Feng Jiwen
(), granddaughter of Feng Yinglian (); mother of Fengshen Yinde, Heshen's second son, and Heshen's three daughters. He had concubine Lady
Chang (). He had two sons Fengshen Yinde () (18 February 1775 - May 1810), married Kurun Princess Hexiao and second son (1794-?). He had
also three daughters
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Fujun (1749 - 1834) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from January 1832 until his death in 1834.
Pan Shi'en (1770 - 1854) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from May 1833 until July 1850.
Ruan Yuan (1764 - 1849) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from March 1835 until 1838.
Wenfu (died 1841) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from March 1835 until August 1836.
Muzhang'a (1782 - 1856) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from September 1836 until 1852.
Qishan (1790 - 1854) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from ay 1838 until February 1841.
Wang Ding (1768 - 1842) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from July 1838 until his death in 1842.
Jueluo Baoxing (1776 - 1848) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from March 1841 until his death in 1848.
Zhuo Bingtian (1782 - 1855) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from January 1845 until his death in 1855.
Jiying (Kiying) (1790 - 1858) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from December 1848 until December 1850.
Qi Junzao (1793 - 1866) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from July 1850 until January 1855.
Saishanga (died 1875) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from February 1851 until October 1852.
Narjinga (Na'erjing'e) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from October 1852 until January 1854.
Yucheng (died 1858) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from December 1852 until his death in 1858.
Aisin Gioro Yixin (Aisin Gioro I-hsin; Chinese: ), commonly known mononymously as Yixin (I-
hsin; Manchu: I Hin; Chinese: ; January 11, 1833 - May 19, 1898), and better known as Prince Gong (Prince Kung; or,
formally, Prince Gong of the First Rank; ), was a prince and statesman of the Qing Dynasty. He was the Grand Secretary
(Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from 1853 until 1855 and from 1861 until 1884. He was the sixth son of
the Daoguang Emperor and a half brother of Daoguang's successor, the Xianfeng Emperor. He served as regent during the reign
of Xianfeng's son and successor, theTongzhi Emperor. Having established the Zongli Yamen (a government body in charge of
foreign affairs) in 1861, Yixin is best remembered as a proponent of maintenance of friendly relations between the Qing
government and the foreign powers, as well as for his attempts to modernise China in the late 19th century. Commonly referred to
as the "Sixth Prince" () in his time, Yixin was nicknamed "Devil Number Six" () by conservatives in the Qing
imperial court, in reference to his frequent contacts with westerners (gweilo; literally "foreign devils", a colloquialism for
westerners). Yixin was born of the Manchu Aisin Gioro clan, the imperial clan of the Qing Dynasty, as the sixth son of
the Daoguang Emperor. His mother was Consort Jing (posthumously known as Empress Xiaojingcheng) of the Mongol
Borjigit clan. Yixin was mentored by Zhuo Bingtian () and Jia Zhen (), and was known to be a bright and diligent
student. When the Daoguang Emperor was selecting an heir from among his sons, he was unable to decide between Yixin and his fourth son Yizhu (the
future Xianfeng Emperor), but eventually wrote a secret edict in 1846 announcing that he had designated the latter as his successor. Three years later the
Daoguang Emperor had a tomb built in the consorts' cemetery for Yixin's mother, Noble Consort Jing, and ordered that she must be buried there after death.
Daoguang's action hinted that he would never appoint Yixin as his successor (If Yixin did become emperor later, his mother would be posthumously honoured
as an empress. Empresses of the Qing Dynasty who died before their emperors were buried together with their husbands, while those who died after their
husbands had individual tombs for themselves. Since Daoguang already had a tomb built for Yixin's mother before she died and ordered that she be buried there
after death, this meant that he only regarded her as a secondary spouse, so her son would never become emperor). In February 1850, before his death, the
Daoguang Emperor revealed the secret edict he wrote in 1846,
[1]
which decreed that Yizhu would be instated as Crown Prince (), while Yixin would
become a Prince of the First Rank (). Yixin married the daughter of Guiliang (), an important court official of the Manchu Gwalgiya clan. The
marriage is often seen as a sign that the Daoguang Emperor favoured Yixin, but in fact the marriage was arranged after Daoguang had appointed Yining as his
heir, so this marriage may only be viewed as an act of "compensation" for Yixin. Besides, Yixin's wife was not a favourite daughter of Guiliang, and was born to
Guiliang's secondary spouse. During the reign of the Xianfeng Emperor, Yixin and his mother (who held the title of Dowager Consort) falsified an imperial edict
in Xianfeng's name that granted Yixin's mother the title of Empress Dowager. Xianfeng was greatly displeased, but did not rescind the edict in order to save
himself from public embarrassment. Yixin's mother died after being Empress Dowager for eight days, and was posthumously known as Empress Xiaojingcheng.
Yixin did not play an important roles in politics, and only served as a military minister from 1853 to 1855. In 1860 during the Second Opium War, Yixin was
appointed as an Imperial Envoy with Full Authority () and ordered to remain in the capital Beijing to negotiate with the British, French and
Russians on behalf of the Qing government. The Xianfeng Emperor himself fled from Beijing and moved his imperial court to the Chengde Summer
Palace in Hebei. Yixin was successful in the negotiations and concluded the Convention of Beijing with the western powers. The Xianfeng Emperor died in the
summer of 1861 in the Chengde Summer Palace and was succeeded by the young Tongzhi Emperor. Before his death, Xianfeng
appointed Zaiyuan, Duanhua, Sushun and five other senior court officials to serve as regents for the Tongzhi Emperor. In November 1861, Yixin plotted with
the empress dowagers Cixi and Ci'an to launch the Xinyou Coup () to seize power from the eight regents. The regents were escorting the Xianfeng
Emperor's coffin back to the Forbidden City when they were intercepted upon arrival and placed under arrest. Zaiyuan and Duanhua were forced to commit
suicide,Sushun was executed, and the five other regents were stripped of power. After the Xinyou Coup, the empress dowagers Cixi and Ci'an became co-regents
of the Qing government while Yixin was appointed as Prince-Regent () and placed in charge of important state affairs, including control over the Grand
Council. Yixin remained in power as regent from 1861 to 1884 throughout the reigns of the Tongzhi and Guangxuemperors. In 1861 Yixin established
the Zongli Yamen, which functioned as the Qing government's de facto ministry of foreign affairs. As the longstanding leader of the organisation, Yixin was
responsible for spearheading various reforms during the early part of the Self-Strengthening Movement, a series of measures taken by the Qing government to
modernise China. He also founded the Tongwen Guan in 1862 for Chinese scholars to read foreign languages and study technology. In 1865 Yixin was accused
by Cai Shouqi () for "monopolising state power, accepting bribes, practising favouritism, behaving arrogantly, and showing disrespect towards the
emperor." Empress Dowager Cixi became suspicious of Yixin and stripped him off his position of Prince-Regent. Despite so, Yixin continued to remain as a
central figure of power in the Qing imperial court. In 1869, An Dehai (), a eunuch and close aide of Empress Dowager Cixi, was executed by Ding
Baozhen for travelling to Shandong, because eunuchs were forbidden to travel out of the Forbidden Palace without permission. Ding Baozhen was believed to
have been instigated by Yixin, and Cixi was very unhappy with Yixin. In 1873 Yixin strongly opposed the construction of the New Summer Palace and further
incurred the anger of Cixi. In 1884 the SinoFrench War broke out and Yixin was in charge of directing the military department (), which was
disorganised and indecisive on whether to fight or make peace. This resulted in a Chinese defeat in the war and Yixin lost considerable prestige. Later that year,
Empress Dowager Cixi dismissed Yixin from office and ordered him to remain at home to "recuperate from illness". Yixin was replaced by his younger half
brother Yixuan. Some officials such as Baoyun (), Li Hongzao (), Jinglian () andWeng Tonghe, who previously served under Yixin's
administration were removed from office. This incident was known as the "Cabinet Change of Jiashen" () or "Political Change of Jiashen"
() because it took place in the Jiashen Year according to the Chinese sexagenary cycle. After his dismissal, Yixin remained in Jietai Temple in
western Beijing most of the time. In 1894 on the outbreak of the First Sino-Japanese War, Yixin, who was already in his old age, was recalled back to the imperial
court to deal with the situation. Yixin served in the military department and Zongli Yamen until he became critically ill in 1898 and eventually died in that year. In
the 20th century, Yixin was vilified by the Chinese for a long time as the man responsible for "selling" the country to the western powers through his various
reforms and talks with the foreigners. In recent times, perceptions of him have changed and he is recognised as an exemplary statesman of equal calibre as Li
Hongzhang. Some historians claim that Yixin took a more active role in the Xinyou Coup in 1861. Sterling Seagrave claimed in Dragon Lady: The Life and
Legend of the Last Empress of Chinathat Chinese historical records showed that the Xianfeng Emperor had appointed the two empress dowagers (Empress
Dowager Cixi and Empress Dowager Ci'an) as the Tongzhi Emperor's regents in accordance with imperial tradition. The eight regents led by Sushun had
appointed themselves as co-regents for the emperor and handed only one imperial seal to Ci'an and kept the other for themselves. Yixin was aware that the
xenophobic attitudes of the eight regents would lead to China's doom by adversely affecting China's relations with the western powers. Thus, he enlisted the
assistance of the two empress dowagers to remove the eight regents from power. He had spouse: Lady Guwalgiya (). He had following children: Kurun
Princess Rongshou (), Yixin's eldest daughter, Zaicheng (; 18581885), Yixin's eldest son, granted the title of beile, Zaiying (; 1861
1909), Yixin's second son, granted the title of a beile. He was adopted by Yihe (), Prince Zhong of the Second Rank, Zaijun (), Yixin's third son, granted
the title of Duke Who Assists the Nation (), died early and Zaihuang (), Yixin's fourth son, died early.
Jia Zhen (1798 - 1874) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from January 1855 until July 1856 and from November 1867.
Wenqing (1796 - 1856) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from October 1855 until his death in 1856.
Ye Mingzhen (1807 - 1859) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from January 1856 until January 1857.
Peng Yunzhang (1792 - 1862) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from November 1856 until October 1860.
Guiliang (1785 - 1862) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from January 1857 until his death in 1862.
Bojun (died 1859) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China in October 1858.
Weng Xingcun (1791 - 1862) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from October 1858 until June 1859 and from
December 1861 until his death in 1862.
Ruilin (died 1874) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from February 1859 until October 1860 and from August 1871
until his death in 1874.
Guanwen (1798 - 1871) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from February 1861 until his death in 1871.
Zhou Zupei (died 1867) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from February 1861 until his death in 1867.
Woren (after 1800 - 1871) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from October 1862 until his death in 1871.
Zeng Guofan (1811 - 1872) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from June 10, 1867 until 1871.
Zhu Fengbiao (died 1873) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from April 1868 until 1872.
Ruichang (died 1872) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from April 1871 until his death in 1872.
Wen Xiang (1818 - 1876) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from August 10, 1872 until his death in 1876.
Li Hongzhang (1823 - 1901) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from August 16, 1872 until his death in 1901.
Dan Moaqian (died 1880) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from October 1, 1872 until 1874.
Zuo Zongtang (1812 - 1885) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from October 18, 1874 until his death in 1885.
Baoyun (1807 - 1891) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from July 1874 until 1884.
Yingghui (1798 - 1878/9) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from February 1877 until 1878.
Zailing (died 1883) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from July 5, 1878 until October 24, 1880.
Quanqing (c.1820 - 1882/83) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from December 23, 1880 until October 20, 1881.
Linggui (died 1885) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from December 26, 1881 until his death in 1885.
Wen Yu (died November 28, 1884) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from June 23 until his death on November 28,
1884.
Olohubu (Elehuobu) (after 1830 - 1901) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from November 1884 until April 15, 1896.
Encheng (died 1892) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from January 1886 until his death in 1892.
Yan Jingming (1817 - 1892) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from January 1886 until August 23, 1888.
Zhang Zhiwan (1811 - 1897) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from January 1889 until October 20, 1896.
Fukun (after 1830 - 1895) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from October 1892 until his death in 1895.
Linshu (died 1898) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from August 17, 1895 until his death in 1898.
Kun'gang (died 1907) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from June 14, 1896 until 1903.
Xu Tong (1819 - 1900) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from December 9, 1896 until his death in 1900.
Runglu (Ronglu) (1836 - 1903) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from June 15, 1898 until his death in 1903.
Wang Wenshao (1830 - 1908) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from January 6, 1900 until June 21, 1907.
Sun Jianai (1827 - 1909) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from January 31, 1902 until his death in 1909.
Jingxin (died 1908) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from October 1903 until October 16, 1904.
Chongli (died 1908) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from October 15, 1903 until June 29, 1905.
Yde (died October 28, 1906) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from November 9, 1905 until his death in October 28,
1906.
Shi Xu (1852 - 1921) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from January 10, 1905 until October 30, 1911.
Natong (1856 - 1925) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from January 10, 1905 until 1911.
Zhang Zhidong (1837 - 1909) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from August 10, 1907 until his death in 1909.
Lu Zhuanlin (died 1910) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from November 6, 1909 until his death in 1910.
Lu Runyang (died 1913) was the Grand Secretary (Da Qing Da Xueshi) of Qing Dynasty of China from September 1910 until October 30, 1911.



Inner Mongolia (Mengjiang)
Minangkabau was the state in present Indonesia. The Minangkabau ethnic group, also known as Minang (Urang Minang in Minangkabau language), is indigenous
to theMinangkabau Highlands of West Sumatra, in Indonesia. Their culture is matrilineal, with property and land passing down from mother to daughter, while
religious and political affairs are the responsibility of men (although some women also play important roles in these areas). Today 4 million Minangs live in West
Sumatra, while about 3 million more are scattered throughout many Indonesian and Malay peninsular cities and towns. The Minangkabau are strongly Islamic,
but also follow their ethnic traditions, or adat. The Minangkabau adat was derived from animistbeliefs before the arrival of Islam, and remnants of animist beliefs
still exist even among some practicing Muslims. The present relationship between Islam and adat is described in the saying "tradition [adat] founded upon Islamic
law, Islamic law founded upon the Qur'an" (adat basandi syara', syara' basandi Kitabullah). Their West Sumatran homelands were the location of the Padri
War from 1821 to 1837.
Mengjiang (Mengkiang; Chinese: ; pinyin: Mngjing; WadeGiles: Meng
3
-chiang
1
; Hepburn: Mky), also known in English as Mongol Border Land, was
an autonomous area in Inner Mongolia, existing as a puppet state of theJapan under nominal Chinese sovereignty. Formed in 1939, it consisted of the then-
Chinese provinces of Chahar and Suiyuan, corresponding to the central part of modern Inner Mongolia. It is occasionally called Mengguguo (or Mengkukuo
; Chinese: ) (in analogy to Manchukuo, another Japanese puppet state in Manchuria). The capital was Kalgan, and the ruler wasDemchugdongrub. The
territory returned to Chinese control after the defeat of the Japanese Empire in 1945.
List of Chairmans of the Mongolian Military Government and Chairmen of the Mongol United Autonomous Government of Inner Mongolia
(Mengjiang)
Yun Wang (Yondonwangchug) (1871 - July 1938) was the Chairman of the Mongolian Military Government of Inner Mongolia
from May 12, 1936 until October 28, 1937 and Chairmen of the Mongol United Autonomous Government of Inner Mongolia from
October 28, 1937 until his death in July 1938. He was an Inner Mongolian nobleman of Ulanqab League and politician under
the Qing Dynasty, Republic of China and Mengjiang governments. His name Yondonwangchug, also spelled Yondan Wangchuk or
Yunden Wangchuk, is of Tibetan origin; it is transcribed into Chinese asChinese: ; pinyin: Yndun Wngchuk. For
short, he is referred to as Prince Yun, a translation of Chinese: ; pinyin: Yn Wng. Yondonwangchug was born in 1870 in what
is today Darhan Muminggan United Banner. In his early years, he studied the Tibetan andChinese languages. He became deputy
head of Ulanqab League in 1896. In 1924, he established the banner's first school. In 1934, he took up the chairmanship of
the Mongol Local Autonomy Political Affairs Committee under the Nanjing government. However, he was frustrated by its limited
authority and clashes with Suiyuan Province authorities under Fu Zuoyi. Angered by Shirabdorji's uncooperative attitude towards the
Committee, in October 1935 Yondonwangchug attempted to strip Shirabdorji of his titles, and sent troops to Shirabdorji's residence;
Shirabdorji responded that the council had no power to order his dismissal or appoint new officials to his positions, which were, after all, hereditary. There,
Yondonwangchug's forces clashed with Fu's; the Nanjing government did little to intervene. After he incident he went into virtual retirement, and formally
resigned in March 1936. Yondonwangchug was named chairman of the pro-Japanese Mongol Military Government when it was established in April 1936. In
July 1936, a newspaper account states that he was arrested on a visit to Bailingmiao and held in the military headquarters there, and charged with high treason. In
October 1937 he was announced as the chairman of the newMongol United Autonomous Government. He died in July 1938, reportedly by poisoning.
Demchugdongrub, commonly known as Prince De or De Wang, (February 8, 1902 May 23, 1966) was the leader of a
Mongol independence movement in Inner Mongolia. He was the chairman of Mengjiang, a Japanese puppet state in World War II
as Chairman of the Mongolian Military Government from July 1938 until September 1, 1939, Chairman of the Inner Mongolia
Autonomous Government from September 1, 1939 until December 29, 1949 (Chinese prisoner from October 1945 until August
1949), Vice Chairman of the Executive Council of Inner Mongolia from January 8, 1936 until October 28, 1937 and Vice
President of the Mongol United Autonomous Government from October 28, 1937 until July 1938. Demchugdongrub was a Mongol
nationalist and he was promoting Pan-Mongolism. Others view him as a traitor and as the pawn of the Japanese during World War
II. A Chahar born of the Plain White Banner in Chahar Province, Demchugdongrub was the sole son of Namjil Wangchuk, the
Duoluo Duling Junwang ( Dulu Dlng Jnwng) of Snid Right Banner and Chief of the Shilingol Alliance. His
name consists of the Tibetan words which means "Chakrasamvara (bde mchog)" and "Siddhartha (don grub)" respectively. After
Namjil Wangchuk died in 1908, the six-year-old Demchugdongrub, with the approval of the Qing Empire, inherited one of his
father's titles the Duoluo Duling Junwang. In his youth Demchugdongrub studied the Mongolian, Chinese, and Manchu languages.
After the fall of the Qing Empire, Yuan Shikai promoted Demchugdongrub to the title of Zhasake Heshuo
Duling Qinwang ( Zhsk Hshu Dlng Qnwng) in 1912. Demchugdongrub married a daughter of a Taiji (Qing aristocratic title)
nobleman from his own Snid Right Banner, and the next year had their first child, Dolgorsuren ( Dug'rslng). Several years later,
Demchugdongrub had four more sons and one daughter with his second wife, Fujin ( Fjn), a daughter of another Taiji nobleman from the Abaga Banner.
Demchugdongrub was appointed as a member of the Chahar Provincial Committee in 1929. In 1931 he succeeded to the post of the Chief of Shilingol League,
after Yang Cang ( Yng Sng) and Sodnom Rabdan ( Sutnm Lbtn). During September 1933, the Mongolian princes
of Chahar and Suiyuan Provinces traveled to the temple at Bat Khaalga (Bailingmiao), north of Guihua, and gathered in a council chamber with
Demchugdongrub, who for months had been trying to found a Pan-Mongolian self-rule movement. In mid-October, despite their traditional suspicions of one
another, they and Demchugdongrub agreed to draw up confederation documents for the Inner Mongolian banners. They sent word to Nanjing that they
intended to rule Inner Mongolia themselves. They indicated that if they were obstructed by the Chinese government that they would not hesitate to seek
assistance from Japan. Nanjing in response sent Huang Shaoxiong as an envoy, who in the end authorised the creation of the Mongol Local Autonomy Political
Affairs Committee. In 1935, Demchugdongrub, now the leader of the Mongols of Inner Mongolia, made serious efforts to set up an autonomous Mongolian
Government in Chahar and Suiyuan. The Japanese General Jir Minami, commander of the Kwangtung Army, and Colonel Seishir Itagaki gave support to the
new Inner Mongolian Autonomous Government, which they felt would weaken China and be subject to the influence of Japan. In April 1935 Minami sent
Major Ryukichi Tanaka and another officer to interview Demchugdongrub with the goal of formalizing Japanese support, but Demchugdongrub did not agree to
terms set by the Japanese at that time. After establishing a ceremonial Mengjiang-Manchukuo alliance in May 1935, Henry Puyi honoured Demchugdongrub with
the title of Prince De the Martial ( Wd Qnwng). In June 1935 the North Chahar Incident and the resulting Chin-Doihara Agreement substantially
affected events in the Inner Mongolian province of Chahar. The most important provisions of the Chin-Doihara Agreement forced all units of the Chinese 29th
Army to be withdrawn from the eastern districts of Chahar province and north of Changpei, including the 132nd Division in Changpei. The withdrawal of the
132nd Division effectively ceded control of nearly all of Chahar province in Mengjiang. Peace and order in Chahar was to be entrusted to the Peace Preservation
Corps, an organization that was little more than a police force with light arms only. Also, no Chinese were to be permitted to migrate to or settle in the northern
part of Chahar province, which was largely populated by nomadic Mongols. No activities of the Koumintang were to be permitted in Chahar province. All anti-
Japanese institutions and official acts in Chahar province were to be banned.
[4][5]
When General Minami met with Prince Demchugdongrub in August 1935, the
Prince promised close cooperation with Japan, and Minami promised financial assistance to the Prince. On December 24, 1935, General Minami sent two
battalions of irregular Manchurian cavalry under Li Shouxin, a squadron of Japanese planes, and a few tanks to assist the Prince in taking over the northern part
of Chahar province. The six districts of northern Chahar were defended by only a few thousand lightly armed Chinese Peace Preservation Corps. With Li's
assistance the Prince's forces were soon able to overrun the area. The Japanese Kwangtung Army, in February 1936, decided to establish the Mongol Military
Government ( Mngg Jnzhngf). with Demchugdongrub as the commander and Toyonori Yamauchi (
?
) as the advisor. The Japanese
proclaimed that Demchugdongrub on a mission to "inherit the great spirit of Genghis Khan and retake the territories that belong to Mongolia, completing the
grand task of reviving the prosperity of the nationality". In March 1936, Manchurian troops occupying Chahar invaded northeastern Suiyuan, which was
controlled by the Shanxi warlord Yan Xishan. These Japanese-aligned troops seized the city of Bailingmiao in northern Suiyuan, where the pro-Japanese Inner
Mongolian Autonomous Political Council maintained its headquarters. Three months later Demchugdongrub, as the head of the Political Council, declared that
he was the ruler of an independent Mongolia, and organized and army with the aid of Japanese equipment and training. On April 21 - 26, 1936
Demchugdongrub and Li Shouxin met with the Japanese Special Service Chief Captain Takayoshi Tanaka at West Wuchumuhsin. Representatives from places
in Inner Mongolia, Tsinghai, and Outer Mongolia also attended the meeting, which was called the "State-Founding Conference". A plan was drawn up to create a
Mongolian State which would include all of Mongolia and Tsinghai. It was to be a monarchy, but would initially be run by an interim committee. A Mongolian
Congress was planned and most importantly there was a plan to organize a Mongolian military government and an army. The Mongol Military Government was
formed on 12 May 1936. A mutual assistance agreement with Manchukuo was also concluded in July 1936, with Japan providing military and economic aid.
After the conclusion of the treaty, Demchugdongrub set out to enlarge and equip his army for the expansion of his new state into Suiyuan. The Prince increased
his army from three cavalry divisions to nine with the aid of Takayoshi Tanaka and his Japanese advisors. The Japanese provided arms captured from the
Northeastern Army, but Tanaka ignored the advice of the Mongolian leaders and recruited poorly armed levies and ex bandits from various regions. Because it
had no ideological unity, poor training, and only enough rifles for half of the soldiers, this force had poor morale and cohesion. This force totaled about 10,000
men. A puppet Chinese army, the Grand Han Righteous Army underWang Ying, was attached to Demchugdongrub's Inner Mongolian Army. In August 1936
Demchugdongrub's army attempted to invade eastern Suiyuan, but it was defeated by Yan Xishan's forces under the command of Fu Zuoyi. Following this defeat,
Demchugdongrub rebuilt his armed forces and planned another invasion. Japanese agents carefully sketched and photographed Suiyuan's defenses while
Demchugdongrub was rebuilding his armed forces. In November 1936 Demchugdongrub presented Fu Zuoyi with an ultimatum to surrender. When Fu
responded that Demchugdongrub was merely a puppet of "certain quarters" and requested that he submit to the authority of the Chiang Kai-shek's central
government, Prince Teh's Mongolian and Manchurian armies launched another, more ambitious attack. This time Demchugdongrub's 15,000 soldiers were
armed with Japanese weapons, supported by Japanese aircraft, and often led by Japanese officers. (Japanese soldiers fighting for Mengguguo were often executed
by Chinese forces after their capture as illegal combatants, since Mengjiang and was not recognized as being part of Japan). In anticipation of this attempt to take
control of Suiyuan, Japanese spies destroyed a large supply depot in Datong and carried out other acts of sabotage. Yan Xishan placed his best troops and most
able generals, including Zhao Chengshou and Yan's son-in-law, Wang Jingguo, under the command of Fu Zuoyi. During the month of fighting that ensued, the
army or Mengguguo suffered severe casualties. Fu's forces succeeded in occupying Bailingmiao on November 24, 1936, and was considering
invading Chahar before he was warned by the Kuangtung Army that doing so would provoke an attack by the Japanese Army. Demchugdongrub's forces
repeatedly attempted to retake Bailingmiao, but this only provoked Fu into sending troops north, where he successfully seized the last of Demchugdongrub's
bases in Suiyuan and virtually annihilated his army. After Japanese were found to be fighting in Demchugdongrub's army, Yan publicly accused Japan of aiding
the invaders. Yan's victories in Suiyuan over Japanese-backed forces were praised by Chinese newspapers and magazines, other warlords and political leaders,
and many students and other members of the Chinese public. Demchugdongrub withdrew to Chahar and again reconstructed his army with Japanese help. By
the time that the Second Sino-Japanese War began, in July 1937, his army consisted of 20,000 men in eight Cavalry Divisions. The forces under his command
participated in Operation Chahar and the Battle of Taiyuan, when the Japanese and Mongol forces finally captured most of Suiyuan province. The Mengjiang
United Autonomous Government ( Mngjing Linh Zzhzhngf) was set up in 1939 with Demchugdongrub first being the vice-chairman,
then the chairman. In 1941 he became chairman of the Mongolian Autonomous Federation. After World War II, and the collapse of the Federation,
Demchugdongrub lived in Beijing for four years under the supervision of the Kuomintang government. Just before the founding of the People's Republic of
China in August 1949 he managed to establish an "Autonomous Government" in the westernmost region of Inner Mongolia. In December, threatened by the
Communist army, Demchugdongrub fled to Mongolia and was at first welcomed there, but was later arrested by the People's Republic of Mongolia in the
following February and deported to China in September, where he was charged with treason by the People's Republic of China. Under supervision, he wrote nine
memoirs and was pardoned 13 years later in April. After his release from jail Demchugdongrub worked in an Inner Mongolian history museum in Hohhot until
his death at the age of 64.


Minangkabau
Minangkabau was the state in present Indonesia. The Minangkabau ethnic group, also known as Minang (Urang Minang in Minangkabau language), is indigenous
to theMinangkabau Highlands of West Sumatra, in Indonesia. Their culture is matrilineal, with property and land passing down from mother to daughter, while
religious and political affairs are the responsibility of men (although some women also play important roles in these areas). Today 4 million Minangs live in West
Sumatra, while about 3 million more are scattered throughout many Indonesian and Malay peninsular cities and towns. The Minangkabau are strongly Islamic,
but also follow their ethnic traditions, or adat. The Minangkabau adat was derived from animistbeliefs before the arrival of Islam, and remnants of animist beliefs
still exist even among some practicing Muslims. The present relationship between Islam and adat is described in the saying "tradition [adat] founded upon Islamic
law, Islamic law founded upon the Qur'an" (adat basandi syara', syara' basandi Kitabullah). Their West Sumatran homelands were the location of the Padri
War from 1821 to 1837.
List of Rulers (title Raja Alam Yang di Pertuan Sakti) of Minangkabau
Tuanku Sultan Alif Kalipatullah Raja Alam XXV was a ruler of Minangkabau from 1641 until 1680.
Tuanku Perkasa Alam Pemangku Raja Alam XXVI was a ruler of Minangkabau from 1680 until 1695.
Tuanku Sultan Raja Bagewang II Pemangku Raja Alam XXVII was a ruler of Minangkabau from 1695 until 1719.
Tuanku Sultan Arif Badaeunsyah Raja Alam XXVIII was a ruler of Minangkabau from 1719 until 1739.
Tuanku Raja Alam Muningsyah I Raja Alam XXIX was a ruler of Minangkabau from 1739 until 1780.
Tuanku Raja Basusu Ampek Tuanku Raja Alam Muningsyah II Raja Alam XXX (1745 - 1825) was a ruler of Minangkabau from 1780
until 1798.
Tuanku Rajo Bawang Tuanku Raja Alam Muningsyah III Raja Alam XXXI was a ruler of Minangkabau from 1798 until 1803.
Raja Garang Tuanku Sambahyang III Sumpur Kudus Pemangku Raja Alam XXXII was a ruler of Minangkabau from 1803 until 1804.
Tuanku Raja Hitam Tuanku Raja Alam Bagagarsyah Johan Berdaulam Raja Alam XXXIII (died 1849) was a ruler of Minangkabau
from 1804 until his death in 1849.




Suroasso
Suroasso was the state in present Indonesia. In 1821 Suroasso was extinguished by Netherlands colonial government.
Ruler (title Daulat Yang Dipertuan Raja Alam) of Suroasso
Sultan Kerayahan Alam was a ruler of Suroasso from ? until 1821.


Pagar Ujong
Pagar Ujong was the state in present Indonesia. In 1834 Pagar Ujong was extinguished by Netherlands colonial government.
List of Rulers (title Daulat Yang Dipertuan Raja Alam) of Pagar Ujong
Sultan Alam Bagager was a ruler of Pagar Ujong from ? until 1821.
Raja Yahsir Alam was a ruler of Pagar Ujong from 1821 until 1834.

Awak Sungai
Awak Sungai was the state in present Indonesia. In 1816 Awak Sungai was extinguished by Netherlands colonial government.
Sultan of Awak Sungai
Khalifatullah Inayat Syah was a ruler of Awak Sungai from 1789 until 1816.

Bila
Bila was the state in present Indonesia
List of Rajas of Bila
Sultan Rakhmat Syah was a ruler of Bila from 1785 until 1800.
Sultan Bidar Alam II was a ruler of Bila from 1800 until 1835.
Sultan Bidar Alam III was a ruler of Bila from 1835 until 1865.
Sultan Bidar Alam IV was a ruler of Bila from 1865 until 1903.
Sultan Bidar Alam V was a ruler of Bila from 1903 until ?

Sungai Taras
Sungai Taras was the state in present Indonesia.
List of Rajas of Sungai Taras
Marhum Asal was a ruler of Sungai Taras from 1775 until 1810.
Marhum Mangkat di-Rantau Baru was a ruler of Sungai Taras from 1810 until 1835.
Sultan Muda I was a ruler of Sungai Taras from 1835 until 1871.
Sultan Muda II was a ruler of Sungai Taras from 1775 until 1810.




Tasik (Kota Pinang)
Tasik (Kota Pinang) was the state in present Indonesia
List of Rajas of Tasik (Kota Pinang)
Sultan Bongsa II was a ruler of Tasik (Kota Pinang) from 1795 until 1815.
Sultan Mustafa was a ruler of Tasil (Kota Pinang) from 1815 until 1871.
Yang Dipertuan Sati was a ruler of Tasil (Kota Pinang) from 1871 until 1905.
Sulung Mustafa Yang Dupertuan Mamur Perkasa Alam Syah was a ruler of Tasil (Kota Pinang) from 1905 until ?

Bubasan
Bubasan was the state in present Indonesia
List of Rulers (title Kejuruan) of Bubasan
Bedul Raja Ucak Aman Daud was a ruler of Bubasan from ? until 1934.
Raja Ujam was a ruler of Bubasan from 1934 until ?

Buket
Buket was the state in present Indonesia.
List of Rulers (title Kejuruan) of Buket
Maun was a ruler od Buket from ? until 1925.
Muhammad Zainuddin was a aruler of Buket from 1925 until ?

Indragiri
Indragiri was the state in present Indonesia.
List of Rulers (title Sutan) of Indragri
Raja Kecik Besar was a ruler of Indragiri.
Ibrahim was a ruler of Indragiri.
Alan was a ruler of Indragiri.
Said was a ruler of Indragiri from ? until 1876.
Husain was a ruler of Indragiri from 1876 until 1883.
Aisya, Sutana was a ruler of Indragiri from 1885 until 1902.
Mahmud was a ruler of Indragiri from 1902 until ?

Jambi
Jambi was the state in present Indonesia.
List of Rulers of Jambi
Masud Badruddin bin Ahmad Sultan Ratu Seri Ingalaga was a ruler of Jambi from 1790 until 1812.
Mahmud Muhieddin bin Ahmad Sultan Agung Seri Ingalaga was a ruler of Jambi from 1812 until 1833.
Muhammad Fakhruddin bin Mahmud Sultan Keramat was a ruler of Jambi from 1833 until 1841.
Abdul Rahman Nazaruddin bin Mahmud was a ruler of Jambi from 1841 until 1855.
Taha Safiuddin bin Muhammad (died 1904) was a ruler of Jambi from 1855 until November 5, 1858 and from 1900 until his death in 1904.
Ahmad Nazaruddin bin Mahmud was a ruler of Jambi from 1858 until 1881.
Muhammad Muhieddin bin Abdul Rahman was a ruler of Jambi from 1881 until 1885.
Ahmad Zainul Abidin bin Muhammad was a ruler of Jambi from 1885 until 1899.
Winto was a ruler of Jambi from 1904 until 1906.
Abdurrahman Taha Syaifuddin Syah is the ceremonial ruler of Jambi since March 18, 2012.

Kluet
Kluet was the state in present Indonesia.
List of Rulers (title Kejuruan) of Kluet
Datuk Ambon was a ruler of Kluet around 1828.
Aman Syah was a ruler of Kluet from ? until 1911.
Raja Momin was a ruler of Kluet from 1911 until 1924.
Marah Adam was a ruler of Kluet from 1924 until ?

Kualu
Kualu was the state in present Indonesia.
List of Rulers of Kualu
Namalullah bin Muhammad Ishak (died March 20, 1882) was a ruler of Kualu from 1868 until his death on March 20, 1882.
Tunku Biong Muhammad Syah bih Namalullah (1867 - 1946) was a ruler of Kualu from 1882 until his death in 1946.

Langkat
Langkat is the tradicional Sultanate in present Indonesia. The Sultanate of Langkat was a Muslim state located in modern Langkat Regency, North Sumatra.
Although dating back to the pre-Islamic age, recorded history is available only from the 17th century.
List of Rajas of Langkat
Panglima Dewa Shahdan was a ruler of Langkat from 1568 until 1580.
Panglima Dewa Sakdi (Indra Sakti) was a ruler of Langkat from 1580 until 1612.
Raja Kahar ibni al-Marhum Panglima Dewa Sakdi was a ruler of Langkat from 1612 until his death in 1673.
Sutan Bendahara Raja Badi uz-Zaman (died 1750) was a ruler of Langkat from 1673 until his death in 1750.
Raja Hitam ibni al-Marhum Sutan Bendahara Raja Badi uz-Zaman (died 1822) was a ruler of Langkat from 1750 until 1818.
Raja Ahmad ibni al-Marhum Raja Indra Bongsu (c.1807 - 1840) was a ruler of Langkat from 1818 until his death in 1840.
List of Sultans of Langkat
Sri Paduka Tuanku Sultan Haji Musa al-Khalidy al-Mahadiah Mu'azzam Syah ibni al-Marhum Sultan Ahmad (1807 - 1897) was a
ruler of Langkat from 1840 until 1893 (Sultan of Langkat from 1887).
Abdul Aziz Abdul Jalil Rahmat Syah (1875 July 1, 1927) was a ruler of Langkat Sultanate from 1893 until his death on July 1, 1927.



Mahmud Abdul Jalil Rahmat Syah (1893 April 23, 1948) was a ruler of Langkat Sultanate from 1927 until his death on April 23,
1948.



Tengku Athaar ibni al-Marhum Sultan Mahmud Abdul Jalil Rahmad Syah (1929 June 14, 1990) was a ceremonial ruler of Langkat
Sultanate from 1948 until his death on June 14, 1990.
Tengku Mustafa Kamal Pasha ibni al-Marhum Sultan Mahmud 'Abdu'l Jalil Rahmad Syah (1935-1999) was a ceremonial ruler of
Langkat Sultanate from 1990 until his death in 1999.
Tengku Herman Syah bin Tengku Kamil was a ceremonial ruler of Langkat Sultanate from 1999 until 2001.
Iskandar Hilali Abdul Jalil Rahmat Syah (September 29, 1952 May 21, 2003) was a ceremonial ruler of Langkat Sultanate from
October 27, 2002 until his death on May 21, 2003.


Azwar Abdul Jalil Rahmat Syah (born 1951) is a ceremonial ruler of Langkat since May 21, 2003.











Linggu
Linggu was the state in present Indonesia.
List of Rulers (title Kejuruan) of Linggu
Aman Cahjamani was a ruler of Linggu from ? until 1919.
Sasa Aman Talib was a ruler of Linggu from 1919 until ?

Moko-Moko Sultanate
MokoMoko was the state in present Indonesia.
List of Sultans of Moko-Moko Sultanate
Tuanku Paduko Sarie Maharaja Sultan Gadam Sah was a ruler of Moko-Moko Sultanate from 1681 until 1761.
Tuanku Sultan Sarie Maharaja Pasissir Barat Sah was a ruler of Moko-Moko Sultanate from 1761 until 1806.
Tuanku Sarie Maharaja Sultan Chalipattullah Indijat Sah was a ruler of Moko-Moko Sultanate from 1806 until 1833.
Tuanku Sarie Maharaja Sultan Hidaijat Tula Sah was a ruler of Moko-Moko Sultanate from 1833 until 1836.
Tuanku Sarie Maharaja Sultan Takadir Chalipattullah Sah was a ruler of Moko-Moko Sultanate from April 22, 1836 until around 1859.
Palalawan
Palalawan was the state in present Indonesia.
List of Rajas of Palalawan
Abdul Rahman bin Uthman was a ruler of Palalawan from 1811 until 1822.
Hasyim I bin Abdul Rahman (died 1828) was a ruler of Palalawan from 1822 until his death in 1828.
Ismail bin Abdul Rahman (died 1844) was a ruler of Palalawan from 1828 until his death in 1844.
Hamid bin Abdul Rahman (died June 9, 1866) was a ruler of Palalawan from 1844 until his death on June 9, 1866.
Jafar bin Abdul Rahman (died 1874) was a ruler of Palalawan from 1866 until his death in 1874.
Abubakar bin Abdul Rahman (died 1886) was a ruler of Palalawan from 1874 until his death in 1886.
Sontol Said Ali Shahab (died 1892) was a ruler of Palalawan from 1886 until his dath in 1892.
Tunku Besar Said Hasyim II bin Abubakar bin Syahabuddin (did August 1, 1930) was a ruler of Palalawan from 1892 until his death on August
1, 1930.
Harun Abdul Rahman Fakhruddin (died January 12, 1959) was a ruler of Palalawan from August 4, 1930 until his death on January 12, 1959.
Sharif Usman was regent of Palalawan from 1930 until 1940.

Palembang
Palembang is the tradiconal state in present Indonesia. Destruction of Majapahit in Java indirectly influenced Sumatra. Several key figures behind the collapse of
Majapahit were Raden Patah,Ario Dillah (Ario Damar), and Pati Unus, figures closely associated with Palembang. The Sultanate of Demak subsequently
replaced Majapahit in Java. Sultanate of Palembang was establishedin early 17th century by Ki gede ing Suro, a Javanese nobles fleeing the Demak court intrique
after the death of Trenggana Sultan of Demak. Palembang was made the center of a sultanate with Darussalam Mukmiminin Khalifatul susuhunan Sayyidu
Abddurrahaman Faith as its first king. This kingdom formed from the merger of two cultures. The maritime heritage of the Sriwijaya and Majapahit combined to
create the greatest agricultural and trade center of the Malay world at the time. One of the most famous king during this period was Sultan Mahmud Badaruddin
II, who won three battles against both Dutch and English forces.
Palembang Kingdom
List of Kings of Palembang Kingdom
Ario Abdillah (Ario Dilla was well known before as Ario Damar) was the first ruler of Palembang Kingdom from 1455 until 1486. The history of the
Sultanate of Palembang to begin in mid-15th century in his lifetime a character named Ario Dillah or Ario Damar. He is a son of the last king of Majapahit,
which represents the title of Duke of Majapahit kingdom Ario Damar in power between the years 1455-1486 in Palembang Lamo, who now is located in an area
of ilir. On arrival Ario Damar to Palembang, Palembang residents and had a lot of people who converted to Islam and the Duke Ario Damar was probably later
converts to Islam, said his name changed to Ario Ario Abdillah or Dillah (In the Java language = dillah = amber lights). Ario Dillah got a gift from the King of
Majapahit Last King UB V Kertabumi a Chinese wife (sometimes also called Princess Champa) who have embraced Islam and made a palace for the Princess. At
this princess brought to Palembang she was pregnant, then her child was born, Raden Fatah. According to the story said in Palembang, Raden Fatah was born in
a palace in the region of Palembang Ario Dillah long (1 ilir), the place was formerly called the Temple at Barrel. Raden Fatah maintained and educated by Ario
Dillah according to Islam and became a Muslim cleric. While the results Ario Dillah marriage with the Chinese princess, born Raden Raden Fatah frames the
sister of another father. After the Majapahit empire broke up because of the insistence of Islamic kingdoms, Sunan Ngampel, as vice Walisongo, lifting Raden
Fatah became the ruler of Java, succeeding his father. Central Javanese kingdom was moved to Demak. For the assistance of other areas that have been separated
from the Majapahit as Jepara, Tuban, Gresik, Raden Fatah founded the Muslim kingdom in Demak as its center (circa 1481). Raden Fatah holds Senapati
Jimbun Ngabdu'r-Rahman Panembahan Sayidin Panata'Gama Palembang.
Pangeran Sedo Ing Lautan was a ruler of Palembang Kingdom from 1547 until 1552.
Kiai Gede Ing Suro Tuo was a ruler of Palembang Kingdom from 1552 unil 1573. He was Javanese nobles who fleeing the Demak court intrique after the
death of Trenggana Sultan of Demak. In the chaos that occurs upon attack by Pajang Demak, the descendants of Prince Switch Trenggono 24 people (or
descendants of Raden Fatah) from the kingdom of Demak to Palembang, led by Kiai Gede Ing Suro Tuo at sea that comes through to Palembang Surabaya and
create new power to establish the kingdom of Palembang, which then lowers the kings, or the sultans of Palembang. His first palace in Kuto Hurdles, at this site
right in the complex PT. Pusri, Palembang. From the form of Javanese palace on the banks of the Musi river, the Malay rulers to adapt to the surrounding
environment. Acculturation and assimilation ensued an Javanese and Malay culture, known as the culture of Palembang.
Kiai Gede Ing Suro Mudo was a ruler of Palembang Kingdom from 1573 until 1590.
Kiai Mas Adipati was a ruler of Palembang Kingdom from 1590 until 1595.
Pangeran Madi Ing Angsoko was a ruler of Palembang Kingdom from 1595 until 1629.
Pangeran Madi Alit was a ruler of Palembang Kingdom from 1629 until 1630.
Pangeran Sedo Ing Puro was a ruler of Palembang Kingdom from 1630 until 1639.
Pangeran Sedo Ing Kenayan was a ruler of Palembang Kingdom from 1639 until 1650.
Pangeran Sedo ing Pesarean was a ruler of Palembang Kingdom from 1651 until 1652.
Pangeran Sedo Ing Rajek was a ruler of Palembang Kingdom from 1651 until 1652.
Palembang Darussalem Sultanate
List of Emperors (Susuhunan) or Sultans of Palembang
Ratu Abdurrahman Khalifatui Mukminin Sayidul Imam was a ruler of Palembang Darussalem Sultanate from 1659 until 1706.
Muhammad Mansyur Jayo Ing Lago was a ruler of Palembang Darussalem Sultanate from 1706 until 1714,
Agung Komaruddin Sri Teruno was a ruler of Palembang Darussalem Sultanate from 1714 until 1724.
Mahmud Badaruddin Jayo Wikramo was a ruler of Palembang Darussalem Sultanate from 1724 until 1758.
Ahmad Najamuddin Adi Kesumo was a ruler of Palembang Darussalem Sultanate from 1758 until 1776.
Muhammad Bahaudin was a ruler of Palembang Darussalem Sultanate from 1776 until 1804.
Mahmud Badruddin II bin Muhammad was a ruler of Palembang Darussalem Sultanate from 1796 until 1812, in 1813 and from 1818 until 1821.
After the fall of the Sultanate of Palembang Darussalam, Palembang became a subordinate kingdom within the Dutch East Indies. The main victory of Dutch
forces under de Kock occurred in 1821. Some of the sultans of surrendered states succeeding Sultan Mahmud Badaruddin II tried to rebel against the Dutch. All
attempts failed and resulted in the burning of imperial buildings. After that Palembang was divided into two major prefectures, and settlements in Palembang
were divided into regions and Ulu Ilir.
Ahmad Najmuddin II bin Muhammad was a ruler of Palembang Darussalem Sultanate from 1812 until 1813 and from 1813 until 1818.
Ahmad Najmuddin III bin Ahmad was a ruler of Palembang Darussalem Sultanate from 1821 until August 18, 1825.
Iskandar Mahmud Badruddin III is a ceremonial ruler of Palembang Darussalem Sultanate since March 4, 2003.

Panei
Panei was the state in present Indonesia.
List of Rulers (title Sutan Gagar Alam) of Panei
Raja Marhum Mangkat Salih was a ruler of Panei from around 1775 until around 1790.
Raja Mahmud Sati was a ruler of Panei from around 1790 until 1813.
Raja Badiri Sutan Mengedar Alam was a ruler of Panei from 1813 until 1856.
Sutan Gagar Alam I was a ruler of Panei from around 1856 until 1880.
Sutan Mengedar Alam Syah was a ruler of Panei from around 1880 until 1905.
Tengku Sulung Syahmara was a ruler of Panei from around 1905 until 1907.
Sutan Gagar Alam II Rahmatullah was a ruler of Panei from around 1907 until 1938.
Sutan Mahmud Aman was a ruler of Panei from around 1938 until 1946.

Serdang
Abu Nawar Sharifullah Alam Shah (1932 - January 28, 2001) was a ceremonial ruler of Serdang from January 5, 1995 until his death on January 28,
2001.
Lukman Sinar Bashar Shah II (1933 January 13, 2011) was a ceremonial ruler of Serdang from 2001 until his death on January 13, 2011.
Achmad Tala Shariful Alam Shah (born around 1946) is a ceremonial ruler of Serdang since April 12, 2011.
Siah Utama
Siah Utama was a state in present Indonesia.
List of Rulers (title Kejuruan) of Siah Utama
Aman Jelekah Siah Utama was a ruler of Siah Utama from ? until 1912.
Bital Pasi was regent of Siah Utama from 1912 until 1919.
Banta Cut was a ruler of Siah Utama from 1919 until ?

Siak Seri Indrapura
Muhammad Shah is the ceremonial ruler of Siak Seri Indrapura since December 1, 2012.

Tarumon
Tarumon was the state in present Indonesia
List Rulers (title Raja) of Tarumon
Si Ruyung was a ruler of Tarumon around 1770.
Lebei Dapha Tunku Singkil was a ruler of Tarumon from around 1770 until 1817.
Bujang II was a ruler of Tarumon from 1817 until 1833.
Seri Muda Paduka Alam Sultan Mansur Muda bin Bujang (1822 - 1884) was a ruler of Tarumon from 1833 until his death in 1884.
Sultan Iskandar Muda bin Sultan Mansur Muda (died 1893) was a ruler of Tarumon from 1884 until his death in 1893.
Jaafar Rayeu (died 1903) was a ruler of Tarumon from 1893 until his death in 1903.
Bijeh Lada Muda Nasiruddin (1889 - 1910) was a ruler of Tarumon from 1904 until his death in 1910.
Leh was a ruler of Tarumon from 1910 until 1927.
Husain was a ruler of Tarumon from 1927 until 1942 and from 1945 until 1946.
Daud was a ruler of Tarumon from 1942 until 1945.

Lingga-Riau
Linga Riau was the Sultanate in present Indonesia. The Lingga Islands or Lingga Archipelago (Indonesian: Kepulauan Lingga) are a group of islands
in Indonesia, located south ofSingapore, along both sides of the equator, off the eastern coast of Riau Province on Sumatra island. They are south of the
populated Riau Archipelago, known for the industrial island of Batam and the tourist-frequented island of Bintan, although the Lingga Islands themselves are
rarely visited due to the infrequent local transportation. The equator goes through the northern tip of Lingga, the name of the main island in the archipelago.
List of Sultans of Lingga Riau
Sultan Abdul Rahman Muadzam Syah I ibni al-Marhum Sultan Mahmud Riayat Syah (1780 August 9, 1832) was a Sultan of Lingga
Riau from 1819 until his death on August 9, 1832.
Sultan Muhammad Syah ibni al-Marhum Sultan Abdul Rahman Muadzam Syah (1803 July 20, 1841) was a Sultan of Lingga Riau from
1932 until 1935 (continues as regent for the following his death on July 20, 1841) .
Sultan Mahmud Mudzafar Syah ibni al-Marhum Sultan Muhammad Syah (1823 1864) was a Sultan of Lingga Riau from 1935 until
October 7, 1857.
Sultan Sulaiman Badarul Alam Syah ibni al-Marhum Sultan Abdul Rahman Muadzam Syah (died September 17, 1883) was a Sultan of
Lingga Riau from October 7, 1857 until his death on September 17, 1883.
Tengku Fatimah Embang was regent of Lingga Riau from October 13, 1883 until February 18, 1885.
Sultan Abdul Rahman Muadzam Syah II bin Muhammad Yusuf (1851 - 1930) was a Sultan of Lingga Riau from 1885 until 1911.

Cirebon
Kraton Kasepuhan
List of Sultans of Cirebon from Kraton Kasepuhan
Radja Sulaeman Sultan Sepuh IX (March 12, 1853) was a Sultan of Cirebon from Kraton Kasepuhan (oldest kraton, sultan's palace) in
the Indonesian city of Cirebon from 1843 until his death on March 12, 1853.
Pangeran Raja Adiwijaya (died 1871) was regent of Cirebon from Kraton Kasepuhan (oldest kraton, sultan's palace) in the Indonesian city of Cirebon from
1853 until his death in 1871.
Pangeran Raja Dipati Satria Sultan Sepuh (died May 31, 1875) was a Sultan of Cirebon from Kraton Kasepuhan (oldest kraton, sultan's palace) in
the Indonesian city of Cirebon from February 28, 1872 until his death on May 31, 1875.
Sultan Pangeran Raja Jayawikarta (died June 1880) was a Sultan of Cirebon from Kraton Kasepuhan (oldest kraton, sultan's palace) in
the Indonesian city of Cirebon from 1875 until his death in June 1880.
Radja Atmadja Sultan Sepuh X (died October 22, 1885) was a Sultan of Cirebon from Kraton Kasepuhan (oldest kraton, sultan's palace) in
the Indonesian city of Cirebon from August 16, 1880 until his death on October 22, 1885.
Sultana Raden Ayu was a Sultan of Cirebon from Kraton Kasepuhan (oldest kraton, sultan's palace) in the Indonesian city of Cirebon from 1885 until 1899.
Radja Aluda Tajul Arifin Sultan Sepuh XI (c.1876 - 1942) was a Sultan of Cirebon from Kraton Kasepuhan (oldest kraton, sultan's palace) in
the Indonesian city of Cirebon from 1899 until his death in 1942.
Radja Radjaningrat Sultan Sepuh XII (1920 - 1969) was a Sultan of Cirebon from Kraton Kasepuhan (oldest kraton, sultan's palace) in
the Indonesian city of Cirebon from 1942 until his death in 1969.
Radja Maulana Pakuningrat Sultan Sepuh XIII (1937 April 30, 2010) was a Sultan of Cirebon from Kraton Kasepuhan (oldest kraton, sultan's
palace) in the Indonesian city of Cirebon from 1969 until his death on April 30, 2010.
Radja Adipati Arief Natadiningrat Sultan Sepuh XIV (born 1965) is the Sultan of Cirebon from Kraton Kasepuhan (oldest kraton, sultan's palace)
in the Indonesian city of Cirebon since April 30, 2010.
Kraton Kanoman
List of Sultans of Cirebon from Kraton Kanoman
Sultan Anom VII Muhammad Kamaruddin I(died 1872) was a Sultan of Cirebon from Kraton Kanoman (palace in the Indonesian city of Cirebon)
from 1858 until 1871.
Sultan Anom VIII Muhammad Kamaruddin II was a Sultan of Cirebon from Kraton Kanoman (palace in the Indonesian city of Cirebon) from
1873 until 1934.
Sultan Anom IX Muhammad Dulkarnaen was a Sultan of Cirebon from Kraton Kanoman (palace in the Indonesian city of Cirebon) from 1934 until
1935.
Sultan Anom X Muhammad Nurbuat was a Sultan of Cirebon from Kraton Kanoman (palace in the Indonesian city of Cirebon) from 1935 until 1979.
Sultan Anom XI Haji Muhammad Djalaluddin (died 2002) was a Sultan of Cirebon from Kraton Kanoman (palace in the Indonesian city
of Cirebon) from 1979 until his death in 2002.
Sultan Anom XII Elang Saladin Muhammad is a Sultan of Cirebon from Kraton Kanoman (palace in the Indonesian city of Cirebon) since March 6,
2003 (disputed from Sultan Anom (XII) Muhammad Emiruddin).
Sultan Anom (XII) Muhammad Emiruddin is a Sultan of Cirebon from Kraton Kanoman (palace in the Indonesian city of Cirebon) since 2003.
Kraton Kaprabonan
List of Rulers (title Panembahan) of Kraton Kaprabonan
Raja Tumenggong Secadipura was a Sultan of Cirebon from Panembahan line from 1714 until 1725 and from 1731 until 1752.
Muhammad Akbaruddin (died 1773) was a Sultan of Cirebon from Panembahan line in 1773.
Kraton Kacirebonan
List of Sultans of Kraton Kacirebonan
Pangeran Natadiningrat I was a Sultan of Cirebon from Kraton Kacirebonan (palace in the Indonesian city of Cirebon) during 1960s.
Pangeran Mulyono Amir Natadiningrat II was a Sultan of Cirebon from Kraton Kacirebonan (palace in the Indonesian city of Cirebon) from 1968
until 1997.
Mahmud Perkasa Alam Syah Pangeran Sultan Abdul Gani Natadiningrat III Dekarangga is the Sultan of Cirebon from Kraton
Kacirebonan (palace in the Indonesian city of Cirebon) since May 28, 1997.


Mataram
Amangku Rat V was a ruler of Mataram from June 30 until December 24, 1742.
Paku Buwono III (1732 September 26, 1788) was a ruler of Mataram from December 11, 1749 until his death on September 26, 1788.
Paku Buwono IV (1768 October 20, 1820) was a ruler of Mataram from 1788 until his death on October 1, 1820.
Paku Buwono V (1784 September 5, 1823) was a ruler of Mataram from 1820 until his death on September 5, 1823.
Paku Buwono VI (1807 - 1849) was a ruler of Mataram from 1823 until June 14, 1830.
Paku Buwono VII (1796 May 10, 1858) was a ruler of Mataram from 1830 until his death on May 10, 1858.
Paku Buwono VIII (1789 December 28, 1861) was a ruler of Mataram from 1858 until his death on December 28, 1861.
Paku Buwono IX (1830 March 17, 1893) was a ruler of Mataram from December 30, 1861 until his death on March 17, 1893.
Paku Buwono X (1866 February 20, 1939) was a ruler of Mataram from 1893 until his death on February 20, 1939.
Paku Buwono XI (1886 June 1, 1945) was a ruler of Mataram from 1939 until his death on June 1, 1945.
Paku Buwono XII (1925 June 11, 2004) was a ruler of Mataram from 1945 until his death on June 11, 2004.
Paku Buwono XIII (born 1948) was a ruler of Mataram since September 10, 2004.
Paku Buwono XIII (born 1954) was a ruler of Mataram since 2004 (in opposition).

Mangkam Negaran
Mangkam Negaran is a tradicional state in present Indonesia.
List of Rulers of Mangkam Negaran
Mangkam Negara I (1726 December 28, 1795) was a ruler of Mangkam Negaran from February 24, 1757 until his death on December 28, 1795.
Mangkam Negara II (1768 January 26, 1835) was a ruler of Mangkam Negaran from 1795 until his death on January 26, 1835.
Mangkam Negara III (1803 January 6, 1853) was a ruler of Mangkam Negaran from 1835 until his death on January 6, 1853.
Mangkam Negara IV (1811 September 2, 1881) was a ruler of Mangkam Negaran from 1853 until his death on September 2, 1881.
Mangkam Negara V (1855 October 2, 1896) was a ruler of Mangkam Negaran from 1881 until his death on October 2, 1896.
Mangkam Negara VI (1857 - 1928) was a ruler of Mangkam Negaran from 1896 unti January 11, 1916.
Mangkam Negara VII (1885 July 19, 1944) was a ruler of Mangkam Negaran from 1916 until his death on July 19, 1944.
Mangkam Negara VIII (1920 September 3, 1987) was a ceremonial ruler of Mangkam Negaran from 1944 until his death on September 3, 1987.
Mangkam Negara IX (born 1951) is the ceremonial ruler of Mangkam Negaran since 1987.

Bandung
Bandung was a tradicional state in present Indonesia.
List of Rulers (title Pangeran) of Bandung
Adipati Wiranatakusuma II was a ruler of Bandung from 1794 until 1829.
Adipati Wiranatakusuma III was a ruler of Bandung from 1829 until 1846.
Adipati Wiranatakusuma IV was a ruler of Bandung from 1846 until 1874.
Adipati Kusumadilaga was a ruler of Bandung from 1874 until 1893.
Adipati Aria Martanagara was a ruler of Bandung from 1893 until 1920.
Adipati Aria Wiranatakusuma V was a ruler of Bandung from 1920 until 1931 and from 1935 until 1945.
T. Hasan Sumadipradja was a ruler of Bandung from 1931 until 1935.
TE Suriaputra was a ruler of Bandung from 1945 until 1947.
Tumenggung Muharram Wiranatakusuma VI was a ruler of Bandung from 1948 until 1956.
Apandi Wiradiputra was a ruler of Bandung from 1956 until 1957.

Cianjur
Cianjur was a state in present Indonesia. Cianjur was founded in 1677, with the first head of the city being R.A Wiratanudatar I, entitled Dalem Cikundul, as the
descendant from the old Sundanese kingdom of Pajajaran.
List of Rulers (title Pangeran) of Cianjur
Aria Wiratanu I was a ruler of Cianjur from around 1640 until 1686.
Aria Wiratanu II was a ruler of Cianjur from 1686 until 1707.
Aria Wiratanu III was a ruler of Cianjur from 1707 until 1727.
Adipati Wiratanudatar IV was a ruler of Cianjur from 1727 until 1761.
Adipati Wiratanudatar V was a ruler of Cianjur from 1761 until 1776.
Adipati Wiratanudatar VI was a ruler of Cianjur from 1776 until 1813.
Adipati Prawiradiredja I was a ruler of Cianjur from 1813 until 1833.
Tumenggung Wiranagara was a ruler of Cianjur from 1833 until 1834.
Aria Adipati Kusumahningrat was a ruler of Cianjur from 1834 until 1862.
Aria Adipati Prawiradiredja II was a ruler of Cianjur from 1862 until March 27, 1910.
Demang Natakusumah was regent of Cianjur from 1910 until 1912.
Aria Adipati Wiranatakusumah was a ruler of Cianjur from 1912 until 1920.
Suriadiningrat was a ruler of Cianjur from 1920 until 1932.
Sunaryo was regent of Cianjur from 1932 until 1934.
Surianataatmadja was a ruler of Cianjur from 1934 until 1943.
Adiwikarta was a ruler of Cianjur from 1943 until 1945.

Limbangan
Limbangan was a state in present Indonesia.
List of Rulers (title Pangeran) of Limbangan
Nayavangsa was a ruler of Limbangan from around 1660 until 1678.
Kyai Mas Martasinga was a ruler of Limbangan from 1678 until 1726.
Wangsadita was a ruler of Limbangan from 1726 until 1740.
Rangga Limbangan was a ruler of Limbangan from 1740 until 1744.
Surapraja was a ruler of Limbangan from 1744 until 1752.
Wangsadiraja I Surapriya was a ruler of Limbangan from 1752 until 1763.
Wangsadiraja II was a ruler of Limbangan from 1763 until 1799 and from 1799 until 1805.
Wangsakusuma was a ruler of Limbangan in 1799.
Wangsadiraja III was a ruler of Limbangan from 1805 until 1813.
Adiwijaya was a ruler of Limbangan from 1813 until ?
Kusumadinata was a ruler of Limbangan from ? until 1836.
Jayaningrat was a ruler of Limbangan from 1836 until 1871.
Aria Wiratanudatar was a ruler of Limbangan from 1871 until 1915.
Rangga Suriakartelegawa was a ruler of Limbangan from 1915 until 1925.

Semarang
Semarang was the state in present Indonesia.
List of Rulers (title Pangeran) of Semarang
Adimenggala Sura IV was a ruler of Semarang from 1777 until 1791.
Sura Adimenggala V was a ruler of Semarang from 1791 until 1809.

Sukapura
Sukapura was a state in present Indonesia.
List of Rulers (title Pangeran) of Sukapura
Jayamenggala was a ruler of Sukapura from 1765 until 1807.
Demang Anggadipa was a ruler of Sukapura from 1807 until 1813.
Surialaga was a ruler of Sukapura from 1813 until 1814.
Wiradedaha VI was a ruler of Sukapura from 1814 until 1828.
Wiratanubaya I was a ruler of Sukapura from 1828 until 1835.
Wiratanubaya II was a ruler of Sukapura from 1835 until 1854.
Adipati Wiradedaha VII was a ruler of Sukapura from 1854 until 1874.
Wirahadiningrat was a ruler of Sukapura from 1874 until 1906.
Aria Prawiradiningrat was a ruler of Sukapura from 1906 until 1908.
Wiratanudiningrat was a ruler of Sukapura from 1908 until 1925.

Sumedang
Sumedang was a state in present Indonesia.
List of Rulers (title Pangeran) of Sumedang
Pangeran Rangga Gempol III was a ruler of Sumedang from 1656 until 1706.
Tanumaja was a ruler of Sumedang from 1706 until 1709.
Kusumadinata VII was a ruler of Sumedang from 1709 until 1744.
Istria Rajaningrat was a ruler of Sumedang from 1744 until 1759.
Kusumadinata VIII was a ruler of Sumedang from 1759 until 1761.
Adipati Surianagara I was a ruler of Sumedang from 1761 until 1765.
Adipati Surianagara II was a ruler of Sumedang from 1765 until 1773.
Adipati Tanubaja was a ruler of Sumedang from 1773 until 1775.
Adipati Patrakusumah was a ruler of Sumedang from 1775 until1789.
Satjapati was a ruler of Sumedang from 1789 until 1791.
Kusumadinata IX was a ruler of Sumedang from 1791 until 1828.
Adipati Kusumayuda was a ruler of Sumedang from 1828 until 1833.
Adipati Kusumadinata X was a ruler of Sumedang from 1833 until 1834.
Surialaga was a ruler of Sumedang from 1834 until 1836.
Suria Kusumadinata XI was a ruler of Sumedang from 1836 until 1882.
Aria Suria atmaja was a ruler of Sumedang from 1882 until 1919.
Kusumadilaga was a ruler of Sumedang from 1919 until 1937.
Aria Kusuma Sura Adinata was a ruler of Sumedang from 1937 until 1946.
Hasan Suria Sacakusumah was a ruler of Sumedang from 1946 until 1947 and from 1949 until 1950.
Muhamad Singer was a ruler of Sumedang from 1947 until 1949.

Bangalan
Bangalan is the tradicional state in present Indonesia.
List of Rulers of Bangalan
Cakra Adiningrat was a ruler of Bangalan from ? until 1648.
Cakra Adiningrat II was a ruler of Bangalan from 1648 until 1707.
Cakra Adiningrat III was a ruler of Bangalan from 1707 until 1718.
Cakra Adiningrat IV was a ruler of Bangalan from 1718 until 1745.
List of Rulers (title Panembahan) of Bangalan
Cakra Adiningrat V (died 1770) was a ruler of Bangalan from 1745 until his death in 1770.
Adiningrat Cakra VI was a ruler of Bangalan from 1770 until 1780.
List of Sultans of Bangalan
Cakra Adiningrat VII (died 1815) was a ruler of Bangalan from 1780 until his death in 1815 (Sultan of Bangalan from 1808 until his death in 1815.
Cakra Adiningrat VIII (died January 27, 1847) was a Sultan of Bangalan from 1815 until his death on January 27, 1847.
List of Rulers (title Panembahan) of Bangalan
Cakra Adiningrat IX was a ruler of Bangalan from 1847 until 1863.
Cakra Adiningrat X (died 1882) was a ruler of Bangalan from 1863 until his death in 1882.
List of Regents of Bangalan
Pangeran Suryonegoro (Cakra Adiningrat XI) was regent of Bangalan from 1885 until 1905.
R.A.A. Suryonegoro was regent of Bangalan from 1905 until 1918.
Raden Ario Suryowinoto was regent of Bangalan from 1918 until 1945.
R.A. Mohamed zis Cakraningrat was regent of Bangalan from 1945 until 1956.
R.A. Mohamed Roeslan Wongsokusumo was regent of Bangalan from 1956 until 1957.
R.A. Abdul Karim Brodjokusumo was regent of Bangalan from 1957 until 1959.
R.P. Mohamed Noer was regent of Bangalan from 1959 until 1965.
Abdul Manan Priyonoto was regent of Bangalan from 1965 until 1969.
R.P. Machmud Suroadiputro was regent of Bangalan from 1969 until 1917.
Jacky Sudjaki was regent of Bangalan from 1971 until 1982.
Sumarwoto was regent of Bangalan from 1982 until 1988.
Abdul Qadir was regent of Bangalan from 1988 until 1991.
Ernomo was regent of Bangalan from 1991 until 1993.
M. Djakfar Syafei is regent of Bangalan since 1993.

Klungkung
Dewa Agung Gede Agung Cokorde was a ceremonial ruler of Klungkung since 1998.

Pamecutan
Gede Ngurah Manik Ida Parisara Cokorde Pemecutan XI was a ceremonial ruler of Pamecutan since 1986.

Kesiman
Anak Agung Ngurah Kusuma Wardhana is a tradicional ruler of Kesiman since 1989.

Buleleng
Ngurah Brawida (born 1958) is ceremonial ruler of Buleleng since 2004.

Gianyar
Anak Agung Gde Agung is ceremonial ruler of Gianyar since 1999.

Karangasem
Jelantik Gusti Gede (died 1916) was regent of Jembrana kingdom from 1893 until December 28, 1908.
Agung Ngurah Ketut Karang Asem (1916 - 1991) was a ceremonial ruler of Jembrana kingdom from 1950 until his death in 1991.
Agung Gede Agung Putra is a ceremonial ruler of Jembrana since April 9, 2009.

Tabanan
Anglurah Tabanan is a ceremonial ruler of Tabanan since March 20, 2008.

Mataram
Mataram at Lombok was the Kingdom in present Indonesia.
List of Rajas (title Anak Agung) of Mataram at Lombok
Anglurah Ketut Karang Asem I was a ruler of Mataram Kingdom at Lombok in late 18th century and early 19th century.
Anglurah Ketut Karang Asem II was a ruler of Mataram Kingdom at Lombok from ? until 1830.
Anak Agung Ngurah Ketut Karang Asem I was a ruler of Mataram Kingdom at Lombok from 1830 until 1838.
Gusti Ngurah Ketut Karang Asem II (died 1870) was a ruler of Mataram Kingdom at Lombok from 1838 until his death in 1870.
Gede Ngurah Karang Asem (c.1818 - 1895) was a ruler of Mataram Kingdom at Lombok from 1870 until November 20, 1894.

Karang Asem Singhasari
Karang Asem Singhasari was the Kingdom in present Indonesia.
List of Rajas of Karang Asem Singhasari Kingdom
Agung Dahuran was a ruler of Karang Asem Singhasari Kingdom.
Cokorda was a ruler of Karang Asem Singhasari Kingdom from ? until 1838.
Gusti Gede Jelantik Sasak, Gusti Gede Ngurah Agung Paguyangan was a ruler of Karang Asem Singhasari Kingdom from ? until 1827.
Gusti Ngurah Made Karang Asem (died 1849) was a ruler of Karang Asem Singhasari Kingdom from 1827 until 1835 and from 1838 until 1839.
Gusti Ngurah Bagus Paji Karang Asem (died 1839) was a ruler of Karang Asem Singhasari Kingdom from 1835 until 1838.

Kadiri
Kadiri was the state in present Indonesia.
List of Rajas of Kadiri
Anak Agung Ketut Rai was a ruler of Kadiri in early 18th century.
Anak Agung Gede Karang Asem was a ruler of Kadiri in the first half 18th century.
Anak Agung Wayan Karang Asem I was a ruler of Kadiri in the first half 18th century.
Anak Agung Wayan Karang Asem II was a ruler of Kadiri in the second half 18th century.
Anak Agung Nyoman Rai was a ruler of Kadiri from second half 18th century until 1805.


Pagasangan
Pagasangan was the state in present Indonesia.

List of Rajas (title Anak Agung) of Pagasangan

Gede Karangasem was a ruler of Pagasangan in the second half 17th century.

Putu Lebah was a ruler of Pagasangan in the first half 18th century.

Gusti Nengah Tegeh was a ruler of Pagasangan from ? until around 1740.

Gusti Wayahan Tegeh (Gusti Lanang Putu) was a ruler of Pagasangan from around 1740 until 1775.

Gusti Made Karang Asem was a ruler of Pagasangan in 1775.

Gusti Ketut Karang was a ruler of Pagasangan from 1775 until around 1784.

Lanang Nengah Karang Asem was a ruler of Pagasangan from around 1785 until ?

Nengah Tegeh was a ruler of Pagasangan from ? until 1836.


Pangutan

Pangutan was the state in present Indonesia.

List of Rajas of Pangutan

Anak Agung Wayan Sidemen was a ruler of Pangutan in the second half 18th century.

Anak Agung Nengah Sidemen was a ruler of Pangutan in the second half 18th century.

Anak Agung Nengah Sidemen was a ruler of Pangutan in Early 19th century.

Anak Agung Ketut Karang was a ruler of Pangutan from ? until 1840.


Sengkongo

Sengkongo was the state in present Indonesia.

List of Rajas of Sengkongo

Anak Agung Ketut Sidemen was a ruler of Sengkongo in the second half 18th century.

Anak Agung Wayan Prasi was a ruler of Sengkongo in the second half 18th century.

Anak Agung Nengah Prasi was a ruler of Sengkongo from ? until 1803.


Lombok

Lombok was the state in present Indonesia. Lombok is an island in West Nusa Tenggara (Nusa Tenggara Barat or NTB) province, Indonesia. It forms part of
the chain of theLesser Sunda Islands, with the Lombok Strait separating it from Bali to the west and the Alas Strait between it and Sumbawa to the east.

List of Rajas of Lombok

Gusti Ngurah Ketut Karang Asem was a ruler of Lombok from 1839 until 1870.

Gusti Ngurah Gede Karang Asem, Agung Gede Agung Ngurah, Anak Agung Ketut was a ruler of Lombok from 1870 until 1894.

Anak Agung Karang Nangah was a ruler of Lombok from 1894 until 1895.
Sumbawa

Sumbawa is the tradicional state in present Indonesia. Sumbawa is an Indonesian island, located in the middle of the Lesser Sunda Islands chain,
with Lombok to the west, Flores to the east, and Sumba further to the southeast. It is in the province of West Nusa Tenggara.

List of Rulers (later usually referred to nor Sultan) of Sumbawa

Dewa Mas Bantan was a ruler of Sumbawa from 1675 until 1701.

Dewa Mas Madina was a ruler of Sumbawa from 1701 until 1725.

Dewa Mas Jalaluddin Muhammad was a ruler of Sumbawa from 1725 until 1731.

Dewa Mas Muhammad Mapasusung I Kahharuddin was a ruler of Sumbawa from 1731 until 1759.

Sugi Karaeng Banton was a ruler of Sumbawa from 1759 until 1761.

Hasanuddin Datu Jereweh was a ruler of Sumbawa from 1761 until 1763.

Dewa Mas Jalaluddin Muhammad II was a ruler of Sumbawa from 1763 until 1766.

Mappacongga Mustapha was a ruler of Sumbawa from 1766 until 1780.

Mahmoud Datu Jereweh was a ruler of Sumbawa from 1780 until 1791.

Safiatuddin Daeng Masiki was a ruler of Sumbawa from 1791 until 1795.

Muhammad Kahharuddin II was a ruler of Sumbawa from 1796 until 1816.

Lulo Murso was a ruler of Sumbawa from 1837 until 1843.

Amarullah was a ruler of Sumbawa from 1843 until 1883.

Jalaluddin Muhammad was a ruler of Sumbawa from 1883 until 1908.

Kahharuddin Muhammad III (died 1975) was ceremonial ruler of Sumbawa from 1931 until 1958.

Muhammad Kahharuddin IV (born 1941) is ceremonial ruler of Sumbawa since April 5, 2011.



Bima

Siti Maryam Sultana Ina Kau Rahmat Salahuddin was regent of Bima from June 17, 2011 until July 6, 2013.

Zulkarnain Abdul Kahir II (born 1964) is titular ruler of Bima since July 6, 2013.



Dompu

Dompu was a state in present Indonesia.

List of Sultans of Dompu Sultanate

Abdul Rasul I Bumisorowo was a Sultan of Dompu Sultanate from 1686 until 1701.

Sultan Usman Manuru Goa was a Sultan of Dompu Sultanate from 1701 until 1702.

Ahmad Syah II was a Sultan of Dompu Sultanate from 1702 until 1717.

Manambung Daeng Abdul Qadir (died 1727) was a Sultan of Dompu Sultanate from 1717 until his death in 1727.

Mawa Sultan Samsuddin Sampela Yusuf Abdul was a Sultan of Dompu Sultanate from 1727 until 1737.

Kamaluddin was a Sultan of Dompu Sultanate in 1737.

Daeng Abdul Kahar Mamu was a Sultan of Dompu Sultanate from 1737 until 1746.

Abdurrahman Manuru Kempo was a Sultan of Dompu Sultanate from 1746 until 1748.

Abdul Wahab (died 1793) was a Sultan of Dompu Sultanate from 1749 until his death in 1793.

Mawa Abdullah Sainu was a Sultan of Dompu Sultanate from 1793 until 1798.

Jacob Mpuri was a Sultan of Dompu Sultanate from 1798 until 1799.

Mawa Abdullah was a Sultan of Dompu Sultanate from 1799 until 1801.

Muhammad Zainal Abidin (died 1805) was a Sultan of Dompu Sultanate from 1801 until his death in 1805.

Muhammad Tajularifin was a Sultan of Dompu Sultanate from 1805 until December 25, 1809.

Sultan Abdul Daeng Hau Manuru Bata Rasul II (1787 - 1857) was a Sultan of Dompu Sultanate from 1809 until his death in 1857.

Sultan Salahuddin Muhammad (died August 28, 1870) was a Sultan of Dompu Sultanate from 1857 until his death on August 28, 1870.

Abdullah II was a Sultan of Dompu Sultanate from 1870 until 1882.

Sirajuddin Muhammad I (died 1939) was a Sultan of Dompu Sultanate from 1882 until 1934.

Tajularifin Sirajuddin Muhammad II (1916 - 1964) was a Sultan of Dompu Sultanate from September 12, 1947 until 1958.



Sanggar

Sanggar was a state in present Indonesia

List of Rajas of Sanggar

Kalongkong Hasanuddin was a ruler of Sanggar from around 1700 until 1704.

Daeng Pamalie was a ruler of Sanggar from 1704 until around 1764.

Muhammad Syah Johan was a ruler of Sanggar from 1765 until ?

Adam Safiallah was a ruler of Sanggar from ? until 1790.

Muhammad Sulaiman was a ruler of Sanggar from 1790 until around 1805.

Ismail Ali was a ruler of Sanggar from 1805 until ?

La Lisa Daeng Jaie was a ruler of Sanggar from ? until around 1836.

Daeng Malabba was a ruler of Sanggar from 1836 until 1845.

Manga Daeng Manasse was a ruler of Sanggar from 1845 until his death in 1869.

La Kamena Anjong Daeng (1820 December 22, 1900) was a ruler of Sanggar from 1869 until his death on December 22, 1900.

Manggala Abdullah Siamsuddin Daeng (died 1928) was a ruler of Sanggar from 1901 until 1926.






Papekat

Papekat was a sultanate in present Indonesia. On April 10, 1815 eruption of Tambora totally destroys the state.

Sultan of Papekat

Abdul Muhammad (died April 10, 1815) was a Sultan of Papekat from 1794 until his death on April 10, 1815.


Tambora

Tambora was a sultanate in present Indonesia. On April 10, 1815 eruption of Tambora totally destroys the state.

List of Sultans of Tambora

Tajul Arifin Abdul Rasyid was a ruler of Tambora from 1794 until 1800.

Muhammad Tajul Masahur was a ruler of Tambora from 1800 until 1801.

Mataram Daeng Abdul Jafar (died April 10, 1815) was a ruler of Tambora from 1901 until his death on April 10, 1815.



Anakalang

Anakalang was a state in present Indonesia.

List of Rajas of Anakalang

Umbu Dongu Ubini Mesa (died 1913) was a ruler of Anakalang from ? until his death in 1913.

Umbu Dodi Ngailu was a ruler of Anakalang from 1913 until 1927.

Sapi Umbu Pateduku was a ruler of Anakalang from 1927 until 1953.

Samapati Remu Umbu was a ruler of Anakalang from 1953 until 1962.


Kanatang

Kanatang was a state in present Indonesia.

List of Rajas of Kanatang

Umbu Keep Nggaba Hambangu was a ruler of Kanatang from 1848 until 1891.

Umbu Maramba Kambaru Windie Maru Mata was a ruler of Kanatang from 1892 until 1897.

Umbu Gaa Lili was a ruler of Kanatang from 1898 until April 27, 1913.

Umbu Nai Haru (also Raja of Kapunduk) was a ruler of Kanatang from 1919 until September 9, 1946.

Umbu Janggatera was a ruler of Kanatang from September 16, 1946 until 1959.

Umbu Kadambungu Nggedinga was a ruler of Kanatang from 1959 until 1962.



Kapunduk

Kapunduk was a state in present Indonesia.

List of Rajas of Kapunduk

Umbu Panda Huki Landun Jama (1834 - 1901) was a ruler of Kapunduk from around 1869 until his death in 1901.

Umbu Tunggu Namu Praing was a ruler of Kapunduk from 1901 until 1904.

Umbu Deu Jara Belun was a ruler of Kapunduk from 1906 until 1914.

Taku Nai Umbu was a ruler of Kapunduk from 1914 until 1926.

Umbu Nai Haru was a ruler of Kapunduk from 1926 until September 9, 1946.



Code

Code was a state in present Indonesia.

Code Bengedo

List of Rulers (title Rato) of Code Bengedo

Hemba (died 1912) was a ruler of Code Bengedo from 1902 until his death in 1912.

Pote Rya (died 1919) was a ruler of Code Bengedo from 1915 until his death in 1919.

Rangga Bodo was regent of Code Bengedo from 1919 until his death in 1929.

Lengga sings was a ruler of Code Bengedo from 1929 until his death in 1931.

David Boelan was regent of Code Bengedo from 1929 until his death in 1931.

Code Bokol

List of Rulers (title Rato) of Code Bokol

Loge Candu (died 1911) was a ruler of Code Bokol from 1905 until his death in 1911.

Code (re -united)

List of Rulers (title Rato) of Code (re -united)

Door Wulan (died 1943) was a ruler of Code Bokol from 1912 until 1931 and ruler of Code from 1931 until 1943.

Hermanus Rangga Horo (1903 - 1985) was a ruler of Code from 1943 until 1962.



Lambo

Lambo was the state in present Lambo.

List of Rajas of Lambo

Mat Koja was a ruler of Lambo from 1892 until 1906.

Jawa Kalaga was a ruler of Lambo from 1906 until 1908.

Moto Kedu was a ruler of Lambo from 1908 until 1924.

Edna Snow was a ruler of Lambo from 1924 until 1951.

Songa Lero (died 1996) was a ruler of Lambo from 1951 until 1962.



Larende

Larende was the state in present Indonesia.

List of Rajas of Larende

Umbu Hina Marumata was a ruler of Larende from 1893 until 1918.

Umbu Lily Khan Paraing was a ruler of Larende from 1918 until 1932.

Umbu Hapu Ndina Hamba (died December 1960) was a ruler of Larende from 1932 until his death in December 1960.

Umbu Wanggi Keimawleu (Umbu Kubu) (died 1992) was a ruler of Larende from 1960 until his death in 1992.

Umbu Joenggoe Mbili was regent of Larende from 1960 until 1962.


Lewa

Lewa was the state in present Indonesia.

List of Rajas of Lewa

Pura was a ruler of Lewa from around 1750 until 1756.

Hina Umbu Wali Hanggu was a ruler of Lewa from 1756 until ?

Lili Nggala Umbu Khan Paraingu was a ruler of Lewa from in the 19h century.

Umbu Pira Ndawa The Kama Diki was a ruler of Lewa from ? until 1874.

Umbu Tunggu Maramba Namu Paraingu was a ruler of Lewa from 1874 until 1891.

Jawa Umbu Karai Manjawa (Bidi Umbu Tau) was a ruler of Lewa from 1892 until 1917.

Umbu Tunggu Paraing Namu was regent of Lewa from 1902 until 1913.

Umbu Nggaha Hau Mara (died 1924) was a ruler of Lewa from 1917 until his death in 1924.

Umbu Diki Kama Pira Ndawa II, Umbu Rarameha (died 1940) was a ruler of Lewa from 1924 until his death in 1940.

Umbu Nggaba Hunga (died 1930) was regent of Lewa from 1924 until his death in 1930.

Umbu Nggaba Hungu Rijhi Eti (1901 - 1978) was a ceremonial ruler of Lewa from 1940 until 1965.

Umbu Ndjaka is ceremonial ruler of Lewa since 2002.



Loura

Loura was a state in present Indonesia.

List of Rulers (title Rato) of Loura

Umbu Kandi Lele was a ruler of Loura from 1862 until 1901.

Course Nggolo Ghole I (died 1909) was a ruler of Loura from 1901 until his death in 1909.

Mbulu Danggargara was a ruler of Loura from 1911 until February 6, 1928.

Meet Timoteus Geli was a ruler of Loura from 1928 until 1932.

Roy Kaka was regent of Loura from 1932 until 1947.

Course Nggolo Ghole II, Lede Kalumbang (c1915 - 1961) was a ruler of Loura from 1932 until his death in 1961.



Massu Karer

Massu Karer was a state in present Indonesia.

Karer

List of Rajas of Karer

Umbu Mutu Damunamu was a ruler of Karer from 1892 until 1897.

Umbu Haru Halomatu was a ruler of Karer from 1897 until around 1912.

Massu

Raja of Massu

Umbu Ndawa Hawula (Umbu Nai Laki) was a ruler of Massu from 1909 until around 1912.

Massu Karer

List of Rajas of Massu Karer

Umbu Ndawa Hawula was a ruler of Massu - Karer from around 1912 until 1932.

Umbu Nengi Landumeha (Umbu Nai amba) was a ruler of Massu - Karer from around 1932 until 1954.

Umbu Hina Pekambani (Umbu Maramba) was a ruler of Massu - Karer from around 1954 until 1962.



Melolo

Melolo was a state in present Indonesia.

List of Rajas of Melolo

Umbu Siwa Tanangunju was a ruler of Melolo from ? until 1750.

Gallang was a ruler of Melolo from 1750 until around 1776.

Hamatake Hin Umbu was a ruler of Melolo from around 1776 until ?

Lily Nggala Umbu was a ruler of Melolo from ? until 1862.

Haumara Nggaba Umbu was a ruler of Melolo from 1862 until around 1866.

Umbu Rami Tanggu was a ruler of Melolo from 1866 until around 1890.

Ama Luji Dimu was a ruler of Melolo from around 1890 until around 1892.

Tae Tunggurawe was a ruler of Melolo from 1892 until around 1893.

Umbu Hia Hamatake II was a ruler of Melolo from 1893 until July 17, 1932.

Umbu Hina Janggakudi (died September 11, 1946) was a ruler of Melolo from 1932 until his death on September 11, 1946.

Umbu Nggaba Haumara II (1891 - 1961) was a ruler of Melolo from 1946 until 1959.

Umbu Windie Nggunju Tana (c1927 - 1980) was a ruler of Melolo from 1959 until 1962.



Manyili

Manyili was a state in present Indonesia.

List of Rajas of Manyili

Mandi was a ruler of Manyili from around 1699 until around 1725.

Tajuka was a ruler of Manyili from around 1725 until around 1750.

Tanga Umbu Ndemalulu was a ruler of Manyili from 1750 until ?

Umbu Mangku was a ruler of Manyili from 1860 until ?

Umbu Dena Lukamara was a ruler of Manyili from ? until around 1899.

Umbu Hina Hunggawali was a ruler of Manyili from 1901 until around 1911.

Umbu Tungu Eta (died 1916) was a ruler of Manyili from 1911 until his death in 1916.


Memboro (Mamboru)

Memboro (Mamboru) was a state in present Indonesia.

List of Rajas of Memboro (Mamboru)

Umbu Nombu was a ruler Memboro (Mamboru) from around 1845 until around 1863.

Umbu Ndala Sombangu was a ruler of Memboro (Mamboru) from around 1863 until 1869.

Umbu Laki Mbali was a ruler of Memboro (Mamboru) from 1870 until 1897.

Umbu Pombu Saramani I was a ruler of Memboro (Mamboru) from 1898 until January 2, 1915.

Umbu Karai was a ruler of Memboro (Mamboru) from 1915 until 1929.

Umbu Mahama was a ruler of Memboro (Mamboru) from 1929 until 1932.

Umbu Dondu was a ruler of Memboro (Mamboru) from 1932 until 1933.

Umbu Tunggu Mbili was a ruler of Memboro (Mamboru) from 1934 until 1962.









Napu

Napu was a state in present Indonesia.

List of Rajas of Napu

Umbu Kambara Windi was a ruler of Napu from around 1860 until 1870.

Umbu Dai Kudu was a ruler of Napu from 1870 until ?

Umbu Renggi Taai was a ruler of Napu from ? until 1890.

Umbu Timbu Nduka Laki Mora was a ruler of Napu from 1890 until February 12, 1910.

Umbu Rawa was a ruler of Napu from 1910 until August 27, 1914.

Umbu Landu Kura was a ruler of Napu from 1914 until 1927.

Umbu Rada was a ruler of Napu from 1927 until 1928.


Tapundung

Tapundung was a state in present Indonesia.

List of Rajas of Tapundung

Umbu Kaputing was a ruler of Tapundung in early 19th century.

Umbu Hunga was a ruler of Tapundung in first half 19th century.

Umbu Nggaba (died around 1870) was a ruler of Tapundung from ? until his death around 1870.

Umbu Manja Mehang was a ruler of Tapundung from around 1870 until 1900.

Umbu Tunggu Namu Praing was a ruler of Tapundung from 1900 until 1917.

Umbu Dai Litiata was a ruler of Tapundung from 1917 until 1931.

Umbu Hunga Wohangara was a ruler of Tapundung from 1931 until 1956.

Umbu Manja Mehangu was a ruler of Tapundung from 1956 until 1962.



Umbu Ratu Nggai

Umbu Ratu Nggai was a state in present Indonesia.

List of Rulers (title Maramba) of Umbu Ratu Nggai

Umbu Bili was a ruler of Umbu Ratu Nggai from around 1880 until 1913.

Umbu Siwa Sambawali I was a ruler of Umbu Ratu Nggai from 1913 until 1932.

Umbu Mbili Nggemunasu was a ruler of Umbu Ratu Nggai from 1932 until 1935.

Umbu Sakala Maramba Jawa was a ruler of Umbu Ratu Nggai from 1935 until 1949.

Umbu Siwa Sambawali II was a ruler of Umbu Ratu Nggai from 1949 until 1962.



Waijelu

Waijelu was the state in present Indonesia.

List of Rajas of Waijelu

Umbu Nggaba Kalai was a ruler of Waijelu from 1892 until 1898.

Umbu Tanga Teulu Ata Kawau was a ruler of Waijelu from 1899 until 1927.

Umbu Tanga Teulu Jawa Pangu was a ruler of Waijelu from 1927 until 1932.

Umu Yiwa Ngganja was a ruler of Waijelu from 1932 until 1942.

Umbu Kambaru Windi was a ruler of Waijelu from 1948 until 1962.



Wanokaka

Wanokaka was the state in present Indonesia.

List of Rajas of Wanokaka

Mawa Madoli was a ruler of Wanokaka in the second half 19th century.

Luju Meramba Dungu was a ruler of Wanokaka from ? until 1912.

Kiring Semara was a ruler of Wanokaka from 1912 until 1914.

Baju Padedangu was a ruler of Wanokaka from 1914 until 1926.

Guling Manyoba was a ruler of Wanokaka from 1928 until 1956.

Lau Mau was a ruler of Wanokaka from 1956 until 1962.



Wewewa

Wewewa was the state in present Indonesia.

List of Rajas of Wewewa

Luku Lewa was a ruler of Wewewa from 1879 until 1912.

Malo Umbu Fati was a ruler of Wewewa from 1912 until 1934.

Bulu Engge was a ruler of Wewewa from 1935 until 1962.



Banjarmasin

Banjarmasin was the state in present Indonesia.

List of Sultans of Banjarmasin

Tahmidullah II bin Muhammad Aminullah was the Sultan of Banjarmasin from 1786 until 1808.

Saidullah Sulaiman bin Tahmidullah was the Sultan of Banjarmasin from 1808 until 1825.

Adam bin Sulaiman Saidullah al - Wathik Billah was the Sultan of Banjarmasin from 1825 until 1857.

Tamjidullah II bin Abdul Rahman was the Sultan of Banjarmasin from 1857 until 1859.

Hidayatullah III was the Sultan of Banjarmasin from 1859 until 1860.

Tamjidullah III bin Abdul Rahman Raja Muda was the Sultan of Banjarmasin from 1860 until 1905.

Khairul Saleh al - Mutashim Billah (born 1964) is a Sultan of Banjarmasin since December 10, 2010.


Sultanate of Bulungan

The Sultanate of Bulungan was a princely state of Indonesia located in the existing Bulungan Regency in the North Kalimantan province of Indonesia in the east
of the island of Borneo. With its territory spanning throughout the eastern shores of North Kalimantan and Tawau, Malaysia. The Sultanate was founded by
a Kayan group, the Uma Apan, who originated from the interior region of Apo Kayan (Kayan Highland Plateau), before settling near the coast in the seventeenth
century. Around 1650, a princess of the group married a man from Brunei. This marriage founded a Hindu lineage who settled in the region of today's Tanjung
Selor. Around 1750, this dynasty converted to Islam. Its rulers took the title of Sultan and were recognized as vassals of the sultan of Berau, the latter
acknowledging himself a vassal of the kingdom of Kutai. In 1850, the Dutch, who had conquered Berau in 1834 and imposed their sovereignty upon Kutai in
1848, signed with the Sultan of Bulungan a Politiek Contract. The Dutch intervened in the region in order to combat piracy and the trafficking in slaves. Until
1860, Bulungan was a subject of the Tausug of the Sultanate of Sulu. During this period, vessels began travelling to Sulu,Tarakan, and thence into the interior of
Bulungan, to trade directly with Tidung. This influence ended in 1878 with the signing of a treaty between the English and Spanish partitioning Sulu. In 1881,
the North Borneo Chartered Company was created, thereby placing northern Borneo under British jurisdiction, despite initial Dutch objections. The Sultanate
was finally incorporated into the colonial empire of the Dutch East Indies in the 1880s. The Dutch installed a government post in 1893 in Tanjung Selor. In the
1900s, like many other princely states of the archipelago, the Sultan was forced to sign a Korte verklaring; a "short statement" in which he sold most of its powers
over land upstream. The Dutch eventually recognized the border between the two jurisdictions in 1915. The Sultanate was granted Zelfbestuur ("self-
administration") status in 1928, again like many princely states of the Netherlands Indies. The discovery of oil by the BPM (Bataafse Petroleum Maatschappij) in
the islands of Bunyu and Tarakan gave great importance to Bulungan for the Dutch, who made Tarakan the chief town of the region. After the recognition of
Indonesian independence from the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the territory received the status of Bulungan Wilayah swapraja, or "autonomous territory", in
1950, before receiving the status of Wilayah istimewa, or "special territory", in 1955. The last Sultan, Jalaluddin, died in 1958. The Sultanate was abolished in
1959 and the territory becomes a simple kabupaten, or "department".

List of rulers of Bulungan

Digendung was a ruler of Bulungan from 1695 until 1731.

Zainul Aji Muhammad bin Muhammad Abidin (Amir) (died 1817) was a ruler of Bulungan from 1731 until his death in 1817.

Muhhamad Alimuddin Amirul Muminin Kahharuddin I bin Muhammad Zainul Abidin was a ruler of Bulungan from 1817 until 1848
until 1866 until 1873.

Muhammad Jalaluddin bin Muhammad Kahharuddin (died 1868) was a ruler of Bulungan from 1848 until 1866.

Muhammad Khalifatul Adil was a ruler of Bulungan from 1873 until 1874.

Muhammad Kahharuddin II bin Maharaja Lela was a ruler of Bulungan from 1874 until 1899.

Muhammad Azimuddin was a ruler of Bulungan from 1889 until 1899.

Pangean Kesuma was regent of Bulungan from 1899 until 1901.

Muhammad Kasimuddin was a ruler of Bulungan from 1901 until 1924.

Datu Mansyur was regent of Bulungan from 1924 until 1929.

Maulana Ahmad Sulaimanuddin (1909 March 27, 1930) was a ruler of Bulungan from 1929 until his death on March 27, 1930.

Maulana Muhammad Jalaluddin (1882 December 21, 1958) was a ruler of Bulungan from 1930 until his death on December 21, 1958.

Maulana bin Al Mamun Maualana Muhammad Jalaluddin was a ceremonial ruler of Bulungan from 1958 until ?

Maulana Muhammad Al Mamun (born 1940) is ceremonial ruler of Bulungan since October 23, 2002.




Bunut

Bunut was the state in present Indonesia.

List of Rulers of Bunut

Adi was a ruler of Bunut in the first half 19th century.

Mangku Negara I was a ruler of Bunut from 1855 until 1858.

Mangku Negara II was a ruler of Bunut from 1858 until 1876.

Mangku Negara III was a ruler of Bunut from 1876 until 1884.

Ratu Adi Paku Negara was a ruler of Bunut from 1884 until January 1, 1910.



Gunung Tabur

Gunung Tabur was the state in present Indonesia.

List of Rulers of Gunung Tabur

Aji Pangeran Tua was a ruler of Gunung Tabur from 1673 until 1700.

Aji Pangeran Dipati was a ruler of Gunung Tabur from 1700 until 1731.

Muhammad Hasanuddin was a ruler of Gunung Tabur from 1737 until 1767.

Amiril Mukminn was a ruler of Gunung Tabur from 1767 until 1779.

Muhammad Zainal Abidin was a ruler of Gunung Tabur from 1779 until 1800.

Muhammad Badaruddin was a ruler of Gunung Tabur from 1800 until around 1820.

Zainul Abidin II bin Badruddin II was a ruler of Gunung Tabur from around 1820 until 1834.

Ayi Kuning II bin Zainul Abidin was a ruler of Gunung Tabur from 1834 until 1850.

Amiruddin Maharaja Dendah I was a ruler of Gunung Tabur from 1850 until 1876.

Hasanuddin II Maharaja Dendah II Amiruddin bin was a ruler of Gunung Tabur from 1876 until 1882.

Aji Kuning was regent of Gunung Tabur from 1882 until 1884.

Muhammad Syariffuddin was a ruler of Gunung Tabur from 1884 until 1892.

Muhammad Siranuddin was a ruler of Gunung Tabur from 1892 until 1921.

Maulana Ahmad was regent of Gunung Tabur in 1921.

Muhammad Jalaluddin Khalifatullah was a ruler of Gunung Tabur from 1921 until 1952.

Aji Raden Muhammad Ayub (died around 1964) was a ruler of Gunung Tabur from 1952 until 1959.

Aji Bakhrul Hadi is a ceremonial ruler of Gunung Tabur since September 14, 2012.



Jongkong

Jongkong was the state in present Indonesia.

List of Rulers (title Abang) of Jongkong

Jambu Kiai Dipati Uda was a ruler of Jongkong around 1823.

Nata Abang Abdullah (died 1840) was a ruler of Jongkong from ? until his death in 1840.

Paneran Muda Noto Negoro Abang Abdul El - Arab (died December 1, 1864) was a ruler of Jongkong from 1840 until his death on December 1,
1864.

Pangeran Sulaiman Surio Negara Abgang Unang (around 1856 - 1886) was a ruler of Jongkong from 1864 until his death in 1886.

Pangeran Muda Gusti Alam Abang Alam (1880 - 1949) was a ruler of Jongkong from 1886 until 1925.

Suma Abang Ali was regent of Jongkong from 1886 until 1895.

Abang Kyung was regent of Jongkong from 1895 until 1899.



Kota Waringin

Kota Waringin is the tradicional state in present Indonesia.

List of Rulers of Kota Waringin

Dipati Anta Kasuma bin Sultan Mustambillah was a ruler of Kota Waringin from 1637 until 1650.

Mas Adipati was a ruler of Kota Waringin from 1650 until 1700.

Kota Waringin was a ruler of Kota Waringin from 1700 until 1720.

Derut was a ruler of Kota Waringin from 1720 until 1750.

Adipati Muda was a ruler of Kota Waringin from 1750 until 1770.

Panghulu was a ruler of Kota Waringin from 1770 until 1785.

Ratu Bagawan was a ruler of Kota Waringin from 1785 until 1792.

Ratu Anom Kusuma Yuda was a ruler of Kota Waringin from 1792 until 1817.

Ratu Anom Imamuddin was a ruler of Kota Waringin from 1817 until 1855.

Ratu Anom Herman Syah was a ruler of Kota Waringin from 1855 until 1865.

Ratu Anom Alam Syah I was a ruler of Kota Waringin from 1865 until 1904.

Ratu Sikma Negara was a ruler of Kota Waringin from 1904 until 1913.

Ratu Sikma Alam Syah was a ruler of Kota Waringin from 1913 until 1939.

Ratu Kasuma Anom Alam Syah II (died 1975) was a ruler of Kota Waringin from 1939 until 1945.

Ratu Alidin Sukuma Alam Syah is a ceremonial ruler of Kota Waringin since July 2010.



Kubu

Kubu was the state in present Indonesia. The term Kubu is a Malay exonym ascribed to mobile, animist peoples (Orang Batin Sembilan and Orang Rimba) who
live throughout the lowland forests of Southeast Sumatra. In the Malay language, the word Kubu can mean defensive fortification, entrenchment, or a place of
refuge. It is metaphor for how the majority and dominant Islamic Melayu villagers believe them to use the interior forests as a means for resisting inclusion in the
larger Malay social and Islamic religious world. As is the case with other forest peoples in the region, the term Kubu is associated with very negative connotations.
Following Malay classifications, early Europeans divided the Kubu into two categories: 'tame' or 'civilized' Kubu, who were predominantly swidden farmers, and
'wild' Kubu, who lived deep in the forests, and made much stronger efforts to avoid close relations with the outside world. While closely related Malay speaking
peoples, these peoples represent two separate cultural groups, which have different economic and socio-religious systems.

List of Rulers (title Tuan) of Kubu

Saiyid `Aydarus Al `Aydarus (died 1795) was a rulet of Kubu from 1772 until his dath in 1795.

Saiyid Muhammad bin `Aydarus Al `Aydarus (died June 7, 1829) was a ruler of Kubu from 1795 until his death on June 7, 1829.

Saiyid Abdul Rahman bin Muhammad Al ` Aydarus (died February 2. 1841) was a ruler of Kubu from 1829 until his death on February 2, 1841.

Saiyid Ismail bin Abdul Rahman Al ` Aydarus (died September 19, 1864) was a ruler of Kubu from 1841 until his death on September 19, 1864.

Saiyid Hasan bin Abdul Rahman Al ` Aydarus (died November 4, 1900) was a ruler of Kubu from 1864 until his death on November 4, 1900.

Syarif `Abbas Al Aydarus was a ruler of Kubu from 1900 until 1911.

Syarif Zainul Idris ibni al Marhum Syarif Ismail was a ruler of Kubu from Septemebr 26, 1911 until April 11, 1921.

Syarif Salih bin Syarif Idris Al ` Aydarus (1881 - 1944) was a ruler of Kubu from June 16, 1921 until June 23, 1943.

Syarif Hasan bin Zain was a ruler of Kubu from 1943 until 1958 (Head of the Governing Committee until 1946 and Said Chairman of the Council of
Regency until August 16. 1949).



Kurt Kutai Negara

Kurt Kutai Negara is a tradicional state in present Indonesia

List of Rulers of Kurt Kutai Negara

Aji Ragi (around 1679 - 1705) was a ruler of Kurt Kutai Negara from 1686 until his death in 1705.

Tua ing Martapura (1665 - 1730) was a ruler of Kurt Kutai Negara from 1705 until 1711.

Anom Panji Mendapa ing Martapura (died 1732) was a ruler of Kurt Kutai Negara from 1711 until his death in 1732.

Muhammad Idris bin Anom Panji was a ruler of Kurt Kutai Negara from 1732 until 1739.

Muhammad Muslehuddin bin Muhammad Idris (died 1780) was a ruler of Kurt Kutai Negara from 1739 until his death in 1780.

Muhammad Salehuddin bin Aliuddin (died July 23, 1845) was a ruler of Kurt Kutai Negara from 1780 until 1816 and from 1816 until his death on
July 23, 1845.

Aliuddin bin Muhammad Muslehuddin (died 1816) was a ruler of Kurt Kutai Negara in 1816.

Muhammad Sulaiman Adil Khalifatul Muminin bin Muhammad Salehuddin (1838 - December 2, 1899) was a ruler of Kurt Kutai Negara
from July 1845 until his death on December 2, 1899.

Muhammad Azimuddin Adil Khalifatul Muminin (died April 28, 1910) was a ruler of Kurt Kutai Negara from 1899 until his death on April 28,
1910.

Adji Muhammad Parikesit (1895 - 1981) was a ruler of Kurt Kutai Negara from 1910 until January 21, 1960.

Adji Muhammad Salehuddin II (born 1924) is the ceremonial ruler of Kurt Kutai Negara since September 22, 2001.



Landak

Landak was the state in present Indonesia

List of Rulers of Landak

Kusuma Adiningrat I was a ruler of Landak in 1844.

Mahmoud Akamaddin was a ruler of Landak from 1844 until 1847.

Rau Adi Kusuma was a ruler of Landak from 1849 until 1874.

Mangku Bumi was a ruler of Landak from 1874 until 1881.

Kusuma Adiningrat II was a ruler of Landak from 1881 until 1882.

Abdul Ajit Khan was a ruler of Landak from 1882 until 1900.

Gusti Abdul Hamid was a ruler of Landak from 1900 until 1946.

Gusti Affandi was regent of Landak in 1946.



Mampawa

Mampawa was the state in present Indonesia.

List of Rulers of Mampawa

Anom Kusuma Negara, from 1808 Nata Kusuma was a ruler of Mampawa from 1795 until 1822.

Muhammad Zainul Abidin Nata Kusuma was a ruler of Mampawa from 1822 until 1826.

Umar Kamaruddin Nata Kerama was a ruler of Mampawa from 1828 until 1853.

Mukmin Jaya Kusuma bin Unar Kamaruddin Nata Kerama was a ruler of Mampawa from 1853 until 1854.

Mahmud Akamaddin bin Umar Kamaruddin Nata Kerama was a ruler of Mampawa from 1854 until 1860.

Usman Shafiuddin Nata Jaya Kusuma bin Mukmin Jaya Kusuma was a ruler of Mampawa from 1860 until 1863.

Ibrahim Muhammad Shafiuddin bin Mahmud Akamaddin was a ruler of Mampawa from 1863 until 1892.

Anum Kusuma Yuda was a ruler of Mampawa was regent of Mampawa from 1892 until 1902.

Muhammad Taufik Akamaddin (died 1944) was a ruler of Mampawa from 1902 until his death in 1944.

Jimmy Mochamad Ibrahim bin Taufik Akamaddin (1932 - 2005) was a ceremonial ruler of Mampawa from ? until August 12, 2002.

Mardan Adijaya Kesuma Ibrahim is ceremonial ruler of Mampawa since 2002.



Matan

Matan was the state in present Indonesia.

List of Rulers (title Panembahan) of Matan

Anom Kusuma Negara was a ruler of Matan from 1837 until 1845.

Muhammad Cabaran was a ruler of Matan from 1845 until 1905.

Laksamana Uti Muhksin was a ruler of Matan from 1905 until 1924.

Gusti Muhammad Saunan (died 1944) was a ruler of Matan from 1924 until 1943.

Uti Halil (died 1960) was regent of Matan from 1945 until 1946.

Uit Aplah was regent of Matan from 1946 until 1948.

Gusti Kencana was regent of Matan from 1946 until 1948.

Gusti Kamboja is regent of Matan since 2009.

Gusti Fadin is regent of Matan since 2009.

Uti Iwan Kusnadi is regent of Matan since 2009.



Meliau

Meliau was the state in present Indonesia.

List of Rulers (title Pangeran) of Meliau

Suria Adiningrat was a ruler of Meliau from 1782 until 1800.

Mangku was a ruler of Meliau from 1800 until 1823.

Ratu Mangku Negara was a ruler of Meliau from 1823 until 1869.

Ratu Anom Paku Negara was a ruler of Meliau from 1869 until 1885.

Ratu Muda Paku Negara Abdul Rauf was a ruler of Meliau from 1825 until 1889.

Paku Negara Suria Kusuma was a ruler of Meliau from 1889 until ?



Pulau Laut

Pulau Laut was the state in present Indonesia.

List of Rajas of Pulau Laut

Pangeran Jaya Sumitra bin Pangeran Muhammad Nafis dari Kerajaan Kusan was a ruler of Pulau Laut from 1850 until 1861.

Pangeran Abdul Kadir was a ruler of Pulau Laut from 1861 until 1873.

Pangeran Berangta Kasuma was a ruler of Pulau Laut from 1873 until 1881.

Pangeran Amir Husan Kasuma was a ruler of Pulau Laut from 1881 until 1900.

Pangeran Abdurrahman Kasuma was a ruler of Pulau Laut from January 10, 1900 until January 7, 1903.

Pangeran Muhammad Aminullah Kasuma was a ruler of Pulau Laut from January 7 until April 1903.



Pasir

Pasir was the state in present Indonesia.

List of Rulers of Pasir

Adam I was a ruler of Pasir from 1680 until 1703.

Sultan Adjie Muhammad Alam Syah was a ruler of Pasir from 1703 until 1726.

Madukelleng was regent of Pasir from 1726 until 1736.

Sepuh I Alam Syah was a ruler of Pasir from 1736 until 1766.

Alam Syah Ibrahim I (died 1815) was a ruler of Pasir from 1766 until 1786 and from 1811 until his death in 1815.

Ratu Agung was a ruler of Pasir from 1786 until 1788.

Dipati Anom Alam Syah was a ruler of Pasir from 1788 until 1799.

Sulaiman II Alam Syah was a ruler of Pasir from 1799 until 1811.

Muhammad Han Alam Syah was a ruler of Pasir from 1815 until 1843.

Adam II Adjie Alam Syah was a ruler of Pasir from 1843 until 1853.

Sepuh II Adil Khalifatul Muminin was a ruler of Pasir from 1853 until 1875.

Adjie Inggu was regent of Pasir from 1875 until 1876.

Abdul Rahman Alam Syah was a ruler of Pasir (in east) from 1876 until 1896.

Muhammad Ali Adil Khalifatul Muminin was a ruler of Pasir (in west) from 1876 until 1896 and united Pasir from 1896 until 1898.

Ibrahim Khaliluddin was a ruler of Pasir from 1899 until 1908.

Sukma Negara was a ruler of Pasir from 1908 until 1913

Sukma Alam Syah was a ruler of Pasir from 1913 until ?



Pegatan and Kusan

Pegatan and Kusan was the state in present Indonesia.

List of Rulers (title Raja) of Pegatan and Kusan

Puwana Deke was a ruler of Pegatan and Kusan around middle 18th century.

Hasan Pangewa was a ruler of Pegatan and Kusan from 1755 until 1800.

Palebi was a ruler of Pegatan and Kusan from 1800 until 1838.

Arung Palewan Abdul Rahim was a ruler of Pegatan and Kusan from 1838 until 1855.

Arung Abdul Karim was a ruler of Pegatan and Kusan from 1855 until 1863.

Arung Makarau was a ruler of Pegatan and Kusan from 1863 until 1871

Abdul Jabbar was a ruler of Pegatan and Kusan from 1871 until 1875.

Arung Daeng Makau was a ruler of Pegatan and Kusan from 1875 until 1883.

Tangkung Petta was a ruler of Pegatan and Kusan from 1883 until 1893.

Arung Abdul Rahim was a ruler of Pegatan and Kusan from 1893 until 1908.

"Kerapatan" was regent of Pegatan and Kusan from 1908 until 1912.



Piasa

Piasa was the state in present Indonesia.

List of Rulers (title Abang, from 1859 Raja) of Piasa

Suwara Kiai Dipati Martapura (died 1859) was a ruler of Piasa from around 1823 until his death in 1859.

Nuh Pangeran Osman Diraja Kesuma Negara (died 1895) was a ruler of Piasa from 1859 until his death in 1895.

Santuk Raden Patih Kesuma Negara (around 1877 - 1949) was a ruler of Piasa from May 1895 until May 24, 1916.



Pontianak

Syarif Abubakar al - Kadri (born 1944) is ceremonial ruler of Pontiak Sultanate since January 15, 2004.



Sambaliung

Sambaliung is tradicional state in present Indonesia.

List of Sultans of Sambaliung

Raja Alam was a Sultan of Sambaliung from 1830 until 1836.

Bungkoh was a Sultan of Sambaliung in late 1830s.

Muhammad Jalaluddin bin Alam was a Sultan of Sambaliung from ? until 1849.

Muhammad Hasyik Syarifuddin bin Alam was a Sultan of Sambaliung from 1849 until 1869.

Muhammad Adil Jalaluddin Bin Muhammad Jalaluddin was a Sultan of Sambaliung from 1869 until 1881.

Abdullah Muhammad Khalifatullah Bayanuddin bin Muhammad Jalaluddin was a Sultan of Sambaliung from 1881 until 1902.

Datuk Ranik, Muhammad Aminuddin was regent of Sambaliung from 1902 until 1906 and Sultan of Sambaliung from 1920 until 1951.

Aji Bagian was a Sultan of Sambaliung from 1902 until 1920.

Kepala Daerah (died 1961) was a Sultan of Sambaliung from 1951 until 1959.

Datu Fakhruddin bin Sultan Muhammad Alimuddin (born 1943) is ceremonial Sultan of Sambaliung since October 19, 2009.



Sambas

Sambas is traditional Malay state in Indonesia in modern Borneo. At first governed by governors, Sambas became kingdom in 1609 with the descendant of
Sepudak. She married one of her daughters to a descendant of the Sultan of Brunei. The child of this union, Muhammad Saif ud-din I became the first Muslim
Sultan. Sambas remained independent until the reign of the Dutch East India Company, when the capital was bombarded in 1812. The Dutch took their interest
since 1819, leading finally into frequent minglings into succession and even the deposition and exiling to Java of Abu Bakar Taj ud-din II. The state was stable,
having strong, long-ruling leaders, up until the Japanese conquest of 1942, when Sultan Muhammad Ibrahim Shafi ud-din II was executed at Mandor in 1944.
The Sultanate was thereafter suspended and replaced by a Japanese council, but restored with the return of the Dutch in 1946. They installed another Sultan,
who died in 1956. Another monarch did not assume the throne. From 1984, the head of the Royal House was Winata Kusuma of Sambas, who was recognised
as Sultan in 2000 and installed in July 2001. He died in 2008. The title of the Sultan is "His Highness" and his royal name consists of Sri Paduka al-Sultan
Tuanku, then followed by his personal reign name, ibni al-Marhum and concludes with his father's reigning titles and his name. The wife of the Sultan is titled Sri
Paduka Ratu. The Sultanate follows male primogeniture, with the sons of royal wives having precedence over those of common wives.

List of Panembahan Ratu (King) of Sambas

Timbang Paseban was a Panembahan Ratu (King) of Sambas from 1600 until 1609.

Sepudak was a Panembahan Ratu (King) of Sambas from 1609 until 1632.

Anom Kesumayuda was a Panembahan Ratu (King) of Sambas from 1632 until 1670.

List of Sultans of Sambas

Muhammad Tajuddin bin Muhammad Saifuddin (died May 22, 1708) was a Sultan of Sambas from May 26, 1670 until his death on May 22, 1708.

Umar Akamaddin I Bin Muhammad Tajuddin (died August 24, 1732) was a Sultan of Sambas from 1708 until his death on August 24, 1732.

Abu Bakar Kamaluddin I bin Muhammad Jalaluddin (1698 February 3, 1762) was a Sultan of Sambas from 1732 until his death on February 3,
1762.

Umar Akamaddin II bin Abu Bakar Kamaluddin (1731 - 1790) was a Sultan of Sambas from 1762 until his death in 1790.

Abu Bakar Kamaluddin II bin Umar Kamaluddin (1756 September 14, 1814) was a Sultan of Sambas from 1790 until his death on September
14, 1814.

Muhammad Ali Syafiuddin II bin Abu Kamaluddin Bakar (1767 July 16, 1828) was a Sultan of Sambas from 1814 until his death on July 16,
1828.

Usman Kamaluddin III bin Abu Bakar Kamaluddin (1771 February 9, 1832) was a Sultan of Sambas from 1828 until his death February 9,
1832.

Umar Akamaddin III bin Abu Bakar Kamaluddin (1793 February 23, 1846) was a Sultan of Sambas from 1832 until his death on February 23,
1846.

Abu Bakar Tajuddin II bin Muhammad Ali Syafiuddin (1822 - 1879) was a Sultan of Sambas from 1846 until January 23, 1854.


Umar Kamaluddin IV bin Muhammad Ali Syafiuddin (died August 8, 1866) was a Sultan of Sambas from 1854 until his death
on August 8, 1866.








Muhammad Syafiuddin III bin Abu Bakar Tajuddin (1841 September 12, 1924) was a regent of Sambas from April 5, 1861 until August 8, 1866
and Sultan of Sambas from August 8, 1866 until his death on September 12, 1924.

Muhammad Ali Syafiuddin IV bin Muhammad Ali Syafiuddin (1875 October 9, 1926) was regent of Sambas from December 4, 1922 until
December 12, 1924 and Sultan of Sambas from September 12, 1924 until his death on October 9, 1926.

Muhammad Ibrahim Syafiuddin V bin Muhammad Syafiuddin (1901 June 28, 1944) was a Sultan of Sambas from 1926 until his death on
June 28, 1944

Muhammad Tayeb was a Chief of Dewan Majelis Kesultanan of Sambas from 1926 until 1931.

Muhammad Taufik ibni al - Marhum Muhammad Ibrahim Syafiuddin (1931 - 1984) was a Sultan of Sambas from 1944 until 1960.

Muchsin Panji Anom was a Chief of Dewan Majelis Kesultanan of Sambas from 1946 until 1950.

Pangeran Ratu Winata Kusuma (1965 February 1, 2008) was a ceremonial Sultan of Sambas from July 15, 2001 until his death on February 1, 2008.

Muhammad Tarhan is ceremonial Sultan of Sambas since 2008.



Sanggau

Sanggau was a state in present Indonesia.

List of Rulers of Sanggau

Usman Paku Negara was a ruler of Sanggau from 1798 until 1814.

Muhammad Ali was a ruler of Sanggau from 1814 until 1825.

Aiyub Mangku Negara was a ruler of Sanggau from 1815 until 1830.

Muhammad Kusuma Negara was a ruler of Sanggau from 1830 until 1875.

Muhammad Tahir II Kusuma Negara was a ruler of Sanggau from 1875 until 1876.

Sulaiman Paku Negara was a ruler of Sanggau from 1876 until ?

Muhammad Ali Suria Negara was a ruler of Sanggau from ? until 1915.

Muhammad Said Paku Negara was a ruler of Sanggau from 1915 until 1920.

Gusti Muhammad Tahir III Suria Negara (c.1883 - 1941) was a ruler of Sanggau from 1920 until his death in 1941.

Ade Muhammad Arif was regent of Sanggau from 1941 until 1944.

Gusti Ali was regent of Sanggau in 1945.

Gusti Muhammad Tawfik was a ruler of Sanggau from 1945 until 1960.



Sekadau

Sekadau was a state in present Indonesia

List of Rulers of Sekadau

Suto was a ruler of Sekadau from 1780 until ?

Kusuma Negara was a ruler of Sekadau from ? until 1830.

Muhammad Kamaruddin was a ruler of Sekadau from 1830 until 1861.

Mansur Kusuma Negara was a ruler of Sekadau from 1861 until 1867.

Muhammad Kusuma Negara (died July 31, 1902) was a ruler of Sekadau from 1867 until July 31, 1902.

Ahmad Seri Negara was a ruler of Sekadau from 1902 until 1910 and in 1919.

Gusti Ahmad Pangeran Nata Negara was regent of Sekadau from 1920 until 1931.

Adi Abul Murad was regent of Sekadau from 1920 until 1923.

Gusti Muhammad (died 1944) was a ruler of Sekadau from 1931 until his death in 1944.

Gusti Kelip was a ruler of Sekadau from 1944 until 1946.

Abang Kolin was a ruler of Sekadau from 1946 until around 1952.

Gusti Adenan was a ruler of Sekadau from ? until 1963.



Selimbau

Selimbau was a state in present Indonesia.

List of Rulers (title Pangeran from c.1650, Panembahan from 1820's) of Selimbau

Suta Muhammad Jalaluddin was a ruler of Selimbau from around 1680 until ?

Abgang Cundin Pangeran Dipa Ahmed Badruddin was a ruler of Selimbau in 18th century.

Abang Tella III Pangeran Sumo Ali Joyo Mangku Negara was a ruler of Selimbau from ? until 1820s (also ruler of Bunut c.1814 - c.1830).

Muhammad Abbas Suria Negara was a ruler of Selimbau from 1820s until 1878.

Muda Agong Muhammad Salih Paku Negara was a ruler of Selimbau from around 1878 until 1903.

Gusti Muhammad Osman (died 1923) was a ruler of Selimbau from 1903 until his death in 1923.



Silat

Silat was a state in present Indonesia.

List of Rulers (title Panembahan, Pangeran Ratu 1855-1916) of Silat

Titik Kesuma Negara was a ruler of Silat.

Agung Kesuma Negara was a ruler of Silat.

Achmad Kesuma Negara was a ruler of Silat in 19th century.

Anom Suria Negara was a ruler of Silat from ? until around 1847.

Negara Achman (died December 1871) was a ruler of Silat from around 1847 until his death in December 1871.

Prabu (died 1877) was a ruler of Silat from 1871 until his death in 1877.

R. Jaja was regent of Silat from 1879 until 1889.

Ratu Muda Paku Negara (Abang Mas Jaman) (c.1872 - 1923) was a ruler of Silat from 1889 until his death in 1923.



Simpang

Simpang was a state in present Indonesia.

List of Rulers of Simpang

Gusti Asma Sultan Muhammad Jamaluddin I Kusumaningrat I was a ruler of Simpang from 1762 until 1819.

Gusti Mahmud Panembahan Surianingrat I was a ruler of Simpang from 1818 until 1845.

Gusti Muhammad Roem Panembahan Kusumaningrat II was a ruler of Simpang from 1845 until 1872.

Gusti Panji Panembahan Surianingrat II was a ruler of Simpang from 1872 until 1911.

Gusti Roem Panembahan Anom Kusumaningrat III was a ruler of Simpang from 1911 until 1942.

Gusti Mesir Panembahan Gusti Mesir (died 1944) was a ruler of Simpang from 1942 until 1943.

Gusti Mahmud bin Gusti Mansur was a ruler of Simpang from 1945 until 1952.

Muhammad Jamaluddin II bin Gusti Mesir (born 1936) is ceremonial ruler of Simpang since May 31, 2008.



Sintang

Sintang was a state in present Indonesia.

List of Rulers of Sintang

Abang Samat Semah was a Prince of Sintang.

Abang Ismail Zubair Mail Jubairi Irawan II was a Prince of Sintang.

Abang Suruh was a Prince of Sintang.

Abang Tembilang Ari was a Prince of Sintang.

Abang Pencin Pontin, Pangeran Agung Pandeling, Pangeran of Sintang was a Prince of Sintang from around 1600 until 1643

Pangeran Tunggal was a Prince of Sintang from around 1643 until 1672.

Muhammad Shamsuddin Saidul Khairi Waddien (died October 1738) was a ruler of Sintang from May 10, 1672 until his death in April 1738.

Abdul Rahman Muhammad Jalaluddin (died October 1786) was a ruler of Sintang from 1738 until his death in October 1786.

Abdul Rashid Muhammad Jamaluddin (died July 1796) was a ruler of Sintang from 1786 until his death in July 1796.

Muhammad Qamaruddin (died 1851) was a ruler of Sintang from 1796 until his death in 1851.

Muhammad Jamaluddin (died after 1855) was regent of Sintang from 1823 until 1855.

Abdul Said (before 1842 - September 1889) was a ruler of Sintang from August 21, 1855 until his death in September 1889.

Ismail (died December 22, 1905) was a ruler of Sintang from September 1889 until his death on December 22, 1905.

Gusti Adi Abdul Majid was a ruler of Sintang from 1905 until January 16, 1913 (suspended from 1912). He was the Panembahan (in full Sri Paduka
Tuanku Gusti Adi 'Abd al-Majid Panembahan) of the Sintang traditional state 1905 - 1913. He was born as Ade Usman, the son of his predecessor Sri Paduka
Tuanku Ismail, Panembahan Kusuma Negara II Panembahan of Sintang. His mother was his father's first wife Dayang Zainab, Ratu Permaisuri. His father soon
appointed him as heir apparent (full original title Gusti Adi 'Abd al-Majid, Pangeran Ratu Adipati Kusuma Negara). Assuming the throne following the death of
his father on 22 December 1905, Usman was suspended from ruling in 1912 by the Netherlands East Indies authorities and was deposed by them on 16 January
1913 for "bad behaivour" and exiled to Bongor in Java. He died on Java after that date.

Adi Muhammad Jun Abdul Kadir (1883 August 25, 1934) was a ruler of Sintang from January 16, 1913 until his death on August 25, 1934 (regent
until August 1913).

Muhammad Jamaluddin (1904 June 28, 1944) was a ruler of Sintang from 1934 until his death on June 28, 1944 (temporary until November 30, 1937)

Muhammad Shamsuddin (1914 February 12, 1947) was a ruler of Sintang from June 1944 until his death on February 12, 1947.

Ismail Shafiuddin (1914 before 2003) was a ruler of Sintang from 1947 until 1959.

Ade Muhammad Johan was regent of Sintang from 1949 until 1959.

Muhammad Ikhsani Shafiuddin (born 1942) is ceremonial ruler of Sintang since September 17, 2003.









Suhaid

Suhaid was the state in present Indonesia.

List of Rulers (title Pangeran) of Suhaid

Kiai Dipati Mangku was a ruler of Suhaid from ? until 1809.

Suma di-Loga Mangku Negara was a ruler of Suhaid from 1809 until 1879.

Kusuma Anom Suria Negara was a ruler of Suhaid from 1879 until ?


Sukadana

Sukadana was the state in present Indonesia.

List of Rulers of Sukadana

Muhammad Jamluddin bin Ahmad Kamaluddin Indralaya was a ruler of Sukadana from 1790 until 1828.

Abdul Jalil Syah bin Musa was a ruler of Sukadana from 1828 until 1843.

Tunku Besar Anom bin Abdul Jalil Syah was a ruler of Sukadana from 1843 until 1878.

Tunku Putera bin Anom was a ruler of Sukadana from 1878 until 1910.

Tunku Andut was a ruler of Sukadana from 1910 until ?



Tayan

Tayan is the tradicional state in present Indonesia.

List of Rulers of Tayan

Panembahan Nata Kusuma was a ruler of Tayan in the second half 18th century.

Ratu Suria Negara was a ruler of Tayan from ? until 1828.

Marta Suria Kusum was a ruler of Tayan from 1828 until 1854.

Anom Paku Negara Suria Kusuma was a ruler of Tayan from 1854 until 1873.

Kusuma Negara was a ruler of Tayan from 1873 until 1880.

Paku Negara Suria Kusuma was a ruler of Tayan from 1880 until 1905.

Anom Paku Negara I was a ruler of Tayan from 1905 until 1929.

Anom Adi Negara was a ruler of Tayan from 1929 until 1944.

Gusti Japar was a ruler of Tayan from 1929 until ?

Paku Negara (1923 - 1967) was a ruler of Tayan from 1945 until 1960.

Anom Paku Negara II is ceremonial ruler of Tayan since May 25, 2012.



Allah

Allah was the state in present Indonesia.

List of Rulers (title Aru/Aroa) of Allah

Manang was a ruler of Allah around 1800.

Mappa was a ruler of Allah in the first half 19th century.

Patta Mataelo was a ruler of Allah in the first half 19th century.

Mangke was a ruler of Allah in the second half 19th century.

La Taha was a ruler of Allah from around 1880 until 1900.

Kabe was a ruler of Allah from 1900 until 1909.

Lorong I (died 1913) was a ruler of Allah from 1909 until his death in 1913.

La Welio I Jina Bantl was a ruler of Allah from 1913 until 1934.

Pasanrangi was a ruler of Allah from 1934 until 1950.



Balangnipa

Balangnipa was the state in present Indonesia.

List of Rulers of Balangnipa

Kabong di Tomatindo di Lekopadia was a ruler of Balangnipa from ? until 1850.

Passaleppa Ammana I Bali was a ruler of Balangnipa from 1850 until 1862.

Tomelloli Manawari was a ruler of Balangnipa from 1870 until 1871, from 1873 until 1880 and from 1885 until 1906.

Kape Tokape was a ruler of Balangnipa from 1871 until 1872.

Maradia Kape was a ruler of Balangnipa from 1872 until 1873.

Sanggariya Tonaung Anjoro was a ruler of Balangnipa from 1880 until 1885.

Laju Kakanna I Doro Tomatindo di Judda (died 1927) was a ruler of Balangnipa from 1908 until his death in 1927.

Maradia Andi Baso was a ruler of Balangnipa from 1927 until 1947 (regent until 1929).

Andi Depu (died 1987) was regent of Balangnipa from 1950 until 1957.



Banggai

Banggai is the tradicional state in present Indonesia.

List of Rulers (title Tomundo) of Banggai

Benteng Paudagar was a ruler of Banggai from 1648 until 1689.

Balantik Mbulang was a ruler of Banggai from 1689 until 1705.

Kota Abdul Gani was a ruler of Banggai from 1705 until 1728.

Bacan Abu Kasim was a ruler of Banggai from 1728 until 1753.

Mondonu Kabudo was a ruler of Banggai from 1753 until 1768.

Padongko Ansyara was a ruler of Banggai from 1768 until 1773.

Dinadat Mandaria was a ruler of Banggai from 1773 until 1809.

Galila Atondeng was a ruler of Banggai from 1809 until 1821.

Sau Tadja was a ruler of Banggai from 1821 until 1827.

Tenebak Laota was a ruler of Banggai from 1827 until 1847.

Bugis Agama was a ruler of Banggai from 1847 until 1852.

Jere Tatu Tonga was a ruler of Banggai from 1852 until 1858.

Banggai Soak was a ruler of Banggai from 1858 until 1870.

Raja Haji Labusana Nurdin was a ruler of Banggai from 1870 until 1882.

Raja Haji Abdul Aziz was a ruler of Banggai from 1882 until 1900.

Raja Haji Abdul Rahman was a ruler of Banggai from 1900 until 1922.

Raja Haji Awaluddin was a ruler of Banggai from 1925 until 1940.

Raja Nurdin Daud was a ruler of Banggai from 1940 until 1941.

Raja Haji Sjoekoeran Aminuddin Amir (1902 - 1960) was a ruler of Banggai from 1941 until 1959.

Iskandar Zaman Awaluddin (1960 January 27, 2010) was a ceremonial ruler of Banggai from August 14, 2005 until his death on January 27, 2010.

Raja Muda Irawan Zaman Awaluddin was a ceremonial regent of Banggai since January 27, 2010.

Muhammad Fikran Ramadhan Iskandar Zaman (1993 January 28, 2010) is ceremonial ruler of Banggai from January 27, until his death on
January 28, 2010.



Barru

Barru was the state in present Indonesia.

List of Rulers (title Aru/Aroa) of Barru

We Limpo Daeng Manurung was a ruler of Barru from 1676 until 1701.

La Mallewai was a ruler of Barru from 1701 until 1726.

Rakiyah I was a ruler of Barru from 1726 until 1751.

La Tuppa was a ruler of Barru from 1751 until 1776.

To Apasewa was a ruler of Barru from 1776 until 1815.

To Patarai was a ruler of Barru from 1815 until 1836.

Tenripadang (1833 - 1887) was a ruler of Barru from 1836 until her death in 1887.

Batari Tojo was a ruler of Barru from 1888 until 1908.

Jonjo Karaeng Lewbangparang I (c.1880 - 1955) was a ruler of Barru from 1908 until his death in 1955.


Batulapa

Batulapa was the state in present Indonesia.

List of Rulers (title Aru/Aroa) of Batulapa

Puang Baso I was a ruler of Batulapa from around 1750 until ?

We Langrungi Buttukanan was a ruler of Batulapa in the second half 18th century.

Puang Mali Conra was a ruler of Batulapa in the first half 19th century.

Semagga was a ruler of Batulapa around middle 19th century.

Puang Pondi Luwu was a ruler of Batulapa from around 1862 until 1880.

Puang Mosang Andi Baso II was a ruler of Batulapa from around 1880 until 1886.

Coma I (died 1941) was a ruler of Batulapa from 1886 until her death in 1941.

Tanri was a ruler of Batulapa from 1941 until 1950.

Puang Tarokko Padinring was a ruler of Batulapa from 1950 until 1957.




Binuang

Binuang was a state in present Indonesia.

List of Rulers of Binuang

Majalekka Daeng Patompo was a ruler of Binuang from ? until 1917.

La Pa Enronge was a ruler of Binuang from 1917 until 1930.

La Matulada was a ruler of Binuang from 1930 until ?




Bone

Bone (also Boni, or Bone Saoraja) was a sultanate in the south-west peninsula of Sulawesi (formerly Celebes), now part of modern-dayIndonesia. Covering an
area of 2600 km, Bone's chief town Boni, lay 130 km northeast of the city of Makassar home to the Bugispeople. Once the most powerful state of Sulawesi,
Boni came under Dutch influence in 1666 as they sought to protect themselves from neighbouring belligerent states. Boni remained under Dutch control until
1814 when the British temporarily gained power of the region, but returned to Dutch rule in 1816 by whit of the European treaties concluded on the downfall of
Napoleon. Dutch influence was increasingly resisted by the Boni however and numerous Dutch expeditions to Boni were repelled during the nineteenth century.
Boni became part of Indonesia upon the country's independence. As in other native states in Sulawesi, succession to the throne in the female line had
precedence over the male line.

List of Rajas (also styled Arumponi) of Bone

La Patau Paduka Sri Sultan Idris Azim ud-din, MatinroE-ri Nagawuleng (1672 September 16, 1714) was a ruler of Bone from April 6, 1696 until
his death on September 16, 1714.

Bata-ri Toja Daeng Talaga Arung Timurung Datu-ri Chitta Sultana Zainab Zakiyat, MatinroE-ri Tipuluna (1687 November 2, 1749) was
a ruler of Bone from September 16, 1714 until August 5, 1715, in January 20, 1720, from June 28, 1724 until May 10, 1738 and from December 31, 1741 until
her death on November 2, 1749.

La Padang Sajati To Apawara Paduka Sri Sultan Sulaiman ibni al-Marhum Sultan Idris Azim ud-din, MatinroE-ri Beula (1691 - 1728)
was a ruler of Bone from August 5, 1715 until January 20, 1720.

La Parappa To' Aparapu Sappewali Daeng Bonto Madanrang Karaeng Anamonjang Paduka Sri Sultan Shahab ud-din Ismail
ibni al-Marhum Sultan Idris Azim ud-din, Tumamenanga-ri Sompaopu (b. 1690 - d. 1724) was a ruler of Bone from January 20, 1720 until December
16, 1721.

Mappaurangi Karaeng Kanjilo Paduka Sri Sultan Siraj ud-din ibni al-Marhum Sultan Abdul Kadir, Tuammenang-ri-Pasi =
Tomamaliang-ri Gaukana was a ruler of Bone from December 16, 1721 until January 8, 1724.

La Panaongi To' Pawawoi Arung Mampua Karaeng Bisei Paduka Sri Sultan Abdullah Mansur ibni al-Marhum Sultan Idris
Azim ud-din, Tuammenang-ri Bisei (1693 - 1734) was a ruler of Bone from January 8, 1724 until June 28, 1724.

I-Danraja Siti Nafisah Karaeng Langelo binti al-Marhum (1729 December 30, 1741) was a ruler of Bone from May 10, 1738 until her death in
1741.

La Mappasossong To Appaware Petta Paduka Sri Sultan Abdul Razzaq Jalal ud-din ibni al-Marhum Sultan Idris Azim ud-din,
MatinroE ri-Malimungang (died 1775) was a ruler of Bone from November 2, 1749 until his death in 1775.

La Tan-ri-tuppu Ahmad Syamsuddin, MatinroE-ri-Rompegadieng (1757 - July 22, 1812) was a ruler of Bone from June 17, 1775 until his death on July
22, 1812.

Toapatunru Arung Palakka Muhammad Ismail Mukhtasuddin, MatinroE-ri-Lalang-bata (d. 1825) was a ruler of Bone from July 22, 1812 until
his death in 1825.

I Maneeng Arun Data, MatinroE-ri-Kassi (died 1835) was a ruler of Bone from 1832 until her death in 1835.

Mapaseleeng Aru Panjielie, MatinroE-ri-Salassana (died 1845) was a ruler of Bone from 1835 until his death in 1845.

La Parereengie Arum Pungie Ahmad Salih, MatinroE-ri-Aja-benteng (died February 16, 1858) was a ruler of Bone from 1945 until his death on
February 16, 1858.

La Pamadanuka Paduka Sri Sultan, Sultan Abul-Hadi (died January 20, 1860) was a ruler of Bone from February 16, 1858 until his death on January
20, 1860.

Bassee Kajuwara Hadie Abel Hadie Pelai-eengi Paseempa (died January 20, 1860) was a ruler of Bone from February 16, 1858 until his death on
January 20, 1860.

Ahmad Singkarru Rukka Arung Palakka, MatinroE-ri Lalambata (1818 - 1871) was a ruler of Bone from 1860 until his death in 1871.

I Banrie Aru Timurung, MatinroE-ri Bola Mappare'na (died 1895) was a ruler of Bone from 1871 until her death on February 17, 1895.

La Pawowoni Karaeng Segeri, MatinroE-ri Bandung (1835 - 1911) was a ruler of Bone from 1895 until November 14, 1905.

La Mapanjukki, MatinroE-ri Gowa (1884 - 1967) was a ruler of Bone from March 17, 1931 until February 1946 and from 1950 until May 21, 1960.

Andi Pabenteng, MatinroE-ri Matuju (1904 - 1968) was a ruler of Bone from June 1946 until 1950.




Bontobatu

Bontobatu was a state in present Indonesia.

List of Rulers (title Aru) of Bontobatu

La Butu was a ruler of Bontobatu from ? until 1923.

Bangon was a ruler of Bontobatu from 1923 until ?



Bungku

Bungku was a state in present Indonesia.

List of Rajas (titled Pea Pua) of Bungku

Kacili Lamboja was a ruler of Bungku from around 1672 until ?

Sangian Kinambuga was a ruler of Bungku in the first half 18th century.

Kacili Surabi (died 1747) was a ruler of Bungku from ? until his death in 1747.

Foajianto was a ruler of Bungku from 1747 until ?

Kacili Lamboja was a ruler of Bungku in the second half 18th century.

Kacili Papa was a ruler of Bungku from ? until 1825 and from 1840 until 1848.

Ratu Boki Penesi was a ruler of Bungku in 1825.

Kacili Dongke Kombi was a ruler of Bungku from 1825 until 1840.

Kacili Sadek was a ruler of Bungku from 1848 until 1851.

Kacili Laman was a ruler of Bungku from 1851 until 1873.

Kacili Moloku was a ruler of Bungku from 1873 until 1879.

Kacili Laopeke was a ruler of Bungku from 1884 until 1907.

Putera Abdul Wahab (died 1925) was a ruler of Bungku from 1907 until 1922.

Ahmad Hadi (1884 - 1965) was a ruler of Bungku from 1925 until 1931.

Abdul Razak was a ruler of Bungku from 1931 until 1937.

Abdul Rabbi (1904 - 1974) was a ruler of Bungku from 1938 until 1950.



Cenrana

Cenrana was a state in present Indonesia.

List of Rulers of Cenrana

I Noto Mangamang was a ruler of Cenrana from 1850 until 1865.

I Sabu was a ruler of Cenrana from 1865 until 1866.

Anranata was a ruler of Cenrana from 1866 until 1883.

Tandiwali was a ruler of Cenrana from 1885 until 1889.

I Merette (died May 3, 1896) was a ruler of Cenrana from 1892 until her death on May 3, 1896.

Galigu (died 1901) was a ruler of Cenrana from 1896 until his death in 1901.

I Rukalumu (died 1907) was a ruler of Cenrana from 1901 until his death in 1907.

Ma Pagiling was a ruler of Cenrana from 1907 until 1917.

Pawela E (c.1891 - 1949) was a ruler of Cenrana from 1917 until his death in 1949.



Enrekang

Enrekeng is the tradicional state in present Indonesia.

List of Rulers of Enrekang

Pancai Tana Bunga Walie was a ruler of Enrekang from ? until 1917.

Patta Ahmad was a ruler of Enrekang from 1917 until ?

Iqbal Mustafa is cremonial ruler of Enrekang since 1998.



Gowa

List of Sultans of Gowa

Tumanurunga was a ruler of Gowa sultanate state in the Makassar region of southwestern Sulawesi in present Indonesia around 1300.

Tumassalangga Baraya was a ruler of Gowa sultanate state in the Makassar region of southwestern Sulawesi in present Indonesia in the first half 14th
century.

Puang Loe Lembang was a ruler of Gowa sultanate state in the Makassar region of southwestern Sulawesi in present Indonesia in the first half 14th century

I Tuniatabanri was a ruler of Gowa sultanate state in the Makassar region of southwestern Sulawesi in present Indonesia in the second half 14th century.

Karampang ri Gowa was a ruler of Gowa sultanate state in the Makassar region of southwestern Sulawesi in present Indonesia in the second half 14th
century.

Tunatangka Lopi was a ruler of Gowa sultanate state in the Makassar region of southwestern Sulawesi in present Indonesia around 1400.

Batara Gowa Tuminanga ri Paralakkenna was a ruler of Gowa sultanate state in the Makassar region of southwestern Sulawesi in present Indonesia in
the second half 15th century.

Pakere Tau Tunijallo ri Passukki was a ruler of Gowa sultanate state in the Makassar region of southwestern Sulawesi in present Indonesia in the first
half 15h century.

Daeng Matanre Karaeng Tumapa'risi' Kallonna (died 1546) was a ruler of Gowa sultanate state in the Makassar region of southwestern Sulawesi in
present Indonesia. He was reign from 1510 or 1511 until his death in 1546.

I Mappadulung Daeng Mattimung Karaeng Sanrabone Sultan Fakhruddin Abdul Jalil, Tumenanga-ri-Lakiung (1652 September 17,
1709) was a ruler of Gowa from September 16, 1677 until his death on September 17, 1709.

La Parappa To' Aparapu Sappewali Madanrang Daeng Bonto Karaeng Anamonjang Paduka Sri Sultan Shahabuddin Ismail,
Tumenanga-ri-Sompaopu (1690 - 1724) was a ruler of Gowa from September 18, 1709 until August 30, 1712.

I Mappaurangi Karaeng Kanjilo Paduka Sri Sultan Sirajuddin, Tuammenang-ri-Pasa (1687 January 22, 1739) was a ruler of Gowa from August
31, 1712 until his death on January 22, 1739.

I Malawangau Sultan Abdul Khair al-Mansur Shah, Tumenanga-ri-Gowa (1727 July 28, 1742) was a ruler of Gowa from January 1739 until his
death on July 28, 1742.

I Mappaba'basa Sultan Abdul Kudus, Tumenanga-ri-Kala'birana (1733 December 21, 1753) was a ruler of Gowa from July 28, 1742 until his death
on December 21, 1753.

Karaeng Batara Gowa II Amas Madina Patti Mathari Sultan Usman Fakhruddin, Tumenanga-ri-Silung (1749 - 1795) was a ruler of Gowa
from December 1753 until April 14, 1767.

I Malisujawa Daeng Riboko Arung Mampu Sultan Muhammad Imaduddin, Tumenanga-ri-Tompo'balang (died February 15, 1769) was a
ruler of Gowa from 1767 until his death on February 15, 1769.

I Makaraeng Karaeng Tamasangang Karaeng Katangka Sultan Zainuddin, Tumenanga-ri-Matawangang (1722 - 1778) was a ruler of Gowa
from 1769 until June 15, 1777.

Sankilang (died 1785) was a ruler of Gowa from 1777 until 1881.

I Mannawarri Karaeng Bontolangkasa (later Karaeng Mangasa Sultan Abdul Hadi) (1746 May 7, 1810) was a ruler of Gowa from October 16, 1781
until his death on May 7, 1810.
Karaeng Pangkajene Abdul Khalik was a ruler of Gowa from 1810 until 1814.

I Mappatunru (later I Manginyarang Karaeng Lembangparang, Tumenanga-ri-Katangka (1749 - 1825) was a ruler of Gowa from 1814 until his death in 1825.

La Oddanriu Karaeng Katangka, Tumenanga-ri-Suangga (died 1845) was a ruler of Gowa in 1825.

I Kumala Karaeng Lembangparang Sultan Abdul Kadir Muhammad Aidid, Tumenanga-ri-Kakoa-sangna (1817 January 30, 1893) was a
ruler of Gowa from September 1, 1825 until his death on January 1893.

Karaeng Berowangang Mahmud was regent of Gowa from September 1, 1825 until October 22, 1845.

I Mallingkaang Daeng Nyonri Karaeng Katangka Sultan Idris, Tumananga-ri-Kalabbiranna (died May 18, 1895) was a ruler of Gowa from
January 30, 1893 until his death on May 18, 1895.

I Makkulau Daeng Serang Karaeng Lembangparang Sultan Husain, Tumenanga-ri-Bunduna (died April 13, 1906) was a ruler of Gowa from
1895 until his death on April 13, 1906.

I Mangimangi Daeng Mattutu Karaeng Bontonompo Sultan Muhammad Tahir Muhibuddin, Tumenanga-ri-Sungguminasa (died April
20, 1946) was a ruler of Gowa from November 30, 1936 until his death on April 20, 1946.

Andi Ijo Daeng Mattawang Karaeng Lalolang Sultan Muhammad Abdul Kadir Aidid (1903 July 1, 1978) was a ruler of Gowa from
1946 until July 1, 1960.

Andi Kumala Karaeng Sila Aiduddin (born 1959) is ceremonial ruler of Gowa since 1978.

Andi Maddusila (born around 1957) is ceremonial ruler of Gowa since January 18, 2011 (in opposition).



Kasa

Kasa was the state in present Indonesia.

List of Rulers (title Aru/Aroa) of Kasa

Samang (died March 25, 1897) was a ruler of Kasa from 1880 until his death on March 25, 1897.

I Buabara was a ruler of Kasa from 1897 until October 9, 1940.

Andi Coppo (died March 1, 1952) was regent of Kasa from October 24, 1936 until October 9, 1940 and ruler of Kasa from October 9, 1940 until his death
on March 1, 1952.

Dirman Toro Puang Larung was a ruler of Kasa from 1952 until 1960.



Luwu

The Kingdom of Luwu (also Luwuq or Wareq) is the oldest kingdom in South Sulawesi in present Indonesia. In 1889, the Dutch Governor of Makassarplaced
Luwus heyday between the tenth and fourteenth centuries AD, but offered no evidence. The La Galigo, an epic poem in an archaic form of the Bugis language,
is the likely source of Braam Morris dating. The La Galigo depicts a vaguely defined world of coastal and riverine kingdoms whose economies are based on
trade. The important centers of this world are Luwu and the kingdom of Cina (pronounced Cheena but identical in Indonesian pronunciation to China), which
lay in the western Cenrana valley, with its palace centre near the hamlet of Sarapao in Pamanna district. The incompatibility of the La Galigos society and
political economy with the reality of the Bugis agricultural kingdoms led Bugis historians to propose an intervening period of chaos to separate the two
chronologically.
[1]
Archaeological and textual research carried out since the 1980s has undermined this chronology. Extensive surveys and excavations in Luwu
have revealed that it is no older than the earliest agricultural kingdoms of the southwest peninsula. The new understanding is that Bugis speaking settlers from the
western Cnrana valley began to settle along the coastal margins around the year AD 1300. The Gulf of Bone is not a Bugis-speaking area: it is a thinly populated
region of great ethnic diversity. Speakers of Pamona, Padoe, Toala,Wotu and Lemolang languages live on the coastal lowlands and foothills, while the highland
valleys are home to groups speaking various other Central and South Sulawesi languages. The Bugis are found almost solely along the coast, to which they have
evidently migrated in order to trade with Luwus indigenous peoples. It is clear both from archaeological and textual sources that Luwu was a Bugis-led coalition
of various ethnic groups, united by trading relationships.

List of Rulers (title Pajong, also styled Datu) of Luwu

Dewaraja was a ruler of Luwu from 1495 until 1520. The first ruler for which we have any real information was Dewaraja. Stories current today in South
Sulawesi tell of his aggressive attacks on the neighboring kingdoms of Wajo and Sidenreng. Luwus power was eclipsed in the sixteenth century by the rising
power of the southern agrarian kingdoms, and its military defeats are set out in the Chronicle of Bone.

La Patiwareq, Daeng Pareqbung was a ruler of Luwu from in the first half 17th century. On February 4 or 5, 1605, Luwus ruler, La Patiwareq, Daeng
Pareqbung, became the first South Sulawesi ruler to embrace Islam, taking as his title Sultan Muhammad Wali Muzhir (or Muzahir) aldin. He is buried at
Malangke and is referred to in the chronicles as Matinroe ri Wareq, He who sleeps at Wareq, the former palacecentre of Luwuq. His religious teacher, Dato
Sulaiman, is buried nearby.

La Tan-ri-Leleang Maesa Mahatuddin, MatinroE-ri-Soreang was a ruler of Luwu from ? until 1809.

La Tan-ri-Pappang Abdullah, MatinroE-ri-Sabamparu was a ruler of Luwu in 1809.

We Tan-ri-Awaru, MatinroE-ri-Palopo was a ruler of Luwu from 1810 until 1826.

La Oddanriu Ande Baru was a ruler of Luwu from 1826 until 1860.

Abdul Karin To Barue, MatinroE-ri-Limpomajang was a ruler of Luwu from 1860 until 1880.

Opu Anrong Guru, MatinroE-ri-Tamalulu was a ruler of Luwu from 1880 until 1883.

Iskandar Aru Larompong was a ruler of Luwu from 1883 until 1898.

We Kambo Daeng Risompa was a ruler of Luwu from 1898 until 1935.

Andi Jemma Baru (died 1965) was a ruler of Luwu from 1936 until 1946 and from 1949 until 1957.

Andi Jelling was a ruler of Luwu from 1946 until 1949.

Andi Iwan Alamsyah Bau Djemma Baru is ceremonial ruler of Luwu since 2006.



Maiwa

Maiwa is the tradicional state in present Indonesia.

List of Rulers (title Aru; from 2012, Arung) of Maiwa

La Calo was a ruler of Maiwa from around 1864 until 1890.

La Pakanteng Muhammad Ali was a ruler of Maiwa from 1890 until 1905 and from July 17, 1907 until 1909.

La Sapewali was a ruler of Luwu from 1905 until July 16, 1907.

La Poli Andi Suwa was regent of Luwu from January 1909 until March 17, 1910.

La Coke was a ruler of Luwu from 1910 until 1913.

La Sini (died August 18, 1918) was a ruler of Luwu from December 3, 1913 until his death on August 18, 1920.

La Naki was a ruler of Luwu from 1918 until 1920.

La Cori was a ruler of Luwu from 1920 until October 30, 1925.

La Oga was a ruler of Luwu from 1925 until 1926.

La Ori was regent of Luwu in 1926.

La Sassu was a ruler of Luwu from 1927 until 1950 (regent until 1928).

Andi Amang is ceremonial ruler of Luwu since December 20, 2012.



Majene

Majene was the state in present Indonesia.

List of Rulers (title Maradia) of Majene

I Nimbang was a ruler of Majene from around 1830 until around 1840.

I Nyarring was a ruler of Majene from around 1840 until ?

La Tenribali Tomate Puabang was a ruler of Majene from ? until 1867.

Sanggaria was a ruler of Majene from 1867 until 1874.

Sangkilang (died 1889) was a ruler of Majene from December 1874 until his death in 1889.

I Juara was a ruler of Majene from 1892 until July 1907.

Rammang Pata Lolo was a ruler of Majene from 1907 until 1950.

Andi Tonra was a ruler of Majene from 1950 until 1960.

Bupati was a ruler of Majene from 1960 until 1962.



Malua (Maluwa)

Malua (Maluwa) was the state in present Indonesia.

List of Rulers (title Aru/Aroa) of Malua (Maluwa)

Patta Duri was a ruler of Malua (Maluwa) from around 1750 until ?

Patta Salassa was a ruler of Malua (Maluwa) in the second half 18th century.

Tandil was a ruler of Malua (Maluwa) in the late 18th century and early 19th century.

Sira was a ruler of Malua (Maluwa) in the first half 19th century.

Silassa was a ruler of Malua (Maluwa) in the first half 19th century.

Patta Siratang was a ruler of Malua (Maluwa) around middle 19th century.

Assang (Talundu) was a ruler of Malua (Maluwa) from ? until 1890.

La Gali (died January 22, 1917) was a ruler of Malua (Maluwa) from 1890 until his death on January 22, 1917.

La Parrang was a ruler of Malua (Maluwa) from August 29, 1917 until November 12, 1934.

Tambone was a ruler of Malua (Maluwa) from November 22, 1934 until around 1950 (temporary until May 29, 1936)/


Malusetasi (Nepo)

Malusetasi (Nepo) was the state in present Indonesia.

List of Rulers (title Aru) of Malusetasi (Nepo)

I Samatana (died 1917) was a ruler of Malusetasi (Nepo) from 1906 until her death in 1917.

I Makung (died 1932) was a ruler of Malusetasi (Nepo) from 1917 until his death in 1932.

Andi Calo was a ruler of Malusetasi (Nepo) from 1932 until 1950.



Mamuju

Mamuju was the state in present Indonesia.

List of Rulers (title Maradia) of Mamuju

Ammana Komba was a ruler of Mamuju from around 1820 until 1840.

Tomappelei Kasu Ditana was a ruler of Mamuju from around 1840 until 1860.

Panre was a ruler of Mamuju from around 1860 until 1870.

Nai Latang was a ruler of Mamuju from around 1870 until 1890.

Na E Sukur (died 1895) was a ruler of Mamuju from around 1890 until his death in 1895.

Karanene was a ruler of Mamuju from 1895 until 1908.

Jalala Amana Inda (1875 - 1950) was a ruler of Mamuju from 1908 until his death in 1950.


Mori

Mori was a state in present Indonesia.

List of Rulers (title Makole) of Mori

Anamba Marundoh V was a ruler of Mori from 1670 until 1730.

Marundoh VI (Sungkawawo II) was a ruler of Mori from 1730 until ?

Mohi Marunduh VII was a ruler of Mori in the second half 18th century.

Ngarindi Marunduh VIII was a ruler of Mori in early 19th century.

Lawolio Marunduh IX was a ruler of Mori from ? until 1840.

Makole Tosaleko Marunduh X was a ruler of Mori from 1840 until 1870.

Makole Datu ri Tana Marunduh XI (died August 17, 1907) was a ruler of Mori from 1870 until his death on August 17, 1907.

Kamasi Ede Marunduh XII was a ruler of Mori from 1907 until 1928.

Owolu Marunduh XIII (1875 - 1950) was a ruler of Mori from 1928 until 1942 and from 1945 until 1949.

Besau Marunduh XIV was a ruler of Mori from 1942 until 1945.

Pirau Marunduh was acting ruler of Mori from 1949 until 1950.

Mainda Rumampuo Marunduh XV was a ruler of Mori from 1950 until 1957.



Palu

Palu was a state in present Indonesia.

List of Rulers (title Magau) of Palu

Pue Nggari (Siralangi) was a ruler of Palu from 1796 until 1805.

I Datu Labungulili was a ruler of Palu from 1805 until 1815.

Malasigi Bulupalo was a ruler of Palu from 1815 until 1826.

Daelangi was a ruler of Palu from 1826 until 1835.

Yololembah was a ruler of Palu from 1835 until 1850.

Muhammad Lamakaraka was a ruler of Palu from 1850 until 1868.

Maili (Mangge Risa) was a ruler of Palu from 1868 until 1888.

Jodjokodi was a ruler of Palu from 1888 until 1906.

Parampasi Tomesiema was a ruler of Palu from 1906 until 1921.

Janggola (died 1946) was a ruler of Palu from 1921 until his death in 1946.

Tjatjo Idjazah was a ruler of Palu from 1949 until 1960.









Pambauang

Pambaung was the state in present Indonesia.

List of Rulers of Pambaung

Madusila was a ruler of Pambaung from around 1845 until 1850 and from 1860 until 1866.

Jalangkara Cenrana was a ruler of Pambaung from 1850 until 1855.

I Latta was a ruler of Pambaung from 1888 until 1907.

Simanangi Pakarama (died 1920) was a ruler of Pambaung from 1907 until his death in 1920.

Andi Batari was a ruler of Pambaung from 1920 until 1934.

Tonri Lipu was a ruler of Pambaung from 1934 until 1952.



Rapang

Rapang was the state in present Indonesia.

List of Rulers (title Arung) of Rapang

La Tenri Tatta was a ruler of Rapang from 1681 until around 1700.

La Toware was a ruler of Rapang from 1700 until 1770.

We Tenri Paonang was a ruler of Rapang from around 1770 until around 1800.

La Pabittei was a ruler of Rapang from around 1800 until around 1830.

We Madditana was a ruler of Rapang from around 1830 until around 1860.

We Bangki was a ruler of Rapang from around 1860 until around 1870.

La Panguriseng was a ruler of Rapang from around 1870 until 1889.

La Sadapotto was a ruler of Rapang from 1889 until 1906.

We Tenri Fatimah (died 1951) was a ruler of Rapang from 1906 until around 1942.

Pampawa Ade was a ruler of Rapang from 1942 until around 1951.



Sanrabone (Sanrobone)

Sanrabone (Sanrobone) was the state in present Indonesia.

List of Rulers (title Karaeng) of Sanrabone (Sanrobone)

I Mappadulung Daeng Mattimung Karaeng Abdul Jalil (died September 17, 1709) was a ruler of Sanrabone (Sanrobone) from July 6, 1667 until
his death on September 17, 1709. He was also Sultan of Gowa from 1677 until 1709.

I Yatatojeng Karaeng Bontomajannang was a ruler of Sanrabone (Sanrobone) from September 18, 1709 until 1710.

Lau Pakanna Karaeng Pangkajene was a ruler of Sanrabone (Sanrobone) from 1710 until Januart 23, 1725.

Garassi was a ruler of Sanrabone (Sanrobone) from January 23, 1725 until ?

Tumenanga III ri Masigi'na was a ruler of Sanrabone (Sanrobone) during 1730s.

Tumenanga IV Mamampang ri Sanrabne (1662 - 1742) was a ruler of Sanrabone (Sanrobone) from ? until his death in 1742.

Tumenanga V I Pammusurang was a ruler of Sanrabone (Sanrobone) from 1742 until around 1763.

Tumenanga VI ri La Guruda was a ruler of Sanrabone (Sanrobone) in the second half 18th century.

La Patau was a ruler of Sanrabone (Sanrobone) in the second half 18th century.

I Memang Karaeng Bulu-Bulu was a ruler of Sanrabone (Sanrobone) in the first half 19th century.

I Bantang Daeng Ngilau Tumenanga VII ri Kabara'na was a ruler of Sanrabone (Sanrobone) in the first half 19th century.

I Guntutu Datu Lulu was a ruler of Sanrabone (Sanrobone) from ? until 1838.

I Pamusurang Daeng Pabeta was a ruler of Sanrabone (Sanrobone) from 1838 until 1860.

I Yusuf Daeng Ropu was a ruler of Sanrabone (Sanrobone) in 1860.

I Baso Daeng Nyengka Patombong Karaenga Campagaya (died 1916) was a ruler of Sanrabone (Sanrobone) from 1860 until 1867 (regent from
1865).

Andi Ali Malongbasang is ceremonial ruler of Sanrabone (Sanrobone) since July 25, 2008.



Sawito

Sawito was the state in present Indonesia.

List of Rulers (title Adatuwang) of Sawito

La Patau was a ruler of Sawito from around 1730 until 1770.

La Kuning Ahmad was a ruler of Sawito from around 1770 until 1820.

Fatimah Daeng Matene was a ruler of Sawito from 1820 until 1824.

La Cebu was a ruler of Sawito from around 1825 until 1870.

Pasule Daeng Bulaeng was a ruler of Sawito from 1870 until 1886.

Palagau Aru Patojo (died 1902) was a ruler of Sawito from 1886 until his death in 1902.

Andi Tama was a ruler of Sawito from 1902 until 1922.

I Ba Eda (La Beda) was a ruler of Sawito from 1922 until 1940.

Andi Tenri Fatimah was a ruler of Sawito from 1940 until 1951.

Andi Calo was regent of Sawito from 1942 until 1950.

Bau Rukiah was a ruler of Sawito from 1951 until 1957.


Alita

Alita was a state in present Indonesia.

List of Rulers (title Adatuwang) of Alita

Patta Lacalabai was a ruler of Alita in the first half 19th century.

Aru Anipong was a ruler of Alita from ? until 1861.

We Tan-ri-Padarang was a ruler of Alita from 1861 until 1902.

La Pangorisang was a ruler of Alita from 1902 until 1905.

La Bonde Jaraeng-ri Jampu E was a ruler of Alita from 1905 until 1908.



Selayar

Selayar was a state in present Indonesia.

List of Rulers (title Pangeran) of Selayar

Nata Diraja I was a Selayar from around 1694 until November 4, 1710.

Intan Ali was a Selayar from 1710 until 1720.

Nata Diraja II was a Selayar from 1720 until 1762.

Nata Diraja III was a Selayar from 1762 until 1765.

Nata Diraja IV was a Selayar from 1765 until 1831.

Nata Diraja V was a Selayar from 1831 until 1864.



Sidenreng

Sidenreng was a state in present Indonesia.

List of Rulers (title Adatuwang) of Sidenreng

La Tenri Tatta was a ruler of Sidenreng from 1681 until around 1700.

La Mallewai was a ruler of Sidenreng from around 1700 until ?

Bau Rukiyah was a ruler of Sidenreng in the first half 18th century.

Taranatie was a ruler of Sidenreng from ? until 1760.

Towappo Abdullah was a ruler of Sidenreng from 1760 until 1824.

Lapawowoi Ali Albenu Abdul Hakim was a ruler of Sidenreng from 1824 until 1837.

Muhammad Ait LKa Pangorisang was a ruler of Sidenreng from 1837 until 1889.

Sumanga Rukka was a ruler of Sidenreng from 1889 until 1904.

La Sadapotto was a ruler of Sidenreng from 1904 until 1906.

La Cibo was a ruler of Sidenreng from 1906 until 1942 and from 1945 until 1849.

La Sikandare Petta Karaeng Pajujungi Arung ri Amparita (died 1961) was a ruler of Sidenreng from 1950 until March 13, 1957.

Andi Patiroi Pawicanggi is ceremonial ruler of Sidenreng since December 20, 2012.




Soppeng

Soppeng was a state in present Indonesia.

List of Rajas (also styled Datuk/Datin) of Soppeng

La Tenrisenge Towesa was a ruler of Soppeng from 1676 until 1691 and from 1705 until 1707.

We Adda was a ruler of Soppeng from 1691 until 1705.

La Patau (1672 - 1714) was a ruler of Soppeng from 1707 until his death in 1714.

La Padang Sajati was a ruler of Soppeng from 1714 until 1720 and from 1724 until 1727.

La Parappa was a ruler of Soppeng from 1720 until 1724.

Batari Toja was a ruler of Soppeng from 1728 until 1738.

La Mappasossong was a ruler of Soppeng from 1738 until 1749.

Ark Panjili was a ruler of Soppeng from 1749 until 1758.

La Mappajanci was a ruler of Soppeng from 1758 until 1782.

La Onrong Noah Datuk Patiro, MatinroE-ri-Amalawa (1757 - 1820) was a ruler of Soppeng from 1782 until his death in 1820.

Wa Tan-ri-a-Wani Aru Lapajung, MatinroE-ri-Barugana was a ruler of Soppeng from 1820 until 1828.

Datuk Patiro was a ruler of Soppeng from 1828 until 1838.

La Onrong Datuk Lampula was a ruler of Soppeng from 1838 until 1848.

Aru Senkang Nenena I Calla To Lampeeng was a ruler of Soppeng from 1848 until 1865.

Abdul Gani Baso Batu Pute was a ruler of Soppeng from 1865 until 1895.

Siettie Saenaba Aru Lapanjung was a ruler of Soppeng from 1897 until December 21, 1940.

Andi Wana (died 1959) was a ruler of Soppeng from December 21, 1940 until his death in 1959.



Soppengriaja

Soppengriaja was the state in present Indonesia

List of Rulers (title Datuk) of Soppengriaja

Basso Patta Bau Lampoko was a ruler of Soppengriaja in Balusu from ? until 1906.

La Tobo Patta Lenrang (died August 19, 1920) was a ruler of Soppengiraja in Kiru from ? until 1906 and ruler of Soppengriaja from 1906 until his death
on August 19, 1920.

La Maddiawe was a ruler of Soppengriaja from 1920 until February 18, 1932.

Yusuf was a ruler of Soppengriaja from 1932 until 1950.



Supa (Ajataparang)

Supa (Ajataparang) was the state in present Indonesia.

List of Rulers (title Datuk) of Supa (Ajataparang)

La Toware was a ruler of Supa (Ajataparang) from 1681 until around 1700.

La Pamessangi was a ruler of Supa (Ajataparang) in the first half 18th century.

La Sangka was a ruler of Supa (Ajataparang) in the second half 18th century.

La Kuning Ahmad (died 1820) was a ruler of Supa (Ajataparang) from ? until his death in 1820.

La Tenri (La Bampe) was a ruler of Supa (Ajataparang) from 1820 until 1830.

I Towakka Arung Kalibong was a ruler of Supa (Ajataparang) from 1830 until 1855.

La Cebu was regent of Supa (Ajataparang) from 1855 until 1860.

Bassee Kajuwara Hadie Abel Hadie Pelai-eengi Paseempa (around 1805 - 1881) was a ruler of Supa (Ajataparang) from 1860 until his death in
1861.

I Madellung (died 1900) was a ruler of Supa (Ajataparang) from 1881 until his death in 1900.

Andi Mappanjuki (1884 - 1967) was a ruler of Supa (Ajataparang) from 1902 until 1905.

La Parerengi Karaeng Tinggimae (died 1926) was a ruler of Supa (Ajataparang) from 1905 until his death in 1926.

Andi La Makassau (c.1883 - 1947) was a ruler of Supa (Ajataparang) from 1926 until 1938.

Andi Abdullah Bau Maseppe (c.1915 -1947) was a ruler of Supa (Ajataparang) from 1938 until his death in 1947.

Andi Cinta (died 1950) was a ruler of Supa (Ajataparang) from 1947 until his death in 1950.

I Suji Karaeng Kajene (died 1992) was a ruler of Supa (Ajataparang) from 1950 until 1959.









Tallo

Tallo was a Sultanate in present Indonesia.

List of Sultans of Tallo

Abdul Kadir I, Tumenanga-ri-Passiringanna (1666 January 8, 1709) was a ruler of Tallo from June 16, 1673 until his death on January 8, 1709.

Sirajuddin, Tomamaliang-ri-Gaukana (1687 - 1739) was a ruler of Tallo from 1709 until November 18, 1714 and from 1729 until November 5, 1735.

Nazimuddin, Tumenanga-ri-Jawaiya was a ruler of Tallo from November 18, 1714 until 1729.

Safiuddin, I-Makkasuma (1709 - 1760) was a ruler of Tallo from November 5, 1735 until his death in 1760.

Karaeng Sapanang Tu-Timoka was a ruler of Tallo from 1760 until 1761.

Abdul Kadir II, Tumenanga-ri-Buttana (1707 April 6, 1767) was a ruler of Tallo from 1761 until his death on April 6, 1767.

Sittie Saleh I (1726 - 1778) was a ruler of Tallo from 1767 until June 1, 1777.

Sittie Saleh II, Tumenanga-ri-Kanatojenna (died May 1824) was a ruler of Tallo from August 2, 1780 until his death in May 1824.

Abdul Rauf, Tumenanga-ri-Katangka (1749 - 1825) was a ruler of Tallo from 1824 until his death in 1825.

Abdul Kadir Muhammad Aidid, Tumenanga-ri-Kakoa-sangna (1817 - 1893) was a ruler of Tallo in 1825.

Abdul Rahman, Tumenanga-ri-Suangga (died 1845) was a ruler of Tallo from 1825 until his death in 1845.

Sittie Aisya, Tumenanga-ri-Bontomanai (died 1850) was a ruler of Tallo from 1845 until his death in 1850.

La Makka Daeng Parani was a ruler of Tallo from 1850 until April 16, 1856.




Tanette

Tanette was the state in present Indonesia.

List of Rulers (title Datuk) of Tannete

Puange was a ruler of Tannete from 1547 until ?

Datu Gollaya Lamarumpia was a ruler of Tannete in second half 16th century.

Topalannyari was a ruler of Tannete in early 17th century.

Lamamula Daeng Limba was a ruler of Tannete in the first half 17th century.

Daeng Ibrahim was a ruler of Tannete in the second half 17th century.

Mapatjantji Daeng Matayan was a ruler of Tannete from around 1677 until 1716.

We Pattekketana was a ruler of Tannete from 1716 until 1735.

La Odanriu Yusuf Fakhruddin was a ruler of Tannete from 1735 until 1747.

We Tenrileleang, MatinroE-ri-Soreang was a ruler of Tannete from 1747 until 1776.

Abdul Kadir Muhieddin, MatinroE-ri-Dusang was a ruler of Tannete from 1776 until 1807.

Abdullah Saipu Aru Pancana La Patua (died 1844) was a ruler of Tannete from 1807 until 1824, from 1824 until 1825 and from 1827 until 1840.

Daturincita was regent of Tannete from 1807 until 1814.

Daeng Tanisang was a ruler of Tannete in 1824 and from 1825 until 1827.

Datuk Mario Larumpang Lacombong, MatinroE-ri-Mutiara was a ruler of Tannete from 1840 until 1855.

We Tan-ri-Olle was a ruler of Tannete from 1855 until 1910.

I Pancaitana Aru Pancana (1859 June 16, 1926) was a ruler of Tannete from 1910 until her death on June 16, 1926.

I Pateka Tana was regent of Tannete from 1926 until 1927.

Andi Baso was regent of Tannete from 1927 until 1950.

Andi Iskandar was a ruler of Tannete from 1950 until 1960.



Tapalang

Tapalang was a state in present Indonesia.

List of Rulers (title Maradia) of Tapalang

Gunung was a ruler of Tapalang from around 1830 until 1850.

Tomappelei Asuginna was a ruler of Tapalang from 1850 until 1860.

Puwa Caco Tomanggang Gagallang Patta-ri Malunda was a ruler of Tapalang from 1860 until 1867.

Na E Sukur was a ruler of Tapalang from 1867 until 1889.

Pabanari Daeng Natonga was a ruler of Tapalang from 1889 until 1892.

Andi Musa Paduwa Limba (died 1920) was a ruler of Tapalang from 1892 until 1908.

Bustari Patani Lantang was a ruler of Tapalang from 1908 until 1934.

Pattana Pantang Abdal Havid was a ruler of Tapalang from 1934 until 1936.



Tolitoli (Toli Toli)

Tolitoli (Toli Toli) was a state in present Indonesia.

List of Rulers (titla Raja) of Tolitoli (Toli Toli)

Daeng Bone (Apone) was a ruler of Tolitoli (Toli Toli) from 1737 until 1752.

Mulana Muhammad Nurdin was a ruler of Tolitoli (Toli Toli) from 1752 until ?

Tumente (Mente) was a ruler of Tolitoli (Toli Toli) around 1772.

Jamalul Alam Bantilan was a ruler of Tolitoli (Toli Toli) from around 1800 until around 1812.

Yusuf Malatuang Syaful Mulk was a ruler of Tolitoli (Toli Toli) from around 1812 until 1856.

Bantilan Syaifuddin was a ruler of Tolitoli (Toli Toli) from July 5, 1858 until 1867.

Abdul Hamid Bantilan (died 1905) was a ruler of Tolitoli (Toli Toli) from 1867 until his vdeath in 1905.

Ismail was a ruler of Tolitoli (Toli Toli) from 1905 until 1918.

Ali was regent of Tolitoli (Toli Toli) from 1918 until 1919.

I Busuna was regent of Tolitoli (Toli Toli) from 1918 until 1919.

Muhammad Sirajuddin was regent of Tolitoli (Toli Toli) from 1918 until 1919.

Jali Muhammad Salih was a ruler of Tolitoli (Toli Toli) from 1919 until 1926.

Muhammad Yahya Bantilan (died after 1960) was a ruler of Tolitoli (Toli Toli) from 1926 until 1929 and from 1944 until 1946 and from January 12,
1957 until his death in 1960.

Muhammad bin Abdul Aziz (died 1946) was reent of Tolitoli (Toli Toli) from 1926 until 1929.

Matata Daeng Masese (died 1942) was regent of Tolitoli (Toli Toli) from 1929 until 1942.

Muhammad Anwar Bantilan (born 1934) is ceremonial ruler of Tolitoli (Toli Toli)since 2000.




Wajo

Wajo was the state in present Indonesia.

List of Rulers (title Batara Wajo) of Wajo

La Pariwusi was a ruler of Wajo from 1679 until 1699.

La Tenriessu was a ruler of Wajo from 1699 until 1701.

La Matone To Sakke was a ruler of Wajo from 1701 until 1702.

La Galigo To Suni was a ruler of Wajo from 1702 until 1711.

La Tenriwerrung was a ruler of Wajo from 1711 until 1713.

La Salewangeng To Tenrirua was a ruler of Wajo from 1713 until 1736.

La Madukellang Arung Singkang Arung Peneki (died 1756) was a ruler of Wajo from 1736 until 1754.

La Madanaca Arung Waetuo was a ruler of Wajo from 1754 until 1755.

La Passaung Puanna La Omo' was a ruler of Wajo from 1758 until 1761.

La Mappajung Ranreng was a ruler of Wajo from 1764 until 1767.

La Malliwungeng to Allewoang was a ruler of Wajo from 1767 until 1770.

La Mallaleleng was a ruler of Wajo from 1795 until 1817.

La Mamang Towapamadeng Puangna Raden Gallo was a ruler of Wajo from 1821 until 1825.

La Paddangeng Puangna Padaguna was a ruler of Wajo from 1839 until 1845.

La Pawellangi PajungperoE Datu-ri-Akkajeng was a ruler of Wajo from 1854 until 1859.

La Cincing, MatinroE-ri-Cappagalung was a ruler of Wajo from 1859 until 1885.

La Koro Arung Padali was a ruler of Wajo from 1887 until 1891.

La Passamula' Datuk Lampulle was a ruler of Wajo from 1892 until 1897.

Ishak Manggabarani Karaeng Mangeppe was a ruler of Wajo from February 11, 1900 until December 19, 1916.

La Oddang Datuk Larompong was a ruler of Wajo from December 22, 1926 until January 14, 1933.

Andi Mangkona Datuk Maro Riwawo was a ruler of Wajo from April 23, 1933 until November 21, 1949.




Butung (Buton)

Butung (Buton) was a state in present Indonesia. Buton (also Butung or Boeton), is an island in Indonesia located off the southeast peninsula of Sulawesi. In the
precolonial era, the island, then usually known as Butung, was within the sphere of influence of Ternate. Especially in the sixteenth century it served as an
important secondary regional center within the Ternaten empire, controlling regional trade and collecting tribute to be sent to Ternate. Sultan Murhum, the first
Islamic monarch on the island, is remembered in the name of the island's major harbor, Murhum Harbor, in Baubau.

List of Sultans of Butung (Buton)

La Dini Sultan Syaifuddin was a ruler of Butung (Buton) from 1695 until 1702.

La Rabaenga Sultan Syaiful Rijali was a ruler of Butung (Buton) in 1702.

La Sadaha Sultan Syamsuddin was a ruler of Butung (Buton) from 1702 until 1709.

La Ubi Sultan Nasiruddin was a ruler of Butung (Buton) from 1709 until 1711.

La Tumparasi Sultan Muzhirudddin Abdul Rasyid was a ruler of Butung (Buton) from 1711 until 1712.

Langkairiri Sultan Sakiyuddin Darul Alam was a ruler of Butung (Buton) from 1712 until 1750.

La Karambau Sultan Himayatuddin Muhammad Saidi was a ruler of Butung (Buton) from 1750 until 1752 and from 1760 until 1763.

La Hamim Sultan Sakiyuddin (died 1759) was a ruler of Butung (Buton) from 1752 until his death in 1759.

La Maani Sultan Rafiuddin (died 1760) was a ruler of Butung (Buton) from 1759 until his death in 1760.

La Jampi Sultan Kaimuddin IV was a ruler of Butung (Buton) from 1763 until 1788.

La Masalomu Sultan Alimuddin was a ruler of Butung (Buton) from 1788 until 1791.

La Kopuru Sultan Muhyuddin Abdul Gafur was a ruler of Butung (Buton) from 1791 until 1799.

La Badaru Sultan Dayanu Azaruddin was a ruler of Butung (Buton) from 1799 until 1822.

La Dani Sultan Muhammad Anharuddin was a ruler of Butung (Buton) from 1822 until 1823.

La Ode Muhammad Aidrus Sultan Muhammad Aidrus Kaimuddin V was a ruler of Butung (Buton) from 1824 until 1851.

La Ode Muhammad Isa Sultan Muhammad Isa Kaimuddin VI (died June 24, 1871) was a ruler of Butung (Buton) from 1851 until his death on
June 24, 1871.

La Ode Muhammad Salih Sultan Muhammad Salih Kaimuddin VII (died June 16, 1886) was a ruler of Butung (Buton) from 1871 until his
death on June 16, 1886.

La Ode Muhammad Umar Sultan Muhammad Umar Kaimuddin VIII was a ruler of Butung (Buton) from 1886 until September 1904.

Muhammad Asikin (died 1911) was regent of Butung (Buton) from September 1904 until 1906.

La Ode Muhammad Muhammad Asikin Sultan Muhammad Adil Rahim was a ruler of Butung (Buton) from 1906 until July 16, 1911

La Ode Muhammad Husaini Sultan Dayanu Ihsana Kaimuddin IX (died December 4, 1913) was a ruler of Butung (Buton) from 1912 until
his death on December 4, 1913.

Sapati Abdul Latif was regent of Butung (Buton) from 1913 until October 27, 1915.

La Ode Muhammad Ali Sultan Muhammad Ali Kaimuddin X (died March 4, 1921) was a ruler of Butung (Buton) from 1915 until his death on
March 4, 1921.

La Ode Muhammad Syafiul Sultan Muhammad Syafiul Anaami Kaimuddin XI was a ruler of Butung (Buton) from 1922 until 1924.

La Ode Falihi Kaimuddin XIII (died 1960) was regent of Butung (Buton) in 1924 and ruler of Butung (Buton) from 1937 until 1959.

La Ode Hamidi Sultan Muhammad Hamidi Kaimuddin XII (died 1937) was a ruler of Butung (Buton) from 1924 until his death in 1937.

La Ode Manarfa Khalifatul Kaimuddin XIV (1919 - 2006) was a ruler of Butung (Buton) from 1959 until 1960.

La Ode Muhammad Izat Manarfa (born 1946) is ceremonial regent of Butung (Buton) from November 2006 until May 25, 2012 and ceremonial ruler
of Butung (Buton) since August 23, 2013.

La Ode Muhammad Djafar Hibli (born 1960) was a ceremonial ruler of Butung (Buton) from May 25, 2012 until 2013.



Muna

Muna was the state in Indonesia.

List of Rajas (from 1915, Swapraja) of Muna

La Ode Abdul Rahman Tughu Raja Sugi Sangia Latugho was a ruler of Muna from 1671 until 1716.

La Ode Huseini Raja Omputo Sangia was a ruler of Muna from 1716 until 1757.

La Ode Muhammad Ali was regent of Muna in 1757.

La Ode Kentu Koda Raja Omputo Kantolalo was a ruler of Muna from 1757 until 1764.

La Ode Umara Harisi Raja Omputo Nigege was a ruler of Muna from 1764 until ?

La Ode Murusali Raja Sangia Gola was a ruler of Muna in the second half 18th century.

La Ode Tumawu was a ruler of Muna in the second half 18th century.

La Ode Ngkumabusi was a ruler of Muna in the second half 18th century.

La Ode Sumali Raja Omputo Nisombo was a ruler of Muna from ? until 1799.

La Ode Wita was a ruler of Muna from 1799 until 1830.

La Ode Saete Raja Sorano Masigi was a ruler of Muna from 1816 until 1830.

La Ode Malai was a ruler of Muna in 1830.

La Ode Bulae Raja Sangia Laghada was a ruler of Muna from 1830 until 1861.

La Aka was regent of Muna from 1861 until 1864.

La Ode Muhammad Ali was a ruler of Muna from 1861 until 1883.

La Ode Ngkali (died 1909) was a ruler of Muna from 1883 until 1900.

La Ode Achmad Maktubu was a ruler of Muna from 1900 until 1905 and from 1906 until 1914.

La Ode Umara was regent of Muna from 1905 until 1906.

La Ode Afiuddin (died 1924) was a ruler of Muna from 1915 until 1922.

La Ode Rere was a ruler of Muna from 1926 until 1928.

La Ode Dika was a ruler of Muna from 1930 until 1938.

La Ode Pandu (died 1956) was a ruler of Muna from 1947 until his death in 1956.



Ternate

Ternate was the state in Indonesia. Ternate and neighbouring Tidore were the world's major producer of cloves upon which their rulers became among the
wealthiest and most powerful sultans in the Indonesian region. Much of their wealth, however, was wasted fighting each other. Up until the Dutchcompleted the
colonization of Maluku in the 19th century, the sultans of Ternate ruled empires that claimed at least nominal influence as far as Ambon, Sulawesi and Papua.
The peak of Ternate's power came near the end of the sixteenth century, under Sultan Baabullah, when it had influence over most of the eastern part of
Sulawesi, the Ambon and Seram area, and parts of Papua. It engaged in fierce competition for control of its periphery with the nearby sultanate of Tidore.
According to historian Leonard Andaya, Ternate's "dualistic" rivalry with Tidore is a dominant theme in the early history of the Maluku Islands. In part as a result
of its trade-dependent culture, Ternate was one of the earliest places in the region to which Islam spread, probably coming from Java in the late 15th century.
Initially, the faith was restricted to Ternate's small ruling family, and spread only slowly to the rest of the population.

List of Sultans (also styled Kolano Maloko) of Ternate

Said Fathullah (1657 December 8, 1714) was a ruler of Ternate from April 27, 1689 until his death on December 8, 1714.

Amir Iskandar Zulkarnain Saifuddin (1680 December 8, 1751) was a ruler of Ternate from 1714 until his death on December 8, 1751.

Binayatullah al-Malik ul-Manab Amir Iskandar Alauddin Mansur Shah III (1691 August 24, 1754) was a ruler of Ternate from 1751 until
his death on August 24, 1754.

Amir Iskandar Muda Shah (1692 - 1763) was a ruler of Ternate from 1754 until his death in 1763.

Shahid ul-Muh Taj ul-Rahman Jalaluddin Shah (1720 July 28, 1774) was a ruler of Ternate from 1763 until his death on July 28, 1774.

Ikhtias ul-Rahman Wahuwa Said Duna Amir Iskandar Zulkarnain Azimuddin Shah (died 1781) was a ruler of Ternate from July 28, 1774
until his death in 1781.

Amir Iskandar II Malik ul-Mulk ul-Munnawir us-Sadik ul-Mukarram Shah was a ruler of Ternate from 1781 until April 27, 1796.

Haj ul-Arifin Wahuwa Said Duna Siraj ul-Buldan Infiluddin Muharram Amir Iskandar Shah Muhiuddin Shah (died May 13, 1801)
was a ruler of Ternate from 1796 until his death on May 13, 1801.

Sirajul Bilat Shah Taj ul-Aulia al-Mukarram Amir Iskandar Jihad Azimuddin (died March 10, 1807) was a ruler of Ternate from 1801 until
his death on March 10, 1807.

Said ul-Biladi Siraj ul-Kulut ul-Mulki Amiri Iskandar Zain ul-Bahrain Wahuwa Khair us-Salikhin Shah (died December 24, 1824)
was a ruler of Ternate from 1807 until his death on December 24, 1821 (regent for successor until November 25, 1824).

Saifuddin Iskandar III Nasiruddin Shah (died October 11, 1823) was a ruler of Ternate from 1821 until his death on October 11, 1823.

Taj ul-Mulki Amiruddin Iskandar Kaulaini Shah (1769 November 20, 1859) was a ruler of Ternate from 1823 until his death on November 20,
1859.

Binayat Illahi Mamran Siraj ul-Mulki Amiruddin Iskandar Wahuwa Mina Salikhin Shah (died October 25, 1876) was a ruler of Ternate
from 1859 until his death on October 25, 1876.

Tajul Mahsil Binayatullah al-Hannan Siraj ul-Mulk Amiruddin Iskandar IV Munawar ul-Sadik Wahuwa Mina al-Adilin Shah
(1839 July 1900) was a ruler of Ternate from October 4, 1879 until his death in July 1900.

Ilham (Kolano Ara Rimoi) (died February 20, 1902) was a ruler of Ternate from July 1900 until his death on February 20. 1902.

Tajul Mahsil Binayatullah al-Hannan Siraj ul-Mulk Amiruddin Iskandar V Munawar ul-Sadik Wahuwa Mina al-Adilin Shah
(died 1941) was a ruler of Ternate from 1902 until September 23, 1915.

Iskandar Muhammad Jabir Shah (1902 July 4, 1975) was a ceremonial ruler of Ternate from September 2, 1929 until his death on July 4, 1975.

Muzaffar Shah II (born 1934) is ceremonial ruler of Ternate since November 29, 1986.



Jailolo

Jailolo was the state in present Indonesia.

List of Rulers of Jailolo

Doa was a ruler of Jailolo from 1605 until 1613.

Saiuddin was a ruler of Jailolo from 1613 until 1656.

Alam was a ruler of Jailolo from 1656 until 1684.

Muhammad Arif Bila was a ruler of Jailolo from 1784 until 1805.

Muhammad Asgar (died 1839) was a ruler of Jailolo from 1808 until 1832.

Saifuddin Jehad Muhammad Hajuddin Syah (died 1846) was a ruler of Jailolo in 1832.

Danu Hasan (1832 after 1878) was a ruler of Jailolo from 1875 until 1876.

Abdullah Syah (born 1926) was a ceremonial ruler of Jailolo from January 2002 until November 21, 2010.



Tidore

Tidore was the state in present Indonesia. Tidore was a spice-funded sultanate that was founded in 1109, and spent much of its history in the shadow of Ternate,
another sultanate. The sultans of Tidore ruled most of southern Halmahera, and, at times, controlled Buru, Ambon and many of the islands off the coast of New
Guinea. Tidore established an alliance with the Spanish in the sixteenth century, and Spain had several forts on the island. There was mutual distrust between the
Tidorese and the Spaniards but for the Tidorese the Spanish presence was helpful in resisting the incursions of the Ternateans and their ally, the Dutch, who had
a fort on Ternate. For the Spanish, backing the Tidore state helped check the expansion of Dutch power that threatened their nearby Asia-Pacific interests,
provided a useful base right next to the centre of Dutch power in the region and was a source of spices for trade. Before the Spanish withdrawal from Tidore and
Ternate in 1663, the Tidore sultanate, although nominally part of the Spanish East Indies, established itself as one of the strongest and most independent states in
the region. After the Spanish withdrawal it continued to resist direct control by the Dutch East India Company (the VOC). Particularly under Sultan Saifuddin (r.
16571689), the Tidore court was skilled at using Dutch payment for spices for gifts to strengthen traditional ties with Tidore's traditional peripheral territories.
As a result he was widely respected by many local populations, and had little need to call on foreign military help for governing the kingdom, unlike Ternate
which frequently relied upon Dutch military assistance. Tidore long remained an independent state, albeit with growing Dutch interference, until the late
eighteenth century. Like Ternate, Tidore allowed the Dutch spice eradication program (extirpatie) to proceed in its territories. This program, intended to
strengthen the Dutch spice monopoly by limiting production to a few places, impoverished Tidore and weakened its control over its periphery. In 1781 Prince
Nuku left Tidore and declared himself Sultan of the Papuan Islands. This was the beginning of a guerilla war which lasted for many years. The Papuans sided
with the rebellious Prince Nuku. The British had sponsored Nuku as part of their campaign against the Dutch in the Moluccas. Captain Thomas Forrest was
intimately connected with Nuku and represented the British as ambassador. The sultanate was abolished in the Sukarno era and re-established in 1999 with the
36th sultan. Tidore was largely spared from the sectarian conflict of 1999 across the Maluku Islands.

List of Sultans (also styled Kiema Kolano) of Tidore

Sultan Saifuddin was a ruler of Tidore from 1657 until 1689. Particularly under Sultan Saifuddin, the Tidore court was skilled at using Dutch payment
for spices for gifts to strengthen traditional ties with Tidore's traditional peripheral territories.

Sultan Saidul Jihad Muhammad Nabus Amiruddin Syah, "Jou Barakti" was a ruler of Tidore from 1797 until November 14, 1805.

Sultan Jamal Abidin was a ruler of Tidore from 1805 until ?

Sultan Muhammad Tahir, "Sultan Mossel" was a ruler of Tidore from ? until 1821.

Sultan al-Mansur II was a ruler of Tidore from 1822 until 1856.

Sultan Ahmad Safiuddin Syah, "Sultan Arnold Alting" was a ruler of Tidore from 1856 until 1865.

Sultan Said Ahmad Fathuddin Syah was a ruler of Tidore from 1867 until 1893.

Sultan Iskandar Shajuddin Nur Amal was a ruler of Tidore from 1893 until 1904.

H. Djafar Danoyunus is ceremonial ruler of Tidore since 1999.



Bacan

Bacan was the state in present Indonesia.

List of Sultans (also styled Kolano Madehe) of Bacan

Sultan Alauddin II was a ruler of Bacan from 1660 until 1706.

Sultan Musa Malikuddin was a ruler of Bacan from 1706 until January 2, 1715.

Sultan Kie Nasiruddin was a ruler of Bacan from 1715 until February 17, 1732.

Sultan Hamza Tarafan Nur was a ruler of Bacan from 1732 until 1741.

Sultan Muhammad Sahadin was a ruler of Bacan from 1741 until 1780.

Sultan Skander Alam was a ruler of Bacan from 1780 until 1788.

Sultan Muhammad Badaruddin was a ruler of Bacan from 1788 until 1797.

Sultan Kamarullah was a ruler of Bacan from 1797 until 1826.

Sultan Muhammad Hayatuddin Kornabei Syah Putera (1795 July 19, 1861) was a ruler of Bacan from 1826 until his death on July 19, 1861.

Sultan Muhammad Sadik Syah (died February 27, 1889) was a ruler of Bacan from May 14, 1862 until his death on February 27, 1889.

Sultan Muhammad Usman Syah (died April 24, 1899) was a ruler of Bacan from August 28, 1899 until his death on April 24, 1935.

Sultan Muhammad Muhsin Syah (died 1983) was a ruler of Bacan from 1935 until 1956.

Sultan Gahral Aydan Syah (1943 September 21, 2009) was a ceremonial ruler of Bacan from 1983 until his death on September 21, 2009.

Sultan Al-Abd-Al-Rahim Gary ibn Gahral (Gary Ridwan Syah) (born 1969) is ceremonial ruler of Bacan since 2009.



Laha

Laha was the state in present Indonesia.

List of Rulers (styled Raja) of Laha

Hading Mewar was a ruler of Laha from ? until 1812.

Rabul Mewar was a ruler of Laha from 1812 until 1875.

Hamzah Mewar was a ruler of Laha from 1875 until 1917.

Abdullah Mewar was a ruler of Laha from 1925 until 1936.

Husein Mewar was a ruler of Laha from 1936 until 1946.

Habib Ali bin Tahir was a ruler of Laha from 1946 until 1953.

Muhammad Mewar was a ceremonial ruler of Laha from 1963 until 1982.

Husein Henaulu (born 1934) was a ceremonial ruler of Laha from 1983 until 1987.

Ahmad Partola was a ceremonial ruler of Laha from 1987 until 1998.

Junaid Mewar was a ceremonial ruler of Laha in 1994.

Franky Mewar was a ceremonial ruler of Laha from 1998 until 2002.

Habib Al-Fachri bin Tahir (born 1970) is ceremonial ruler of Laha since 2002.


Negeri Amahusu

Negeri Amahusu was the state in present Indonesia.

List of Rulers (styled Raja) of Negeri Amahusu

Paulus Silooy (Paul Pedro da Costa) was a ruler of Negeri Amahusu from 1679 until 1704.

Andreas Silooy was a ruler of Negeri Amahusu from 1704 until 1706.

Simon Silooy was a ruler of Negeri Amahusu from 1706 until 1716.

Adam Silooy was a ruler of Negeri Amahusu from 1716 until 1739.

Jacob Silooy was a ruler of Negeri Amahusu from 1739 until 1763.

Frederik da Costa was a ruler of Negeri Amahusu from 1789 until 1809.

Abraham da Costa was a ruler of Negeri Amahusu from 1811 until 1833.

Daniel Silooy was a ruler of Negeri Amahusu from 1844 until 1874.

Arnold Silooy was a ruler of Negeri Amahusu from 1874 until 1876.

Frederik Efraim da Costa was a ruler of Negeri Amahusu from 1883 until 1913.

Abraham Silooy I was a ruler of Negeri Amahusu from 1913 until 1925.

Karel Leimena was regent of Negeri Amahusu from 1925 until 1932.

Alberth da Costa was a ruler of Negeri Amahusu from 1932 until 1953.

Elias Alexander Silooy was a ceremonial ruler of Negeri Amahusu from 1953 until 1980.

Johanis Silooy was a ceremonial ruler of Negeri Amahusu from 1980 until 1981.

Josephus Alberthus Silooy was a ceremonial ruler of Negeri Amahusu from 1981 until 1993.

Abraham Silooy II was a ceremonial ruler of Negeri Amahusu from 1993 until 2002.

Eduard Alexander Silooy is acting ceremonial ruler of Negeri Amahusu since 2002.



Amanuban

Amanuban was a traditional princedom in West Timor, Indonesia. It lay in the regency (kabupaten) Timor Tengah Selatan. In the late colonial period, according
to an estimate in 1930, Amanuban covered 2,075 square kilometers. The centre of the princedom since the nineteenth century was Niki-Niki. The population
belongs to the Atoni group. Today they are predominantly Protestants, with a significant Catholic minority and some Muslims.

List of Rajas of Amanuban

Olak Mali was a ruler of Amanuban.

Olo Banu I was a ruler of Amanuban.

Bil Banu was a ruler of Amanuban.

Olo Banu II was a ruler of Amanuban.

Seo Bil Tamespat was a ruler of Amanuban.

Taha Mamat was a ruler of Amanuban.

Pinis Bil was a ruler of Amanuban.

Tu Bani was a ruler of Amanuban from ? until around 1747.

Don Miguel Fernando de Consencao (died 1751) was a ruler of Amanuban from around 1747 until his death in 1751.

Don Luis I (died 1770) was a ruler of Amanuban from 1751 until his death in 1770.

Don Jacobus Albertus Kobis was a ruler of Amanuban from 1770 until around 1807.

Don Luis II was a ruler of Amanuban from around 1807 until 1830.

Sanu Nope (Baki Nubang) was a ruler of Amanuban from around 1830 until 1882.

Bil Nope (Suafa Leu) (1846 August 1910) was a ruler of Amanuban from 1883 until his death in August 1910.

Noni Nope (died December 7, 1920) was a ruler of Amanuban from 1911 until his death on December 7, 1920.

Pae Nope (1892 - 1959) was a ruler of Amanuban from 1921 until 1946.

Jan Paulus Nope (1910 - 1949) was a ruler of Amanuban from 1946 until his death in 1949.

Kusa Nope (1922 - 1980) was a ruler of Amanuban from 1949 until 1962.



Beboki

Beboki was a state in present Indonesia.

List of Rajas of Beboki

Usi Taum Kenad was a ruler of Beboki.

Nesi Bokko I was a ruler of Beboki.

Tabesi Bokko was a ruler of Beboki in the first half 19th century.

Nesi Tahoni was a ruler of Beboki from around 1840 until around 1860.

Nesi Bokko II (1825 - 1916) was a ruler of Beboki from around 1860 until 1900.

Tabesi Usi Ana Pah was a ruler of Beboki from 1900 until 1904.

Nesi Tahut Paha Kornel (died 1915) was a ruler of Beboki from 1905 until his death in 1915.

Kau Mauk (died 1942) was a ruler of Beboki from 1915 until 1940.

Leonardus Taek Kau was a ruler of Beboki from 1942 until 1962.



Korbafo

Korbafo was a state in present Indonesia.

List of Rulers (title Manek) of Korbafo

Pikkatih was a ruler of Korbafo from around 1691 until ?

Ola Fuliha was a ruler of Korbafo in 18th century.

Christian Leuanan was a ruler of Korbafo.

Kolanian Bibikate was a ruler of Korbafo from ? until 1852.

Manafe Manubulu was a ruler of Korbafo from 1852 until 1859.

Jessak Izak Manubulu was a ruler of Korbafo from 1859 until 1873.

Soleman Izak Manubulu (1854 - 1921) was a ruler of Korbafo from 1873 until his death in 1921.

Cornelis Izak Manubulu (1891 - 1961) was a ruler of Korbafo from 1921 until 1926.

Chrishian Paulus Manubulu (1899 - 1989) was a ruler of Korbafo from 1926 until 1962.






Kupang

Kupang was a state in present Indonesia.

List of Rajas of Kupang

Daud Hanoch Tanof (died May 20, 1918) was a ruler of Kupang from 1917 until his death on May 20, 1918.

Ote Nicolaas Isu Nisnoni (1880 - 1952) was a ruler of Kupang from June 1918 until 1945.

Obe Alfonsus Nisnoni (1907 - 1992) was a ruler of Kupang from 1945 until 1955.

Leopold Nicolaas Isu Nisnoni (born 1936) is ceremonial ruler of Kupang since 2004.




TaEbenu

TaEbenu was a state in present Indonesia.

List of Rulers (title Fettor) of TaEbenu

Lasi Lelo TaEbenu was a ruler of TaEbenu from 1688 until around 1701.

Tanof Lasi was a ruler of TaEbenu fro around 1701 until around 1729.

Eki Tanof was a ruler of TaEbenu from around 1729 until around 1756.

Kobe Tanof (1737- 1797) was a ruler of TaEbenu from around 1756 until his death around 1797.

Enus Kobe was a ruler of TaEbenu from 1797 until ?

Salolo Kobe was a ruler of TaEbenu in the first half 19th century.

Kobe Tus was a ruler of TaEbenu from ? until 1850.

Hanoch Tanof I (Nobe Salolo) was a ruler of TaEbenu from 1850 until 1873.

Hanoch Tanof II was a ruler of TaEbenu from 1874 until 1895.

Jacob Tanof was a ruler of TaEbenu from 1896 until 1901.

Daud Hanof Tanof (died 1918) was a ruler of TaEbenu from 1901 until 1917.



Ati-Ati

AtiAti was a state in present Indonesia.

List of Rulers (title from c.1851, Raja) of Ati-Ati

Ulan Tui was a ruler of Ati-Ati.

Lamarora was a ruler of Ati-Ati.

Menau Bauw was a ruler of Ati-Ati.

Kakabusan Bauw was a ruler of Ati-Ati from ? until around 1851.

Wainesin Kakabusan Bauw was a ruler of Ati-Ati around 1851.

Mampati Bauw (died around 1860) was a ruler of Ati-Ati from around 1851 until his death around 1860.

Sangil Bauw was regent of Ati-Ati from around 1860 until ?

Ongga Bauw was regent of Ati-Ati from ? until 1871.

Yusuf Kerewainja Bauw (around 1850 - 1907) was a ruler of Ati-Ati from around 1860 until around 1897.

Haji Haruna (died February 26, 1932) was a ruler of Ati-Ati from April 1899 until his death on February 26, 1932.

Nurma (Njora Latin) was a ruler of Ati-Ati from 1932 until August 1, 1935.

Mafa (1872 - 1942) was a ruler of Ati-Ati from 1835 until his death in 1942.

Muhammad Bai was a ruler of Ati-Ati from 1942 until 1953.

Wakil-Raja J.A. Bai was a ruler of Ati-Ati from 1953 until 1963.

Nataniel Talla (died around 1999) was a ceremonial ruler of Ati-Ati from ? until his death around 1999.

Onim Bai (born 1962) is ceremonial ruler of Ati-Ati since 1999.




Fatagar

Fatagar was the state in present Indonesia.

List of Rulers (title Kapitan; from 1899 Raja) of Fatagar

Kanumbas (died around 1880) was a ruler of Fatagar from ? until around 1880.

Kurkur (died 1899) was a ruler of Fatagar from 1880 until his death in 1899.

Mafa (1872 - 1942) was a ruler of Fatagar from 1899 until his death in 1942.

Kamarudin (died 1943) was a ruler of Fatagar from 1942 until his death in 1943.

Said Arobi Uswanas was a ceremonial ruler of Fatagar from 1956 until December 26, 2009.

Taufiq Heru Uswanas is ceremonial ruler of Fatagar since December 31, 2009.



Kaimana

Kaimana was a state in present Indonesia.

List of Rulers (title Rat, from c.1898 Raja) of Kaimana

Umis I Imaga was a ruler of Kaimana.

Umis II Basir Onin was a ruler of Kaimana.

Umis III Woran was a ruler of Kaimana.

Umis IV Nduvin was a ruler of Kaimana from ? until 1898.

Umis V Naro'E was a ruler of Kaimana from 1898 until 1923.

Umis VI Achmad Aituarauw was a ruler of Kaimana from 1923 until 1966.

Umis VII Muhammad Achmad Rais Aituarauw (died 1980) was a ceremonial ruler of Kaimana from 1966 until his death in 1980.

Umis VIII Abdul Hakim Achmad Aituarauw is ceremonial ruler of Kaimana since 1980.



Namatota

Namatota was a state in present Indonesia.

List of Rajas of Namatota

Kasim Buseru was a ceremonial ruler of Namatota from 1946 until 2005.

Hayum Ombaier is ceremonial ruler of Namatota since 2006.




Patipi

Patipi was a state in present Indonesia.

List of Rajas of Patipi

Usman Iba was a ceremonial ruler of Patipi from ? until early 21th century.

Achmad Iba (born 1939) is ceremonial ruler of Patipi since 2003.



Rumbati

Rumbati was a state in present Indonesia.

List of Rulers (title Jupiat; from 1872, Raja) of Rumbati

Bauw Berani (Tela Bauw) was a ruler of Rumbati.

Manimomoa Bauw was a ruler of Rumbati.

Gefasami Bauw was a ruler of Rumbati.

Mauda Na-Tiasa Bauw was a ruler of Rumbati.

Ritupun Bauw was a ruler of Rumbati.

Ana-Koda Bauw was a ruler of Rumbati.

Patmaguri Bauw was a ruler of Rumbati.

Mampati Bauw (died c. 1860) was a ruler of Rumbati from ? until around 1851.

Nawarisa Bauw was a ruler of Rumbati from 1851 until around 1875.

Tajam Bauw (died c.1880) was a ruler of Rumbati from around 1875 until his death around 1880.

Ismail Bauw I was a ruler of Rumbati from around 1880 until ?

Abduljalil (died 1902) was a ruler of Rumbati from ? until his death in 1902.

Samsli Bauw was a ruler of Rumbati from 1902 until 1903.

Muhammad Sidik Bauw was a ruler of Rumbati from 1903 until 1913.

Abubakar Bauw (1897 - 1945) was a ruler of Rumbati from 1913 until his death in 1945.

Ibrahim Bauw (1917 - 1993) was a ceremonial ruler of Rumbati from 1946 until his death in 1993.

Ismail Bauw II was a ceremonial ruler of Rumbati from 1994 until November 2009.

Abdbakar Saleh Bauw is ceremonial ruler of Rumbati since January 1, 2010.



Wetuar

Wetuar was a state in present Indonesia.

List of Rajas of Wetuar

Heremba was a ruler of Wetuar from ? until 1850.

Semempes was a ruler of Wetuar from 1850 until 1870.

Waraburi was a ruler of Wetuar from 1870 until 1886.

Lakatey Heremba was a ruler of Wetuar from 1886 until 1913.

Paris Heremba was a ruler of Wetuar from 1913 until 1952.

Nazar Heremba (died 1988) was a ceremonial ruler of Wetuar from 1952 until his death in 1988.

Musa Heremba (born 1955) is ceremonial ruler of Wetuar since 1988.



Hormuz

Hormuz was a state in present Iran. The Kingdom of Ormus (also known as Ohrmuzd, Hormuz, and Ohrmazd; Portuguese Ormuz) was a 10th to 17th
century kingdom located within the Persian Gulf and extending as far as the Strait of Hormuz. The Kingdom was established by Arab princes in the 10th century
who in 1262 came under the suzerainty of Persia, before becoming aclient state of the Portuguese Empire. The kingdom received its name from the fortified port
city which served as its capital. It was one of the most important ports in the Middle East at the time as it controlled seaway trading routes through the Persian
Gulf to India and East Africa. This port was probably located on Hormuz Island, which is located near the modern city of Bandar-e Abbas. The name of the
port, the island, and the kingdom is Iranian and ultimately derives from that of the Zoroastrian deity, Ahura Mazda, which becomes Ohrmazd in
Pahlavi, Hirmiz inManichaean Middle Persian, and Hormoz in New-Persian. The Strait of Hormuz (Arabic: - Madq Hurmuz, Persian: -
Tangeh-ye Hormoz,) is a narrow, strategically important waterway between the Gulf of Oman in the southeast and the Persian Gulf in the southwest. On the
north coast is Iran and on the south coast is the United Arab Emirates and Musandam, an exclave of Oman.

List of Shahs of Hormuz

Salghur Shah I was a Shah of Hormuz from 1475 until 1505.

Turan Shah III was a Shah of Hormuz from 1505 until 1507.

Seyf al Din Abu Nasr was a Shah of Hormuz from 1507 until 1513.

Turan Shah IV (died 1521) was a Shah of Hormuz from 1513 until his death in 1521.

Soltan Mohammad Shah II was a Shah of Hormuz from 1521 until 1534.

Mozaffar ad-Din Salghur Shah II was a Shah of Hormuz from 1534 until 1543.

Fakhr ad-Din Turan Shah V was a Shah of Hormuz from 1543 until 1564.

Soltan Mohammad Shah III was a Shah of Hormuz in 1565.

Farrokh Shah I was a Shah of Hormuz from 1565 until 1597.

Turan Shah VI was a Shah of Hormuz in 1597.

Farrokh Shah II was a Shah of Hormuz from 1597 until 1602.

Firuz Shah was a Shah of Hormuz from 1602 until 1609.

Mohammad Shah IV was a Shah of Hormuz from 1609 until 1621.



Arabistan (al-Ahwaz)

Arabistan (al-Ahwaz) was state in present west Iran. Ahwaz emerged to be the first emirate to liberate itself form the Mongol rule and establish its autonomous
territory under the rule of Mohammad Ibn Flah Mushashai who not only extend his rule on Arabistan and East bank of Arabian Gulf but also went as far as near
Isfahan and Shiraz making Persians followers of his Shiaat doctrine. He officially ruled east and west bank of the gulf from today province of sharqia in Saudi
Arabica to city of Bushaher on the other side of the gulf where Arabs are inhabiting.The capital of this emirate was Howaiza where bureaucratic governance
system and currency were created. Their rule lasted from 1516-1690 when Al-bo-Naser takes the power and establish Kaabi emirate. Al-bo-Naser stayed in power
for a century and half. Their rule again was overtaken by Al-bo-Kaseb 1832 who will be predominantly the ruler for Arabistan until the time of occupation of
Persia to Arabistan in the 1925 when the last Emir Shikh Khazal Al-Jaber was deposed by the Persian General Reza Khan who later became the King of a new
country called Iran. Although Arabistan was an immediate target of Persians and the Ottomans expansionism from the time of Moshashai, Ahwazies
successfully kept their independence by intriguing between Persia rule and the Ottoman Empire. And, yet until 1925 this expansionism seized to submit Ahwaz
to any perpetually rule which entails them to be taxed. However, what will submit Ahwaz to Persia, not a surprise; happen to be the arrival of the colonizing
powers and their desire in dividing the Middle East region according to the interests. More specifically occupation, which later titled annexation, of Ahwaz was
attributed to the following reasons. First, factor the treaty of Erzurum 1847 between British, Russia and Gajar of Persia where Ahwazi authority was ignored and a
treaty took place against the will of Ahwazi people. The purpose of the treat was as noted: since1847, British and Russian interest in the Shatt al- Arab had
changed dramatically; British oil discovery in Arabistan resulted in increased shipping on the Shatt al-Arab. Britain, in particular, was anxious to expand Persian
sovereignty in the Shatt al-Arab, at least to the extent required by its own interest. This led to the second factors again another treaty in 1914 between Britain,
Ottoman Empire, Russia and the Gajars. This time Britain was fearful from the Bolshevik revolution and their expansion which might reach the free sea through
the Gulf region and U.S.S.R domination on the oil wells of the gulf region. The third factor was internal. The conflict between various tribes in Arabistan made
the last Emir busy in his internal affair and diverted his attention from what was happening to the faith of his nations which later to come as result of these treaties.
And, although the British considered Arabistan the protectorate or United Kingdoms, the last Emir shik Khzaal did not grasp the danger of this presence, which
would later hunt him and his nation by occupation of Riza khan.

List of Emirs of Arabistan (al-Ahwaz)

Sayyed Farajallah was a ruler of Arabistan (al-Ahwaz) from 1686 until 1700.

Sayyed Ali III was a ruler of Arabistan (al-Ahwaz) from 1700 until 1707 and from 1715 until 1720.

Sayyed Abdallah was a ruler of Arabistan (al-Ahwaz) from 1707 until 1715.

Sayyed Mohammed III was a ruler of Arabistan (al-Ahwaz) from 1720 until 1737.

Sayyed Farajallah was a ruler of Arabistan (al-Ahwaz) at Dawraq from 1737 until 1747.

Sayyed Muttalib was a ruler of Arabistan (al-Ahwaz) at Huwayza from 1747 until 1762.

Sayyed Mawla Judallah was a ruler of Arabistan (al-Ahwaz) in the second half 18th century.

Sayyed Mawla Ismail was a ruler of Arabistan (al-Ahwaz) in the second half 18th century.

Sayyed Mawla Muhsin was a ruler of Arabistan (al-Ahwaz) around 1779.

Sayyed Mawla Mohammed I was a ruler of Arabistan (al-Ahwaz) in late 18th century.

Sayyed Mawla Muttalib I was a ruler of Arabistan (al-Ahwaz) in late 18th century and early 19th century.

Sayyed Mawla Abd al-Ali I was a ruler of Arabistan (al-Ahwaz) in the first half 19th century.

Sayyed Mawla Farajallah was a ruler of Arabistan (al-Ahwaz) from 1841 until 1872.

Sayyed Mawla Mohammed II was a ruler of Arabistan (al-Ahwaz) from 1872 until 1882.

Sayyed Mawla Muttalib II (died 1895) was a ruler of Arabistan (al-Ahwaz) from 1881 until 1888.

Sayyed Mawla Nasrallah was a ruler of Arabistan (al-Ahwaz) at Huwayza around 1888.

Sayyed Mawla Abd al-Ali was a ruler of Arabistan (al-Ahwaz) from ? until 1910 and from 1924 until April 20, 1925.

Shaykh Khazal was a ruler of Arabistan (al-Ahwaz) from 1910 until 1924.



Ardebil

Ardebil was a state in present Iran.

List of Khans of Ardebil

Badir Khan was a Khan of Ardebil jointly with Nasir Khan from 1747 until 1763.

Nasir Khan was a Khan of Ardebil from 1747 until 1808 (jointly with Badir Khan from 1747 until 1763 and with Nazarali Khan from 1763 until 1792).

Nazarali Khan (died 1792) was a Khan of Ardebil jointly with Nasir Khan from from 1763 until his death in 1792.


Khoy

Khoy was a Khanate in present Iran. After the death of Nadir Shah Afshar in 1747, Khoy broke away from central government of Iran like several other states,
includingAfghanistan and some of northern Caucasian Khanates, and become the Khanate of Khoy (17471813) which was loyal to central government only
when it was powerful (like Karim Khan) and autonomous when the central role was weak . The returning of Khoy to central government of Iran was during the
beginning of Qajar period. Khoy was attacked by Russia in 1827. Until 1828 Khoy had a large number of Armenian inhabitants. In the mid-1800s some of them
immigrated to eastern Armenia in the Russian Empire.

List of Khans of Khoy

Sahbaz Khan II ibn Murtuzaqulu was a ruler of Khoy from 1744 until 1763.

Ahmad Khan Donboli (1745 - 1786) was a ruler of Khoy from 1763 until his death in 1786.

Jafar Qoli Khan Donboli (died 1814) was a ruler of Khoy from 1786 until 1797.

Hossein Qoil Khan Donboli was a ruler of Khoy from 1797 until 1813.


Linga

Linga was the state in present Iran.

List of Rulers (Hakim) of Linga

Qadib ibn Rashid al-Qasimi was a ruler of Linga from 1805 until 1829.

Said ibn Qadhib al-Qasimi was a ruler of Linga from 1829 until 1854.

Khalifa ibn Said al-Qasimi (died 1874) was a ruler of Linga from 1854 until his death in 1874.

Ali ibn Khalifa al-Qasimi (died 1878) was a ruler of Linga from 1874 until his death in 1878.

Yusuf ibn Muhammad al-Qasimi was a ruler of Linga from 1878 until 1885.

Qadib ibn Rashid al-Qasimi was a ruler of Linga from 1885 until 1887.



Maku

Maku was a Khanate in present Iran. Khanate of Maku was khanate based in Maku. It came into existence after the death of Nader Shah which lead to the
breakup of the Safavid Empire, and gain semi-independence. It rejoined the Persian Empire in 1829,
[4]
however was not abolished for another century after the
death of Murtada Kuli Khan Ikhal al-Saltana (18631923).

List of Khans of Maku

Ahmad Soltan Kangarli was a ruler of Maku from 1747 until 1778.

Hasan Khan Kangarli was a ruler of Maku jointly with Hossein Khan Kangarli from 1778 until 1822.

Hossein Khan Kangarli was a ruler of Maku jointly with Hasan Khan Kangarli from 1778 until 1822.

Ali Khan Kangarli was a ruler of Maku from 1822 until 1866.

Haji Ismail Khan was a ruler of Maku from 1866 until 1899.

Teymur Pasha Khan was a ruler of Maku from 1899 until 1922.

Murtuzqulu Khan Bayat (1863 - 1923) was a ruler of Maku in 1922.



Mohammerah

Mohammerah was a state in present Iran.

List of Sheikhs of Mohammerah

'Ali Mardan al-Muhaisin was a ruler of Mohammerah in late 18th century.

Haji Yusuf bin Mardo (died 1819) was a ruler of Mohammerah from late 18th century until his death in 1819.

Haji Jabir Khan bin Mardo (around 1800 November 2, 1881) was a ruler of Mohammerah from 1819 until his death on November 2, 1881. He was the
leader of the Bani Kaab Arab tribe and the Sheikh of Khorramshahr ("Mohammerah") during the 19th century. He had two sons, Maz'al Jabir al-kaabi, who
succeeded him as tribal leader, and Khaz'al ibn Jabir al-kaabi. A strong and outspoken leader, Jabir was close with Nassereddin Shah Qajar and was a vital force
in successfully defending Khuzestan from invading British and Ottoman forces.

Miza'al Khan ibn Haji Jabir Khan styled Muaz us-Sultana (before 1839 June 2, 1897) was a ruler of Mohammerah from 1881 until his death on June
2, 1897. He was the son of Jabir al-Kaabi and succeeded him as tribal leader of the Bani Kaab and Sheikh of Mohammerah upon his father's death. This was
confirmed by an Imperial Qajar farman (executive order). Some accounts state that he was assassinated by his younger brother, Khaz'al Khan, while others state
that this was done by a palace guard under orders from Khaz'al.

Khaz'al bin Jabir bin Merdaw al-Ka'bi (Arabic: ) (18 August 1863 24 May
1936), GCIE, KCSI, Muaz us-Sultana, and Sardar-e-Aqdas (Most Sacred Officer of the Imperial Order of the Aqdas),
[1]
was the ruler of the
semi-autonomousSheikhdom of "Mohammerah" ( located in Khuzestan) from 1897 until 1924. In early 1920s, Khuzestan, with its large Arab
population, was a virtual sheikhdom under the rule of Sheikh Khaz'al. An ambitious local Arab leader, Khaz'al was nominally under the
jurisdiction of the Qajar king. In reality, he was protected and controlled by the British, whose 10,000-man army, the South Persia Rifles,
operated with immunity in southern Iran. The British, without notifying Iran, were also providing Khaz'al with meager shares of the Anglo-
Persian Oil Company. They even considered Khazal as a possible king for Iraq or for an independent principality in southern Persia . Khaz'al
was also the darling of many Sunnite Iraqi nationalists, who sought to foment dissent among Irans Arab population by referring to Khuzestan
as Arabestn and glorifying Khaz'al as its independent Sultan. The tribal leaders of the Bani Kaab, an Arab tribe which had originally come
from the area of what is now Kuwait in the 16th century, had often been the Imperial-appointed tax farmers for the entire province for many
years after the fall of the Msha'sha'iya. The Bani Kaab were the largest and most powerful tribe in the province. In the early 19th century the Bani Kaab had
dissolved into a number of rival clans that often clashed and feuded with each other. Of these factions, the Muhaisin clan, led by Jabir al-Kaabi, became the
strongest and under his leadership the Bani Kaab were reunified under a single authority, the capital of the tribe being moved from the village of Fallahiyah to the
flourishing port city ofMohammerah. Unlike previous leaders of the Bani Kaab, Jabir maintained law and order, and established Mohammerah as a free
portand sheikhdom, of which he was Sheikh. Jabir also became the Imperial-appointed governor-general of the province. After Jabir's death in 1881, his elder
son, Maz'al, took over as tribal leader and Sheikh of Mohammerah, as well as the provincial governor-general, which was confirmed by an
Imperial firman (executive order). However, in June 1897 Maz'al was killed. Some accounts state that he was assassinated by his younger brother, Khaz'al, while
others state that this was done by a palace guard under orders from Khaz'al.Thereafter Khaz'al assumed his position as Sheikh of Mohammerah, proclaiming
himself not only the leader of the Bani Kaab, but also the ruler of the entire province. He then appointed his sons to the governorships of the various cities,
towns and villages within his control, including Naseriyeh. Khaz'al also established and maintained close relations with the Qajar court, who had accepted Khaz'al
as the neighbour government. The rest of the province (the eastern and northern regions) remained under the domination of Bakhtiari Khans, Lur tribal leaders,
and Persian groups. Several of the Bakhtiari Khans, in particular, had entered into alliances with Khaz'al. The Qajar Shah made him an Officer of the Nishan-e-
Aqdas (Imperial Order of the Aqdas) in 1920. Following the discovery of oil in Mohammerah-controlled territory, the British moved quickly to establish control
over the vast oil resources in the province, which culminated in the foundation of the Anglo-Persian Oil Company in 1909. The British established a treaty with
Khaz'al, whereby in exchange for their guaranteed support and protection against any external attack, he would also guarantee to maintain internal security and
not interfere with the process of oil extraction. As part of the treaty they were given a monopoly of drilling in the province in return for an annual payment to
both Khaz'al and the Shah, though the profits of the company vastly exceeded the annual payments. British influence in southern Persia mainly derived from the
relationships which had been established between the British government and various tribal leaderships, including especially Khaz'al and the Bakhtiari khans, and
also, though less importantly, the Qawmis of Shiraz and many of the minor khans of the Persian Gulf littoral. Khaz'al as an important tribal leader was a
member of South Persia Rifles. and when he asked for British support against central government of Iran, the answer was "... you remain faithful to the Shah and
act in accordance with our advice".In 1921, realizing the threat posed by Reza Khan Mirpanj (Reza Shah), who had just staged a coup d'etat with Seyyed Zia'eddin
Tabatabaee, Khaz'al proceeded to take steps in order to protect himself. He attempted to form an alliance with all the Bakhtiari, Lur, and Khamseh tribes, in
order to prevent Reza Khan from gaining too much power. His ultimate aim was that through this tribal alliance the Zagros Mountains would become a nearly
impenetrable barrier against the forces of the central government. However, the various tribal groups often clashed with each other and were unable to come to
agreements, and his proposal failed. He then turned to Ahmad Shah Qajar and the Imperial Court of Tehran, presenting himself as a fiercely loyal defender and
advocate of the Qajar dynasty, and calling upon the Court to take action against the ambitions of Reza Khan. This eventually came to nothing as well. Khaz'al
then sought to ally himself with the Majles (Iranian Parliament) opposition to Reza Khan, writing a number of letters to the opposition leader, Ayatollah Seyyed
Hassan Modarres. In these letters Khaz'al presented himself as a staunch constitutionalist from the very beginning of the movement, emphatic as an
Iranian nationalist, and a liberal democrat who found Reza Khan's authoritarianismto be personally offensive. The opposition accepted Khaz'al's proposal
cautiously and not without much deliberation, as they did not trust him. However, the parliamentary opposition to Reza Khan failed. Khaz'al then turned to the
British for help, and this time presented himself as a defender of Islam and Shari'a (Islamic law) against Reza Khan's Iranian secularism. He claimed that his
people had only recently immigrated to the province and that they had no ties to the people of Iran. He proposed that because of this background, it would not
be difficult to separate the Arabs of Khuzestan from Iran. Forced to choose between Khaz'al and Reza Khan, the British completely withdrew their support and
protection for Khaz'al's rule, claiming that the only reason they had supported him to begin with was due to the central government's inability to properly enforce
its rule in Khuzestan. The Qajar dynasty subsequently collapsed, and Ahmad Shah was deposed. Indifference from the Qajar court and betrayal at the hands of
the British ultimately led Khaz'al to go to the League of Nations in 1924 in an effort to gain international recognition of his sheikhdom and to gather support for
the separation of his territory from Iran. This effort, however, ended in failure. Prior to the rise of Reza Khan, Khaz'al had never attempted to separate his
sheikhdom from Qajar Persia, to which he had maintained staunch loyalty. In January 1925 Reza Khan sent his military commanders to the province to assert the
authority of the provisional government in Tehran. An Imperial farman (executive order) was issued restoring the old name of the province,Khuzestan instead of
Arabistan, and Khaz'al lost his authority over the various tribes under his command. Later that spring Reza Khan made two attempts to convince Khaz'al to meet
him in Tehran to discuss his position in the new government. However, Khaz'al was suspicious of Reza Khan's motives and refused to go there himself, instead
stating that he would send an emissary. A few weeks later in April, Reza Khan ordered one of his commanders, who had a friendly relationship with Khaz'al, to
meet Khaz'al, ostensibly to convince him to journey to Tehran. The commander, General Fazlollah Zahedi, accompanied by several government officials, met
with Khaz'al and spent an evening with him onboard his yacht, anchored in the Shatt al-Arab river by his palace in the village of Fallahiyah near the city of
Mohammerah. Later that evening a gunboat, sent by Reza Khan, stealthily made its way next to the yacht, which was then immediately boarded by fifty Persian
troops. The soldiers arrested Khaz'al and took him by motorboat down the river to Mohammerah, where a car was waiting to take him to the military base in
Ahwaz. From there he was taken to Dezful, accompanied by his son, and then to the city of Khorramabad in Lorestan, and then eventually to Tehran. Upon his
arrival, Khaz'al was warmly greeted and well received by Reza Khan, who assured him that his problems would be quickly settled, and that in the meantime, he
would be treated very well. However, many of his personal assets in Iran were quickly liquidated and his properties eventually came under the domain of the
Imperial government after Reza Khan was crowned the new Shah. The sheikhdom was abolished and the provincial authority took full control of regional affairs.
Khaz'al spent the rest of his life under virtual house arrest, unable to travel beyond Tehran's city limits. He was able to retain ownership of his properties in
Kuwait and Iraq, where he was exempted from taxation. He died in May 1936 while alone in his house, as earlier in the day his servants had been taken to court
by the police. It is said that he did not die of natural causes, but that he was murdered by one of the guards stationed outside his house under direct orders from
Reza Shah. He had following honours: Order of the August Portrait (Nishan-i-Aqdas) of Persia, Order of the Lion and Sun 1st Class of Persia, Wolff Medal-
1899, Knight 1st Class of the Order of St. Stanislaus of Russia-1904, Knight Commander of the Order of the Star of India (KCSI)-1914, Knight Grand
Commander of the Order of the Indian Empire (GCIE)-1916 (KCIE-1910) and Permanent 7-gun salute from the British with a personal 13-gun salute-1922 (11-
gun personal salute-1909).


Qaraei

Qaraei was a Khanate in present Iran. The Qaraei, Kerey, or Kara Tatar (Qarai, Qaray, Karai,Garai, Gharaei, Ghara Tatar, Qara Tatar, Kazakh: , Tatar:
, Mongolian: , Hebrew: , Chinese: .Arabic: , Persian: , Persian: , Persian: , Turkish: , Turkish: Kara
Tatar, Turkish: Kyin Tatar) are an ethnic group who live between the Altay Mountains and the Carpathian Mountains, in Central Asia, the Middle
East, Transcaucasia and Eastern Europe. They are the greatest tribe in the Middle Juz of the Kazakh nation. They are known as Qaraei,Gharaei,Gharaee,Garai
in USA, Iran, Azerbaijan, Afghanistan, Pakistan and India, as Qara Tatar in Turkey, Iran and former USSR and also as Garayeli and Garayelu in Iran.

List of Khans of Qaraei

Eshaq Khan Qaraei-Torbati (Persian: , 1743 July 8, 1816) was a ruler of Qaraei from 1801 until his death on July 8,
1816. He was one of the wealthiest and most powerful chieftains in Khorasan during the reigns of Agha Mohammad Khan and Fath Ali Shah. He was fluent
in Persian and Arabic. Eshaq overcame extraordinary odds to establish himself as a leader of the Qaraei. The son of a Tajik servant by the name of Mohammad
Khoo to the supreme chief Najaf Qoli Khan Qara Tatar, the chief of the Qaraei tribe. Eshaq inherited a social position that was inferior to even the lowest
member of a military tribe. His father gained the attention of the leader of the Qaraei tribe and was appointed yuzbashi or centurion. Consequently, Eshaq was
granted the position of Yessawul (mace bearer) to the chief and used this position to convince the chief of a need for a caravansarai in the then small village
of Zaveh. While undertaking this project the ambitions of Eshaq began to manifest themselves. As Eshaq's project grew, he slowly converted the caravansarai into
a fort while simultaneously fomenting quarrels and divisions within the tribe through various intrigues. His plan culminated in Najaf Qoli's being murdered by his
own officers with the chief's sons fleeing Khorasan. Soon afterward, he married the daughter of Najaf Qoli and entered into an alliance with Ahmad Shah
Durrani. These maneuvers gained him the leadership of the tribe. As the chief of the tribe, he managed to transform Zaveh into a prosperous and safe district,
while also making a fortune through farming, leasing camels to merchants, and developing an export/import trade. Eshaq Khans allegiance to Tehran (and also
to Herat) remained nominal, and his display of submission to Agha Mohammad Khan andFath Ali Shah at the time of their marches on Mashhad in 1796 and
1802, respectively, was anything but genuine. Fath Ali Shahs appointment in 1803 of his young son, Mohammad Vali Mirza Qajar, as governor of Khorasan was
probably perceived by Eshaq Khan as a move designed to exact his allegiance and thus did not please the ambitious chief). However, he used this opportunity
and joined his service and assumed the positions of Sardar (commander of the armies) and Vazir (prime minister). The influence of Eshaq completely
overshadowed that of Mohammad Vali, a state of affairs that aroused Eshaq's ambitions. He initiated a conspiracy with the chiefs of Khabushan, Radkan,
Chenaran, Qayen, and Tabas to unseat the governor and assume the reins himself. The plan was successful and Mohammad Vali was placed under house arrest.
After plundering Mashhad, Eshaq's co- conspirators began quarreling over the spoils and challenging Eshaq's right to accession. Eshaq assembled those still loyal
to him and restored Mohammad Vali to office. In an attempt to make amends he gave the governor one of his daughters in marriage. The result of this marriage
was a boy Jafar Qoli Mirza Qajar. Eshaq undertook a visit to the court in Tehran where he convinced the Shah that Mohammad Vali was incompetent. Fath Ali
accordingly issued a farman (royal order) declaring Eshaq as the Hakim of Mashhad, thus relegating the shahzadeh to the position of ornament. In his turn,
Mohammad Vali sneaked off to Tehran. There, he represented Eshaq to be an ambitious and dangerous man whose progress needed to be checked. The Shah
became convinced and ordered Mohammad Vali to execute Eshaq. Finally in July 8, 1816 he and his eldest son, Hasan Ali Khan Qaraei-Torbati, were strangled
by the order and in the presence of Mohammad Vali Mirza Qajar. The executions, however, only exacerbated the situation, forcing Fath Ali Shah (who also
feared an Afghan attack) to remove his son from the post of governor of Khorasan and replace him with his other brother Hasan Ali Mirza Qajar.

Sardar Mohammad Khan Qaraei-Torbati (Persian: , 1790 around 1850) was a ruler of Qaraei from 1816 until June
14, 1833. Sardar Mohammad Khan Qaraei-Torbati was one of the wealthiest and most powerful chieftains in Khorasan during the reigns of Fath Ali Shah. He
was admired by his friends and cursed by his foes. The Qajar central government attempted to conciliate the new ruler of Turbat by recalling Muhammad Wali
Mirza to Tehran, dishonoring him while there, and sending Hasan Ali Mirza Qajar Shoja os Saltaneh in his place. Hasan Ali ventured to Zaveh to attempt to
placate Mohammad Khan for the treacherous murder of his father. The essence of the lies exchanged at their meeting was that Tehran denied any implication in
the murder of Eshaq while Mohammad professed allegiance to the Qajars. The deal was sealed with Mohammad granting his sister to Hasan Ali Mirza for
marriage. The result of this marriage was Qahreman Mirza Qajar ancestor of famous Qahreman, Qahremani and Shojania families of Khorasan. After Hasan
Ali's departure Mohammad aligned himself with Bunyad Beg Hazara and began a career of depredation and slave dealing. This latter practice gained him covert
alliances with the Khan of Khiva and the Emir of Bukhara, a situation that did little to enhance his reputation in Tehran. In 1832 the crown prince, Abbas Mirza,
after subduing the Salor of Sarakhs, turned his attention to Mohammad Khan and his renegade tribe. Under the guise of using Zaveh as a staging ground for his
army's invasion of Herat, Abbas moved the royal forces into the Qaraei district where he deceived Mohammad into a meeting that resulted in his capture. The
independence of the Qaraei tribe and the district of Zaveh ended with Mohammad Khan. The governors of the district were thereafter no longer of the Qaraei
tribe but of the Qajar tribe. The chief of the Qarais traditionally served alternate terms of naib and vazir to the Qajar governor for the rest of the 19th century.
Mohammad Khan died comfortably, a prisoner in his own house in Tabriz.

Qashqaei

Qashqaei was a Khanate in present Iran.

List of Khans of Qashqaei

Ismaeel Khan Soulat-od-Dowleh Qashqaei (died 1933) was a ruler of Qashqaei from 1904 until his death in 1933.

Nasser Khan Qashqaei was a ruler of Qashqaei from 1933 until ?



Sarab Khanate

Sarab was the Khanate in present Iran. The Sarab Khanate with the capital at Sarab existed from 1747 to 1828. It was bordering the Ardabil Khanate to the east
and the Tabriz Khanate to its west, and divided into threemahals: Sarab, Hashtari and Garmali. The khanate was founded by the leader of the Shaqaqi tribe, Ali
Khan. During the Russo-Persian Wars the Persian influence on the khanate rose. After the treaty of Gulistan it remained in the Persian sphere of influence, and
was abolished by the Qajar dynasty in 1828.

List of Khans of Sarab

'Ali Khan Shaqaqi was a ruler of Sarab Khanate from 1747 until 1786.

Sadiq Khan Shaqaqi (died 1800) was a ruler of Sarab Khanate from 1786 until 1796.



Avar Khanate

The Avar Khanate was a long-lived Muslim state which controlled Western Dagestan from the early 13th century to the 19th century. Following the fall of the
Christian kingdom of Sarir in the early 12th century, the Caucasian Avars underwent a process ofIslamization. Military tensions escalated in 1222, when the
region was invaded by the pagan Mongols underSubutai. Although the Avars pledged their support to Muhammad II of Khwarezm in his struggle against the
Mongols, there is no documentation for the Mongol invasion of the Avar lands. As historical clues are so scarce, it is probably fruitless to speculate whether the
Avars were the agents of the Mongol influence in the Caucasus and whether they were entrusted with the task of levying tribute for the khan, as modern historian
Murad Magomedov suggests. The rise of Shamkhalate of Kazi-Kumukh following the disintegration of the Golden Horde was at once a symptom and a cause of
the khans' diminished influence during the 15th and 16th centuries. At that time, the khanate was a loosely structured state, sometimes forced to seek the Tsar's
protection against its powerful enemies, while many mountainous communities (djamaats) obtained a considerable degree of autonomy from the khan. In the
18th century, the steady weakening of shamkhals fostered the ambitions of the Avar khans, whose greatest coup was the defeat of the 100,000-strong army
of Nadir Shah in September 1741. In the wake of this success, Avar sovereigns managed to expand their territory at the expense of free communities in Dagestan
and Chechnya. The reign of Umma-Khan in 17751801 marked the zenith of the Avar ascendancy in the Caucasus. Among the potentates who paid tribute to
Umma-Khan were the rulers of Shaki, Quba, Shirvan. Within two years after Umma-Khan's death, the khanate voluntarily submitted to Russian authority. Yet
the Russian administration disappointed and embittered freedom-loving highlanders. The institution of heavy taxation, coupled with the expropriation of estates
and the construction of fortresses, electrified the Avar population into rising under the aegis of the Muslim Imamate, led by Ghazi Mohammed (1828
32), Gamzat-bek (183234) and Shamil (183459). This Caucasian War raged until 1864, when the Avar Khanate was abolished and the Avar District was
instituted instead.

List of Khans of Avar Khanate

Umma Khan I was a Khan of Avar Khanate from 1606 until 1634.

Moldar Mirza was a Khan of Avar Khanate around 1650.

Muhammad Khan I was a Khan of Avar Khanate from 1650 until 1668.

Muhammad Khan II was a Khan of Avar Khanate around 1713.

Umma Khan II was a Khan of Avar Khanate from 1720 until 1730 and from 1735 until 1740.

Nutsal-Khan II was a Khan of Avar Khanate from 1740 until 1744.

Muhammad-Nutsal IV was a Khan of Avar Khanate from 1753 until 1765.

Muhammad Mirza was a Khan of Avar Khanate from 1753 until ?

Nutsal-Beg was a Khan of Avar Khanate from 1765 until 1774.

Umma Khan III was a Khan of Avar Khanate from 1774 until 1802.

Gebek Janku ibn Muhammad was a Khan of Avar Khanate in 1802.

Muhammad ibn Umma was a Khan of Avar Khanate in 1802.

Sultan Ahmed Khan Mehtulinski was a Khan of Avar Khanate from 1802 until 1822.

Bahu (o Huh) Bike was regent of Avar Khanate from 1822 until 1823.

Surhai Khan was a Khan of Avar Khanate from 1823 until 1827.

Aslan Khan de Kazi Kumuk was a Khan of Avar Khanate from 1827 until 1828.

Abu Sultan was a Khan of Avar Khanate from 1828 until 1834.

Ghazi Muhammad was a Khan of Avar Khanate from 1830 until 1831.

Hamza Beg was a Khan of Avar Khanate from 1831 until 1834.

Hadji Murat was regent of Avar Khanate from 1834 until 1836.

Mohammed Mirza Khan was a Khan of part of Avar Khanate from 1834 until 1837.

Ibrahim Khan was a Khan of Avar Khanate from 1859 until 1863.



Tabriz Khanate

Tabriz was the Khanate in present Iran.

List of Khans of Tabriz

Najafqoli Khan I was a ruler of Tabriz Khanate from 1731 until 1784.

Najafqoli Khan II was a ruler of Tabriz Khanate from 1784 until 1786.

Donboli was a ruler of Tabriz Khanate from 1786 until 1797.

Jafar Qoli Khan Donboli was a ruler of Tabriz Khanate from 1797 until 1802.


Pratas Dynasty

The Pratas were a dynasty of Indo-Scythian kings who ruled out of Baluchistan province of Pakistan, from the 1st century to the 3rd century CE. The dynasty of
the Pratas is thought to be identical with the Prthava of Iranian literature, the Parthians of Greek literature, and thePradas of Indian literature.
[1]
The Pratas,
an Iranian people and ruling dynasty from an area in present-day western Pakistan, are known essentially through their coinage, which typically exhibit the bust of
a particular monarch on the obverse ( having long hair within a headband), and a swastika within a circular legend on the reverse inKharoshthi (usually copper
coins) and sometimes in Brahmi (usually silver coins). Coins depicting Prata monarchs have been found in and around the district of Loralai,Balochistan,
western Pakistan. This was the seat of their capital. The Prata dynasty is thought to have started out as a satrapy of the northern Apraca Dynastical. Therefore
both the Apraca and the Prata dynasties appear to have been related. However, over time, a split occurs owing to the founding by Aprcan vassals, of the Prata
dynasty. Whether this split was attributed to feudal governance or to ideological differences [the Apracas eventually embraced Buddhism while the Pratas
retained Zoroastrianism albeit a form which seems to have been predicated on Mithra] is not fully known, though not beyond the realm of possibility.
Herodotus in c. 440 BCE describes the Paraitakenoi as a tribe ruled by Deiokes, a Iranic monarch who ruled on eastern-most region of the Iranian plateau.
(History I.101). Arrian describes how Alexander the Great encountered the Pareitakai in Bactria and Sogdiana, and had them conquered by Craterus (Anabasis
Alexandrou IV). The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (1st century CE) describes the territory of the Paradon beyond the Ommanitic region, on the coast
of Balochistan.

List of Indo-Scythian kings of Baluchistan

Bagareva was the Indo-Scythian king who ruled out of Baluchistan province of Pakistan in late 1th century and early 2th century.

Yolamira was the Indo-Scythian king who ruled out of Baluchistan province of Pakistan from around AD 125 until AD 150. He was son of Bagareva.

Bagamira was the Indo-Scythian king who ruled out of Baluchistan province of Pakistan from around AD 150. He was son of Yolamira.

Ajuna was the Indo-Scythian king who ruled out of Baluchistan province of Pakistan from around AD 150 until AD 160. He was the second son of Yolamira.

Hvaramira was the Indo-Scythian king who ruled out of Baluchistan province of Pakistan from around AD 160 until AD 175. He was the third son of
Yolamira.

Mirahvara was the Indo-Scythian king who ruled out of Baluchistan province of Pakistan from around AD 175 until AD 185. He was son of Hvaramira.

Miratakhma was the Indo-Scythian king who ruled out of Baluchistan province of Pakistan from around AD 185 until AD 200. He was son of Hvaramira.

Kozan was the Indo-Scythian king who ruled out of Baluchistan province of Pakistan from around AD 200 until AD 220. He was son of Bagavharna (and
perhaps grandson of Bagamira).

Bhimajuna was the Indo-Scythian king who ruled out of Baluchistan province of Pakistan from around AD 220 until AD 235. He was son of Yolatakhma
(and perhaps grandson of Ajuna).

Koziya was the Indo-Scythian king who ruled out of Baluchistan province of Pakistan from around AD 235 until AD 265. He was son of Kozana

Datarvharna was the Indo-Scythian king who ruled out of Baluchistan province of Pakistan from around AD 265 until AD 280. He was son of Datayola I
(and perhaps grandson of Bhimarjuna).

Datayola II was the Indo-Scythian king who ruled out of Baluchistan province of Pakistan from around AD 280 until AD 300. He was son of Datarvharna.



West Baluchistan

West Baluchistan was a state in present Iran.

List of Rulers of West Baluchistan

Nasir Khan Brahui (died June 1795) was a ruler of West Baluchistan from 1758 until his death in June 1795.

Mahmud Khan Brahui was a ruler of West Baluchistan from 1795 until ?

Mehrab Khan Narui was a ruler of West Baluchistan around 1810.

Mohammed Ali Khan was a ruler of West Baluchistan around 1839.



Persian Socialist Soviet Republic

The Persian Socialist Soviet Republic (widely known as the Soviet Republic of Gilan) was a short-lived Soviet republic in the Iranian province of Gilan that lasted
from June 1920 until September 1921. It was established by Mirza Koochak Khan, a leader of the Constitutionalist movement of Gilan, and his Jangali (Foresters
Movement) partisans, with the assistance of the Soviet Red Army.

List of Rulers of Persian Socialist Soviet Republic

Mohammed Amin Resulzadeh (1884 - 1955) was a briefly leader of Persian Socialist Soviet Republic (Soviet Republic of Gilan) from May 20 until June
5, 1920.

Mrz Kchik Khn (Gilaki: ) (Persian: ) (common alternative spellings Kouchek,
Koochek, Kuchak,Kuchek, Kouchak, Koochak, kuchak, Kuek) (1880 - December 2, 1921) was a leader of Persian Socialist Soviet
Republic (Soviet Republic of Gilan) from June 5, 1920 until his death on December 2, 1921. He was an early twentieth century
revolutionary and is considered a national hero in modern Iranian history. He was the founder of a revolutionary movement based in
the forests of Gilan in northern Iran that became known as the Nehzat-e Jangal (Forest movement). This uprising started in 1914 and
remained active against internal and foreign enemies until 1921 when the movement was completely abandoned after the demise of
the hero. Kuchak Khan was born Younes, son of Mirza "Bozorg" (the Persian equivalent of "Sr"), and was thus nicknamed Mirza
"Kuchak" (thePersian equivalent of "Jr"), in the city of Rasht in northern Iran in 1880. He studied theology (as the only available
formal education at the time) to become a cleric at Jame Rasht in Rasht and later at Mahmudiyeh schools in Tehran. On the eve of
the Iranian constitutional revolution as all the intelligentsia and ordinary people became more involved in politics, Mirza quit his
studies to join the movement. Finally in an Imperial decree the Shah of Iran Muzaffar al-Din Shah agreed to a constitutional
monarchy in August 1906. However, the ruling feudalistic society was not ready to give up on its privileges and respect the newly
elected Parliament (Majlis). In June 1908 the parliament was shut down during a coup d'tat ordered by the new monarch, Mohammad Ali Shah. The Russian
Cossack Brigade under the command of Colonel Liakhov serving the Shah bombarded the parliament and arrested pro-democracy leaders, activists, journalists,
and members of Parliament. Uprisings all over the country followed in particular in Tabriz, Ardabil andRasht. During the Tabriz uprising Kuchak Khan tried to
join Sattar Khan & Haj Baba Khan-e- Ardabili's forces, but was unable to actively participate due to an illness. He was injured in the Constitutionalist war, and
had to travel to Baku and Tbilisi for medical attention. After going through a period of renewed and bloody dictatorship nicknamed the Short
Dictatorship (or Lesser Autocracy), in July 1909 the national revolutionary forces from Gilanand central Iran (Bakhtiari tribes) were united to attack and conquer
the capital Tehran. Mirza Kuchak Khan was one of the lower rank commanders of the force that invaded the capital from North (under the command
of Sepahdar Aazam Mohammad Vali Khan Tonekaboni). Unfortunately, given the shortcomings of the advanced social thinkers and activists of the time on one
hand and the stronger establishment of the old autocracy on the other hand, again the same privileged class and their political representatives took control of the
new regime. The freedom fighters were not satisfied and in fact were disarmed, in some cases using force. Meanwhile the direct and indirect manipulation of the
country's internal politics by Tsarist Russians and the British added to the sufferings of the people and resulted in social unrest. It was during such tumultuous
period that Mirza Kuchak Khan, in collaboration with the Society of Islamic Union, started his uprising in the northern forests (Southern Caspian). Mirza
Kuchak Khan's return to Rasht was not easy since he had been expelled from Gilan by the Russian consulate for five years. His cause seems to have been a
mixture of that of the newly emerging national bourgeoisie and downtrodden peasants and therefore gained momentum soon after it started. The Jangal forces
(locally referred to as 'Jangalis' i.e., 'People of the Jungle' in Persian) defeated the local governmental and Russian troops which added to their reputation as
potential saviors of the ideas of the constitutional revolution. On June 12, 1918 Manjil was the site of a battle between the Jangali troops and the
joint British and White Russian forces. The latter force (led by General Dunsterville and Kernel Bicherakhov) although formally just trying to organize the return
of Russian soldiers back home, in reality was planning to pass through Manjil as the only passage to the Caspian in order to reach Baku and fight against the
newly formed Baku commune (led by Stepan Shahumian). General Dunsterville's private diaries and notes, including those kept during his command of the
Dunsterforce Mission to North Persia and Baku, are transcribed from the original by General Dunsterville's great granddaughter, and are co-located on the Great
War Primary Documents Archive.
[1]
Mirza Koochek Khan's troops were defeated in this war because of the use of artillery, armored car and airplanes by the joint
forces. Mirza's field commander was a German officer (Major Von Pashen) who had joined the Jangal movement after being released by them from the British
prison in Rasht. The Jangal movement was further boosted and gained gravity after the victory of the Bolsheviks in Russia. In May 1920 the Soviet Navy led
by Fyodor Raskolnikov and accompanied by Grigoriy Ordzhonikidze entered the Caspian port of Anzali. This mission was declared to be only in pursue of the
Russian vessels and ammunition taken to Anzali by the White Russian counter-revolutionary general Denikin, who had been given asylum by British forces in
Anzali. Mirza Koochak Khan agreed to cooperate with the Soviet revolutionaries on some conditions including the announcement of the Socialist Republic of
Gilan (also known as The Red Republic of the Jungle) under his leadership and lack of any direct intervention by the Sovietsin the internal affairs of the republic.
However, soon disagreements arose between Mirza and his group of advisors on one side and the Soviets and the Iranian Communist Party (evolved from the
Baku based Edalat Party). Mirza's efforts to resolve the bloody disputes by sending a petition through a delegate of two of his men to Lenin did not result in a
resolution. By 1921 and particularly after the agreement achieved between the Soviet Union and Britain the Soviets decided not to further support the Socialist
Republic of Gilan and as a result the government forces led by colonel Reza Khan (the future Reza Shah) overrun the dispersed forces of the Jungle Republic.
There is however, a different point of view that believes Mirza Kuchak Khan and his inner circles were not at the advantage to deal with and to accomplish major
radical social changes such as abandoning feudalism in Gilan which would have served the republic tremendously paving the way for its final victory. Saadollah
Darvish is appointed as the Chair of the Revolutionary Council (Commissar) of the forces missioned to Mazandaran Province, to promote the Red Iranian
Revolution in that province. The letter is signed by Mirza Koochak Khan (his usual signature Koochek-e Jangalii.e., Koochek of the Jungle) and other members
of the Revolutionary Council of The Republic of Iran, 1920. The tone and the terminology used in the letter shows the revolutionary fervor of the time and,
contrary to the suggestion of conservatism on Mirza's side by some historians, his devotion to the ideas of socialism. Mirza and his companion named Gaouk, a
Russian-German revolutionary adventurer, left alone in Talesh mountains around "Masal", both died of frostbite. His body was decapitated by a local landlord
and his head was displayed in Rasht to establish the government's new hegemony over revolution and revolutionary ideas. They buried his body
in Soleymandarab in Rasht and sent his severed head to Reza Khan [King of Iran] in Tehran. During the second world war and after the departure of Reza
Shah for exile, friends of Mirza Kuchak brought his head back from Tehran and buried it in his tomb. The tomb of Mirza kuchak in Rasht was reconstructed
after the Islamic revolution. Historians have tried to analyze the factors that contributed to the demise of the Jangal Movement. Some of the main studies
including those by Gregor Yeghikian and Ebrahim Fakhrayi (minister of Culture in Mirza's Cabinet of the Red Republic) suggest a role for both extremist actions
taken by the Communist (Edalat) Party that provoked opposing religious sentiment among the public, and Mirza Koochak Khan's religious and at times
somewhat conservative views on collaboration with the Communist Party as possible factors. It has been suggested also that the change of policy on the Soviet
side regarding pursuing global revolution (as advocated by Trotsky) versus establishing and protecting the Soviet Union was the main reason for them to withdraw
support from the Gilan republic. The second option got more support and therefore Soviets signed a treaty with British in London (1921) which necessitated
withdrawing from Northern Iran. Correspondence betweenTheodore Rothstein the Soviet ambassador in Tehran and Mirza Koochak Khan supports this view
(Ebrahim Fakhrayi). As part of his peace making efforts, Rothstein had also sent a message to the Soviet officers among Ehsanollah Khan's one thousand strong
force that had made its way towards Qazvin, not to obey his orders and as a result that campaign was defeated however, this view has been challenged by other
historians emphasizing Kuchak Khan's limited view of revolution given his socio-economic and ideological position.

Ihsan Allah Khan Doustdar (1883 - 1938) was a President of Persian Socialist Soviet Republic (Soviet Republic of Gilan) from July 1920 until October
23, 1921.



Khorasan (Khurasan)

Khorasan (Khurasan) was a state in present north eastern Iran.

List of Shahs of Khorasan (Khurasan)

Mahmoud Kiyani (Mahmoud Sistani) (died 1726) was a ruler of Khorasan (Khurasan) from 1724 until his death in 1726.

Esmail Rokh (1734 May 14, 1796) was a ruler of Khorasan (Khurasan) from May 9, 1755 until his death on May 14, 1796.

Nadir Mirza (died 1803) was a ruler of Khorasan (Khurasan) from May 15, 1796 until his death in 1803.

Governor-general of Khorasan (Khurasan)

Hasan Khan Salar was a Governor-general of Khorasan (Khurasan) (in rebellion) from 1845 until 1851.

Governor (President of the National Committee of Khorasan)

Mohammad Taghi Khan Pessyan (1888 October 6, 1921) was a Governor (President of the National Committee of Khorasan) from April 2 until
October 6, 1921.



Yeonguijeong of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea

Yeonguijeong (Korean pronunciation: [j i t]) was a title created in 1400, during the Joseon Dynasty of Korea (1392-1910) and given to the Chief
State Councillor as the highest government position of "Uijeongbu" (State Council). Existing for over 500 years, its function can be compared to that of a present
day "Prime Minister of South Korea". Only one official at a time was appointed to the position and though was generally called Yeongsang, was also referred to
as Sangsang, Sugyu or Wonbo. Although, the title of Yeonguijeong was defined as the highest post in charge of every state affairs by law, its practical functions
changed drastically depending on the particular King and whether that King's power was strong or weak.

List of Yeonguijeong (Korean pronunciation: [j i t]) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea

Jung Do-jun (Korean:, hanja:, 1342 1398), also known by the pen name Sambong() was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the
Joseon Dynasty of Korea from 1392 until his death in 1398. He was the most powerful medieval Korean aristocrat and politician in the early Joseon dynasty. He
was the closest supporter and advisor to King Taejo, who founded the Joseon dynasty. After Taejo became the first king of Joseon, he left all state affairs to Jeong
Dojeon, making him the most powerful and influential man who shaped 500-year-long Joseon dynasty by laying down its ideological, institutional, and legal
foundations. It is even said by some historians that Jeong Dojeon founded Joseon through Taejo, rather than the other way around. Jeong Dojeon was born from
a noble family in Yeongju in present-day South Korea. His family had emerged from commoner status some four generations before, and slowly climbed up the
ladder of government service. His father was the first in the family to obtain a high post. Despite all his difficulties, he became a student of Yi Jaehyeon and with
other leading thinkers of the time such as Jeong Mong-ju, his penetrating intelligence started to affect Korean politics. Jeong's ties with Yi Seonggye and the
foundation of Joseon were extremely close. He is said to have compared his relationship to Yi to that between Zhang Liang and Emperor Gaozu of Han. Jeong's
political ideas had a lasting impact on Joseon Dynasty politics and laws. The two first became acquainted in 1383, when Jeong visited Yi at his quarters
inHamgyong province. After Taejo founded Joseon in 1392, he appointed Jeong to the highest civilian and military office simultaneously, entrusting him with all
necessary power to establish the new dynasty. Deciding all policies from military affairs, diplomacy, and down to education, he laid down Joseon's political system
and tax laws, replaced Buddhism with Confucianism as national religion, moved the capital from Gaeseong to Hanyang (present-day Seoul), changed the
kingdom's political system from fedualism to highly centralized bureaucracy, and wrote a code of laws that eventually became Joseon's constitution. He even
decided the names of each palace, eight provinces, and districts in the capital. He also worked to free many slaves and reformed land policy. After Joseon was
established in 1392, he soon collided with Yi Bang-won over the question of choosing the crown prince, the future successor to Taejo. Of all princes, Yi Bang-
won contributed most to his father's rise to power and expected to be appointed as the crown prince even though he was Taejo's fifth son. However, Jeong
Dojeon persuaded Taejo to appoint his young eighth son Yi Bang-seok (Yi Bang-won's half-brother) as the crown prince. Their conflict arose because Jeong saw
Joseon as a kingdom led by ministers while the king was to be largely symbolic figure whereas Yi Bang-won wanted to establish the absolute monarchy ruled
directly by the king. Both sides were well aware of each other's great animosity and were getting ready to strike first. After the sudden death of Queen Sindeok in
1398, while King Taejo was still in mourning for his second wife, Yi Bang-won struck first by raiding the palace and killed Jeong Do-jeon and his supporters as
well as Queen Sindeok's two sons including the crown prince in a coup that came to be known as the First Strife of Princes. Taejo, who helplessly watched his
favorite sons and ministers being killed by Yi Bang-won's forces, abdicated in disgust and remained angry with Yi Bang-won well after Yi Bang-won became the
third king of Joseon, Taejong.

For much of Joseon history, Jeong Dojeon was vilified or ignored despite his contribution to its founding. He was finally
rehabilitated in 1865 in recognition of his role in designingGyeongbokgung (main palace). Earlier Jeongjo published a collection of Jeong Dojeon's writings in
1791. Jeong Dojeon's once-close friend and rival Jeong Mong-ju, who was assassinated by Yi Bang-won for remaining loyal to Goryeo Dynasty, was honored by Yi
Bang-won posthumously and was remembered as symbol of loyalty throughout the Joseon dynasty despite being its most determined foe. He wrote following
books: Sambongjip (, ), JoseonGyunggukjeon (, ), Daemyungryuljoseonyuhhae (, ),
Gyungjemungam (, ), Bulsijapbyeon (, ), Simmunchundab (, ), Simgiri (, ),
Hakjajinamdo (, ), Jinmakdokyeol (, ), Koreaguksa (, ) and Jinbub (, ). Jeong Dojeon
was a major opponent of Buddhism at the end of the Goryeo period. He was a student of Zhu Xi's thought. Using Cheng-Zhu Neo-Confucian philosophy as the
basis of his anti-Buddhist polemic, he criticized Buddhism in a number of treatises as being corrupt in its practices, and nihilistic and antinomian in its doctrines.
The most famous of these treatises was the Bulssi Japbyeon ("Array of Critiques Against Buddhism" ). He was a founding member of the Sungkyunkwan, the
royal Confucian academy, and one of its early faculty members. Jeong was among the first Korean scholars to refer to his thought as silhak, or "practical learning."
However, he is not usually numbered among the members of the Silhak tradition, which arose much later in the Joseon period. Jeong argued that the
government, including the king himself, exists for the sake of the people. Its legitimacy could only come from benevolent public service. It was largely on this
basis that he legitimized the overthrow of the Goryeo dynasty, arguing that the Goryeo rulers had given up their right to rule. Jeong divided society into three
classes: a large lower class of agricultural laborers and craftsmen, a middle class of literati, and a small upper class ofbureaucrats. Anyone outside this system,
including Buddhist monks, shamans, and entertainers, he considered a "vicious" threat to the social fabric.

Yi Seo was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from July 13, 1401 until April 10, 1402 and from December 12, 1406 until
July 4, 1407.

Seong Seokrin was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from July 13, 1401 until April 10, 1402, from March 7, 1405
until December 12, 1406, from August 21, 1412 until April 17, 1414 and from October 28, 1415 until May 25, 1416.

Jo Jun was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from July 16, 1403 until March 7, 1405.

Uian Daegun (Yi Wa) was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from July 7, 1407 until January 3, 1408.

Ha Ryun was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from May 27, 1408 until August 10, 1409, from October 11, 1408 until
August 21, 1412 and from April 17, 1414 until October 28, 1415.

Nam Jae was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from May 25, 1416 until November 2, 1416.

Yu Jeonghyeon was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from November 2, 1416 until June 5, 1418 and from
December 7, 1418 until September 7, 1424.

Han Sanggyeong was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from June 5 until September 3, 1418.

Sim On (1375 January 18, 1419) was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from September 3, until December 7, 1418.
He was father of a Queen and father-in-law to King Sejong. He is known for his treason charges, which eventually led to his death and further strengthening of the
royal power. Born of the Cheongsong Sim clan ( ), during the late Goryeo Dynasty, he passed the examinations and entered the government at age
eleven. At that time, general Yi Seong-gye had full control of the government and had eliminated most of his rivals throughout Goryeo. Sim On, fully realizing
that the Goryeo dynasty was at its end, joined Yis fraction and worked hard in bringing about a new dynasty. Finally, when General Yi rose to the throne in 1392,
Sim On was one of those who gained a new post and influence in assisting Yi found the Joseon Dynasty. In 1411, under King Taejongs rule, Sim On was
appointed to the post of administrating the province of Hamgyong-do. He dismissed corrupt sheriffs and judges, and toiled in improving the governmental power
in the region. As Sim On was a very capable civil administrator, he was promoted several times, and also worked in the roles of the Minister of Industry, Civil
Affairs and Agriculture. When the court began selecting the candidates for the princess consort of Chungnyeong (later King Sejong), he included his daughter in
the candidacy, resulting in her selection. When Chungnyeong became king in the year 1418, Sims daughter "Lady Sim" (; , women were referred by
only their family names; ssi means family) became Queen Sohunhwanghu, and Sim On rose to the office of "Prime Minister" the highest non-royal role in the
country. When Sim On was appointed to the office of Prime Minister, the office of the "Western Minister" was occupied Park Eun (; ), of the bon-nam
park ssi. Park clan. The relationship between these two ministers was atrocious, and there were frequent disputes between them. At the time, King Taejong had
resigned from his post of monarch and occupied the post of Retired King (; ). However, most of the nations internal and external affairs were run
by Taejong, and the current King Sejong remained as a figurehead. As he was a general during the late Koryo days, Taejong was a firm, conservative,
totalitarian despot. He frequently worried about the fact that. in the future. the dynasty would be ruled mostly by ministers, rather than by the Crown, like the
Goryeo Dynasty. Therefore he took extensive measures to strengthen the authority of the royal court. Due to this fact in the government, Sim-Ons younger
brother Sim Jeong, complained that the Kings power was totally limited by the looming presence of Taejong. When this statement reached the ears of the
Retired King, he condemned the whole Sim family. As Sim-On was one of the most influential men of the country. As the prime minister and father of the
Queen, his presence could not be ignored. Furthermore, "Western Minister" Park Eun framed Sim-On by revealing that Ons influence was overflowing. At this
time, Sim-On had fulfilled his duty of Prime Minister by visiting the Ming Empire as an emissary of Joseon at Saeunsa (; ). He was just returning
from his trip when he was arrested at the Korean territory of Uiju (; ) and transported under custody to the capital Hanyang, then to the city
of Suwon (; ). At Suwon he was tortured to admit his crimes. The director of the torture was Park Eun, who had framed the crime on Sim in the first
place. Finally, after days of torture, Sim succumbed to the accusations and confessed. Just before he was executed, he muttered the famous phrase, My
descendants Do not marry a Park. It will bring shame and misfortune to the family. After Sim On was executed for his fabricated crimes, Park Eun was
promoted to Prime Minister. Many of the Sim family were condemned, and even the Queen Soheon was threatened to be stripped of her title as queen.
However, King Sejong tried to protect her, and succeeded. King Taejong also supported Queen Soheon, telling the minister not to mention the matter of
stripping Queen Soheon's title. However, Sim-Ons name became a taboo during the remainder of Taejongs presence. Even Sejong could not regain the dignity
of the ministers name. However, when Sejong and Queen Soheons son King Munjong rose to the throne, Sim-On was absolved of his crimes, and
posthumously reinstated to the office of Prime Minister. He was also made a lord, and is also known as Lord of Anhyo (; ). The Sim family
continued to prosper, with Sim-Ons second son Sim Hwe becoming Prime Minister during King Sejos reign. 700 years after the incident, the Sim and Park
families have still not reconciled about the incident, with the Sim family blaming Park Eun for the framing about treason. However, historians generally agree that
Park was merely a tool in Taejongs master plan of royal totalitarianism. As Taejong was a conservative king, he did not want a queens family gaining power and
influence over the Joseon Dynasty. As his mindset was educated in the Goryeo Dynasty, he came to believe in the danger of handing over the power to another
non-royal family, which could have led to another dynasty.

Yi Jig was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from September 7, 1424 until September 7, 1431.

Hwang Hui (korean:, Hanja: , March 8, 1363 February 28, 1452) was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the
Joseon Dynasty of Korea from September 7, 1431 until October 5, 1449. Hwang Hui was an official of Goryeo Dynasty. He became an
official in the Joseon Dynasty in 1394. Hwang Hui once banished from Seoul because he advocated Yangnyeong, the eldest prince
of King Taejong, despite his bad behavior in 1418. After King Sejong the Great's enthronement, Hwang Hui got reappointed and held
many ministerial posts. Hwang Hui was appointed as a prime minister in 1431. He retired from the government after 18 years. He
served as the Yeonguijeong, the highest ranking of 3 appointed royal prime ministers (the others being Uuijeong and Jwaguijeong) for a
total of 18 years with a total of 24 years service to the monarchy. He was noted for his political philosophy that stated, That which is just
takes priority and must be enacted. Priorities during his administration included agricultural improvement, mitigating laws that increased
social class gaps, and providing opportunities for candidates born out of wedlock or from concubines to take the civil service
examination.

Ha Yeon was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from October 5, 1449 until October 27, 1451.

Hwangbo In was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from October 27, 1451 until October 11, 1453.

Jeong Inji was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from June 11, 1455 until December 7, 1458.

Jeong Changson was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from December 7, 1458 until November 5, 1459, from April
29, until May 20, 1461 and from July 1, 1475 until March 28, 1485.

Gang Maenggyeong was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from November 5, 1459 until April 29, 1461.

Sin Sukju was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from May 20, 1461 until April 18, 1466 and from October 23, 1471
until July 1, 1475.

Gu Chigwan was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from April 18 until October 19, 1466.

Han Myeonghoe was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from October 19, 1466 until April 6, 1467 and from January
23 until August 22, 1468.

Hwang Susin was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from April 6 until May 20, 1467.

Sim Hoe was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from May 20 until December 12, 1467.

Jo Seokmun was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from December 12, 1467 until July 17, 1468.

Guseonggun was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from July 17 until December 20, 1468.

Bak Wonhyeong was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from December 20, 1468 until January 23, 1469.

Hong Yunseong was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from August 22, 1468 until April 6, 1470.

Yun Jaun was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from April 6, 1470 until October 23, 1471.

Yun Pilsang was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from March 28, 1485 until November 6, 1493.

Yi Geugbae was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from November 6, 1493 until March 20, 1495.

No Sasin was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from March 20 until April 10, 1495.

Sin Seungseon was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from October 4, 1495 until April 11, 1500.

Han Chihyeong was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from April 11, 1500 until January 4, 1503.

Seong Jun was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from January 4, 1503 until April 4, 1504.

Yu Sun was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from April 4, 1504 until September 27, 1509 and from October 1, 1514
until April 9, 1516.

Bak Wonjong was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from September 27, 1509 until March 6, 1510.

Kim Sudong was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from March 6, 1510 until October 7, 1512.

Yu Sunjeong was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from October 7, 1512 until April 2, 1513.

Seong Huian was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from April 2 until October 27, 1513,

Song Il was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from October 27, 1513 until October 1, 1514.

Jeong Gwangpil was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from April 9, 1516 until February 14, 1520 and from
October 21, 1527 until ?.

Kim Jeon was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from February 14, 1520 until April 18, 1523.

Nam Gon was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from April 18, 1523 until October 21, 1527 and from ? until May 28,
1533.

Jang Sunson was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from May 28, 1533 until November 20, 1534.

Han Hyowon was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from November 20, 1534 until March 26, 1535.

Kim Geunsa was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from March 26, 1535 until November 2, 1537.

Yun Eunbo was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from February 2, 1537 until January 1545.

Hong Eonpil was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea in January 1545 and from May 17, 1548 until May 21, 1549.

Yun Ingyeong was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from January 1545 until May 17, 1548.

Yi Gi was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from May 21, 1549 until August 28, 1551.

Sim Yeonwon was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from August 23, 1551 until May 29, 1558.

San Gjin was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from May 29, 1558 until January 17, 1563,

Yun Wonhyeong was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from January 17, 1563 until August 15, 1565,

Yi Jungyeong was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from August 15, 1565 until March 22, 1573.

Gwon Cheol was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from March 22, 1573 until April 11, 1574 and from August 18,
1576 until May 25, 1580.

Hong Seom was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from April 11, 1574 until August 18, 1576.

Bak Sun was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from May 25, 1580 until May 11, 1588.

No Sunsin was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from May 11, 1588 until ?

Choe Heungwon was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea in late 16th century.

Yi Wonik was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea in late 16th century, in 1608 and in 1623.

Yu Seong-ryong (15421607) was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea in late 16th century. Yu Seong-ryong, also often
spelled Ryu Seong-ryong, was a scholar-official of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea. He held many responsibilities including the Chief State Councilior position in
1592. He was a member of the "Eastern faction", and a follower ofYi Hwang. Yu was born in Uiseong, in Gyeongsang province, to a yangban family of the
Pungsan Ryu clan. Yu is said to have been so precocious that he absorbed the teachings of Confucius and Mencius at the age of 8. In 1564 the 19th year
of Myeongjong, he passed the Samasi examination, and in 1566 he passed the Mun-gwa at a special examination, and then took the post of Gwonji
bujeongja (, ). He held various other positions and in 1569 he joined the imperial birthday mission to Ming as a Seojanggwan (,
), returning to Korea the following year. Thereafter he held posts including Inspector of Classics (, ) and devoted himself to
editing, being granted a royal sabbatical (, ).
[1]
Subsequently he held posts including Gyori (, fifth jeong rank) and Eunggyo (, ,
fourthjeong rank). He was appointed Jikjehak (, ) in 1575 and Bujehak (, ) in 1576.
[1]
Continually he held posts
including Doseongji (), Daesaheon (, ) and Daejehak (, ).
[1]
In 1590, he was appointed Uuijeong (Third State Councillor)
and Pungwon Buwongun (, ).
[1]
In 1591, he was promoted to Jwauijeong (Second State Councillor) and Ijo Panseo (, Minister
of Personnel, the first ranked of the six Ministries). However, the Easterners faction split into the Southerners and the Northerners. Yu Seong-ryong was a
Southerner (claiming exile, instead of death, for Jeong Cheol, the leader of the Westerners rival faction). He was in the rank of
provincial Dochechalsa (, ) when the Imjin War broke out in 1592 also he was appointedYeonguijeong, the Chief State Councillor.
[1]
Yu
Seongryong accompanied the royal family at Hanseong to Uiju.
[1]
In this capacity, he oversaw all military units and called leaders like Yi Sun-sin and Gwon Yul to
battle. He also fought on the Korean-Chinese allied forces side in the Siege of Pyongyang.
[1]
He suggested of establishment the Hunnyeon Dogam (,
, Training capital garrison). In 1598, he was ousted by the Northerners faction. King Seonjo rehabilitated him. However, he refused to take office as a
minister in 1600. In 1602, Joseon government bestowed honors upon him, as the second rank of Hoseong Gongsin (, ), and
appointed Pungwon Buwongun again. After which he spent his time on political writing before died in 1607. Yu's major writings are preserved in
the Seoaejip (The anthology of Seoae, , ), Jingborok (The book of Correction, , ), and minor writings as Hwanghwajip(,
), Jeongchungrok (, ). Yu Seong-ryong was enshrined in the Byeongsan Seowon and Hogye Seowon in Andong, North Gyeongsang.

Yun Dusu was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea in late 16th century.

Yi Sanhae was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea in early 17th century.

Yi Hangbok was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea in early 17th century.

Yun Seunghun was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea in early 17th century.

Yu Yeonggyeong was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea in early 17th century.

Yi Deokhyeong was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea in early 17th century.

Gi Jaheon was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea in early 17th century.

Jeong Inhong was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea in early 17th century.

Bak Seungjong was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea in early 17th century.

Sin Heum was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea in the first half 17th century.

Oh Yungyeom was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea in the first half 17th century.

Yun Bang was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea in the first half 17th century.

Sim Ryu was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea in the first half 17th century.

Yi Hongju was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea in the first half 17th century.

Choe Myeonggil was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea in the first half 17th century.

Yi Seonggu was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea in the first half 17th century.

Hong Seobong was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea in the first half 17th century.

Sim Yeol was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea in the first half 17th century.

Kim Jajeom was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea around middle 17th century.

Yi Gyeongseok was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea in the second half 17th century.

Kim Yuk was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea in the second half 17th century.

Yi Sibaek was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea in the second half 17th century.

Sim Jiwon was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea in the second half 17th century.

Jeong Taehwa was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea in the second half 17th century.

Hong Myeongha was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea in the second half 17th century.

Kim Suheung was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea in the second half 17th century.

Heo Jeok was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea in the second half 17th century.

Kim Seokju was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea in the second half 17th century.

Kim Suhang was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea in the second half 17th century.

Gwon Daeun was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea in the second half 17th century.

Nam Guman was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea in the second half 17th century.

Yu Sang Un was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from 1696 until 1699.

Seo Mun Jung was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from 1700 until 1701 and in 1702.

Choe Seok Jeong was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea in 1701, 1702 until 1703 and from 1705 until 1710.

Sin Wan was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from 1703 until 1705.

Yi Yeo was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea in 1710.

Seo Jong Tae was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from 1711 until 1712 and from 1714 until 1716.

Yi Yu was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from 1712 until 1713.

Kim Chang Jip was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from 1717 until 1721.

Jo Tae Gu was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from 1721 until 1723.

Choe Gyu Seo was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from 1723 until 1724.

Yi Gwang Jwa was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from 1724 until 1729 and from 1737 until 1740.

Hong Chi Jung was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from 1729 until 1732.

Sim Su Yeon was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from 1732 until 1735.

Yi Ui Hyeon was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from 1735 until 1737.

Kim Jae Ro was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from 1740 until 1754.

Yi Cheon Bo was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from 1754 until 1758 and in 1759.

Yu Cheok Gi was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from 1758 until 1759.

Kim Sang Ro was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from 1759 until 1760.

Hong Bong Han was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from 1761 until 1762, from 1763 until 1763 and from 1768
until 1770.

Sin Man was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from 1762 until 1763.

Yun Dong Do was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea in 1766.

Seo Ji Su was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from 1766 until 1767 and in 1768.
Kim Chi In was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from 1767 until 1768, in 1768, from 1770 until 1772 and from 1786
until 1789.

Kim Sang Bok was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea in 1772.

Sin Hoe was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea in 1772, from 1772 until 1773 and from 1774 until 1775.

Han Ik Mo was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea in 1772, in 1773, in 1774 and in 1775.

Kim Sang Cheol was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from 1775 until 1776

Kim Yang Taek was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from 1776 until 1779 and from 1780 until 1781.

Seo Myeong Sun was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from 1779 until 1780, from 1781 until 1783 and from 1784
until 1785.

Jeong Jon Gyeom was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from 1783 until 1784 and from 1785 until 1786.

Kim Ik was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea in 1789 and in 1790.

Kim Jae Hyeop was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from 1789 until 1790.

Choe Hyo Won was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from 1790 until 1793.

Chae Je Gong was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea in 1793.







Hong Nak Seong was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from 1793 until 1798.

Yi Byeong Mo was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from 1799 until 1800, from 1803 until 1805 and in 1806.

Sim Hwan Ji was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from 1800 until 1802.

Yi Si Su was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from 1802 until 1803.

Seo Mae Su was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from 1805 until 1806.

Kim Jae Chan was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from 1812 until 1816 and from 1821 until 1823.

Seo Yong Bo was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from 1819 until 1821.

Han Yong Gwi was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea in 1821.

Nam Gong Cheo was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from 1823 until 1833.

Yi Sang Hwang was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from 1833 until 1834 and from 1837 until 1838.

Sim Sang Gyu was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from 1834 until 1835.

Jo In Yeong was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from 1841 until 1844 and in 1850.

Kwon Don In was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from 1845 until 1848 and from 1851 until 1852.

Jeong Won Yong was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from 1848 until 1850 , from 1862 until 1863 and in 1868.

Kim Heung Geun was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea in 1853.

Kim Jwa Geun was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from 1853 until 1859, from 1861 until 1862 and from 1863
until 1864.

Jeong Won Yong was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from 1859 until 1861 and in 1868

Jo Du Sun was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from 1864 until 1866.

Yi Kyeong Jae was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from 1866 until 1867.

Kim Byeong Hak was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from 1867 until 1868 and from 1868 until 1872.

Hong Sun Mok was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from 1872 until 1873 and from 1882 until 1884.

Yi Yu Won was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from 1873 until 1875.

Yi Choe Eung (1815 1882) was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from 1875 until 1882.

Seo Dang Bo was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea in 1882.

Kim Byeong Guk (1825 1905) was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea in 1884.

Sim Sun Taek was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from 1884 until 1894, in 1898, in 1901 and in 1902.

Kim Byeong Si (1832 1898) was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea in 1894, in 1896 and in 1898.

Kim Hong Jip (died February 11, 1896) was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from 1894 until 1895 and from 1895
until his death on February 11. 1896.

Bak Jeong Yang (1841 1895) was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea in 1895.

Yun Yong Seon was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from 1896 until 1898, from 1899 until 1901, from 1901 until
1902, from 1902 until 1903 and again in 1903.

Jo Byeong Se was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from 1898 until 1899.

Yi Geun Myeong was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea in 1903 and acting from 1903 until 1905.

Bak Je Sun was acting Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea in 1905.

Yi Wan Yong (1858 - 1926) was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from 1905 until 1906 and from 1907 until 1910.

Min Yeong Gyu was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea in 1906.

Jo Byeong Ho was a Yeonguijeong (Chief State Councillor) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from 1906 until 1907.

Chairman of the Provisional Council of the Provisional Council of Korea

Yeo Unhyeong (Yo Un-hyong) was the Chairman of the Provisional Council of Korea fromAugust 15 until Seprember 6, 1945.

Premier of the Korean People's Republic (not recognized)

Heo Heon (Ho Hon) (1885 - 1951) was the Premier of the Korean People's Republic from September 6 until September 15, 1945.

Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea in Exile

Chairman of the Provisional Legislative Assembly

Lee Dong Nyong (Yi Dongnyeong) (1869 - 1940) was the Chairman of the Provisional Legislative Assembly of Provisional Government of the Republic of
Korea in Exile from April 10until September 6, 1919.

President of the Republic of Korea in Exile

Park Eun Sik (Park Eun-sik) (1859 November 1, 1925) was the President of the Republic of Korea in Exile from March 23 until November 1, 1925 and
Prime Minister of the Republic of Korea in Exile from December 1924 until March 1925.



List of Chairmens of the Republic of Korea in Exile

Lee Dong Nyong was the Chairmen of the Republic of Korea in Exile from August 1927 until March 1933, from October until November 1935 and from
November 1936 until October 1940. He was also Prime Minister of the Republic of Korea in Exile from April 13 until September 15, 1919, from January 24
until May 16, 1921 and from April until December 1924.

Song Pyung Jo was the Chairmen of the Republic of Korea in Exile from March 1933 until January 1934.

Yang Ki Suk was the Chairmen of the Republic of Korea in Exile from January 1934 until October 1935.

Lee Si Yong was the Chairmen of the Republic of Korea in Exile from November 1935 until November 1936.

Kim Gu (Kim Ku) (1876 - 1949) was the Chairmen of the Republic of Korea in Exile from October 1940 until August 1945 and Prime Minister of the
Republic of Korea in Exile from December 24, 1926 until April 1927.

List of Prime Ministers of the Republic of Korea in Exile

Lee Tong Hui (Yi Donghwhi) (1873 - 1935) was the Prime Minister of the Republic of Korea in Exile

Shin Kyu Sik (Sin Gyu-sik) (1879 September 25, 1922) was the Prime Minister of the Republic of Korea in Exile from May 16, 1921 until his death on
September 25, 1922.

Lho Bak Rin was the Prime Minister of the Republic of Korea in Exile from September 1922 until April 1924 and from March until July 1925.

Lee Sang Yong (Yi Sang-ryong) (1858 - 1932) was the Prime Minister of the Republic of Korea in Exile from July 1925 until 1926.

Hong Jin (Hong Myeon-hui) (1877 - 1946) was the Prime Minister of the Republic of Korea in Exile from July until December 1926.





Dian Kingdom

The Dian Kingdom (Chinese: or ) was established by the Dian people, who lived around Lake Dian in northern Yunnan,China from the late Spring
and Autumn Period until the Eastern Han Dynasty. The Dian buried their dead in vertical pit graves. The Dian language was likely related to Tibeto-Burman
languages. The Dian was annexed by the Han Dynasty as the empire expanded southwards. In 109 BC, Emperor Wu of Han sent a military expedition to defeat
Dian and established the Yizhou commandery. The Dian were first mentioned historically in Sima Qian's Shiji; according to Chinese sources, the
Chinese Chu general Zhuang Qiao was the founder of the Dian Kingdom. Zhuang was engaged in a war to conquer the "barbarian" peoples of the area, but he
and his army were prevented from going back to Chu by enemy armies, so he settled down and became king of the new Dian Kingdom. The Chinese soldiers
who accompanied him married the natives. The kingdom was located around Kunming, it was surrounded, on its east, by theYelang tribes, to the west, by
Kunming tribes, and to the north in Chengdu, by the Chinese, and had relations with all of them. It is said that during King Qingxiang's (Ching-hsiang) rule over
Chu (298-236 BC), a military force was sent on a mission to the area which makes up the present day provinces of Sichuan, Guizhou, and Yunnan which
respsectively were the lands of the Ba and Shu, Chinzong, and the Tien. Native women married the Chu soldiers, who stayed in the area. The Dian were
subjugated by the Han Dynasty under the reign of Emperor Wu of Han in 109 BC. The Dian King willingly received the Chinese invasion, in the hopes of
assistance against rival tribes. It was at this time he received his seal from the Chinese, and became a tributary.
[10]
The Han Dynasty incorporated the territory of
the Dian Kingdom into the Yizhou Commandery, but left the King of Dian as the local ruler, until a rebellion during Han Chao-ti's rule. The Chinese proceeded
with colonization, and conquered the Kunming tribes in 86 and 82 B.C., reaching Burma.

List of known Kings of Dian Kingdom

Zhuang Qiao was a founder and King of Dian Kingdom in 4 BC century. The Dian were first mentioned historically in Sima Qian's Shiji; according to
Chinese sources, the Chinese Chu general Zhuang Qiao was the founder of the Dian Kingdom. Zhuang was engaged in a war to conquer the "barbarian" peoples
of the area, but he and his army were prevented from going back to Chu by enemy armies, so he settled down and became king of the new Dian Kingdom.









List of Kings of Dammenguo Kingdom

Xinuluo () was a founder and King of Dammenguo Kingdom from 649 until 674. In 649 the chieftain of the Mengshe tribe, Xinuluo (),
founded a kingdom (Damengguo ) in the area of Lake Erhai.

Luoshengyan was a King of Dammenguo Kingdom from 674 until 712.

Chengluopi was a King of Dammenguo Kingdom from 712 until 728.




Kingdom of Nanzhao

Nanzhao, alternate spellings Nanchao and Nan Chao (Traditional Chinese: ; Simplified Chinese: ; pinyin: Nnzho;Standard Tibetan: Jang
[1]
) was
a polity that flourished in what is now southern China and Southeast Asia during the 8th and 9th centuries. It was centered around present-day Yunnan in China.
Originally, there were several tribes that settled on the fertile land around the alpine fault lake Erhai. These tribes were called Mengshe (), Mengsui (),
Langqiong (), Dengtan (), Shilang (), and Yuexi (). Each tribe had its own kingdom, known as a zhao. In 649 AD the chieftain of the Mengshe
tribe, Xinuluo (), founded a kingdom (Damengguo ) in the area of Lake Erhai. In the year 737 AD, with the support of the Tang Dynasty of
China, Piluoge () united the six zhaos in succession, establishing a new kingdom called Nanzhao (Mandarin, "Southern Zhao"). Nanzhao was made up of
many ethnic and linguistic groups. Though there were some disagreements, the majority of the population, as well as the royal family par se, were of so-called "Bai
Man()", which have became the Bai people. There were abundant evidences to support this argument, including the cultural and linguistic proofs. There
were of course another important ethnic group called "Wu Man " that played key roles in the daily business of Nanzhao. The capital was established in
738 at Taihe (modern day Taihe village, a few miles south of Dali). Located in the heart of the Erhai valley, the site was ideal: it could be easily defended against
attack, and it was in the midst of rich farmland. Nanzhao came under Tibetan threat from 680 AD. The Tibetans recognised its suzerainty after 703 and then
took the northern part of Nanzhao (where today's Jianchuan and Heqing are) under their control again from 750-794, when Nanzhao turned on their Tibetan
overlords and helped China defeat their armies.
[3]
Nanzhao had a strong connection with Tantric Buddhism, which has survived to this day at Jianchuan and
neighboring areas. The worship of Bodhisattvas Guanyin and Mahkla is very different from other forms of Chinese Buddhism. In 750, Nanzhao rebelled
against the Tang Dynasty. In retaliation, the Tang sent an army of 80,000 soldiers, led by General Xianyu Zhongtong () against Nanzhao in 751, but this
army was soundly defeated by Nanzhao Army, led by General Duan Jianwei () at Xiaguan. (It was in the same year that the Tang suffered another serious
defeat at the hands of the Arabs at the Battle of Talas in Central Asia; these defeats weakened the dynasty both internally and externally.) Today the General's
Cave (two kilometres west of Xiaguan), and the Tomb of Ten Thousand Soldiers (in Tianbao Park) bear witness to this great massacre. In 754, another Tang
army with the size of 100,000 soldiers, led by General Li Mi () was sent, this time from the north, but it too was defeated (and Tang was unable to send
another expedition due to the outbreak of Anshi Rebellion in the following year). Bolstered by these successes, Nanzhao expanded rapidly, first into Burma, then
into the rest of Yunnan, down into northern Laos and Thailand, and finally, north into Sichuan. In 829, Chengdu was taken; it was a great prize, as it allowed
Nanzhao to have captured roughly 20,000 technicians from China, whose talents were fully employed in the building of the Kingdom. By 873, Nanzhao had
been expelled from Sichuan, and retreated back to Yunnan. Taking Chengdu marked the high point of the Nanzhao kingdom, and it was a watershed: from then
on, the Nanzhao Kingdom slowly declined. In 902, the Nanzhao dynasty was overthrown. The end was bloody, for in that year the chief minister murdered all of
the key members of the royal family, including the heir apparent. This was followed by three other dynasties in quick succession: Da Changhe, Da Tianxing and
Da Yining. Duan Siping seized power in 937 to establish the Kingdom of Dali.

List of Kings of Nanzhao Kingdom

Khun Borom Rachathirath, Piluoge () is the legendary progenitor of the Tai-speaking peoples, considered by the Lao and others to be the father
of their race and the first King of Nanzhao Kingdom from 728 until 748. In the framework of Chinese historiography Khun Borom is identified
as Piluoge () who unified the kingdom of Nanzhao's six parts and ruled it in 728748. He had military assistance and titles from Emperor Xuanzong of
Tang, and in 740 established his capital at Daiho near modern Dali. According to the myth of Khun Borom, commonly related among Tai-speaking
peoples, people in ancient times were wicked and crude. A great deity destroyed them with a flood, leaving only three worthy chiefs who were preserved
in heaven to be the founders and guides for a new race of people. The deity sent the three chiefs back to the earth with a buffalo to help them till the land. The
chiefs and the buffalo arrived in the land of Muang Then (believed to be present-day Dien Bien Phu in Vietnam). Once the land had been prepared
for rice cultivation, the buffalo died and a gourd vine grew from his nostril. From the gourds on the vine, the new human race emergedrelatively dark-skinned
aboriginal peoples emerging from gourds cut open with a hot poker, and the lighter skinned Lao emerging from cuts made with a chisel. The gods then taught the
Tai peoples how to build houses and cultivate rice. They were instructed in proper rituals and behaviour, and grew prosperous. As their population grew, they
needed aid in governing their relations and resolving disputes. Indra, the king of gods, sent his son, Khun Borom, to be the ruler of the Tai people. Khun Borom
ruled the Tai people for 25 years, teaching them to use new tools and other arts. After this quarter-century span, Khun Borom divided the Tai kingdom among
his seven sons, giving each one of them a portion of the kingdom to rule. The eldest son, Khun Lo, was given the Dian Kingdom- modern-day Kunming. Other
sons were assigned to conquer the Jiuli tribes. Some interpreters of the story of Khun Borom believe that it describes Tai-speaking peoples arriving in Southeast
Asia from China (mythically identified with heaven, from which the Tai chiefs emerge after the flood). The system of dividing and expanding a kingdom in order
to provide for the sons of a ruler agrees in general with the apparent organization and succession practices of ancient Tai village groups was called mueang. Khun
Bourom Maharasa dynasty - The great King of the Nan Chao (Ai Lao) Empire. Khun Borom had nine sons, and seven of them became kings in different
kingdoms in "Lamthong": "Khun Lor" ruled Moung Sawa (Sua), (Luang Phrabang, Laos), "Khun Palanh" ruled Sipsong Panna, (Yunnan, China), "Khun Chusong"
ruled Tung Kea, (Muang Huao-Phanh to Tonkin, Vietnam), "Khun Saiphong" ruled Lanna, (Chiang Mai, Thailand), "Khun Ngua In" ruled Ayuthaya, (Thailand),
"Khun Lok-Khom" ruled Moung Hongsa (Inthaputh), (Shan state, Burma) and "Khun Chet-Cheang" ruled Moung Phuan, (Xieng Khouang, Laos). There were 19
kings after Khun Lor who ruled Muang Sawa (Sua). The last one was Khun Vaang. After his death, his son who was named "Lang", took the throne and was then
named "King Langthirath". After King Langthirath died, his son (Thao Khamphong) was crowned as "King Souvanna Khamphong." After King Souvanna
Khamphong died, his son "Chao Fifah" or "Khamhiao" took the throne. Chao Fifah (Khamhiao) had six sons and one of them was "Chao Fa-Ngum". King Fa
Ngum was the creator of the Lan Xang Kingdom during his reign in the 13th century. Both King Mangrai of Chiang Mai and Uthong of Ayutthaya are said to
have been descendants of Khum Borom's younger sons. Scholar David K. Wyatt believes that the Khun Borom myth may provide insight into the early history
of the Tai people in Southeast Asia. Versions of the Khun Borom myth occur as early as 698 CE in Siang Khwang, and identify Tai-speaking kingdoms that
would be formally established years later. This may indicate the early geographical spread of Tai-speaking peoples, and provides a mythological explanation for
why modern Tai-speaking peoples are found in such widespread pockets. Linguistic analysis indicates that the division of the early Tai speakers into the language
groups that gave rise to modern Thai, Lao and other languages occurred sometime between the 7th and 11th centuries CE. This split proceeded along
geographic lines very similar to the division given in the Khun Borom legend.

Shun-wu Ti was the King of Nanzhao Kingdom from 748 until 778.

Hsiao Heng Ti was the King of Nanzhao Kingdom from 778 until 808.

Hsiao Wen Ti was the King of Nanzhao Kingdom from 808 until 809.

Yu Ti was the King of Nanzhao Kingdom from 809 until 819.

Ching Wang was the King of Nanzhao Kingdom from 819 until 824.

Chao Ch'eng Ti was the King of Nanzhao Kingdom from 824 until 859.

Ching Chuang Ti was the King of Nanzhao Kingdom from 859 until 877.

Hsuan Wu Ti was the King of Nanzhao Kingdom from 877 until 897.

Hsiao Ai Ti was the King of Nanzhao Kingdom from 897 until 901.

Te Heng Ti was the King of Nanzhao Kingdom from 901 until 910.

Su Wen Ti was the King of Nanzhao Kingdom from 910 until 927.

Kung Hui Ti was the King of Nanzhao Kingdom from 927 until 928.

Tao K'ang Ti was the King of Nanzhao Kingdom in 928.

T'ai Tsu was the King of Nanzhao Kingdom from 928 until 937.



Kingdom of Muang Sua

Muang Sua (some sources Muang Sawa) was an ancient name for today's Lao city of Luang Prabang, and the kingdom of the same name in the heart of Southeast
Asia. City and country in the late 7th century or the 8th Ages founded by Prince Khun Lo, one of the sons polulegendarnog Thai king Khun Borom. Since it has
given rise next 15 kings and similar claims today Lao royal house. Dynasty was stopped before the end of the 9th century when the area was occupied Khmer
Empire under Indravarman I. Muang Sua was the name of Luang Phrabang following its conquest in 698 by a Tai prince, Khun Lo, who seized his opportunity
when the king of Nanzhao was engaged elsewhere. Khun Lo had been awarded the town by his father, Khun Borom, who is associated with the Lao legend of the
creation of the world, which the Lao share with the Shanand other peoples of the region. Khun Lo established a dynasty whose fifteen rulers reigned over an
independent Muang Sua for the better part of a century.

List of known Kings of Muang Sua

Khun Lo (died 780) was legendary founder of the city of Luang Prabang and King of Muang Sua Kingdom in the second half 8th century until his death in
780. He was the eldest of the seven sons of the Khun Borom, and is credited as being the first of the prehistoric Lao monarchs. The royal families of Laos trace
their lineage to him. Khun Lo died in 780 and was succeeded by Khun Sung.

Khun Sung was the King of Muang Sua Kingdom in late 8th century.

Chanthaphanit was the King of Muang Sua Kingdom in the second half 11th century. He was the local ruler of Xayfong, moved north to Muang Sua and was
accepted peacefully as ruler after the departure of the Nanzhao administrators. Chanthaphanit and his son had long reigns, during which the town became known
by the Thai name Xieng Dong Xieng Thong. The dynasty eventually became involved in the squabbles of a number of principalities.

Khun Chuang was the King of Muang Sua Kingdom from 1128 until 1169. He was a warlike ruler who may have been a Kammu (alternate spellings include
Khamu and Khmu) tribesman, extended his territory as a result of the warring of these principalities and probably ruled from 1128 until 1169. Under Khun
Chuang, a single family ruled over a far-flung territory and reinstituted the Siamese administrative system of the seventh century.

Sipsong Panna was the King of Muang Sua Kingdom in late 12th century. By 1180 the Sipsong Panna had regained their independence from the Khmers,
however, and in 1238 an internal uprising in the Khmer outpost of Sukhothai expelled the Khmer overlords.

Panya Lang was the King of Muang Sua Kingdom from 1271 until 1286. In 1271 Panya Lang, founder of a new dynasty headed by rulers bearing the title
panya (lord), began his rule over a fully sovereign Muang Sua. In 1286 Panya Lang's son, Panya Khamphong, was involved in a coup d'tat that was probably
instigated by the Mongols and that exiled his father. Upon his father's death in 1316, Panya Khamphong assumed his throne.

Panya Khamphong was the King of Muang Sua Kingdom from 1286 until his death in 1316. In 1271 Panya Lang his father founder of a new dynasty
headed by rulers bearing the title panya (lord), began his rule over a fully sovereign Muang Sua. In 1286 Panya Khamphong, was involved in a coup d'tat that
was probably instigated by the Mongols and that exiled his father. Upon his father's death in 1316, Panya Khamphong assumed his throne. Ram Khamhaeng, an
early ruler of the new Thai dynasty in Sukhothai, made himself the agent of Mongol interests, and in 1282-84 eliminated the vestiges of Khmer and Cham power
in central Laos. Ramkhamhaeng obtained the allegiance of Muang Sua and the mountainous country to the northeast. Between 1286 and 1297, Panya
Khamphong's lieutenants, acting for Ramkhamhaeng and the Mongols, pacified vast territories. From 1297 to 1301, Lao troops under Mongol command invaded
Dai Viet but were repulsed by the Vietnamese. Troops from Muang Sua conquered Muang Phuan in 1292-97. In 1308 Panya Khamphong seized the ruler of
Muang Phuan, and by 1312 this principality was a vassal state of Muang Sua. Mongol overlordship was unpopular in Muang Sua. Internal conflicts among
members of the new dynasty over Mongol intervention in their affairs resulted in continuing family upheavals.

Fa Ngieo was the King of Muang Sua Kingdom from 1316 until 1335. Panya Khamphong his grandfather exiled his son Fa Phi Fa and most likely intended to
leave the throne to his younger grandson, Fa Ngieo. Fa Ngieo, involved in various coups and coup attempts, in 1330 sent his two sons to a Buddhist monastery
outside the Mongol realm for safety. The brothers were kidnapped in 1335 and taken to Angkor, where they were entrusted to King Jayavarman Paramesvara,
whose kingdom had acknowledged Mongol suzerainty since 1285. The younger brother, Fa Ngum, married one of the king's daughters and in 1349 set out
from Angkor at the head of a 10,000-man army. His conquest of the territories to the north of Angkor over the next six years reopened Mongol communications
with that place, which had been cut off. Fa Ngum organized the conquered principalities into provinces, and reclaimed Muang Sua from his father and elder
brother. Fa Ngum was crowned king of Lan Xang at Vientiane, the site of one of his victories, in June 1354. Lan Xang extended from the border of China to
Sambor below the Mekong rapids at Khong Island and from the Vietnamese border to the western escarpment of the Khorat Plateau.



Lan Xang

The Lao kingdom of Lan Xang Hom Khao (Lao: lansang - "million" + "elephant"+ "Under the White Parasol"; Pali:

,
Sisattanakhanahut; Thai: , RTGS: Lan Chang; Vietnamese: Vn Tng) existed as a unified kingdom from 1354-1707. For three and a half centuries Lan
Xang was one of the largest kingdoms in Southeast Asia. The "million elephants under the white parasol," of the kingdom's name alludes to the power of the
kingship and formidable war machine of the early kingdom.
[1]
The kingdom is the precursor for the country of Laos, and the basis for the national historic and
cultural identity.

List of Kings of Lan Xang Kingdom

Fa Ngum (died 1393) was a King of Lan Xang Kingdom from 1353 until 1372.

Sam Sen Thai (died 1417) was a King of Lan Xang Kingdom from 1372 until his death in 1417.

Lan Kham Deng (1375 - 1428)

was a King of Lan Xang Kingdom from 1417 until his death in 1428.

Maha Devi (died 1440) was a Queen of Lan Xang Kingdom from 1428 until his death in 1440. The title of a powerful queen consort whose name is disputed
(pehaps a queen of Sam Sen Thai) but served as regent/power broker through a succession of kings.

Phommathat (died 1429) was a King of Lan Xang Kingdom from 1428 until his death in 1429.

Kham Teun was a King of Lan Xang Kingdom in 1429

Yukorn (Meun Sai) (died 1430) was a King of Lan Xang Kingdom from 1429 until his death in 1430.

Khon Kham (died 1432) was a King of Lan Xang Kingdom from 1431 until his death in 1432.

Kham Tem Sa was a King of Lan Xang Kingdom in 1433.

Lu Sai was a King of Lan Xang Kingdom in 1434.

Khai Bua Ban (died 1438)

was a King of Lan Xang Kingdom from 1435 until his death in 1438.

Khong Keut (died 1438) was a King of Lan Xang Kingdom from 1436 until his death in 1438.

Chakkaphat (died 1479) was a King of Lan Xang Kingdom from 1438 until his death in 1479.

Suvanna Banlang (Theng Kham) (died 1485)

was a King of Lan Xang Kingdom from 1479 until his death in 1485.

La Sen Thai (died 1495) was a King of Lan Xang Kingdom from 1485 until his death in 1495.

Som Phou (Samphou) was a King of Lan Xang Kingdom from 1495 until 1500.

Vixun (Visoun, Visunarat) (died 1520) was a King of Lan Xang Kingdom from 1500 until his death in 1520.

Photisarath (died 1548) was a King of Lan Xang Kingdom from 1520 until his death in 1548.

Setthathirath (died 1572) was a King of Lan Xang Kingdom from 1548 until his death in 1572.

Sen Soulintha (Saen Surin) was a King of Lan Xang Kingdom from 1572 until 1575 and from 1579 until 1582. From 1571 until 1572 he was minister and
general to Setthathirath not of royal descent, regency.

Tha Heua was a King of Lan Xang Kingdom from 1575 until 1579. He was son of Photisarath and Burmese vassal.

Nakhon Noi was a King of Lan Xang Kingdom from 1582 until 1583. He was son of Sen Soulintha, not of royal descent.

Nokeo-Koumane (died 1596) was a King of Lan Xang in 1575 and from 1591 until his death in 1596.

Vorouvong Sa II (1585 - 1622) was a King of Lan Xang Kingdom from 1596 until 1621.

Ouphagnauvarath I (1597 - 1622) was a King of Lan Xang Kingdom from 1621 until his death in 1622.

Phothisarath II (1552 - 1627) was a King of Lan Xang Kingdom from 1623 until his death in 1627.

Mom Keo (died 1633) was a King of Lan Xang Kingdom from 1627 until his death in 1633.

Ton Khan (Ouphagnauvarath II) (died 1637) was a King of Lan Xang Kingdom from 1633 until his death in 1637.

Vickhsai (died 1638) was a King of Lan Xang Kingdom from 1637 until his death in 1638.

Sulingvongsa (1618 - 1690) was a King of Lan Xang Kingdom from 1638 until his death in 1690.

Tian Thala (died 1696) was a King of Lan Xang Kingdom from 1690 until 1695.

Nan Tharat (died 1698) was a King of Lan Xang Kingdom from 1695 until his death in 1698.




Luang Prabang

Luang Prabang was city state in present Laos. With the division of Lan Xang, the city of Luang Prabang recovered its prestige as a royal city, since the capital had
moved to Vientiane with Setthariarath in1560. The city was a growing center for religion and trade, but remained politically weak and would be sacked by the
Burmese in 1764. Throughout the 18th and 19th centuries the Kingdom endured as a vassal to China, Siam, Burma, and Vietnam. In 1828 following Chao
Anus Rebellion the kingdom was annexed by Siam. Despite their vassal status the Kings of Luang Prabang exercised a degree of autonomy, but lacked the
security apparatus to effectively defend the kingdom (which may have been used in rebellion, as had been done in the kingdoms of Vientiane and Champasak).
As a result, throughout the mid-19th century Haw pirates from China were able to invade.

List of Luang Prabang Kingdom

Kingkitsarath (died 1713) was a King of Luang Prabang Kingdom from 1707 until his death in 1713.

Ong Kham was a King of Luang Prabang Kingdom from 1713 until 1723. He was cousin of Kingkitsarat and Inthasom, co-ruled with Inthasom who then
deposed him in 1723. Ong Kham was later crowned King of Lan Na from 1727 until 1759.

Inthasom (died 1749) was a King of Luang Prabang Kingdom from 1723 until his death in 1749. He was brother of Kingkitsarat and grandson of Souligna
Vongsa).

Inthaphom (died 1776) was a King of Luang Prabang Kingdom in 1749. He was son of Inthasom, reigned 8 months then abdicated to his brother Sotika
Koumane).

Sotika Koumane (before 1734 1771) was a King of Luang Prabang Kingdom from 1749 until 1771. He was son of Inthasom, vassal to Burma, abdicated in
1771.

Suriyawong (1751 1791) was a King of Luang Prabang Kingdom from 1771 until 1788. He was brother of Sotika Koumane and son of Inthasom, rebelled
against Burma. In 1779, following the sack of Vientiane, Suriyawong becomes a vassal of Siam.

Anourouth (died 1819) was a King of Luang Prabang Kingdom from 1792 until his death in 1819. He was son of Inthasom.

Mantha Tourath (1772 - 1837) was a King of Luang Prabang Kingdom from 1819 until his death in 1837. He was son of Anourouth, sought vassalage with
Vietnam against Siam). He was regent for Anurutha from 1817 until December 31, 1819; lives as a monk in Bangkok 1825-26, leaving Luang Phra Bang to be
administered by Thai officials.

Sukha-Sm (1797 September 23, 1850) was a King of Luang Prabang Kingdom from 1837 until his death on September 23, 1850.

Unkeo (died 1850) was regent of Luang Prabang Kingdom from 1837 until 1838.






Chantha-Kuman (1799 October 1, 1868) was a King of Luang Prabang Kingdom from 1850 until his death on October 1, 1868.








Oun Kham (1811 or 1816 - December 15, 1895) was King of Luang Prabang from 1872 until 1887 and a second time from 1889 until
December 15, 1895. On June 7, 1887 the Lao royal capital was seized and sacked; the elderly ruler barely escaped with his life. Between
his two ruling period he was exiled in Bangkok where he gave assistance to Auguste Pavie. The last two years of his reign ended with the
establishment of a French protectorate over Laos.





Zakarine, also known as Sakkarin, Sakharine, Sackarine, Zackarine, and Zacharine (originally Kham Souk) (full name Samdach Brhat
Chao Maha Sri Vitha Lan Xang Hom Khao Luang Prabang Parama Sidha Khattiya Suriya Varman Brhat Maha Sri Sakarindra) (July 16,
1840 March 25, 1904) was the King of Luang Prabang from 1895 until his death on March 25, 1904 (regent for Unkham from April
1888 until December 15, 1895). He was brought up in Luang Phrabang and he was educated privately which only wealthy Lao people did.
Later on he married 7 wives, included Queen Thongsy, and had 10 sons and 4 daughters. Thongsy was childless, so he adopted Queen
Khamphane, wife of KingSisavang Vong, He commanded the Royal Forces against the Haw invasion, (Chinese rebels of the Taiping
rebellion) in 1874.He fled toBangkok after the sack of Luang Prabang in 1887. In 1888, the King of Siam appointed him regent for his
father. Zakarine officially succeeded his father, December 15, 1895 and was crowned at Luang Prabang, 14 July 1896.During his reign he
was forced to accept a French protectorate over the kingdom on the October 3, 1893 after his father agreed to having French protection.
He died from cerebral hemorrhage on March 25, 1904. He was succeeded by his son, King Sisavang Vong.

Prime minister of Luang Prabang Kingdom

Phetsarath Rattanavongga (1890 - 1959) was a Prime Minister of Luang Prabang Kingdom from August 21, 1941 until October 10, 1945.



Wiang Chhan (Viang Chan)

Kings

Setthathirath II (1685 - 1730) was a King of Lan Xang Kingdom from 1700 until 1707 and King of Vientiane from 1707 until his death in 1730.

Ong Long (died 1767) was a King of Vientiane from 1730 until his death in 1767.

Ong Bun (1730 - November 1781) was a King of Vientiane from 1730 until 1767 and from 1780 until hs death in November 1781.

Nanthasen (died January 1795) was a King of Vientiane from 1781 until his death in January 1795.

Intharavong Setthathirath III (died February 7, 1805) was a King of Vientiane from 1795 until his death on February 7, 1805.

Anuvong (1767 - 1829) was a King of Vientiane from 1805 until November 12, 1828.


Champasak (Nakhon Champasak)

The Kingdom of Champasak (Lao:

[cmpsk]) or Bassac, (17131946) was in 1713 proclaimed a Lao kingdom under Nokasad, a grandson of
King Sourigna Vongsa, the last king of Lan Xang; and son-in-law of the Cambodian King Chey Chettha IV. Bassac and the neighboring principalities
of Attapeu and Stung Treng, emerged as power centers under what was later to be described as the Mandala Southeast Asian political model. The kingdom was
sited on the eastern or Left Bank of the Mekong, south of the Right Bank principality ofKhong Chiam where the Mun River joins; and east of where the Mekong
makes a sharp bend to the west to return abruptly and flow southeasterly down to what is now Cambodia. Bassac, the capital city, was on the right bank, near
where the Bassac River joins the Mekong, connecting to Phnom Penh. Due to scarcity of information from the periods known as the Dark ages of Cambodia,
the Khorat Plateau seems to have been largely depopulated, and Left Bank principalities began to repopulate the Right. In 1718, a Lao emigration in the
company of an official in the service of King Nokasad founded Muang Suwannaphum as the first recorded population of Lao in the Chi Rivervalleyindeed
anywhere in the interior of the plateau. At the beginning the 18th century, and ignoring the world-wide agricultural disaster accompanying the Bassac was said to
be on a prosperous trade route as the outlet for cardamon, rubber, wax, resin, skins, horns, and slaves from the east bank to Ubon, Khorat, and Bangkok. The
region then fell victim to Siamese and French struggles to extend suzerainty. After the Laotian Rebellion of 1826-1829, Suwannaphum lost its status and
Champasak was reduced to vassalage; the Siamese-Cambodian War of 1831-1834reduced the entire region to vassalage, a situation soon further complicated by
the French striving in the same region to establish what was to become French Indochina. Following the Franco-Siamese War of 1893, the Left Bank fell under
French rule as an administrative block, with its royalty stripped of many privileges; French colonial administration of Lao kingdoms impoverished the region. The
1893 treaty called for a twenty-five-kilometer-wide demilitarized zone along the Right Bank, which made Siamese control impossible. It soon became a haven for
lawless characters from both banks of the river. Lack of clear chains of authority resulted in turmoil in the whole region, and in what was known to the Siamese
side as the "Holy Man's Rebellion". Ong Keo and Ong Kommandam of the Bolaven Plateau Alak people, led initial resistance against French control, which
subsumed into the First Indochina War. The parallel right-bank Holy Man's Rebellion of 1901-1902 was a short-lived cause. Following legal actions against
captured local leaders of the movement, the Thai government considered the case of the rebellion closed. The right-bank dependencies were absorbed into the
Siamese North-East Monthon Isan () and the House of Na Champassak ceased to rule. In 1946, the kingdom, established under the grandson of the last
king of Lan Xang, was reduced to the status of a province in the first-ever united Kingdom of Laos; which on 2 December 1975, became the Lao People's
Democratic Republic.

List of Kings of Champasak

Nan Rath was the King of the southern Laotian Kingdom of Champasak from 1700 until 1713.

Nokasad (full name Somdetch Brhat Chao Jaya Sri Samudra Buddhangkura; alternate names Soi Si Samout Phouthong Koun; King of Champa Nagapurisiri
or Nakhon Champa Nakhaburisi, 1693 - 1738) was the King of Champasak from 1713 until his death in 1738. He was reckoned posthumously to have been
born in 1693 as Prince (Chao) Nakasatra Sungaya or Nokasat Song) was a grandson of the last king of Lan Xang, KingSourigna Vongsa; and a son-in-law of
the Cambodian King Chey Chettha IV. He was made king of the southern Laotian Kingdom of Champasak from 1713 to 1737. In 1718, the firstLao muang in
the Chi valley and indeed anywhere in the interior of the Khorat Plateau was founded at Suwannaphum District in present-day Roi Et Province by an official
in the service of this king. In 1725, he turned his executive powers over to his eldest son; he died at Khorat in 1738.

Sayakumane (1710 - 1791) was king of the southern Laotian Kingdom of Champasak from 1737 until his death in 1791 (regent for Nokasad 1725-38).

Xiang Keo was king of the southern Laotian Kingdom of Champasak in 1791.

Fay Na (died 1811) was king of the southern Laotian Kingdom of Champasak from 1791 until his death in 1811. He was promoted by King Rama I of Siam for
the noble title "Phra Wichaiyaratkhattiyawongsa" (th: ).

No Muong (died 1811) was king of the southern Laotian Kingdom of Champasak in 1811.

Cha Nou (died 1813) was king of the southern Laotian Kingdom of Champasak from 1811 until his death in 1813.

Ma Noi (died 1821) was king of the southern Laotian Kingdom of Champasak from 1813 until his death in 1821. He was fled to Thailand in 1820.

Hui (1780 - 1840) was king of the southern Laotian Kingdom of Champasak from 1827 until his death in 1840.

Nak (1774 - 1850) was king of the southern Laotian Kingdom of Champasak from 1840 until his death in 1850 (regent of Kingdom of Champasak for Hui from
1827 until 1840.

Sa (died 1852) was regent of the southern Laotian Kingdom of Champasak from 1851 until his death in 1852.

Suriya (died 1855) was regent of the southern Laotian Kingdom of Champasak from 1853 until his death in 1855.

Kham Nhai (1830 - 1858) was the King of the southern Laotian Kingdom of Champasak from 1856 until his death in 1858.

Chu was the King of the southern Laotian Kingdom of Champasak from 1858 until 1860.

Kham Suk (1838 - 1900) was the King of the southern Laotian Kingdom of Champasak from 1862 until his death in 1900 (governor of Laotian Kingdom of
Champasak until 1863).

Bua Laphan (1874 - 1945) was the King of the southern Laotian Kingdom of Champasak from 1900 until 1904 and Prince of Laotian Kingdom of
Champasak from 1904 his death in 1945.

Boun Oum (1911 - 1980) was the Prince of Laotian Kingdom of Champasak from 1945 until August 26, 1946.



Xiang Khouang

The Muang of Xiang Khouang was a semi-autonomous region in Laos in what is now Xiang Khouang province. The Phuan (Puon) monarchy claims descent
from Khun Borom and were part of the Lan Xang mandala. Geographic isolation and frequent warfare produced periods where the Phuan kings tried to assert
more authority, but the region remained only a key vassalage for surrounding kingdoms. The region features prominently in the 18th and 19th century as
valuable coalition piece for the rival kingdoms of Vientiane and Champasak. Xiang Khouang was a trade frontier, and also frequent point of invasion, and so has
more cultural influences from China and Vietnam.

List of Kings (rath, chao xiwit) of Xiang Khouang

Chao Kham Lan (died 1688) was the King of Xiang Khouang from 1687 until his death in 1688.

Chao Kham Phuttha (died 1690) was the King of Xiang Khouang from 1688 until his death in 1690.

Chao Kham Sattha (died 1694) was the King of Xiang Khouang from 1690 until his death in 1694.

Chao Bun Lang Thai (died 1694) was the King of Xiang Khouang in 1694.

Chao Bun Lot (died 1698) was the King of Xiang Khouang from 1694 until his death in 1698.

Chao Kham Bun Khong was the King of Xiang Khouang from 1698 until 1712.

Phraa Kham Thewo (Phraa Thammatewo) (died 1714) was regent of Xiang Khouang from 1712until his death in 1714.

Chao Bun Chan was the King of Xiang Khouang from 1714 until his death in 1740.

Chao Kham Un Mang was the King of Xiang Khouang from 1740 until 1751.

Chao Ong Lo was the King of Xiang Khouang from 1751 until 1753 and from 1753 until 1759.

Chao Ong Bun was the King of Xiang Khouang in 1753.

Chao Ong Si Phom was the King of Xiang Khouang from 1779 until 1781.

Chao No Mang was the King of Xiang Khouang from 1781 until 1782.

Chao Som Phu was the King of Xiang Khouang from 1782 until 1802.

Chao Xiang was the King of Xiang Khouang from 1802 until 1803.

Chao Suthakasuvannakuman (Chao Noi) was the King of Xiang Khouang from 1803 until 1831.

Chao San was regent of Xiang Khouang from 1831 until 1835.

Phra Chao Issarasettha (Chao Po) was the King of Xiang Khouang from 1848 until 1865.

Chao ng was the King of Xiang Khouang from 1865 until 1874.

Chao Khanti was the King of Xiang Khouang from 1876 until 1887.

Thao Xiang Phet was regent of Xiang Khouang from 1887 until 1888.




Emirate of Chouf

The Banu Ma'an tribe (also Ma'n, ALA-LC: Man, adjective:Ma'anid, Ma'nid), were a tribe & dynasty of Qahtani Arab some of which later became Druze and
rulers of the Lebanon Mountains during a period of the Ottoman Empire, and one of the most successful ruling dynasties in Druze history which founding
Emirate of Chouf. They originated from coastal Hadramaut in southern Yemen.They moved into the Levante via Al Ahsa and formed a tribal alliance with the
larger Al Azd tribe during the journey. Their authority began to rise with Fakhr ad Din I, who was permitted by Ottoman authorities to organize his own army,
and reached its peak with Fakhr ad Din II (15721635). Fakhr ad Din II's rule extended "from Antioch in the north to Tsfat (Safed) in the south." Although
Fakhr ad Din II's aspirations toward complete independence for Lebanon ended in his execution by Ottoman authorities, he greatly enhanced Lebanon's military
and economic development. Noted for religious tolerance and suspected of being a Christian, Fakhr ad Din attempted to merge the country's different religious
groups into one Lebanese community.The dynasty's rule as Druze leaders in the Lebanon Mountains lasted from 1517 to 1697.

List of Emirs (title al-Amir al-Hakim - ruling emir) of the Emirate of Chouf

Fakhr al-Din I (died 1544) was a Druze prince from 1516 until his death in 1544. He was permitted by Ottoman authorities to organize his own army.

Korkmaz ibn Fakhr al-Din was a Druze prince from 1544 until 1585.

Fakhr-al-Din II ibn Maan (1572April 13, 1635) (Arabic: ), also transliterated Fakhreddine, was a Druze prince and the first
leader of the Emirate of Chouf, a self-governed area under the Ottoman Empire between the 17th and 19th centuries. Son of Prince Qorqmaz ibn Maan
(Arabic: ) and Sit Nasab (Arabic: ) of the Tanukhi family, he was given the title "Emir" or Prince in Arabic because the Maan
dynasty reigned over Lebanon. His period was characterized by economic and cultural prosperity, and he had fought other Lebanese families to unite the people
of Lebanon and seek independence from the Ottoman Empire. He is therefore considered by many to be the first "Man of Lebanon" to seek the sovereignty of
modern-day Lebanon. However, the Ottomans had discovered his plot and executed him with three of his children on April 13, 1635. Born in Baakline to
a Druze family, he was raised by Sheikh Ibrahim Abou Sakr, a prominent Maronitefrom the Khazen family, in the Lebanese village of Ballouneh. In 1608 Fakhr-
al-Din forged an alliance with the Italian Grand Duchy of Tuscany. The alliance contained both a public economic section and a secret military one. Fakhr-al-
Din's popularity alarmed the Ottomans who authorized Hafiz Ahmed Pasha, Muhafiz ofDamascus, to mount an attack on Lebanon in 1612 in order to reduce
Fakhr-al-Din's growing power. Faced with Hafiz's army of 50,000 men, Fakhr-al-Din chose exile in Tuscany, leaving affairs in the hands of his brother Emir Yunis
and his son Emir Ali Beg. Fakhr-al-Din's exile did not prompt the Lebanese army to surrender to Hafiz Ahmed Pasha's army. They maintained their positions
while the military operations raged until Emir Yunus managed through negotiations and persuasion to bring an end to the killings, securing the retreat of the
Ottoman army. Hosted in Tuscany by the Medici Family, Fakhr-al-Din was welcomed by the grand duke Cosimo II, who housed him throughout his stay. Fakhr-
al-Din had wished to enlist Tuscan assistance in the liberation of Lebanon, but was met with a refusal as Tuscany was unable to afford such an expedition. The
prince soon gave up the idea, eventually realizing that such cooperation would only subject Lebanon to a new occupation. His stay nevertheless allowed him to
witness Europe's cultural revival in the 17th century. By 1617, political changes in the Ottoman sultanate had resulted in the removal of many of Fakhr-al-Din's
enemies from power, allowing Fahkr-al-Din's return to Lebanon, whereupon he was able quickly to reunite all the lands of Lebanon beyond the boundaries of its
mountains; and having revenge from Emir Yusuf Pasha ibn Siyfa, attacking his stronghold in Akkar, destroying his palaces and taking control of his lands, and
regaining the territories he had to give up in 1613 in Sidon, Tripoli, Bekaa among others. Under his rule, printing presses were introduced and Jesuit priests and
Catholic nuns encouraged to open schools throughout the land. In 1623, the prince was betrayed by the Harfouch family who made arrangements with Mustafa
Pasha, Mirmiran of Damascus, to launch an attack against him, resulting in the battle at Majdel Anjar where Fakhr-al-Din's forces although outnumbered
managed to capture Pacha and secure the Lebanese prince and his allies a much needed military victory,and he took over Syria and Palestine from the Turks.
However, as time passed, the Ottomans seemed uncomfortable with the prince's increasing powers and extended relations withEurope. The promise they had
made to the Medici family, regarding the Prince of Lebanon, was ignored. In 1632, Kuchuk Ahmed Pasha was named Muhafiz of Damascus, being a rival of
Fakhr-al-Din and a friend of Sultan Murad IV, who ordered Kuchuk Ahmed Pasha and the sultanate's navy to attack Lebanon and depose Fakhr-al-Din. This
time, the prince had decided to remain in Lebanon and resist the offensive, but the death of his son Emir Ali Beik in Wadi el-Taym was the beginning of his
defeat. He later took refuge in Jezzine's grotto, closely followed by Kuchuk Ahmed Pasha who caught eventually with him and his family. Fakhr-al-Din was taken
to Constantinople and appeared before the sultan. After a trial, Fakhr-al-Din, and three of his sons, were convicted of treason and executed there on April 13,
1635. After his death, the Maan family continued to rule in Lebanon under the name of State of Lebanon until 1842 when the first Lebanese Civil War started
between the Druze and Christians and as a result the Turks divided it into two separate provinces. Rumors have it that Fakhr-al-Din had secretly adopted the
Christian faith. Those rumours, later proven to be baseless, were encouraged by the Christian regents that followed the Maans to try to appease the powerful
Druze clans.

Ali ibn Fakhr al-Din was a Druze prince and the leader of the Emirate of Chouf in 1635.

Mulhim Ma'an (died 1658) was a Druze prince and the second leader of the Emirate of Chouf from 1635 until 1658. He was succeeded in 1635 his nephew
Fakhr ad Din founder of the Emirate of Chouf. (Fakhr ad Din's only surviving son, Husayn, lived the rest of his life as a court official in Constantinople.) Emir
Mulhim exercised Iltizam taxation rights in the Shuf, Gharb, Jurd, Matn, and Kisrawan districts of Lebanon. Mulhim's forces battled and defeated those of
Mustafa Pasha, Beylerbey of Damascus, in 1642, but he is reported by historians to have been otherwise loyal to Ottoman rule.

Korkmaz Ma'an (died 1662) was a Druze prince and leader of the Emirate of Chouf from 1658 until 1662 together with his brother Ahmad Ma'an. Following
Mulhim's death in 1658, his sons Ahmad and Korkmaz (or Qurqmaz) entered into a power struggle with other Ottoman-backed Druze leaders. In 1660, the
Ottoman empire moved to reorganize the region, placing the sanjaks (districts) of Sidon-Beirut and Safed in a newly formed province of Sidon, a move seen by
local Druze as an attempt to assert control. An Ottoman expedition was dispatched to the area ollowing the creation of the new administrative units, initially
against the Shihabs and the Shia Hamades. The reformer - grand wazir Kprl Mehmed Pasha came in person with the expedition. The Shihabs fled to the
Hamades in the high Kisrawan, while the Ottoman troops pillaged Wadi al-Taym.Claiming that the Shihabs allied with the Ma'anis, the Ottomans demanded
Ahmad and Korkmuz Ma'an to hand over the Shihabs and provide money for the Ottoman army, but the Ma'anis refused and fled to the Kisrawan as well. The
Ma'anis lost control and the Druze of the Galilee lost their protection. Ottoman troops pillaged the area, seeking for the lords of Shihabs, Hamades and Ma'anis,
causing "misery" to the peasants. As a result, the pro-Ottoman Druze overran much of the Galilee, most notably destroying the cities ofSafed and Tiberias.
Alternative pro-Ottoman sheikhs - Sirhal Imad and Ali Alam al-Din were briefly installed to rule the Druze country. Contemporary historian Istifan al-Duwayhi
reports that Korkmaz was killed in act of treachery by the Beylerbey of Damascus in 1662. His brother Ahmad Ma'an apparently escaped the plotting.

Ahmad Ma'an (died 1697) was a Druze prince and the leader of the Emirate of Chouf from 1658 until 1662 together with his brother Korkmaz Ma'an and
alone until 1697 occupied by the Ottomans as a local ruler. Following Mulhim's death in 1658, his sons Ahmad and Korkmaz (or Qurqmaz) entered into a
power struggle with other Ottoman-backed Druze leaders. In 1660, the Ottoman empire moved to reorganize the region, placing the sanjaks (districts) of Sidon-
Beirut and Safed in a newly formed province of Sidon, a move seen by local Druze as an attempt to assert control. An Ottoman expedition was dispatched to the
area ollowing the creation of the new administrative units, initially against the Shihabs and the Shia Hamades. The reformer - grand wazir Kprl Mehmed
Pasha came in person with the expedition. The Shihabs fled to the Hamades in the high Kisrawan, while the Ottoman troops pillaged Wadi al-Taym.Claiming
that the Shihabs allied with the Ma'anis, the Ottomans demanded Ahmad and Korkmuz Ma'an to hand over the Shihabs and provide money for the Ottoman
army, but the Ma'anis refused and fled to the Kisrawan as well. The Ma'anis lost control and the Druze of the Galilee lost their protection. Ottoman troops
pillaged the area, seeking for the lords of Shihabs, Hamades and Ma'anis, causing "misery" to the peasants. As a result, the pro-Ottoman Druze overran much of
the Galilee, most notably destroying the cities ofSafed and Tiberias. Alternative pro-Ottoman sheikhs - Sirhal Imad and Ali Alam al-Din were briefly installed to
rule the Druze country. Contemporary historian Istifan al-Duwayhi reports that Korkmaz was killed in act of treachery by the Beylerbey of Damascus in
1662. His brother Ahmad Ma'an apparently escaped the plotting. In 1666, according to al-Safa, local Shia repulsed the governor of Sidon and a Ma'an force near
Nabatya. In 1667, Ahmad Ma'an and his supporters defeated the pro-Ottoman Alam al-Din, al-Sawaf and others, and termed Yamanis near Beirut. Ahmad
Ma'an emerged victorious in the power struggle among the Druze in 1667, but the Mans lost control of Safad and retreated to controlling the iltizam of the Shuf
mountains and Kisrawan, answerable to the Ottoman governor of Sidon. According to Abu-Husayn, after 1667 Ahmad Ma'an resumed correspondence with the
Tuscans. Ahmad continued as local ruler through his death from natural causes, without heir, in 1697. During the Ottoman-Hapsburg war of 1683 to 1699,
Ahmad Ma'n collaborated in a rebellion against the Ottomans which extended beyond his death. Iltizam rights in Shuf and Kisrawan passed to the rising Shihab
family through female-line inheritance. Despite conflicts in the 1660s, the Maan family "played the leading role in the management of the internal affairs of this
eyalet until the closing years of the 17th century, perhaps because it was not possible to manage the province-certainly not in the sanjak of Sidon-Beirut-without
them."

Bashir ibn al-Husayn was a Druze prince and the leader of the Emirate of Chouf from 1698 until 1706.

Haydar ibn Musa (died 1781) was a Druze prince and the leader of the Emirate of Chouf from 1706 until 1732.

Malham ibn Haydar was a Druze prince and the leader of the Emirate of Chouf from 1732 until 1758.

al-Mansur ibn Haydar (died 1774) was a Druze prince and the leader of the Emirate of Chouf from 1758 until 1770.

Ahmad ibn Haydar was a Druze prince and the leader of the Emirate of Chouf from 1758 until 1763.

al-Qasim ibn `Umar was a Druze prince and the leader of the Emirate of Chouf in 1760 (in rebellion) .

Yusuf ibn Malham was a Druze prince and the leader of the Emirate of Chouf from 1770 until 1778, from 1780 until 1789 and in 1790.

Ahmad ibn Malham was a Druze prince and the leader of the Emirate of Chouf from 1778 until 1780.

Afandi ibn Malham was a Druze prince and the leader of the Emirate of Chouf from 1778 until 1780.

Bashir ibn al-Qasim ibn `Umar (1767 - 1850) was a Druze prince and the leader of the Emirate of Chouf from 1789 until 1790, in 1790, from 1793
until 1795, from 1795 until 1799, from 1800 until 1801, from 1801 until 1821, from 1821 until 1822 and from 1822 until 1840.

Haydar ibn Malham was a Druze prince and the leader of the Emirate of Chouf from 1790 until 1793.

Qa`dan ibn Muhammad was a Druze prince and the leader of the Emirate of Chouf from 1790 until 1793 and in 1801.

al-Husayn ibn Yusuf was a Druze prince and the leader of the Emirate of Chouf from 1790 until 1793, in 1795 and from 1799 until 1800.

Salim ibn Yusuf was a Druze prince and the leader of the Emirate of Chouf from 1790 until 1793, in 1795 and from 1799 until 1800.

Sa`d ad-Din ibn Yusuf was a Druze prince and the leader of the Emirate of Chouf from 1790 until 1793, in 1795 and from 1799 until 1800.

al-`Abbas ibn Asad was a Druze prince and the leader of the Emirate of Chouf in 1801 and in 1822.

Salman ibn Ahmad was a Druze prince and the leader of the Emirate of Chouf in 1801, in 1821 and in 1822.

al-Hasan ibn `Ali was a Druze prince and the leader of the Emirate in 1821 and in 1822.

Bashir ibn al-Qasim (died 1851) was a Druze prince and the leader of the Emirate of Chouf 1840 until January 16, 1842.


Taungoo

List of Kings of Taungoo

Sanay, Thiri Maha Thihathura Thudhammayaza (1673 September 12, 1714) was the King of Taungoo Dynasty of Burma from May 4, 1698 until his death
on September 12, 1714.

Taninganway, Thiri Pawara Mahadhammaraja Dibati Hsengphyusheng (1689 November 23, 1733) was the King of Taungoo Dynasty of Burma from
1714 until his death on November 23, 1733.

Mahadammayaza Dipati, Mahadhammaraja Dibati (1714 - 1754) was the King of Taungoo Dynasty of Burma from 1733 until April 15, 1752.



Shan States
The Shan States were the princely states that ruled large areas of today's Burma (Myanmar), Yunnan Province in China, Laosand Thailand from the late 13th
century until mid-20th century. The term "Shan States" was first used during the British colonialperiod as a geopolitical designation for certain areas of Burma
(officially, the Federated Shan States, consisted of today'sShan State and Kayah State). In some cases, the Siamese Shan States was used to refer to Lan
Na (northern Thailand) andChinese Shan States to the Shan regions in southern Yunnan such as Xishuangbanna.
Kengtung (Kyaingtong)
List of Rulers (title Saohpa; ritual style Khemadhipati Rajadhiraja) of Kengtung (Kyaingtong)
Mang Kun was a founder of Shan state of Kengtung in present Burma who reigned from 1243 until 1247.
Mang Kyin was the ruler of Shan state of Kentung in present Burma from 1247 until 1253.
Sao Nam Nam was the ruler of Shan state of Kentung in present Burma from1264 until 1317.
Sao Hsam Mun was the ruler of Shan state of Kentung in present Burma from 1317 until 1324.
Sao Lak was the ruler of Shan state of Kentung in present Burma from 1324 until 1342.
Sao Hsai Nan was the ruler of Shan state of Kentung in present Burma from 1342 until 1360.
Sao Yu was the ruler of Shan state of Kentung in present Burma from 1360 until 1370.
Sao Sit Pan Tu was the ruler of Shan state of Kentung in present Burma from 1379 until 1387.
Sao Ai Awn was the ruler of Shan state of Kentung in present Burma from 1387 until 1390.
Ai Wu Has was the ruler of Shan state of Kentung in present Burma from 1390 until 1403.
Yi Hkam Hka was the ruler of Shan state of Kentung in present Burma from 1403 until 1460.
Sao Hsam was the ruler of Shan state of Kentung in present Burma from 1416 until 1441.
Sao Hsam si-li was the ruler of Shan state of Kentung in present Burma from 1441 until 1456.
Ai Lao Hkam was the ruler of Shan state of Kentung in present Burma from 1456 until 1474.
Ai Lao was the ruler of Shan state of Kentung from in present Burma from 1474 until 1501.
Sao Naw Kiao was the ruler of Shan state of Kentung in present Burma in the first half 16th century.
Hsai Hkaw was the ruler of Shan state of Kentung in present Burma in the first half 16th century.
Hsai Hpom was the ruler of Shan state of Kentung in present Burma in the first half 16th century.
Sao Hsam was the ruler of Shan state of Kentung in present Burma in the first half 16th century.
Sao Kham Mu was the ruler of Shan state of Kentung in present Burma in the first half 16th century.
Hpaya Kiao was the ruler of Shan state of Kentung in present Burma from 1523 until 1560.
Sao Mng Hka was the ruler of Shan state of Kentung in present Burma from 1560 until 1598.
Sao Hkam Tao was the ruler of Shan state of Kentung in present Burma from 1598 until 1620.
Sao Mng Hkak was the ruler of Shan state of Kentung in present Burma from 1620 until 1637.
Sao On was the ruler of Shan state of Kentung in present Burma around 1640.
Sao In Hkam was the ruler of Shan state of Kentung in present Burma in the second half 17th century.
Sao Awk was the ruler of Shan state of Kentung in present Burma in the second half 17th century.
Sao Mng Saik was the ruler of Shan state of Kentung in present Burma in the first half 18th century.
Sao Hsam Hpi was the ruler of Shan state of Kentung in present Burma in the first half 18th century.
Sao Mng Lek (1646 - 1730) was the ruler of Shan state of Kentung in present Burma from ? until his death in 1730.
Sao Maung Hkawn was the ruler of Shan state of Kentung in present Burma from 1730 until around 1735 and from 1739 until 1742.
Sao Mong Sin was the ruler of Shan state of Kentung in present Burma around 1750.
Sao Mong Hsam (died 1786) was the ruler of Shan state of Kentung in present Burma in the second half 18th century.
Sao Kawng Tai I (1769 - 1813) was the ruler of Shan state of Kentung in present Burma from 1787 until 1802.
Sao Maha Hkanan (1781 - 1857) was the ruler of Shan state of Kentung in present Burma from 1813 until his death in 1857.
Sao Maha Hpom (1814 - 1876) was the ruler of Shan state of Kentung in present Burma from 1857 until his death in 1876.
Sao Hkam Hseng (1818 - 1881) was the ruler of Shan state of Kentung in present Burma from 1876 until his death in 1881.
Sao Kawng Tai II (1829 - 1885) was the ruler of Shan state of Kentung in present Burma from 1881 until his death in 1885.
Sao Kawng Hkam Hpu (1874 - 1895) was the ruler of Shan state of Kentung in present Burma from 1886 untilhis death in 1895.
Sao Kawng Kiao Intaleng (1874 July 21, 1935) was the ruler of Shan state of Kentung in present Burma from 1895 until his death on July 21, 1935
(Administrator until February 9, 1897).
Sao Kawng Tai (1899 1937) was the ruler of Shan state of Kentung in present Burma from 1935 until his death in 1937.
Sao Sai Long (1927 1997) was the ruler of Shan state of Kentung in present Burma from 1937 until 1959.
Hsahtung (Thaton)
List of Rulers (title Myoza) of Hsahtung (Thaton)
Hkun Samu was the ruler of Shan state of Hsahtung in present Burma in 1781 until around 1838.
Hkun Kyaw Le was the ruler of Shan state of Hsahtung in present Burma from 1839 until around 1896.
Hkun Law was the ruler of Shan state of Hsahtung in present Burma from around 1896 until 1905.
Sao Hkun Sing was the ruler of Shan state of Hsahtung in present Burma from 1905 until 1930.
Sao Hkun Kyi (died 1946) was the ruler of Shan state of Hsahtung in present Burma from 1930 until his death in 1946.
Sao Aung Myint was the ruler of Shan state of Hsahtung in present Burma from 1946 until1959.
Hsamnghkam (Thamaingkan)
List of Rulers (title Myoza; from November 6, 1848-1899? Ngwegunhmu) of Hsamnghkam (Thamaingkan)
Maung Pon was the ruler of Shan state of Hsamnghkam in present Burma from 1759 until around 1807.
Maung Shwe Pon was the ruler of Shan state of Hsamnghkam in present Burma from 1807 until 1825.
Maung Shwe E was the ruler of Shan state of Hsamnghkam in present Burma first time from 1825 until 1834 and second time from 1842 until 1847.
Maung Me was the ruler of Shan state of Hsamnghkam in present Burma first time from 1834 until 1842 and second time from 1847 until 1848.
Maung Shwe Min (died 1886) was the ruler of Shan state of Hsamnghkam in present Burma first time from 1848 until 1867 and second time from1885
until his death in 1886.
Maung Lin was the ruler of Shan state of Hsamnghkam in present Burma first time in 1867 and second time from 1876 until 18..
Maung Tha U was the ruler of Shan state of Hsamnghkam in present Burma from 1867 until around 1874.
Maung Kyi was the ruler of Shan state of Hsamnghkam in present Burma from around 1875 until 1876.
Maung Su Ka was the ruler of Shan state of Hsamnghkam in present Burma from 18.. until 1885.
Maung Hpo was the ruler of Shan state of Hsamnghkam in present Burma from 1886 until his death in 1946.
Sao Htun E was the ruler of Shan state of Hsamnghkam in present Burma around 1947.
Sao Htun Aye aka Aungban Sawbwa was the ruler of Shan state of Hsamnghkam in present Burma from ? until 1959.
Hsawnghsup (Thaungdut)
Founded before 1858 under a Saopha, it ceased to exist in 1893.
List of Rulers (title Saohpa) of Hsawnghsup (Thaungdut)
Sao Pon was the ruler of Shan state of Hsawnghsup in present Burma in the first half 19th century.
Sao Ti Kyaing was the ruler of Shan state of Hsawnghsup in present Burma in the first half 19th century.
Sao Haw Nga was the ruler of Shan state of Hsawnghsup in present Burma in the first half 19th century.
Sao Leik Kan was the ruler of Shan state of Hsawnghsup in present Burma in the first half 19th century.
Sao Aung Ba was the ruler of Shan state of Hsawnghsup in present Burma around 1850.
Sao Shwe Maung (died October 22, 1880) was the ruler of Shan state of Hsawnghsup in present Burma from 1858 until his death on October 22, 1880.
Sao Kan Mun (died 1893) was the ruler of Shan state of Hsawnghsup in present Burma from 1880 until his death in 1893.


Hsenwi (Theinni)
Hsenwi sets its legendary foundation before 650. It was ruled by a Saopha and ceased to exist in March 1888, when it was split into North Hsenwi and South
Hsenwi.
List of Rulers (title Saohpa) of Hsenwi (Theinni)
Hso Hung Hpa was the ruler of Shan state of Hsenwi in present Burma from 1686 until 1721.
Se U III was regent of Shan state of Hsenwi in present Burma in 1721.
Han Hpa Hko Hkam Hung was regent of Shan state of Hsenwi in present Burma from 1721 until 1724.
Hpawng Mong Long Hsung Wat was the ruler of Shan state of Hsenwi in present Burma from 1724 until 1730.
Mong Hkam was the ruler of Shan state of Hsenwi in present Burma in 1730.
Hkam Hong was regent of Shan state of Hsenwi in present Burma from in 1730, in 1746, in 1750 and from 1751 until 1752.
Sao Hkam Hsawng Hpa was the ruler of Shan state of Hsenwi in present Burma from 1730 until 1746.
Sao Hkun Hseng Hong was the ruler of Shan state of Hsenwi in present Burma from 1746 until around 1747.
Mahadevi Wing Hsup Pang was regent of Shan state of Hsenwi in present Burma from around 1747 until 1750.
Sao Mang Te was the ruler of Shan state of Hsenwi in present Burma from 1750 until 1751.
Hkun Hseng Awng Tun was the ruler of Shan state of Hsenwi in present Burma from 1761 until 1767.
Myauk Win Hmu was regent of Shan state of Hsenwi in present Burma from 1767 until 1770.
Sayawadi Wun was the ruler of Shan state of Hsenwi in present Burma from 1770 until 1772.
Sety-taw Wun was the ruler of Shan state of Hsenwi in present Burma from 1772 until 1773.
U Teng Pong Nya was the ruler of Shan state of Hsenwi in present Burma from 1773 until 1775.
Sao Hswe Cheng (Kon) was the ruler of Shan state of Hsenwi in present Burma from 1778 until 1800.
Sao Hs Kaw was the ruler of Shan state of Hsenwi in present Burma from 1800 until 1815.
Mogaung Wun was the regent of Shan state of Hsenwi in present Burma from 1815 until 1819
Sao Naw Mng was the ruler of Shan state of Hsenwi in present Burma from 1819 until 1821
Hkun Hkam Hkawt was the ruler of Shan state of Hsenwi in present Burma from 1821 until 1824.
Sao Hkam Pak was the ruler of Shan state of Hsenwi in present Burma from 1824 until 1827.
Sao Hkam Nan was the ruler of Shan state of Hsenwi in present Burma from 1827 until 1831.
Sao Hkun Maung Lek was the ruler of Shan state of Hsenwi in present Burma from 1831 until 1838.
Sao Hkam Leng (Hs Hkan Hpa, died 1847) was the ruler of Shan state of Hsenwi in present Burma from1838 until 1845.
Sao Hseng Naw Hpa (died 1864) was the ruler of Shan state of Hsenwi in present Burma first time from 1845 until 1848 and second time from 1853 until
1855.
Sao Hpa Mawng Hpa (died 1879) was the ruler of Shan state of Hsenwi in present Burma first time from 1858 until 1860 , second time from 1863 until
1864, third time from 1867 until 1869, fourth time from 1874 until 1875, fifth time 1876 until his death in 1879.
Shwe Pyi Bo was the ruler of Shan state of Hsenwi in present Burma from 1864 until 1866.
U Ma Nga was the ruler of Shan state of Hsenwi in present Burma from 1866 until 1867.
Win Hmu was the ruler of Shan state of Hsenwi in present Burma from 1873 until 1874.
Natsu Letya was the ruler of Shan state of Hsenwi in present Burma from 1875 until 1876.

North Hsenwi
North Hsenwi was created in March 1888 from Hsenwi state. the main state was split into two, North and South Hsenwi.
List of Rulers (title Saohpa) of North Hsenwi
Hkun Hsang Ton Hong (1856 1915) was the ruler of Shan state of Hsenwi in present Burma from 1879 until 1888 and ruler of Shan state of North
Hsenwi in present Burma from March 1888 until his death in 1915.
Sao Hom Hpa was the ruler of Shan state of North Hsenwi in present Burma from 1927 until 1952.
South Hsenwi
South Hsenwi was created in March 1888 by the splitting of the Hsenwi state. The state is also known as Mong Yai.
List of Rulers (title Saohpa) of South Hsenwi
Sao Naw Mng (1855 1913) was the ruler of Shan state of South Hsenwi in present Burma from March 1888 until his death in 1913
Sao Song (died 1946) was the ruler of Shan state of South Hsenwi in present Burma from 1913 until his death in 1946.
Sao Hso Hom was the ruler of Shan state of South Hsenwi in present Burma from 1946 until 1959.
Hsihkip (Thigyit)
Founded before 600, it ceased to exist in 1886, when it was incorporated into Yawnghwe. It was ruled by a Myosa and the rulers were:
List of Rulers (title Myoza) of Hsihkip (Thigyit)
Hkun Kaw Tha was the ruler of Shan state of Hsihkip in present Burma in the second half 18th century.
Hkun Hla Baw was the ruler of Shan state of Hsihkip in present Burma around 1782.
Hkun Chok was the ruler of Shan state of Hsihkip in present Burma around 1800.
Hkun Hpe was the ruler of Shan state of Hsihkip in present Burma in first half 19 century.
Hkun Daw was the ruler of Shan state of Hsihkip in present Burma in first half 19 century.
Maung Paw was the ruler of Shan state of Hsihkip in present Burma in first half 19 century.
Maung Paik was the ruler of Shan state of Hsihkip in present Burma in first half 19 century.
Hkun Hmom was the ruler of Shan state of Hsihkip in present Burma in first half 19 century.
Hkam Lin was the regent of Shan state of Hsihkip in present Burma in first half 19 century.
Hkun Nyun was the ruler of Shan state of Hsihkip in present Burma around 1840.
Twet Kye was the regent of Shan state of Hsihkip in present Burma from 1845 until 1848.
Hkun Ywe was the ruler of Shan state of Hsihkip in present Burma from 1848 until 1851.
Hkun Ton was the ruler of Shan state of Hsihkip in present Burma from 1851 until 1862.
Son Hkun Hpon was the ruler of Shan state of Hsihkip in present Burma from 1863 until 1870.
Maung Hnya was the ruler of Shan state of Hsihkip in present Burma from 1870 until 1886.
Hsipaw (Thibaw)
Founded, according to legend, in 58 BC, it was ruled by a Saopha. Its formal name was Dutawadi.
List of Rulers (title Saohpa) of Hsipaw (Thibaw)
Hso Wai Hpa was the ruler of Shan state of Hsipaw in present Burma from 1675 until 1702.
Sao Okka Wara was the ruler of Shan state of Hsipaw in present Burma from 1702 until 1714.
Sao Okka Seya was the ruler of Shan state of Hsipaw in present Burma from 1714 until 1718.
Sao Sam Myo was the ruler of Shan state of Hsipaw in present Burma from 1718 until 1722.
Sao Hkun Neng was the ruler of Shan state of Hsipaw in present Burma from 1722 until 1752.
Sao Sawra Tawta was the ruler of Shan state of Hsipaw in present Burma from 1752 until 1767.
Sao Myat San Te was the ruler of Shan state of Hsipaw in present Burma from 1767 until 1788.
Sao Hswe Kya was the ruler of Shan state of Hsipaw in present Burma from 1788 until 1809.
Sao Hkun Hkwi was the ruler of Shan state of Hsipaw in present Burma from 1809 until 1843.
Sao Hkun Paw was the ruler of Shan state of Hsipaw in present Burma from 1843 until 1853.
Sao Kya Htun (died 1866) was the ruler of Shan state of Hsipaw in present Burma from 1853 until 1858.
Hkun Myat Tade was the ruler of Shan state of Hsipaw in present Burma from 1858 until 1866.
Sao Kya Hkeng (died May 5, 1902) was the ruler of Shan state of Hsipaw in present Burma from 1866 until his death on May 5, 1902.
Sao Hkun Hseng was the ruler of Shan state of Hsipaw in present Burma from 1886 until 1902.
Sao Hke (1872 1928) was the ruler of Shan state of Hsipaw in present Burma from 1902 until his death in 1928.
I Sao Ohn Kya (died 1938) was the ruler of Shan state of Hsipaw in present Burma from 1928 until his death in 1938.
Sao Kya Seng (1925 1962) was the ruler of Shan state of Hsipaw in present Burma from 1947 until 1959.
Hsumhsai (Hsum Hsai)
List of Rulers (title Hseng, from 1886 title Myoza) of Hsumhsai (Hsum Hsai)
Maung Pwe was the ruler of Shan state of Hsumhsai (Hsum Hsai) in present Burma from ? until 1886.
Soi Kong Kyawk Teng was the ruler of Shan state of Hsumhsai (Hsum Hai) in present Burma from 1886 until 1887.
Khun Meik was the ruler of Shan state of Hsumhsai (Hsum Hai) in present Burma from 1887 until 1894.
Kun Hmon was the ruler of Shan state of Hsumhsai (Hsum Hai) in present Burma from January 1897 until ?
Kehsi Mangam (Kyithi Bansan)
List of Rulers (title Myoza) of Kehsi Mangam (Kyithi Bansan)
Hkun Yawt was the ruler of Shan state of Kehsi Mangam in present Burma from 1860 until 1881.
Hkun Yawt Seng was the ruler of Shan state of Kehsi Mangam in present Burma from 1881 until ?
Kengcheng (Kyaingchaing)
List of Rulers (title Ngwegunhmu; by c.1880 Myoza) of Kengcheng (Kyaingchaing)
Hpaya Mng Hkon was the ruler of Shan state of Kengcheng in present Burma around 1813.
Sao Kawng Tai (died 1885) was the ruler of Shan state of Kengcheng from ? until 1881.
Sao Hsiri was the ruler of Shan state of Kengcheng from 1881 until 1882.
Hkun Hsang was the ruler of Shan state of Kengcheng from 1882 until 1892.
Kenghkam (Kyaingkan)
List of Rulers (title Myoza) of Kenghkam (Kyaingkan)
Bodaw Sao Hkam Yi was the ruler of Shan state of Kenghkam in present Burma from 1811 until 1854.
Sao Hkun Mwe was the ruler of Shan state of Kenghkam in present Burma from 1855 until 1864.
Naw Hkam Leng was the ruler of Shan state of Kenghkam in present Burma from 1864 until 1870.
Sao Hkun Long was the ruler of Shan state of Kenghkam in present Burma from 1874 until 1878.
Sao Naw Sng was the ruler of Shan state of Kenghkam in present Burma from 1882 until 1889.
Hkun Un was the ruler of Shan state of Kenghkam in present Burma from 1889 until early years 20th century.
Kengln (Kyainglon)
List of Rulers (title Myoza) of Kengln (Kyainglon)
Maung Pwin (died 1873) was the ruler of Shan state of Kengln in present Burma from 1857 until his death in 1873.
Naw Hkam U was the ruler of Shan state of Kengln in present Burma from 1873 until 1874.
Hkun Tawn was the ruler of Shan state of Kengln in present Burma from 1874 until 1888.
Hkun Mawng was the ruler of Shan state of Kengln in present Burma from 1888 until early years 20th century.
Kokang
Ruled and founded by the Yang dynasty, Kokang was founded in 1739 by Yang Shien Tsai, Chief of Shin Da Hu. Later his successor Yang Wei Shin expanded
his territory and renamed it Kho Kan Shan. Yang Yon Gen then finally renamed it to Kokang. The first 2 reigned as chiefs, the 3rd assumed the title of Heng
which was to be held until Yang Chun Yon assumed the Myosa title. Colonel Sao Yang Wen Pin assumed the title of Saopha, after the British recognised Kokang
in 1947 as a state for services in the Second World War; it lasted until the state ceased to exist in 1959.
List of Rulers of Kokang
Yang Shien Tsai, Chief of Shin Da Hu (1685 1759) was the ruler of Shan state of Kokang in present Burma from 1739 until his death in 1758.
Yang Wei Shin, Chief of Kho Kan Shan (died 1795) was the ruler of Shan state of Kokang in present Burma from 1758 until his death in 1795.
Yang Yon Gen, Heng of Kokang (1770 1840) was the ruler of Shan state of Kokang in present Burma from 1795 until his death in 1840.
Yang Guo Hwa, Heng of Kokang (1814 - 1874) was the ruler of Shan state of Kokang in present Burma from 1840 until his death in 1874.
Yang Guo Zhen, Hkun Lu Kwan, Heng of Kokang (1840 1919) was the ruler of Shan state of Kokang in present Burma from 1874 until 1916.
Yang Chun Yon, Yang Shwin Yong Tzu Ye, Heng and Myosa of Kokang (1878 January 17, 1927) was the ruler of Shan state of Kokang in present Burma
from 1916 until his death on January 17, 1927.
Sao Yang Wen Pin, Saopha of Kokang (1898 1949) was the ruler of Shan state of Kokang in present Burma from 1927 until 1943 and from October
1945 until August 25, 1947. He was deposed by the Chinese nationalists in 1943; in exile from 1944 until October 1945.
Sao Edward Yang Kyein Tsai, Saopha of Kokang (1918 1971) was the ruler of Shan state of Kokang in present Burma from 1949 until May 17, 1959.
Kyawkku Hsiwan (Kyaukku)
List of Rulers (title Ngwegunhmu) of Kyawkku Hsiwan (Kyaukku)
Nga San Bon was the ruler of Shan state of Kyawkku Hsiwan in present Burma in 18th century.
Nga San Mya was the ruler of Shan state of Kyawkku Hsiwan in present Burma in 18th century.
Nga San Ma was the ruler of Shan state of Kyawkku Hsiwan in present Burma from ? until 1783.
Nga Kaw Tha was the ruler of Shan state of Kyawkku Hsiwan in present Burma from 1783 until 1820.
Nga Thi Ri was the ruler of Shan state of Kyawkku Hsiwan in present Burma from 1820 until 1821.
Nga Chit Win was the ruler of Shan state of Kyawkku Hsiwan in present Burma from 1821 until 1843.
Nga Shwe Maung I was the ruler of Shan state of Kyawkku Hsiwan in present Burma first time from 1844 until 1852, and second time from 1856 until
1863.
Nga Shwe Yit was the regent of Shan state of Kyawkku Hsiwan in present Burma from 1852 until 1856.
Nga Yan Kon was the regent of Shan state of Kyawkku Hsiwan in present Burma from 1863 until 1865.
Nga San was the ruler of Shan state of Kyawkku Hsiwan in present Burma from 1865 until 1873.
Nga Shwe Maung II was the regent of Shan state of Kyawkku Hsiwan in present Burma from 1873 until 1874.
Nga Tha U was the regent of Shan state of Kyawkku Hsiwan in present Burma from 1874 until 1876.
Nga Tun was the regent of Shan state of Kyawkku Hsiwan in present Burma from 1876 until 1877.
Nga Pai Su, Nga Pyan was the ruler of Shan state of Kyawkku Hsiwan in present Burma from 1877 until 1881.
Nga Thaing (1873 1922) was the ruler of Shan state of Kyawkku Hsiwan in present Burma from 1881 until his death in 1922.
Kyong (Kyon)
List of Rulers (title Ngwegunhmu) of Kyong (Kyon)
Maung Po was the ruler Shan state of Kyong (Kyon) in present Burma from 1867 until ?
Laihka (Lgya)
List of Rulers (title Myoza, from 1850s title Saohpa; ritual style Kambawsa Rahta Mahawunths Thiri Thudamaraza) of Laihka
(Lgya)
Khyn Lek was the ruler of Shan state of Laihka in present Burma from 1734 until 1794.
Law Na was the ruler of Shan state of Laihka in present Burma from 1794 until 1803.
La Hkam was the ruler of Shan state of Laihka in present Burma from 1803 until 1807.
Hkun Lek was the ruler of Shan state of Laihka in present Burma from 1807 until 18xx and from 18xx until 1854
Shwe Ok Hka (Shwe Taung Kyaw) was the ruler of Shan state of Laihka in present Burma from 1854 until 1856.
Hkun Long was the ruler of Shan state of Laihka in present Burma from 1856 until 1860.
Sao Hkam Mawng was the ruler of Shan state of Laihka in present Burma first time from 1860 until 1862 and second time from 1868 until 1879.
Hkun Hkawt was the ruler of Shan state of Laihka in present Burma from 1862 until 1866.
Sao Hkam Mawng was the ruler of Shan state of Laihka in present Burma around 1870.
Hkun Lai (1858 1928) was the ruler of Shan state of Laihka in present Burma from 1882 until his death in 1928.
Sao Num was the ruler of Shan state of Laihka in present Burma from 1928 until 1952
Lawksawk (Yatsauk)
List of Rulers (title Saohpa; ritual style Kambawsa Rahta Maha Thiriwuntha Thudama) of Lawksawk (Yatsauk)
Pai Hkam was the ruler of Shan state of Lawksawk in present Burma from 1680 until 1707.
Shwe Gyaw was the ruler of Shan state of Lawksawk in present Burma from 1707 until 1729.
Hkun Shwe Tha was the ruler of Shan state of Lawksawk in present Burma from 1729 until 1753.
Tha Pun Minaung was the ruler of Shan state of Lawksawk in present Burma from 1753 until July 1760.
Maung Gyi was the ruler of Shan state of Lawksawk in present Burma from 1760 until 1763.
Shwe Yi was the ruler of Shan state of Lawksawk in present Burma from 1763 until July 1790.
Maung Kywet (died 1792) was the ruler of Shan state of Lawksawk in present Burma from 1791 until his death in 1792.
Hkun Sam Lik was the ruler of Shan state of Lawksawk in present Burma from 1791 until 1811.
On Gaing (died 1834) was the ruler of Shan state of Lawksawk in present Burma from 1812 until 1813.
Hkun Shwe Ek (died 1850) was the ruler of Shan state of Lawksawk in present Burma from 1813 until his death in 1850.
Lai Hka (died 1856) was the ruler of Shan state of Lawksawk in present Burma from 1854 until his death in 1856.

Sao Waing (1846 1896) was the ruler of Shan state of Lawksawk in present Burma first time from December 1854 until 1881 and second time from 1886
until January 1887.
Bo Saing was the regent of Shan state of Lawksawk in present Burma from January until Octobar 1887.
Hkun Nu was the ruler of Shan state of Lawksawk in present Burma from October 9, 1887 until 1900.
Sao Hkun Hsok (1863 - 1946) was the ruler of Shan state of Lawksawk in present Burma from 1900 until his death in 1946.
Sao Hkun Hsa (d.o.b 1895) was the ruler of Shan state of Lawksawk in present Burma from 1946 until 1952.
Loi-ai (Lwe-e)
List of Rulers (title Ngwegunhmu) of Loi-ai (Lwe-e)
Maung Baung was the ruler of Shan state of Loi-ai in present Burma in late 18th century.
Maung Maing was the ruler of Shan state of Loi-ai in present Burma in early 19th century.
Paw Kyi was the ruler of Shan state of Loi-ai in present Burma around 1814.
Maung Shwe was the ruler of Shan state of Loi-ai in present Burma from 1814 until 1834.
Kaw Thaw was the ruler of Shan state of Loi-ai in present Burma from 1834 until 1864.
Maung Kaing (died 1870) was the ruler of Shan state of Loi-ai in present Burma from 1864 until 1868.
Nga Meik was the ruler of Shan state of Loi-ai in present Burma from 1868 until 1869.
Nga Hpo was the regent of Shan state of Loi-ai in present Burma from 1869 until 1870.
Hkun Shwe Kya was the ruler of Shan state of Loi-ai in present Burma around 1870.
Loilong (Lwelong)
List of Rulers (title Ngwegunhmu, from 1880 title Myoza) of Loilong (Lwelong)
Laten was the ruler of Shan state of Loi-ai in present Burma from around 1779 until around 1883.
Latu was the ruler of Shan state of Loi-ai in present Burma from around 1783 until around 1812.
Lanaw was the ruler of Shan state of Loi-ai in present Burma from around 1812 until ?
Ba Tin was the three times regent of Shan state of Loi-ai in present Burma in the first half 19th century.
Shwe Ni was the ruler of Shan state of Loi-ai in present Burma in the first half 19th century.
Shwe Aung was the ruler of Shan state of Loi-ai in present Burma in the first half 19th century.
Nga Po was the ruler of Shan state of Loi-ai in present Burma in the first half 19th century.
Hkun Na (died 1854) was the ruler of Shan state of Loilong in present Burma from ? until his death in 1854.
Hkun San Da (died 1856) was the ruler of Shan state of Loi-ai in present Burma from 1854 until hs death in 1856.
Hkun Pu (La Mu) (died 1882) was the ruler of Shan state of Loi-ai in present Burma from 1856 until his death in 1882.
Hkun Hkam Chok was the ruler of Shan state of Loi-ai in present Burma from 1882 until around 1952.
Loimaw (Lwemaw)
List of Rulers (title Ngwegunhmu) of Loimaw (Lwemaw)
Muang Hpo Saw (died 1844) was the ruler of Shan state of Loimaw in present Burma in early 19th century and from 1834 until his death in 1844.
Maung Hpo Gok (died 1837) was the ruler of Shan state of Loimaw in present Burma from ? until 1834.
Maung Lok (died 1847) was the ruler of Shan state of Loimaw in present Burma from 1844 until his death in 1847.
Maung Shwe Daung was the ruler of Shan state of Loimaw in present Burma in 1847.
Maung Shwe Pyi (1830 1902) was the ruler of Shan state of Loimaw in present Burma first time from 1847 until 1874 and second time from 1886 until his
death in 1902.
Maung Tok Gyi (died 1853) was the regent of Shan state of Loimaw in present Burma from 1847 until his death in 1853.
Twet Min (died 1855) was the regent of Shan state of Loimaw in present Burma from 1853 until his death in 1855.
Maung Kya was the ruler of Shan state of Loimaw in present Burma from 1876 until 1877.
Maung Meik was the ruler of Shan state of Loimaw in present Burma from February 12, 1878 until 1880.
Maung Chit was the ruler of Shan state of Loimaw in present Burma from 1880 until 1886.
Maung At (died 1897) was the ruler of Shan state of Loimaw in present Burma in 1886.
Hkun Kyaw was the ruler of Shan state of Loimaw in present Burma from 1902 until around 1952.
Mangln (Manglun)
Hs Hkam, Ta Awng (died 1822) was the ruler of Shan state of Mangln in present Burma from 1814 until his death in 1822.
Sao Hkun Sang, Khun Sing (died 1852) was the ruler of Shan state of Mangln in present Burma from 1822 until his death in 1852
Uyaraza, Upayaza (died 1853) was the ruler of Shan state of Mangln in present Burma from 1852 until his death in 1853.
Naw Hpa, Nawpha (died 1860) was the ruler of Shan state of Mangln in present Burma from 1853 until his death in1860.
Tn Hsang, Tun Sang (1825 1881) was the ruler of Shan state of Mangln in present Burma from 1860 until 1870 and ruler in East Mangln from 1870
until his death in 1881.
Hsan Kyaw was the ruler Shan state of West Mangln in present Burma from 1870 until 1877.
Sao Maha was the ruler of Shan state of West Mangln in present Burma from 1877 until 1892.
Tn Hsang Hang was the ruler of Shan state of Mangln in present Burma from 1892 until 1919.
Saw Hka Nan (1892 - 1946) was the ruler of Shan state of Mangln in present Burma from 1919 until1 his death in 1946.
Sao Man Laik (born 1922) was the ruler of Shan state of Mangln in present Burma from 1946 until 1952.
MongLin
Ruler of MongLin
Sao Hman Lek (died 1998) was the ruler of Shan state of MongLin in present Burma from 1946 until 1959.
MongLeam
Ruler of MongLeam
Sao Khun Gee (died 1969) was the ruler of Shan state of MongLeam in present Burma from 1926 until 1952.
Mawkmai (Maukme)
List of Rulers (title Saohpa; ritual style Kambawsa Rahta Mahawuntha Thiriraza) of Mawkmai (Maukme)
Hsai Khaio was the ruler of Shan state of Mawkmai in present Burma from 1767 until around 1800.
Hsai Kyaw was the ruler of Shan state of Mawkmai in present Burma from 1800 until 1818.
Awk Hkun was the ruler of Shan state of Mawkmai in present Burma from 1818 until 1824.
Let To was the ruler of Shan state of Mawkmai in present Burma from 1824 until 1831.
Hkam U was the ruler of Shan state of Mawkmai in present Burma from 1831 until 1844.
Ko Lan was the ruler of Shan state of Mawkmai in present Burma first time from 1844 until 1867 and second time from 1868 until 1887.
Hkum Hmm I was the ruler of Shan state of Mawkmai in present Burma from 1867 until 1868.
Hkun Hmm II was the ruler of Shan state of Mawkmai in present Burmafirst time from 1887 until 1888 and second time 1888 until ?
Hkun Noi Kyu was the ruler of Shan state of Mawkmai in present Burma in March 1888.
Hkun Htun Peng was the ruler of Shan state of Mawkmai in present Burma from 1899 until ?
Hkun Hkaing was the ruler of Shan state of Mawkmai in present Burma from 1915 until 1952.
Mawnang (Bawnin)
List of Rulers (title Myoza) of Mawnang (Bawnin)
Hkam Hon was the ruler of Shan state of Mawnang in present Burma.
Nam Hkam Lin was the ruler of Shan state of Mawnang in present Burma.
Maung Ne Dun was the ruler of Shan state of Mawnang in present Burma.
Maung Kut was the ruler of Shan state of Mawnang in present Burma.
Maung Kye was the ruler of Shan state of Mawnang in present Burma.
Maung La was the ruler of Shan state of Mawnang in present Burma.
Sao Ta was the ruler of Shan state of Mawnang in present Burma.
Maung Saung was the ruler of Shan state of Mawnang in present Burma from ? until 1736.
Ye Tut was the ruler of Shan state of Mawnang in present Burma from 1736 until 1752.
Tha Son was the ruler of Shan state of Mawnang in present Burma from 1752 until 1766.
Maung Myat was the ruler of Shan state of Mawnang in present Burma from 1766 until around 1767 and from 1774 until ?
Naw Hkam Lin was the ruler of Shan state of Mawnang in present Burma in the first half 19th century.
Maung Kaung was the ruler of Shan state of Mawnang in present Burma in the first half 19th century.
Maung Pot was the ruler of Shan state of Mawnang in present Burma in the first half 19th century.
Maung Maung was the ruler of Shan state of Mawnang in present Burma in the second half 19th century.
Hkun Hkam was the ruler of Shan state of Mawnang in present Burma from probably 1860 until 1883.
Hkun Shwe Hkam was the regent of Shan state of Mawnang in present Burma1883 until 1886.
Sao Hkim was the ruler of Shan state of Mawnang in present Burma from 1886 until ?
Mawsn (Bawzaing)
List of Rulers (title Ngwegunhmu) of Mawsn (Bawzaing)
Maung Nwe was the ruler of Shan state of Mawsn in present Burma.
Maung Pwe was the ruler of Shan state of Mawsn in present Burma from 1784 until ?
Maung Kyaw was the ruler of Shan state of Mawsn in present Burma in the first half 19th century.
Maung Waing was the ruler of Shan state of Mawsn in present Burma in the first half 19th century.
Maung Nyun was the ruler of Shan state of Mawsn in present Burma in the second half 19th century.
Maung Kya Ywet was the ruler of Shan state of Mawsn in present Burma from 1878 until ?
Mnghsu (Maingshu) and Mngsang (Maingsin)
Ruler (title Myoza) of Mnghsu (Maingshu) and Mngsang (Maingsin)
Hkun Kyaw was the ruler of Shan state of Mnghsu (Maingshu) and Mngsang (Maingsin) from 1876 until ?
Mngkawng (Mogaung)
List of Rulers (title Saohpa) of Mngkawng (Mogaung)
Sui Yaw was the ruler of Shan state of Mngkawng in present Burma 1663 until 1673.
Sui Kyek was the ruler of Shan state of Mngkawng in present Burma 1673 until 1729.
Hum was the ruler of Shan state of Mngkawng in present Burma 1729 until 1739.
Haw Seing (died 1777) was the ruler of Shan state of Mngkawng in present Burma 1739 until 1748 and from 1765 until 1768.
Haw Kam was the ruler of Shan state of Mngkawng in present Burma 1748 until 1765.
Maung Kiaw was the ruler of Shan state of Mngkawng in present Burma1768 until 1771.
Maung Piu (died 1775) was the ruler of Shan state of Mngkawng in present Burma 1771 until his death in 1775.
Yaw Pan Kyung was the ruler of Shan state of Mngkawng in present Burma1785 until 1796.
Mongkung
List of Rulers (title Myoza 1835-54, 1863-73; Saohpa 1854-63, from 1873) of Mongkung
Hkun Long was the ruler of Shan state of Mongkung in present Burma from 1835 until 1860.
Hkun Long II was the ruler of Shan state of Mongkung in present Burma from 1860 until 1863.
Gu Na (died 1873) was the ruler of Shan state of Mongkung in present Burma from 1863 until his death in 1873.
Hkun San Kwan was the ruler of Shan state of Mongkung in present Burma from 1873 until 1879.
Hkun Mong was the ruler of Shan state of Mongkung in present Burma from 1879 until ?
Mngleng (Mohlaing)
List of Rulers (title Myoza) of Mngleng (Mohlaing)
Kya U was the ruler of Shan state of Mngleng in present Burma from 1840 until 1881.
Hkam Leng was the ruler of Shan state of Mngleng in present Burma from 1881 until 1887.
Mnglong
List of Rulers (title Myoza) of Mnglong
Hs Han Hpa was the ruler of Shan state of Mnglong in present Burma from 1813? until 1842.
Hs San Hpa (Hkun Hsa) was the ruler of Shan state of Mnglong in present Burma from 1842 until 1854.
Hs Kawn Kyawng was the ruler of Shan state of Mnglong in present Burma from 1854 until 1866.
Hkun Nyon was the ruler of Shan state of Mnglong in present Burma from 1866 until ?
Hkun Yawt was the ruler of Shan state of Mnglong in present Burma from ? until 1880.
Heng Nga Maung was the ruler of Shan state of Mnglong in present Burma from 1880 until ?
Hkun Saing (Hsawng) was the ruler of Shan state of Mnglong in present Burma from ? until 1888.
Hkun Hsa was the ruler of Shan state of Mnglong in present Burma from 1888 until 1894.
Sao Hke was the ruler of Shan state of Mnglong in present Burma from 1894 until ?
Mngmit (Momeik)
List of Rulers (title Saohpa; ritual style Gantalarahta Maha Thiriwuntha Raza) of Mngmit (Momeik)
Maung Hmaing was the ruler of Shan state of Mngmit in present Burma from 1830 probably until 1850.
Maung E Pu was the ruler of Shan state of Mngmit in present Burma first time 1837 until ? and second time from 1850 until 1851.
Hkun Te was the ruler of Shan state of Mngmit in present Burma from 1851 until 1858
Haw Kyin was the ruler of Shan state of Mngmit in present Burma from 1858 until 1861.
Kaw San was the regent of Shan state of Mngmit in present Burma from 1861 until 1862.
Maung Yo was the ruler of Shan state of Mngmit in present Burma from 1862 until 1867.
Hkam Mo was the ruler of Shan state of Mngmit in present Burma from 1867 until 1874
Kan Ho was the ruler of Shan state of Mngmit in present Burma from 1874 until 1883.
Hkam Leng was the ruler of Shan state of Mngmit in present Burma from 1886 until 1887.
Sao Kin Maung (1883 1936) was the ruler of Shan state of Mngmit in present Burma from 1887 until his death in 1936.
Sao Hkun Hkio (1912 - 1990) was the ruler of Shan state of Mngmit in present Burma from February 1936 until 1952.
Mong Nai (Mon)
List of Rulers of Mong Nai (Mon)
Maung Shwe Paw was the ruler of Shan state of Mong Nai in present Burma from around 1802 until 1848.
Maung Yit was the ruler of Shan state of Mong Nai in present Burma from 1848 until 1850.
U Po Ka was the ruler of Shan state of Mong Nai in present Burma from 1850 until 1851.
U Shwe Kyu was the ruler of Shan state of Mong Nai in present Burma in 1852.
List of Rulers (title Saohpa; ritual style Kambawsa Rahta Mahawunthiri Pawara Thudamaraza) of Mong Nai (Mon)
Hkun Nu Nom was the ruler of Shan state of Mong Nai in present Burma from 1852 until 1875.
Hkun Kyi (died 1914) was the ruler of Shan state of Mong Nai in present Burma from 1875 until his death in 1914.
Hkun Kyaw Sam was the ruler of Shan state of Mong Nai in present Burma from 1914 until 1928.
Hkun Kyaw Ho (died 1949) was the ruler of Shan state of Mong Nai in present Burma from 1928 until his death in 1949.
Sao Pye was the ruler of Shan state of Mong Nai in present Burma from 1949 until 1958.
Mongnawng
List of Rulers (title Myoza) of Mongnawng
Heng Awn was the ruler of Shan state of Mongnawng in present Burma from 1851 until 1866.
Hkun Hkang was the ruler of Shan state of Mongnawng in present Burma from 1866 until 1868.
Hkun Tun was the ruler of Shan state of Mongnawng in present Burma from 1868 until early years 20th century.
Mngpai (Mobye)
List of Rulers (title Saohpa; ritual style Kambawsa Mahawuntha Thiridamaraza) of Mngpai (Mobye)
Hkun Pya was the ruler of Shan state of Mngpai in present Burma from 1763 until around 1800 and from 1803 until 1805.
Hkam Maung was the ruler of Shan state of Mngpai in present Burma from 1805 until 1808
Hkam Hlaing was the ruler of Shan state of Mngpai in present Burma first time from 1808 until 1820 and second time from 1823 until July 1836.
Nga Kyi was the regent of Shan state of Mngpai in present Burma from 1820 until 1823
Hkun Yon was the ruler of Shan state of Mngpai in present Burma from 1836 until February 1891.
Hkun Hsvriya was the ruler of Shan state of Mngpai in present Burma from 1891 until 1908
Sao Pin Nya was the ruler of Shan state of Mngpai in present Burma from 1908 until 1952.
Mngpan (Maingpan)
List of Rulers (title Myoza) of Mngpan (Maingpan)
Tawk La was the ruler of Shan state of Mngpan in present Burma from 1637 until ?
Twak Hkam was the ruler of Shan state of Mngpan in present Burma in the second half 17th century.
Twak Twe was the ruler of Shan state of Mngpan in present Burma in the second half 17th century.
Op La was the ruler of Shan state of Mngpan in present Burma in early 18th century.
Hkun Som was the ruler of Shan state of Mngpan in present Burma in the first half 18th century.
Shwe Tong was the ruler of Shan state of Mngpan in present Burma in the first half 18th century.
Sai U was the ruler of Shan state of Mngpan in present Burma in the second half 18th century.
Sai Nyo was the ruler of Shan state of Mngpan in present Burma in the second half 18th century.
Naw Hkam (died 1809) was the ruler of Shan state of Mngpan in present Burma from ? until his death in 1809.
Mana Ne Myo (died 1823) was the ruler of Shan state of Mngpan in present Burma from 1809 until his death in 1823.
Maung Shwe Hkam (died 1858) was the ruler of Shan state of Mngpan in present Burma from 1823 until his death in 1858.
List of Rulers (title Saohpa; ritual style Kambawsa Mahawuntha Thirdamaraza) of Mngpan (Maingpan)
Hkun Tun U (died 1886) was the ruler of Shan state of Mngpan in present Burma first time from 1858 until 1867 and second time from 1867 until his
death in 1886.
Hkun Leng (1869 1918) was the ruler of Shan state of Mngpan in present Burma from 1886 until his death in 1918.
Hkun On was the ruler of Shan state of Mngpan in present Burma from 1918 until 1952.
Mngpawn (Maing Pun)
List of Rulers (title Myoza, from 1880 title Saopha) of Mngpawn (Maing Pun)
Hkun Lek was the ruler of Shan state of Mngpawn in present Burma from 1816 until 1860.
Hkun Ti was the ruler of Shan state of Mngpawn in present Burma first time from 1860 until 1880 and second time from 1880 until 1928.
Sao Sam Htun (died July 19, 1947) was the ruler of Shan state of Mngpawn in present Burma 1928 until his death on July 19, 1947.
Ba Choe (born 1936) was the ruler of Shan state of Mngpawn in present Burma from July 20, 1947 until 1952.
Mngping (Maingpyin)
List of Rulers of Mngping (Maingpyin)
Hkam Hlaing was the ruler of Shan state of Mong Pawng in present Burma from 1835 until 1842.
Hkam Kaw was the ruler of Shan state of Mong Pawng in present Burma from 1842 until ?
Mngsit (Maingseik)
List of Rulers (title Myoza) of Mngsit (Maingseik)
Sao Haw Pik was the ruler of Shan state of Mngsit in present Burma from ? until 1857.
Hkun Kyaw San was the ruler of Shan state of Mngsit in present Burma from 1857 until ?
Hkun Lu was the ruler of Shan state of Mngsit in present Burma from ? until 1873.
Hkam Pwin was the ruler of Shan state of Mngsit in present Burma from 1883 until ?

Mngtung (Maington)
List of Rulers (title Myoza) of Mngtung (Maington)
Hkun Sang Kang was the ruler of Shan state of Mngtung in present Burma in the second half 19th century.
Hkun Kyaw Htam was the ruler of Shan state of Mngtung in present Burma in the second half 19th century.
Hkun Hsa was the ruler of Shan state of Mngtung in present Burma from ? until 1886.
Hkun Lun was the ruler of Shan state of Mngtung in present Burma from 1888 until 1896.
Haw Yawt was the ruler of Shan state of Mngtung in present Burma from 1896 until early years 20th century.
Mngyang (Mohnyin)
List of Rulers (title Myoza) of Mngyang (Mohnyin)
Tao Luk was the ruler of Shan state of Mngyang in present Burma in the first half 18th century.
Tao Ngam was the ruler of Shan state of Mngyang in present Burma in the first half 18th century.
Sunabnta was the ruler of Shan state of Mngyang in present Burma in the first half 18th century.
Sulang Ka Wutti was the ruler of Shan state of Mngyang in present Burma in the first half 18th century.
Inta Wasai was the ruler of Shan state of Mngyang in present Burma in the second half 18th century.
Hsai Ya Kuman I was the ruler of Shan state of Mngyang in present Burma in the second half 18th century.
Hsen Sulin (Surin Pumintha) was the ruler of Shan state of Mngyang in present Burma in the second half 18th century.
Hsai Ya Kuman II was the ruler of Shan state of Mngyang in present Burma in the first half 19th century.
Sao Yawt was the ruler of Shan state of Mngyang in present Burma in first half 19th century.
Maha Hkanan was the ruler of Shan state of Mngyang in present Burma from 1814 until 1815.
Buddha Wong was the ruler of Shan state of Mngyang in present Burma in 1815.
Namhkai (Nanke)
List of Rulers (title Ngwegunhmu) of Namhkai (Nanke)
Nga Dammaa was the ruler of Shan state of Namhkai in present Burma from 1808 until his death in 1852.
Hkun Pe (died 1867) was the ruler of Shan state of Namhkai in present Burma from 1852 until his death in 1867.
Hkun Pan (died 1891) was the ruler of Shan state of Namhkai in present Burma first time from 1867 until 1874 and second time from 1888 until his death in
1891.
Nga Meik was the Administrator of Shan state of Namhkai in present Burma from 1874 until 1875.
Nga Po was the Administrator of Shan state of Namhkai in present Burma in 1876.
Hkun Hwaing was the ruler of Shan state of Namhkai in present Burma from 1876 until 1888.
Hkun Kye was the ruler of Shan state of Namhkai in present Burma from 1891 until early 20th century.
Namhkok (Nankok)
List of Rulers (title Ngwegunhmu) of Namhkok (Nankok)
Hkun Myat I was the ruler of Shan state of Namhkok in present Burma from 1744 until ?
Hkun Kaw was the ruler of Shan state of Namhkok in present Burma in the second half 18th century.
Hkun Hkam I was the ruler of Shan state of Namhkok in present Burma in early 19th century.

Hkun Mawng was the ruler of Shan state of Namhkok in present Burma in the first half 19th century.
Hkun Pok was the twice times ruler of Shan state of Namhkok in present Burma in the first half 19th century.
Hkun Awng Hkam was the ruler of Shan state of Namhkok in present Burma in the second half 19th century.
Hkun Hkam II was the ruler of Shan state of Namhkok in present Burma in the second half 19th century.
Hkun Hseng was the ruler of Shan state of Namhkok in present Burma from around 1897 until 1900.
Hkun Myat II was the ruler of Shan state of Namhkok in present Burma from 1900 until around 1952.
Namhkom (Nankon)
List of Rulers (title Ngwegunhmu) of Namhkom (Nankon)
Maung Su Daung (died 1783) was the ruler of Shan state of Namkhom in present Burma from ? until his death in 1783.
Maung San was the ruler of Shan state of Namkhom in present Burma from 1783 until ?
Maung Shwe Tok was the ruler of Shan state of Namhkom in present Burma in the first half 19th century.
Maung Tun was the ruler of Shan state of Namhkom in present Burma from ? until 1857.
Maung Pyan was the ruler of Shan state of Namhkom from 1857 until ?
Namtok (Nantok)
List of Rulers (title Ngwegunhmu) of Namtok (Nantok)
Maung Shwe Tha was the ruler of Shan state of Namtok in present Burma in early years 19th century.
Tha Zan (died 1816) was the ruler of Shan state of Namtok in present Burma from early years 19th century until 1816.
Maung Yi was the ruler of Shan state of Namtok in present Burma from 1816 until ?
Maung Yi was the ruler of Shan state of Namtok in present Burma in the first half 19th century.
Hkun Taw was the ruler of Shan state of Namtok in present Burma in the first half 19th century.
Hkun Pwe was the ruler of Shan state of Namtok in present Burma in the second half 19th century.
Hkun Pwang was the ruler of Shan state of Namtok in present Burma in the second half 19th century.
Hkun Hmam was the ruler of Shan state of Namtok in present Burma in the first half 19th century.
Hkun Pu (died 1892) was the ruler of Shan state of Namtok in present Burma from ? until 9 Oct 1892.
Hkun Maung was the ruler of Shan state of Namtok in present Burma from 1892 until ?
Nawngwawn (Naungwun or Naungmon)
Ruler (title Myoza) of Nawngwawn (Naungwun or Naungmon)
Sao Htun Ok was the ruler of Shan state of Nawngwawn from 1894 until ?
Pangmi (Pinhmi)
List of Rulers (title Ngegunhmu) of Pangmi (Pinhmi)
Maung Hke was the ruler of Shan State of Pangmi in the first half 19th century.
Maung San Myat was the ruler of Shan State of Pangmi in the first half 19th century.
Maung U was the ruler of Shan State of Pangmi in the second half 19th century.
Hkun Yeik was the ruler of Shan State of Pangmi from ? until 1870.
Hkun Shwe Daung was the ruler of Shan State of Pangmi from 1870 until 1901.
Maung Nyun was the ruler of Shan State of Pangmi from 1901 until around 1952.
Pangtara (Pindara)
List of Rulers (title Ngwegunhmu) of Pangtara (Pindara)
Maung Ne Htun was the ruler of Shan state of Pangtara in present Burma in the first half 18th century.
Maung Aung Kyu was the ruler of Shan state of Pangtara in present Burma in the first half 18th century.
Maung Myit was the ruler of Shan state of Pangtara in present Burma in the second half 18th century.
Maung Pyi San was the ruler of Shan state of Pangtara in present Burma from ? until 1783.
Maung Shwe Bwiri was the ruler of Shan state of Pangtara in present Burma from 1783 until 1796.
Maung Than was the ruler of Shan state of Pangtara in present Burma from 1796 until 1802.
Maung Pe I was the ruler of Shan state of Pangtara in present Burma from 1802 until 1809.
Maung Khan U was the ruler Shan state Pangtara in present Burma from 1809 until 1819.
Maung Shwe Min was the ruler of Shan state of Pangtara in present Burma from 1819 until 1843.
Mi Thit was the ruler of Shan state of Pangtara in present Burma from 1843 until 1840th.
Mi Sit was the ruler of Shan state of Pangtara in present Burma around 1840th.
Maung Hpo Eik was the ruler of Shan state of Pangtara in present Burma from 1840th until 1850.
Maung Shwe Thi was the regent of Shan state of Pangtara in present Burma from 1850 until 1851.
Maung Myat Hpu was the ruler of Shan state of Pangtara in present Burma from 1851 until 1857.
Maung Pe II was the ruler of Shan state of Pangtara in present Burma from 1857 until 1859.
Maung Lun Ya (died 1882) was the ruler of Shan state of Pangtara in present Burma first time from 1859 until 1860, second time from 1868 until 1869, third
time from 1877 until 1878 and fourth time from 1880 until his death in 1882.
Maung Hpo was the ruler of Shan state of Pangtara in present Burma from 1860 until 1861.
Maung Than was the regent of Shan state of Pangtara in present Burma first time from 1862 until 1868 and second time from 1869 until 1871.
Maung Hpo Hkin (died 1897) was the ruler of Shan state of Pangtara in present Burma from 1888 until his death in 1897.
Maung Sun Nyo was the ruler of Shan state of Pangtara in present Burma from 1897 until around 1952.
O Un was the regent of Shan state of Pangtara in present Burma from 1897 until 1911.
Poila (Pwehla)
List of Rulers (title Myoza) of Poila (Pwehla)
Baiknaya Bo was the ruler of Shan state of Poila in present Burma from 1751 until ?
Maung Ywe was the ruler of Shan state of Poila in present Burma in the second half 18th century.
Maung U was the ruler of Shan state of Poila in present Burma in the second half 18th century.
Maung Wun was the ruler of Shan state of Poila in present Burma in the first half 19th century.
Maung Kaung was the ruler of Shan state of Poila in present Burma from ? until 1839.
Maung Kyok was the ruler of Shan state of Poila in present Burma from 1839 until 1855.
Maung Law Ma was the ruler of Shan state of Poila in present Burma from 1855 until 1863.
Maung Po Thein was the ruler of Shan state of Poila in present Burma from 1863 until 1875.
Maung Ywe was the ruler of Shan state of Poila in present Burma from 1875 until 1886.
Maung Sao Nyun was the ruler of Shan state of Poila in present Burma from 1876 until ?
Sakoi (Sagwe)
List of Rulers (title Myoza) of Sakoi (Sagwe)
Hkun was the ruler of Shan state of Sakoi in present Burma from ? until 1877.
Hkun Htun was the ruler of Shan state of Sakoi in present Burma from 1877 until ?
Samka (Saga)
List of Rulers (title Myoza, from 1897 title Saopha) of Samka (Saga)
Kun Lu was the ruler of Shan state of Samka in present Burma from 1636 until ?
Kun Saing was the ruler of Shan state of Samka in present Burma in the second half 17th century.
Naw Maing was the ruler of Shan state of Samka in present Burma in the first half 18th century.
Ne Dun was the ruler of Shan state of Samka in present Burma in the second half 18th century.
Kun Pyu was the ruler of Shan state of Samka in present Burma around 1774.
Hkun Ye (died 1838) was the ruler of Shan state of Samka in present Burma from ? until his death in 1838.
Hkun Sun was the ruler of Shan state of Samka in present Burma first time1838 until 1858 and second time from 1860 until 1872.
Hkun Noi was the ruler of Shan state of Samka in present Burma first time from 1858 until 1860 and second time from 1876 until 1883.
Sao Sein Bu (1856 1915) was the ruler of Shan state of Samka in present Burma first time from 1873 until 1876 and second time from December 1885
until his death in 1915.
Hkun Pwin was the ruler of Shan state of Samka in present Burma from 1883 until 1885.
Hkun Kyi was the ruler of Shan state of Samka in present Burma from 1915 until 1946.
Singaling Hkamti (Zingalein Kamti)
List of Rulers (title Myoza) of Singaling Hkamti (Zingalein Kamti)
Sao Nyi Kaung was the ruler of Shan state of Singaling Hkamti in present Burma from 1820 until 1844.
Sao Ai was the ruler of Shan state of Singaling Hkamti in present Burma from 1844 until 1853.
Sao Hi was the ruler of Shan state of Singaling Hkamti in present Burma from 1853 until 1882.
Sao Ni Taung (1861 - 1892) was the ruler of Shan state of Singaling Hkamti in present Burma from 1887 until his death in 1892.
Sao E (died 1927) was the regent of Shan state of Singaling Hkamti in present Burma from 1892 until 1893, from 1894 until 1898 and ruler of Singaling
Hkamti from 1898 until his death in 1927.
Sao Hon, Po Hlaung (1887 - 1894) was the ruler of Shan state of Singaling Hkamti in present Burma from 1892 until his death in 1894.
Ma Pu (died 1898) was the ruler of Shan state of Singaling Hkamti in present Burma from 1894 until her death in 1898.
Maung Ba Thein was the ruler of Shan state of Singaling Hkamti in present Burma from 1927 until 1952.
Tawngpeng
List of Rulers (title Saohpa) of Tawngpeng
Ta Dwe Ba (1681 - 1760) was the ruler of Shan state of Tawngpeng in present Burma from 1753 until 1759.
Ba Hkun Mya (1690 - 1764) was the ruler of Shan state of Tawngpeng in present Burma from 1760 until his death in 1764.
Ba Hkun Saing (1700 - 1775) was the ruler of Shan state of Tawngpeng in present Burma from 1764 until his death in 1775.
Ba Dwe Taw (1701 - 1781) was the ruler of Shan state of Tawngpeng in present Burma from 1775 until his death in 1781.
Ba Loi Lio (1745 - 1810) was the ruler of Shan state of Tawngpeng in present Burma in 1781 until his death in 1810.
Ba Hkun Kein Mng (died 1819) was the ruler of Shan state of Tawngpeng in present Burma from 1810 until his death in 1819.
Ba Hkun Hso (1748 - 1837) was the ruler of Shan state of Tawngpeng in present Burma from 1819 until his death in 1837.
Ba Hkun Tan Mng (1770 - 1846) was the ruler of Shan state Tawngpeng in present Burma from 1837 until his death in 1846.
Shwe Ok Hka (Shwe Taung Kyaw) was the ruler of Shan state of Tawngpeng in present Burma from 1847 until 1856.
Hkun Hsa (Ba Hkam Hkun Shinya, 1774 - 1865) was the ruler of Shan state of Tawngpeng in present Burma from 1856 until his death in 1865.
Hkun Hkan Hkun (Ba Hon Mng, 1815 - 1879)) was the ruler of Shan state of Tawngpeng in present Burma from 1865 until his death in 1879.
Hkun Hkam Mng was the ruler of Shan state of Tawngpeng in present Burma from 1879 until 1887.
Hkam Tan Mng (Hkun Kyan, died 1897) was the ruler of Shan state of Tawngpeng in present Burma from 1888 until his death in 1897.
Hkun Hsan Gawn (1871 - 1926) was the ruler of Shan state of Tawngpeng in present Burma from 1897 until his death in 1926.
Hkun Pan Sing was the ruler of Shan state of Tawngpeng in present Burma from August 1926 until 1952.
Wanmaw (Bhamo)
List of Rulers (title Saohpa) of Wanmaw (Bhamo)
Sao Pi Hpa was the ruler of Shan state of Wanmaw in present Burma from 1685 until 1706.
Sao Tun Hpa was the ruler of Shan state of Wanmaw in present Burma from 1706 until 1719.
Hpo U was the ruler of Shan state of Wanmaw in present Burma from 1719 until 1720.
Sao Mong Hpa was the ruler of Shan state of Wanmaw in present Burma from 1720 until 1727.
Sao Tung Ngai I (died 1734) was the ruler of Shan state of Wanmaw in present Burma from 1727 until his death in 1734.
KitHaw was the ruler of Shan state of Wanmaw in present Burma from 1735 until 1742.
Sao Tung Ngai II was the ruler of Shan state of Wanmaw in present Burma from 1742 until 1770.
Sao Myut Aung (1690 - 1772) was the ruler of Shan state of Wanmaw in present Burma from 1770 until his death in 1772.
Wanyin (Banyin)
List of Rulers (title Saohpa) of Wanyin (Banyin)
Hkun Saw (died 1893) was the ruler of Shan state of Wanyin in present Burma from 1865 until 1893.
Hkun Long (died July 1897) was the ruler of Shan state of Wanyin in present Burma from 1893 until July 1897
Hkun Han was the ruler of Shan state of Wanyin in present Burma from 1897 until ?
Hkun Yon was the regent of Shan state of Wanyin in present Burma 1897 until 1905.
Wuntho
List of Rulers (title Saohpa) of Wuntho
Maung Sun was the ruler of Shan state of Wuntho in present Burma from 1698 until 1703.
Kyaung Pyn was the ruler of Shan state of Wuntho in present Burma from 1703 until 1714.
Myat Kaung was the ruler of Shan state of Wuntho in present Burma from 1714 until 1736.
Talaings was the ruler of Shan state of Wuntho in present Burma from 1751 until 1756.
Aung Nyo was the ruler of Shan state of Wuntho in present Burma from 1756 until 1778.
Maung Tin (died 1796) was the ruler of Shan state of Wuntho in present Burma from 1778 until his death in 1796.
Maung Taw Zan (died 1798) was the ruler of Shan state of Wuntho in present Burma from 1796 until his death in 1798.
Maung Tha Ywe was the ruler of Shan state of Wuntho in present Burma from 1798 until 1827 (administrator of Wuntho until 1802).
Maung Shwe was the ruler of Shan state of Wuntho in present Burma from 1827 until 1830.
Maung Pe Nge was the ruler of Shan state of Wuntho in present Burma from 1830 until 1833.
Shwe Thi was the ruler of Shan state of Wuntho in present Burma from 1833 until 1849.
San Tit was the ruler of Shan state of Wuntho in present Burma from 1849 until 1851
Mama Shwe Tha, Mahawuntho Thohonbwa (died after 1891) was the ruler of Shan state of Wuntho in present Burma from 1852 until 1878.
Maung Aung Myat (1857 after 1909) was the ruler of Shan state of Wuntho in present Burma from 1878 until 1891.
Yawnghwe (Nyaungshwe)
The formal and the ritual name of the state was Kambosarattha, in short term Kanbawza .
List of Rulers (title Saohpa; ritual style Kambawsarahta Thiri Pawaramahawuntha Thudamaraza) of Yawnghwe (Nyaungshwe)
Hkam Leng was the ruler of Shan state of Yawnghwe in present Burma from 1695 until 1733.
Htawk Sha Sa was the ruler of Shan state of Yawnghwe in present Burma from 1733 until 1737.
Hsi Ton Sa was the ruler of Shan state of Yawnghwe in present Burma from 1737 until 1746.
Hke Hsa Wa was the ruler of Shan state of Yawnghwe in present Burma from 1746 until 1758.
Naw Mong was the ruler of Shan state of Yawnghwe in present Burma in 1758.
Yawt Hkam was the ruler of Shan state of Yawnghwe in present Burma from 1758 until 1761.
Hpong Hpa Ka-sa was the ruler of Shan state of Yawnghwe in present Burma from 1761 until 1762.
Sao Yun was the ruler of Shan state of Yawnghwe in present Burma from 1762 until 1815.
Sao U was the ruler of Shan state of Yawnghwe in present Burma from 1815 until 1852.
Sao Se Hom was the ruler of Shan state of Yawnghwe in present Burma from 1852 until 1858.
Sao Naw Hpa was the ruler of Shan state of Yawnghwe in present Burma from 1858 until 1864.
Sao Maung was the ruler of Shan state of Yawnghwe in present Burma first time from October 23, 1864 until 1886 and second time from 1897 until
December 1926.
Sao Ohn was the ruler of Shan state of Yawnghwe in present Burma from 1886 until 1897.
Sao Shwe Thaike (1896 1962) was the ruler of Shan state of Yawnghwe in present Burma from 1927 until 1952.
Yengan (Ywangan)
Ruler (title Ngwegunhmu) of Yengan
Maung Thu Daw was the ruler of Shan State of Yengan from 1886 until ?.

Karenni (Kayah) states
The Karenni States is the name formerly given to the three states of Kantarawadi (3,161 square miles or 8,190 square kilometres, pop (1931)
30,677), Kyebogyi (790 square miles or 2,000 square kilometres, pop (1931) 14,282) and Bawlake (568 square miles or 1,470 square kilometres, pop (1931)
13,802), located south of the Federated Shan Statesand east of British Burma. The British government recognized and guaranteed the independence of the
Karenni States in an 1875 treaty with Burmese King Mindon Min, by which both parties recognized the area as belonging neither to Burma nor to Great Britain.
Consequently, the Karenni States were never fully incorporated into British Burma. The Karenni States were recognized as tributary to British Burma in 1892,
when their rulers agreed to accept a stipend from the British government. In the 1930s, the Mawchi Mine in Bawlake was the most important source
of tungsten in the world. The Constitution of the Union of Burma in 1947 proclaimed that the three Karenni States be amalgamated into a single constituent state
of the union, called Karenni State. It also provided for the possibility of secession from the Union after 10 years. In 1952, the former Shan state of Mong Pai was
added, and the whole renamed Kayah State, possibly with the intent of driving a wedge between the Karenni (in Kayah State) and the rest of the Karen
people (in Karen State), both fighting for independence.
Bawlake
List of Rulers of Bawlake
Po Bya was the ruler of Karenni (Kayah) State of Bawlake around 1810.
La Kye was the ruler of Karenni (Kayah) State of Bawlake around 1850.
List of Rulers (title Myoza) of Bawlake
Paban (1857 - 1916) was the ruler of Karenni (Kayah) State of Bawlake from 1872 until his death in 1916.
Hkun Nge was the ruler of Karenni (Kayah) State of Bawlake from 1916 until 1948.
Kantarawadi
List of Rulers of Kantarawadi
Maung Pon (Pe Baw) was the ruler of Karenni (Kayah) State of Kantarawadi around 1837.
Papaw Kyi was the ruler of Karenni (Kayah) State of Kantarawadi around 1845.
Sao Lasa was the ruler of Karenni (Kayah) State of Kantarawadi around 1850.
Sao Pyatin was the ruler of Karenni (Kayah) State of Kantarawadi from ? until 1866.
List of Rulers (title Myoza, from 1930 title Sawbwa) of Kantarawadi
Sao Law Paw (died 1891) was the ruler of Karenni (Kayah) State of Kantarawadi from 1866 until 1889.
Sao Lawi (1852 - 1930) was the ruler of Karenni (Kayah) State of Kantarawadi from 1889 until his death in 1930.
Kyebogyi
Ruler (title Myoza) of Kyebogyi
Hkun U (1857 - 1933) was the ruler of Karenni (Kayah) State of Kyebogyi from 1890 until his death in 1933.
Nammekon
Ruler (title Myoza) of Nammekon
Hkun Baw was the ruler of Karenni (Kayah) State of Nammekon from 1899 until ?
Naungpale
Ruler (title Myoza) of Naungpale
Hkun Che was the ruler of Karenni (Kayah) State of Naungpale from 1897 until ?

Mustang (Kingdom of Lo)
Mustang (from the Tibetan mun tan (Wylie: smon-thang), Nepali: , meaning "fertile plain") is the former Kingdom of Lo whereTibetan is still widely
spoken and the traditional culture of Tibet remains. This is synonymous with "Upper Mustang", comprising the northern two-thirds of Mustang
District of Dhaulagiri Zone. The southern third of the district is called Thak and is the homeland ofThakali people who have their own language and whose
culture combines Tibetan and Nepalese elements. Life in Mustang revolves around tourism, animal husbandry and trade. Mustang's status as a kingdom ended in
2008 when its suzerain Kingdom of Nepal became a republic. The influence of the outside world, especially China, is growing and contributing to rapid change in
the lives of Mustang's people. Mustang was once an independent kingdom, although closely tied by language and culture to Tibet. From the 15th century to the
17th century, its strategic location granted Mustang control over the trade between the Himalayas and India. At the end of the 18th century the kingdom was
annexed by Nepal. Though still recognized by many Mustang residents, the monarchy ceased to exist on October 7, 2008, by order of the Government of
Nepal. The last official and current unofficial king (raja or gyelpo) is Jigme Dorje Palbar Bista (born c.1933), who traces his lineage directly back to Ame Pal, the
warrior who founded this Buddhist kingdom in 1380. Ame Pal oversaw the founding and building of much of the Lo and Mustang capital of Lo Manthang, a
walled city surprisingly little changed in appearance from that time period. In 2007, a shepherd in Mustang discovered a collection of 55 cave paintings depicting
the life of the Buddha.

List of Kings (title Glo rgyal-po) of Mustang (Kingdom of Lo)
Ame Pal (Tibetan: A-ma-dpal) was according to legend, a warrior and founder of the Kingdom of Mustang. He founded in 1380 the kingdom which is called in
the local language, a Tibetan dialect, Lo (south). Ame Pal oversaw the founding and building of much of the Lo and Mustang capital of Lo Manthang, a walled
city surprisingly little changed in appearance from that time period.
Sa-dbang (c.1639 - 17..) was the King of Mustang (Kingdom of Lo) from 1656 until 1710.
Tshe-dbang, Je Ang (died before 1725) was the King of Mustang (Kingdom of Lo) from 1711 until 1723.
bKra-shis-rnam-rgyal, Krathis Namgyal (died around 1728) was the King of Mustang (Kingdom of Lo) from 1723 until his death around 1728.
bsTan-'dzin-dbang-rgyal , Tenzing Anjia (c.1717 - c.1750) was the King of Mustang (Kingdom of Lo) from around 1728 until his death around 1750.
Nor-dzin bde-legs dbang-mo (died after 1735) was the regent of Mustang (Kingdom of Lo) from around 1728 until 1734.
dBang-rgyal-rdo-rje (Anjia Dorje) (c.1738 - 1797) was the King of Mustang (Kingdom of Lo) from around 1750 until his death in 1797.
bKra-shis-sin-po, Krathis Ningpo was the King of Mustang (Kingdom of Lo) from 1797 until his death in 1815.
'Jam-dpal-dgra-'ldus, Jampel Traldus (died 1837) was the King of Mustang (Kingdom of Lo) from 1815 until his death in 1837.
Kun-dga'-nor-bu, Kunga Norbu (died 1857) was the King of Mustang (Kingdom of Lo) from 1837 until his death in 1857.
'Jam-dbyangs-dban-'dus, Jamian Angdu (died 1863) was the King of Mustang (Kingdom of Lo) from 1857 until his death in 1863.
rGyal-mo bKra-shis bu-khrid was the regent of Mustang (Kingdom of Lo) from 1857 until 1863.
dNgos-grub-dpal-'bar (died 1893) was the King of Mustang (Kingdom of Lo) from 1863 until his death in 1893.
rGyal-mo Tshe-mchog sGrol-ma (died 1871) was the regent of Mustang (Kingdom of Lo) from 1863 until 1868
'Jam-dbyangs-dpal-'bar, Jambian Pelbar (died 1935) was the King of Mustang (Kingdom of Lo) from 1893 until his death in 1935.
A-mgon-bsTan-'dzin-dgra-'dul, Angun Tenzing Trandul (1923 - 1964) was the King of Mustang (Kingdom of Lo) from 1935 until 1955 and from 1958
until his death in 1964.
A-ngdu-sin-po, Angdu Nyingpo (died 1958) was the King of Mustang (Kingdom of Lo) from 1955 until his death in 1958.
'Jigs-med-rdo-rje-dgra-'dul, 'Jigs-med-dpal-'bar Bista, Jigme Pelbar Bista (born 1930) was the King of Mustang (Kingdom
of Lo) from 1964 until October 7, 2008. The last official and current unofficial king (raja or gyelpo) of Mustang (Kingdom of Lo)
is Jigme Dorje Palbar Bista who traces his lineage directly back to Ame Pal, the warrior who founded this Buddhist kingdom in
1380.



Jumla
Jumla kingdom was one of the many kingdoms that dotted Nepal before its unification by King Prithivi Narayan Shah and later by his son Bahadur Shah. Jumla
kingdom was one of the powerful kingdoms in west Nepal, Jumla kingdom defended itself in the first attack by King Prithivi Narayan Shah, and legend even has
it that he got injured in the battle. Later, with the help of surrounding kingdoms of Jumla, Bahadur Shah son of King Prithivi Narayan Shah attacked and won
Jumla for the Gorkha kings. The Jumla kings were Thakuris (like the Gorkha kings) and had the last name (Shah) as the Gorkha kings. Jumla kingdom was one
of the most powerful of the kingdoms in Nepal, in its height extending from Mustang in the east to present day Uttarakhand, India. The Jumla kings belonged to
the Kallayla dynasty linked to the Sisodia clan of Rajasthan, India. There have also been marriages between the Jumla royal family and the present day royal
family of Nepal even till present day. The current direct decedents of the erstwhile Jumla royal family include Lt. Gen (Retd) Vivek Kumar Shah, Nepali Film
legend Nir Shah, Former Director General of Nepal Electricity Authority Harish Chandra Shah, DIGP (Retd) Sher Bahadur Shah and current DIGP of Nepal
Police Surendra Bahadur Shah.
List of Maharajas of Jumla
Bhanashahi (died 1588/89) was the Maharaja of Jumla from 1528 until his death in 1588/89.
Salimashahi (died 1599) was the Maharaja of Jumla from 1588/89 until his death in 1599.
Visekaraj was the Maharaja of Jumla from 1599 until 1600.
Vasantaraj was the Maharaja of Jumla from 1600 until 1602.
Vikramshahi was the Maharaja of Jumla from 1602 until 1621.
Surtishahi was the Maharaja of Jumla from 1621 until 1635.
Bahadurashahi (died 1665) was the Maharaja of Jumla from 1635 until his death in 1665.
Birabhadrashai was the Maharaja of Jumla from 1665 until his 1676.
Salimashahi II was the Maharaja of Jumla from 1676 until 1678.
Narasinghashahi was the Maharaja of Jumla in late 17th century.
Lachhimanashahi was the Maharaja of Jumla in late 17th century.
Prithvipatishahi was the Maharaja of Jumla from late 17th century until 1719.
Surathashahi (died 1740) was the Maharaja of Jumla from 1720 until his death in 1740.
Sudarasanashahi (died 1758) was the Maharaja of Jumla from 1740 until his death in 1758.
Suryabhanshahi (died 1790) was the Maharaja of Jumla from 1758 until 1787.
Devichandashahi was the Maharaja of Jumla in 1782 (in rebellion).

Gorkha
Gorkh (Devanagari: ) is a former kingdom in the confederation of 24 states known as Chaubisi rajya located in present-day western Nepal. The Kingdom
of Gorkha extended from the Marshyangdi River in the west to the Trishuli River in the east, which separated it from the kingdoms of Lamjung and Nepal
respectively. The inhabitants of Gorkha were known as Gorkhali. From the 16th century, Gorkha was ruled by the Shah dynasty. The Shahs installed themselves
as rulers of Gorkha taking advantage of the confusion of an annual race held at a place called Liglig. It was the tradition of the local Ghale people to choose as
their king for the year the fastest runner in the competition. In 1559, Dravya Shah attacked and captured Liglig when the inhabitants were engrossed in the race.
He displaced the Magar king and became king of Gorkha. From 1736, the Gorkhalis engaged in a campaign of expansion started by king Nara Bhupal Shah.
Over the years, they conquered huge tracts of land to the east and west of Gorkha. Among their conquests, the most important and valuable acquisition was the
wealthy Newar confederacy of Nepal Mandala centered in the Kathmandu Valley. Starting in 1745, the Gorkhalis mounted a blockade in a bid to starve the
population into submission, but the inhabitants held out. The Newars appealed to the British East India Company for help, and in 1767, it sent an expedition
under Captain Kinloch which ended in failure. The three Newar capitals of Kathmandu, Lalitpur and Bhaktapur fell to the Gorkhalis between 1768 to 1769. The
Gorkhali king subsequently moved his capital to Kathmandu. In 1788, the Gorkhalis turned their attention north and invaded Tibet. They seized the border
towns of Kyirong and Kuti, and forced the Tibetans to pay an annual tribute. When the Tibetans stopped paying it, the Gorkhalis invaded Tibet again in 1791
and plundered theTashilhunpo Monastery in Shigatse. This time the Chinese army came to Tibet's defence and advanced close to Kathmandu. The alarmed
Gorkhalis appealed to the British East India Company for help, but they got none.
[9]
Eventually, the Gorkhalis were forced to sign a peace treaty under which they
had to pay tribute to Beijing every five years. The Gorkha dominion reached its height at the beginning of the 19th century, extending all along
the Himalayan foothills from Kumaonand Garhwal in the west to Sikkim in the east. They were made to return much of the occupied territories after their defeat
in the Anglo-Nepalese War (18141816).
List of Rajas of Gorkha
Dravya Shah (died 1570) was the ruler of the Gorkha or Gurkha state in the second half 16th century. He was a Sisodia Rajput from Chittor in
modern Rajasthan. His ancestors, however, had settled in the Gorkha region. Hence, his clan's name became Gurkha. Dravya Shah was not a physically robust
man but he tricked his way to the win with the backing of the Bhattarai, Aryal, Adhikari, Pant and the Acharya clans of Brahmin. By 1570, when Dravya Shah
died, the running race tradition was but a memory among the people. Dravya Shah used the Magar army to invade neighbouring states and his successors
continued this aggression to increase the kingdom's territory.
Prithvipati Shah (died 1716) was the ruler of the Gorkha or Gurkha state from 1699 until his death in 1716.
Nara Bhupal Shah (16971743) was the ruler of the Gorkha or Gurkha state in Nepal from 1716 until his dath in 1743. He was the father of Prithvi
Narayan Shah. Nara Bhupal Shah was the son of Bir Bhadra Shah and the grandson of Prithivipathi Shah. He was the king of the Gorkha or Gurkha state
in Nepal. He was a brave and courageous man. He tried to extend his kingdom by capturing Nuwakot but he failed. After his death his eldest son Prithvi Narayan
Shah completed the annexation of Nuwakot and even the Kathmandu Valley, in his dreams of unified Nepal. Nara Bhupal Shah is a familiar figure in Nepal
history.

Bahawalpur
Bahawalpur was a princely state, stretching along the southern bank of the Sutlej and Indus Rivers, with its capital city atBahawalpur. The state was counted
amongst the Punjab states. In 1941, it had a population of 1,341,209, living in an area of 45,911 km (17,494 sq mi). The state was founded in 1802
by Nawab Mohammad Bahawal Khan Abbasi after the breakup of the Durrani Empire. His successor Nawab Mohammad Bahawal Khan Abbasi III signed the
state's first subsidiary alliance with the British on February 22, 1833, guaranteeing the internal rule of the Nawab under British suzerainty. The alliance meant
British control of Bahawalpur's external relations, but the state was never a British possession and until the Independence ofPakistan in 1947 was ruled by its
own Nawabs. After one century of such relations, they were dissolved by the departure of the British, when the state opted to accede to the new dominion of
Pakistan, with effect from October 7, 1947, becoming a princely state of Pakistan. It was merged into the province of West Pakistan on October 14, 1955.
List of Emirs (full title from January 5, 1740, Nawwab Amir) of Bahawalpur
Bahadur Khan II (died 1702) was the Emir of Bahawalpur from 1690 until his death in 1702.
Mobarak Khan I (died 1726) was the Emir of Bahawalpur from 1702 until 1723.
Sadeq Mohammad Khan I (died April 11, 1746) was the Nawab of Bahawalpur from 1723 until his death on April 11, 1746.
Mohammad Bahawal Khan I (died June 12, 1750) was the Nawab of Bahawalpur from 1746 until his death on June 12, 1750.
Mobarak Khan II (died June 4, 1772) was the Nawab of Bahawalpur from 1750 until his death on June 4, 1772.
Mohammad Bahawal Khan II (1753 August 13, 1809) was the Nawab of Bahawalpur from 1772 until his death on August 13, 1809.
Sadeq Mohammad Khan II (1781 April 17, 1826) was the Nawab of Bahawalpur from 1809 until his death on April 17, 1826.
Mohammad Bahawal Khan III (died October 19, 1852) was the Nawab of Bahawalpur from 1826 until his death on October 19, 1852.
Sadeq Mohammad Khan III (died February 20, 1861) was the Nawab of Bahawalpur from 1852 until his death on February 20, 1853.
Fath Mohammad Khan (died October 3, 1858) was the Nawab of Bahawalpur from 1853 until his death on October 3, 1858.
Mohammad Bahawal Khan IV (died March 25, 1866) was the Nawab of Bahawalpur from 1858 until his death on March 25, 1866.
Sadeq Mohammad Khan IV (1862 February 14, 1899) was the Nawab of Bahawalpur from March 25, 1866 until his death on February 14, 1899.
Begum Sahiba (died February 12, 1879) was the Nawab of Bahawalpur from 1866 until her death on February 12, 1879.
Mahabat Khan was the regent of Bahawalpur from February 14 until November 28, 1879 and from February 14, 1899 until November 12, 1903.
Mohammad Bahawal Khan V (1883 February 15, 1907) was the Nawab of Bahawalpur from 1899 until his death on February 15, 1907. He died of
illness on a ship near the coast of Aden and was succeeded by his baby son Sadiq V.
Sadiq Muhammad Khan Abbasi V (Urdu: ), GCSI, GCIE, KCVO, LLD (September 29, 1904,
in Derawar May 24, 1966, in London) was the Nawab, and later Amir, of Bahawalpur State from 1907 until October 14, 1855. He
became the Nawab on the death of his father, when he was only three years old. A Council of Regency, with Sir Rahim Bakhsh as its
President, ruled on his behalf until 1924. The Nawab served as an officer with the Indian Army, fighting in the Third Afghan War
(1919) and commanding forces in the Middle East during the Second World War. In August 1947, the Nawab received the title of Amir
of Bahawalpur, acceding his State to the Dominion of Pakistan a month later. In 1955, the Amir was promoted to General in
the Pakistan Army and merged his state into West Pakistan. He died in 1966, aged 61. Under his rule Bahawalpur State comprised an
area larger than Denmark or Belgium, By 1947, Bahawalpur States institutions, largely set up by successive British advisors with support
from the rulers, consisted of departments run by trained civil servants; there was a Ministerial Cabinet headed by a Prime Minister;
theState Bank was the Bank of Bahawalpur with branches outside the State also, including Karachi; there was a high court and lower
courts; a trained police force and an army commanded by officers trained at the Royal Indian Military Academy at Dehra Doon. Nawab
had a keen interest in education, which was free till A level and the States Government provided scholarships of merit for higher education. In 1951, the Nawab
donated 500 acres in Bahawalpur for the construction of Sadiq Public School. Nawab was known for his relationship with the Quaid-i-Azam, Founder
of Pakistan. Sir Sadeq Muhammad Khan Abbasi was born at Derawar on 29 September 1904, the only son and heir of Haji Nawab Muhammad Bahawal Khan
Abbasi V, Nawab of the state of Bahawalpur. When only two and a half, his father fell ill and died while at sea off theAden coast, on February 15, 1907, leaving
Sadeq as ruler of Bahawalpur. He was educated at Aitchison College, Lahore. At the age of 15, Sadeq fought in the Third Afghan War in 1919, was knighted in
1922 when he reached his majority and was invested with the throne two years later by Lord Reading. In 1929 he visited Egypt and was a guest of the King. Very
fond of cars, he bought a Rolls Royce Phantom car, 45WR, body by Thrupp & Maberly, one of the two Cars on display at the Cairo Show. [Here he contracted a
marriage with an Ottoman princess, divorcing one of his previous wives. He signed the Muslim marriage certificate (Niqahon) on October 6, 1929. After signing
the marriage certificate a way was sought to bring them to Bahawalpur. Sadeq valued education and cultural sophistication in women, but HIH Princess Hamide
Nermin Nezahat Sultan (January 27, 1923? November 7, 1998), lacked these. She had received no formal education but was skilled in needlework and liked
playing card games. She could read and write, but only in Turkish and French. HIH Princess Hamide Nermin Nezahat Sultan was considered gentle, virtuous,
and docile, qualities that made her a suitable candidate for Sadeq. Hamide Nermin Nezahat Sultan was described as tall and slim, "of middling beauty, and of
very assured and resolute countenance". She was dark haired, with a rather swarthy complexion, appeared solemn by Pakistani standards, and looked old for her
age. (Her father HIH Prince ehzade Mahmud Sevket Efendi (Ortaky Palace, Constantinople, July 20, 1903 February 1, 1973) was son of Sultan Abdul Aziz
I,and was excluded from the Imperial House in 1931, married firstly in Skutari/Istanbul on May 4, 1922 and divorced in 1928 his cousin HH Princess Adile
Hanmsultan Hanm Efendi (Ortaky Palace, November 12, 1900 February 1979), and had one daughter. She is shown born 1923 and marriage date here
would make her six years old at the time of marriage to Nawab of Bahawalpur.Sadiq. After the first meeting, Sadiq was extremely disappointed with his new
bride. He found HIH Princess Hamide Nermin Nezahat Sultan humorless and boring. After two years, the marriage ended in divorce.] The Bahawalpur
State under his rule was considered to be an important sovereign state inPunjab. The Bahawalpur State had a special privilege as it was larger than some states of
the present time like Lebanon, Kuwait, Israel and Denmark in respect of area. Its population was two times more than the total population of United Arab
Emirates. Its rulers also enjoyed special protocol and titles conferred by the British since 1866 as they were accorded 17 canons salute and had special access to
the Viceroy of British India Bahawalpur state also had a separate mint to cast coins for its public and the facility remained intact until 1940. The British
Government established a Regency Council under the supervision of 39 Maulvi Sir Rahim Bakhsh until the minor Nawab grew up as a young man. This Council
was responsible for state administration. Special attention was paid to the education and upbringing of Nawab Sadiq Muhammad Khan. He started his education
at a college in Lahore and completed it in England. He had an aptitude for military affairs and achieved several military titles, conferred on him by the British
Empire. The Viceroy of India, Lord Reading awarded total authority of the state administration to Nawab Sadiq Muhammad Khan (V) on March 8, 1924. Sir
Sadeq continued his military career in the British Indian Army, which he had begun as a Lieutenant in 1921; by 1932 he was a Major, by 1941 a Lieutenant-
Colonel, commanding troops in the Middle East during the Second World War. Since 1933, he had also been a Member of the Chamber of Princes, and since
1940, a member of the Indian Defence Council. Promoted to Major-General in 1946, the following year, on August 15, 1947, Sir Sadeq was promoted to the title
of Amir of Bahawalpur. He acceded to the Dominion of Pakistan a month later. After Partition of India Nawab proved to be very helpful and generous to the
government of Pakistan. He gave seventy million rupees to the government and the salaries of all the government departments for one month were also drawn
from the treasury of Bahawalpur state. He gave his private property to the University of the Punjab, King Edward Medical College and the Mosque of Aitchison
College, Lahore. At the time of partition all the princely states of the subcontinent were given a choice to join either Pakistan or India. To try to convince the
Nawab to join India, Pandit Nehru went to him while he was in London and offered various incentives in this regard but he didnt accept them. On 5 October
1947 he signed an agreement with the government of Pakistan according to which Bahawalpur State acceded to Pakistan. Thus the State of Bahawalpur was the
first state that joined Pakistan. The main factor was of course the Islamic sentiments of the Muslims who were in the majority in Bahawalpur. Moreover, the
Nawab and Quaid-i-Azam were close friends and they had great respect for each other, even before the creation of Pakistan. The Ameer of Bahawalpur Refugee
Relief and Rehabilitation Fund was instituted in 1947 for providing a central organization for the relief of refugees fleeing from the new India, and the Quaid
acknowledged the valuable contribution of the Bahawalpur State for the rehabilitation of the refugees. In 1953, Sir Sadeq represented Pakistan at the installation
of Faisal II of Iraq and also at the coronation of Elizabeth II, who was also the new Queen of Pakistan. In 1955 an accord was signed between Sadeq Mohammad
and Governor-General Malik Ghulam Muhammad, according to which the State of Bahawalpur would become part of the province of West Pakistan and the
Nawab was to receive a yearly stipend, or privy purse, of 32 lakhs of rupees and was to keep the title of Nawab and its precedence both inside and
outsidePakistan. In May 1966 Nawab Sadeq died in London, which ended his long 59 years as Nawab and Ameer of Bahawalpur; his body was brought back to
Bahawalpur and was buried in his family's ancestral graveyard at Derawer Fort. His eldest son Haji Muhammad Abbas Khan Abbasi Bahadur succeeded to his
father's title of Nawab of Bahawalpur, but with no administrative power. His grandson Nawab Salah-ud-din Ahmed Abbasi currently holds the title of Nawab.
[3][4][5]
He had following honours: Delhi Durbar gold medal-1911, 191415 Star -1918, Victory Medal-1918, Indian Frontier Medal-1921, Prince of Wales's Visit
Medal-1922, Knight Commander of the Royal Victorian Order (KCVO)-1922, Knight Grand Commander of the Order of the Indian Empire (GCIE)-1931,
King George V Silver Jubilee Medal-1935, King George VI Coronation Medal-1937, Grand Cordon of the Order of the Two Rivers of the Kingdom of Iraq-
1941, Knight Grand Commander of the Order of the Star of India (GCSI)-1941 (KCSI)-1929, 19391945 Star-1945, Africa Star-1945, Burma Star-1945, Italy
Star-1945, Defence Medal-1945, War Medal 19391945-1945, Pakistan Independence Medal-1947, Grand Cordon of the Order of the Cedars of Lebanon-
1947, King Faisal II Installation medal of the Kingdom of Iraq-1953, Queen Elizabeth II Coronation Medal-1953 and Order of the Supreme Leader (Nishan-i-
Qaid-i-Azam) 1st class of Pakistan-1959.
Muhammad Khan (1884 - 1955) was the regent of Bahawalpur from 1907 until 1916 and from 1916 until March 8, 1924.
Rahim Bakhsh Maulvi (died 1936) was the regent of Bahawalpur in 1916.
Malik Khuda Bashsh Khan (died 1930) was the regent of Bahawalpur in 1916.
List of Prime Ministers of Bahawalpur
Richard Marsh Crofton (1891 - 1955) was the Prime Minister of Bahawalpur from 1942 until 1947.
Mian Mushtaq Ahmad Gurmani (1905 - 1981) was the Prime Minister of Bahawalpur from 1947 until 1949..
Arthur John Dring (1902 - 1991) was the Prime Minister of Bahawalpur from 1949 until 1952.
Makhdumzada Hasan Mahmud was the Prime Minister of Bahawalpur from 1952 until 1953.
A.R. Khan was the Prime Minister of Bahawalpur from 1953 until 1955.

Sind (Sindh)
Sind (Sindh) was the princely state in present Pakistan.
List of Khans (often ruling jointly) of Sind (Sindh)
Mir Fath `Ali ibn Sobhdar was a ruler of princely state of Sind (Sindh) from 1783 until 1801.
Gholam `Ali ibn Sobhdar was a ruler of princely state of Sind (Sindh) from 1801 until 1811.
Karim `Ali ibn Sobhdar was a ruler of princely state of Sind (Sindh) from 1801 until 1828.
Morad `Ali ibn Sobhdar was a ruler of princely state of Sind (Sindh) from 1801 until 1833.
Nur Mohammad ibn Morad `Ali was a ruler of princely state of Sind (Sindh) from 1833 until 1840.
Nasir Mohammad ibn Morad `Ali (1805 - 1845) was a ruler of princely state of Sind (Sindh) from 1833 until 1843.
Sobhdar was a ruler of princely state of Sind (Sindh) from 1833 until 1843.
Mohammad was a ruler of princely state of Sind (Sindh) from 1833 until 1843.
Shahdad ibn Nur Mohammad was a ruler of princely state of Sind (Sindh) from 1840 until 1843.
Hosayn `Ali ibn Nur Mohammad was a ruler of princely state of Sind (Sindh) from 1840 until 1843.

Khairpur (Khayrpur)
The State of Khairpur was a princely state on the Indus River in what is now Pakistan, with its capital city at Khairpur. The state was counted amongst
the Sindh states rather than the neighbouring Rajputana states (now Rajasthan) to the east. It was a Princely state of Pakistan from 1947 until its end in 1955. The
history of the state of Khairpur is bound up with the history of the Talpur clan and its rule over Sind. The origins of the state date back to the disputes over the
succession to the leadership of the clan, following the murder of its chief, Mir Bahram Khan in 1775. The clan then revolted against the Kalhoras of Sind, taking
control of various parts of the kingdom and eventually replacing them as rulers.
List of Rulers (title Nawab) of Khairpur (Khayrpur)
Mir Sohrab Khan Talpur (died 1832) was a ruler of princely state of Khairpur (Khayrpur) from 1783 until 1811. Mir Sohrab Khan
Talpur established his control over Upper Sind by 1783, established his capital at Burahan, which he renamed Khairpur in 1786. He
extended his territories over a vast area, eventually helping his kinsmen from Hyderabad, in expelling the Afghans from the province by 1823.
As early as 1811, he had divided his territories into three emirates, each ruled by one of his sons, but with his eldest invested as principal
Amir. To them he left the day to day affairs of administration and retired to the Fort of Ahmadabad, in Diji. There, he took a new wife and
raised a family, to whom he intended to bequeath a portion of his realm. This incurred the jealousy of his adult grandsons, especially those of
his second son, Mubarak 'Ali.
Mir Rustam `Ali Khan Talpur (1758 - 1843) was a ruler of princely state of Khairpur (Khayrpur) from 1811 until December 20,
1842. The death of Sohrab in 1830, left his eldest son Mir Rustam 'Ali Khan, in full though precarious control over Upper Sind. His
position had been little more than that of a regent during his father's lifetime, and this was to remain unchanged until his youngest half
brother, 'Ali Murad, came of age. Unwilling to surrender power to him, Rustam sought to strengthen his position by entering into treaty
relations with the British in 1832. He secured their recognition as independent ruler, but surrendered control over external relations to
them in April 1838, followed by full British protection later that year. Nevertheless, this did not save him from internal family disputes,
with which the British initially refused to treat or take sides. However, the contest between 'Ali Murad, the youngest brother and the sons
of Mir Mubarak 'Ali culminated in victory for the latter. Peace was finally established in 1842 through a negotiated settlement, resulting in
Rustam abdicating in favour of his youngest brother.
Mubarak `Ali Khan Talpur was a ruler of princely state of Khairpur (Khayrpur) from 1829 until 1839 (in rebellion).
Naser Khan Talpur was a ruler of princely state of Khairpur (Khayrpur) from 1839 until ? (in rebellion).
Mir`Ali Murad Khan Talpur (1815 April 2, 1894) was a ruler of princely state of Khairpur (Khayrpur) from 1842 until his death
on April 2, 1894. Mir 'Ali Murad was a forceful personality, who mistrusted the British for siding with his eldest half-brother in 1832.
Nevertheless, he imbued himself with a sense of realism and attempted to co-operate whenever his interests or inclinations did not
supervene. He honoured the alliance by assisting the HEIC during the Turki Campaign in 1847, but blotted his copybook by intriguing
against them in 1851-1852. Accused of deception and fraud, he was stripped of most of his territories in Upper Sind in 1852, being left with
little more than his original emirate including Khairpur and surrounding lands. Despite this setback, he co-operated faithfully with the
British during the 1857 Mutiny five years later. He ensured them to suppress any upsurge within his jurisdiction takes place. At his death in
1894, after a long reign of fifty-two years, he was an honoured and respected ruler of the empire.
Faiz Muhammad Khan I Talpur (1837 March 5, 1909) was a ruler of princely state of Khairpur (Khayrpur) from 1894 until his
death on March 5, 1909.



Emam Bakhsh Khan Talpur (1860 February 8, 1921) was a ruler of princely state of Khairpur (Khayrpur) from 1909 until his death
on February 8, 1921.


`Ali Nawaz Khan Talpur (1884 December 25, 1935) was a ruler of princely state of Khairpur (Khayrpur) from 1921 until his death
on December 25, 1935 (deprived of administration from June 1931).


Mir Faiz Mohammad Khan II Talpur (1913 - 1954) was a ruler of princely state of Khairpur (Khayrpur) from 1935 until July 19,
1947. Mir Faiz Muhammad Khan II had suffered from an unstable and nervous affliction for many years. So much so that he could not be
trusted with the management of state affairs. The government instituted a council of regency under local ministers and ordered the Mir to live
outside the state. After a period of twelve-years, and shortly before the transfer of power, he abdicated in favour of his minor son in July 1947.

George `Ali Morad Khan Talpur (born 1934) was a ruler of princely state of Khairpur (Khayrpur) from 1947 until October 14,
1955. His father abdicated in favour of his minor son in July 1947. The state acceded to the Dominion of Pakistan in October that year,
and merged into West Pakistan in 1955. He was reached his majority and received full ruling powers, just four years earlier. The state had
been the first place on the sub-continent to introduce full adult suffrage. His subjects enjoyed free education up to matriculation standard
and free healthcare, there were no customs duties, property, income or wealth taxes, the crime rate negligible, and light industries
flourished. Mir 'Ali Murad Khan II remains one of the few surviving first class rulers of the old Indian Empire, still holding a public Majlis
every Muharram at his sprawling palace, Faiz Mahal. He has long taken a keen interest in animal welfare and conservation, having
established one of the largest private wildlife sanctuaries on the sub-continent. His younger son, Prince Mehdi Raza Khan, continues his
father's passion and oversees his conservation interests since retirement. The form of government was traditional monarchy. However, in
1950 the Mir Ali Murad II introduced democracy with universal adult franchise. The rulers of Khairpur were styled as Amir - thus the correct title of the state
was the Emirate of Khairpur. The royal privileges of the Amir were abolished in 1972 in violation of the merger agreement, along with those of most of the other
sovereign princes that had acceded to Pakistan.
Mir Ghulam Hussain Talpur was the President of regency council and Dewan (Prime Minister) of princely state of Khairpur (Khayrpur) from 1947 until
September 16, 1951.
List of Dewans (Prime Ministers) of Khairpur (Khayrpur)
Nawab Wali Muhammad Leghari was the Dewan (Prime Minister) of princely state of Khairpur (Khayrpur) around 1833.
Mir Fakhruddin Alavi was the Dewan (Prime Minister) of princely state of Khairpur (Khayrpur) around 1834.
Fath Mohamed Khan Ghori was the Dewan (Prime Minister) of princely state of Khairpur (Khayrpur) from 1839 until 1842.
Syed Fateh Ali Shah was the Dewan (Prime Minister) of princely state of Khairpur (Khayrpur) before 1892.
Utlam Chand was the Dewan (Prime Minister) of princely state of Khairpur (Khayrpur) from ? until 1892.
Kadirdad Khan was the Dewan (Prime Minister) of princely state of Khairpur (Khayrpur) from 1892 until 1903.
Sardar Mohammad Yakub Khan (1858 January 24, 1907) was the Dewan (Prime Minister) of princely state of Khairpur (Khayrpur) from 1903 until
his death on January 24, 1907.
Shaikh Sadiq Ali was the Dewan (Prime Minister) of princely state of Khairpur (Khayrpur) from 1907 until 1912.
Maulvi Mahomed Ibrahim Khan Shaikh Ismail was the Dewan (Prime Minister) of princely state of Khairpur (Khayrpur) from 1912 until 1920.
Shaikh Mohamed Kadir was the Dewan (Prime Minister) of princely state of Khairpur (Khayrpur) from 1920 until 1925.
Muhammad Yakub Khan was the Dewan (Prime Minister) of princely state of Khairpur (Khayrpur) from 1925 until 1926.
I.H. Taunton was the Dewan (Prime Minister) of princely state of Khairpur (Khayrpur) from May 1931 until May 1932.
Joseph Maurice Sladen (1896 - 1956) was the Dewan (Prime Minister) of princely state of Khairpur (Khayrpur) from 1932 until 1937.
Syed Ijaz (Aijaz) Ali was the Dewan (Prime Minister) of princely state of Khairpur (Khayrpur) around 1937 until around 1942.
Mumtaz Hasan Kizilbash was the Dewan (Prime Minister) of princely state of Khairpur (Khayrpur) from September 16, 1951 until October 14, 1955.

Mirpur
Mirpur was a princely state in what is now Pakistan. By the end of 18th century, Gakhar power in Pothohar had declined. Mirpur had become part
of Chibb ruled state of Khari Khariyali with capital at Mangla Fort. With the rise of Sikh power in Punjab, Maharaja Ranjit Singh established his supremacy and
set his eyes on the Chibh states of Bhimber and Khari Khariyali. In 1810, a force was sent against Raja Sultan Khan of Bhimber and was met with fierce
resistance. However, in 1812 another Sikh army under prince Kharak Singh defeated Sultan Khan and the Bhimber state was annexed as Jagir of Kharak Singh.
Around the same time, Ranjit Singh acquired Gujrat and invaded Khari Khariyali ruled by Raja Umar Khan. Raja Umar Khan made peace with Ranjit Singh. But
before a settlement could be made, he died and the state and Mirpur became part of Ranjit Singh's territories. In 1816, Ranjit Singh annexed Jammu state and in
1820 awarded Jammu to his commander Gulab Singh who hailed from Jammu and was under the service of Ranjit Singh for the past eight years. Between 1831
39 Ranjit Singh bestowed on Gulab Singh the royalty of the salt mines in northern Punjab, and the northern Punjab towns including Bhera, Jhelum,Rohtas,
Mirpur and Gujrat. Gulab Singh kept on expanding his kingdom and in 1840 Baltistan was made subject to Jammu and Gilgit fell to a Sikh force from Kashmir
in 1842. The state of Kashmir was annexed by Ranjit Singh in 1819. However the rebellion in Hazara in the beginning of 1846, compelled the country to be
transferred to Raja Gulab Singh of Jammu as well. As an aftermath of the First Anglo-Sikh War and the Treaty of Lahore, The Treaty of Amritsar was signed
between the British Government and Raja Gulab Singh of Jammu on March 16, 1846. This treaty transferred him all the hill states between Ravi and Indus. The
transfer included Kashmir, Hazara and the southern hill states (including former Khari Khariyali). Thus sealing the fate of Mirpur with the new state of Jammu
and Kashmir.
List of Rulers (title Mir) of Mirpur
Tharo Khan ibn Morad `Ali was a ruler of princely state of Mirpur from 1801 until 1829.
Shir Mohammad ibn Tharo was a ruler of princely state of Mirpur from 1829 until 1843.

Kalat
Kalat was a princely state in what is now Pakistan.
List of Rulers (titles Wali, [and from 1730 Begler Begi] Khan) of Kalat
Mehrab Khan I was a ruler Khan of the princely state of Kalat in what is now the Balochistan province of Pakistan in 1695.
Samander Khan was a ruler of the princely state of Kalat in what is now the Balochistan province of Pakistan from 1695 until 1714.
Abdullah Khan (died 1738) was a ruler of the princely state of Kalat in what is now the Balochistan province of Pakistan from 1714 until 1734.
Muhabat Khan (died 1749) was a ruler of the princely state of Kalat in what is now the Balochistan province of Pakistan from 1734 until his death in 1749.
Hosayn Nasur Khan I was a ruler of the princely state of Kalat in what is now the Balochistan province of Pakistan from 1749 until 1817.
Mahmud Khan I (1781 November 13, 1839) was a ruler of the princely state of Kalat in what is now the Balochistan province of Pakistan from 1817 until
his death on November 13, 1839.
Mehrab Khan II (1795 - 1846) was a ruler of the princely state of Kalat in what is now the Balochistan province of Pakistan from 1839 until 1840.
Hosayn Nasir Khan II (1836 - 1857) was a ruler of the princely state of Kalat in what is now the Balochistan province of Pakistan from 1840 until his death
in 1857.
Khodadad Khan (1844 August 15, 1893) was a ruler of the princely state of Kalat in what is now the Balochistan province of Pakistan from 1857 until
March 1863 and from May 1864 until his death on August 15, 1893.
Shirdil Khan (died May 1864) was a ruler of the princely state of Kalat in what is now the Balochistan province of Pakistan from March 1863 until his death in
May 1864.
Mahmud Khan II (1875 - 1935) was a ruler of the princely state of Kalat in what is now the Balochistan province of Pakistan from November 10, 1893 until
November 3, 1931.
Mohammad A`zam Jan Khan (1876 September 10, 1933) was a ruler of the princely state of Kalat in what is now the Balochistan province of Pakistan
from 1931 until his death on September 10, 1933.
Ahmad Yar Khan (1904 - 1979) was a ruler of the princely state of Kalat in what is now the Balochistan province of Pakistan 1933 until October 14, 1955
and in 1958 in dissidence.


Las Bela
Las Bela was a princely state in a subsidiary alliance with British India (later a princely state of Pakistan) which existed until 1955. The state occupied an area of
18,254 km
2
(7,048 sq mi) in the extreme southeast of the Balochistan region, with an extensive coastline on the Arabian Sea to the south. Las Bela was bordered
by the princely states of Kalat and Makran to the north and west. To the east lay the province of Sind and to the southeast lay the Federal Capital
Territory around the city ofKarachi. The State of Las Bela was founded in 1742 by Ali Khan I. His descendants ruled Las Bela until 1955 when the state became
part of West Pakistan. For a period of three years between 3 October 1952 and 14 October 1955, Las Bela was part of theBaluchistan States Union but retained
internal autonomy. In 1955, Las Bela was incorporated into the new province of West Pakistan and became part of Kalat division. In 1962, the area of Las Bela
was detached from Kalat division and merged with the former Federal Capital Territory to form the division of Karachi-Bela. When the provincial system was
changed in 1970, Las Bela became part of the new province of Balochistan.
List of Rulers (title Jam Saheb) of Las Bela
Izzat Khan I was a ruler of the princely state of Las Bela from ? until 1742.
Bibi Chaguli was a ruler of the princely state of Las Bela in 1742.
`Ali Khan I was a ruler of the princely state of Las Bela from 1742 until 1765.
Gholam Shah was a ruler of the princely state of Las Bela from 1765 until 1776.
Mir Khan I was a ruler of the princely state of Las Bela from 1776 until 1818.
`Ali Khan II was a ruler of the princely state of Las Bela from 1818 until 1930.
Mir Khan II (died 1888) was a ruler of the princely state of Las Bela from 1830 until 1969 and from 1886 until his death in 1888.
`Ali Khan III (1849 - 1896) was a ruler of the princely state of Las Bela from 1869 until 1886 and from 1888 until his death in 1896.
Kamal Khan (1874 - 1921) was a ruler of the princely state of Las Bela from 1896 until his death in 1921.
Gholam Mohammad Khan (1895 - 1937) was a ruler of the princely state of Las Bela from 1921 until his death in 1937.
Gholam Qader Khan (1920 - 1988) was a ruler of the princely state of Las Bela from 1937 until October 14, 1955.

Makran
Makran was an autonomous princely state in a subsidiary alliance with British India until 1947, then from 1948 a princely state of Pakistan. It ceased to exist in
1955. It was located in the extreme southwest of present-day Pakistan, an area now occupied by the districts of Gwadar, Kech and Panjgur. The state did not
include the enclave of Gwadar, which was under Omani rule until 1958. The state of Makran was established in the eighteenth century, ruled by the Sardars of
the Gichki family of Makran, who remained sovereign until 1948. On March 17, 1948, Makran acceded to Pakistan, and on October 3, 1952 it joined
Kalat, Kharanand Las Bela to form the Baluchistan States Union. The state was dissolved on October 14, 1955, when most regions of the western wing of
Pakistan were merged to form the province of West Pakistan. When that province was dissolved in 1970, the territory of the former state of Makran was
organised as Makran District and later Makran Division of the province of Baluchistan(later changed to Balochistan).
List of Rulers (title Nazem, from 1922 title Nawwab) of Makran
Harun Makrani Khan was a ruler of the princely state of Makran from 1725 until 1730.
Muhabat Khan (died 1751) was a ruler of the princely state of Makran from from 1730 until 1731 and from 1750 until his death in 1751.
Muhammad Khan I was a ruler of the princely state of Makran from 1731 until 1739.
Isa Khan was a ruler of the princely state of Makran from 1739 until 1740.
Nasir Khan was a ruler of the princely state of Makran from 1740 until 1750.
Mahmud Khan I was a ruler of the princely state of Makran from 1751 until 1816.
Mehrab Khan was a ruler of the princely state of Makran from 1816 until 1839.
Mihran Khan was a ruler of the princely state of Makran from 1839 until ?
Hajjaz Khan was a ruler of the princely state of Makran in the second half 19th century.
Muhammad Khan II was a ruler of the princely state of Makran from ? until 1905.
Mehr Allahm Mahmud Khan II was a ruler of the princely state of Makran from 1905 until 1917.
A`zam Jan was a ruler of the princely state of Makran from 1922 until 1948.
Bai Khan Baloch Gikchi (1890 - 19..) was a ruler of the princely state of Makran from 1948 until October 14, 1955.

Kharan
The State of Kharan was an autonomous princely state in a subsidiary alliance with British India, until the departure of the British from the subcontinent in
August 1947. For several months it was fully independent, until March 1948, when its ruler signed an Instrument of Accession to Pakistan, retaining the state's
internal self-government. In 1955 Kharan was incorporated into Pakistan. The territory once covered by Kharan is today part of the province of Balochistan, in
the southwest of Pakistan. The state of Kharan was established in about 1697 as a vassal state of Kalat, a status which remained until 1940. On 17 March 1948,
Kharan acceded to Pakistan and on October 3, 1952 it joined the Baluchistan States Union. The state was dissolved on 14 October 1955 when most regions of
the western wing of Pakistan were merged to form the province of West Pakistan. When that province was dissolved in 1970, the territory of the former state of
Kharan was organised as Kharan District of the province of Baluchistan (later Balochistan).
List of Rulers (title Mir; from 1921, Sardar Bahadur Nawab) of Kharan
Dosten Khan II was a ruler of the princely state of Kharan in late 17th century.
Shahdad Khan I was a ruler of the princely state of Kharan in late 17th century.
Rahmat Khan (died 1711) was a ruler of the princely state of Kharan in late 17th century.
Purdil Khan I was a ruler of the princely state of Kharan from 1711 until 1759.
Shahdad Khan II was a ruler of the princely state of Kharan from 1759 until 1764.
`Abbas Khan II was a ruler of the princely state of Kharan 1764 until 1796.
Jahangir Khan (died 1806) was a ruler of the princely state of Kharan from 1796 until 1804.
`Abbas Khan III (died 1835) was a ruler of the princely state of Kharan from 1804 until his death in 1835.
Azad Khan (1793 - 1885) was a ruler of the princely state of Kharan from 1835 until his death in 1885.
Nowruz Khan (1855 - June 1909) was a ruler of the princely state of Kharan from 1885 until June 1909.
Mohammad Ya`qub Khan (1873 April 19, 1911) was a ruler of the princely state of Kharan from 1909 until his death on April 19, 1911.
Amir Khan was a ruler (usurper) of the princely state of Kharan in 1911.
Habibullah Khan (1897 - 1958) was a ruler of the princely state of Kharan from 1911 until October 14, 1955.

Baltistan
Baltistan was known as Little Tibet in olden Days and in course of time this name was extended to include the area of ladakh as well. Later on, in order to
differentiate it from ladakh ,Baltistan was called little Tibet Where as Ladakh was known as Great Tibet .But locally Ladakh and Baltistan were Known
as Maryul (red country) and Baltistan were known as Balti Yul. It was believed that the Balti people came under the Sphere of influence from the kingdom
of Zhang Zhung.Baltistan came under the control of the Tibetan king Songtsen Gampo in the 7th century. Under Tibetan cultural influence, the Bon and
Animist Baltis began to adopt Tibetan Buddhism from Indian Buddhism. Religious artifacts such as the Gompas and Chortens were erected, and Lamas played
an important role in the lives of the Baltis. It was in the 14th century that religious Muslim scholars from Iran and Kashmir penetrated Baltistans mountainous
terrain to spread Islam amongst a people who were originally Buddhist. The Kharmang came under the control of the Namgyal royal family, and fostered a close
relationship with Ladakh in the east when the Raja of Laddakh, Jamyang Mangyal, attacked the principalities in the district of Purik annihilating the Skardu
garrison at Kharbu and putting to sword a number of petty Muslim rulers in the Muslim principalities in Purik (Kargil), Ali Sher Khan Anchan, Sher Ghazi, Raja
of Khaplu and Raja of Shigar left with a strong army by way of Marol and by passing the Laddakhi army occupied Leh, the capital of Laddakh. The Raja of
Laddakh was ultimately taken prisoner. Legends show that the Balti army obsessed with success advanced as far as Purang, in the valley of Mansarovar Lake, and
won the admiration of their enemies and friends. The Raja of Laddakh sued for peace and since Ali Sher Khans intention was not to annex Laddakh, he agreed
subject to the condition that the village of Ganokh and Gagra Nullah should be ceded to Skardu and he (the Laddakhi Raja) should pay annual tribute. This
tribute was paid through the Gonpa (monastery) of Lama Yuru till the Dogra conquest of Laddakh. Hashmatullah records that the Head Lama of the said Gonpa
had admitted before him the payment of yearly tribute to Skardu Darbar till the Dogra conquest of Laddakh. Ali Sher Khan Anchan also
included Gilgit and Chitral into his kingdom of baltistan. It is related that Baltistan was a flourishing country during the reign of Ali Sher Khan Anchan. They
valley from Khepchne to Kachura was flat and fertile and fruit trees abounded in it. The sandy desert now extending from Sundus village to the Skardu
Airport was a prosperous town. skardu had hardly recovered from the shock of the death of the Anchan when it was visited by a great flood converting it into a
sandy desert. In 1845, the area came under the despotic rule of the Dogras. At the time of the independence of India from the British, the people of the area saw
an opportunity to get rid of the oppressive rule of the Dogras, and the people of Baltistan along with the people of Gilgit revolted. Despite being outgunned and
outnumbered, they achieved independence and joined Pakistan in 1948. The Maqpon Dynasty of Skardu was found by Ibrahim shah (1190-1220)came
from Kashmir This royal family ruled over baltistan about 700 years. The kings of maqpon dynasty also extanded the frontiers of baltistan to Gilgit
Agency, chitral, and ladakh in the west during their flourishing time.
List of Rulers of Baltistan
Ibrahim Shah was the founder of Maqpon dynasty and ruler of Baltistan in late 12th and early 13th century.
Shakar Rygyayul-Fu (died 1437) was the ruler of Baltistan from Maqpon dynasty from ? until his death in 1437.
Ghota Cho-Senge (died 1490) was the ruler of Baltistan from Maqpon dynasty from 1437 until his death in 1490.
Bugha (died 1515) was the ruler of Baltistan from Maqpon dynasty from 1490 until his death in 1515.
Ghazi Mir (died 1590) was the ruler of Baltistan from Maqpon dynasty from 1565 until his death in 1590
Ali Sher Khan Anchan (died 1625) (balti: ) was a famous balti king of Baltistan from Maqpon dynasty from 1590 until his death in 1625.
He was a Maqpon dynasty king who unified Baltistan and expanded its frontiers to Ladakh and western Tibet in the east, and in the west to the borders
of Ghizar and Chitral. Anchan came into contact with the Mughal court. According to the balti version, Ali Sher Khan Anchan lost his royal father as a child. His
maternal uncle, the Raja of Shigar, took him to Shigar with his mother. The intention was probably to put him to death and annex the Skardu Kingdom, the boy's
inheritance, to his Kingdom of Shigar. At the age of 18, with twelve faithful followers of his father, Ali Sher Khan fled to Delhi. He was noticed by the
Emperor Akbar when he showed his physical prowess by killing a lion while hunting in Delhi. The Emperor gave him the command of a Moghul army to
reclaim his lost kingdom. While at Delhi, he married a Moghul princess named Gul Khatoon. In 1586 A.D., when Akbar the Great conquered Kashmir, Ali
Sher Khan Anchan was with him (referred to as Ali Rai by Mughal historians). It is related that Ladakhi kingdom extended up to Sermik in the West. During the
reign of Ghazi Mir, the Laddakhis were driven out not only from the Kharmang valley but the entire district of Purik (Kargil) was occupied by Ali Sher Khan, the
heir apparent. He is said to have garrisoned the fort at Kharbu with soldiers and appointed a Kharpon or governor to administer the border area.
A few years had not passed when the Raja of Laddakh, Jamyang Mangyal, attacked the principalities in the district of Purik (Kargil) annihilating
the Skardu garrison at Kharbu and putting to sword a number of petty Muslim rulers in the Muslim principalities in Purik (Kargil), Ali Sher Khan Anchan, Sher
Ghazi, Raja of Khaplu and Raja of Shigar left with a strong army by way of Marol and by[passing the Laddakhi army occupied Leh, the capital of Laddakh.It
appears that the Balti conquest of Laddakh took place in about 1594. The Raja of Laddakh was ultimately taken prisoner. Legends show that the Balti army
obsessed with success advanced as far as Purang, in the valley of Mansarwar Lake, and won the admiration of their enemies and friends. The Raja of Laddakh
sued for peace and since Ali Sher Khans intention was not to annex Laddakh, he agreed subject to the condition that the village of Ganokh and Gagra Nullah
should be ceded to Skardu and he (the Laddakhi Raja) should pay annual tribute. This tribute was paid through the Gonpa (monastery) of LamaYuru till
the Dogra conquest of Laddakh. Hashmatullah records that the Head Lama of the said Gonpa had admitted before him the payment of yearly tribute to Skardu
Darbar till the Dogra conquest of Laddakh. The king of Laddakh offered his daughter in marriage to Ali Sher Khan. The incessant attacks on and plunder of
villages in Roundu Baltistan, Dras, Gultari and Shingo Shigar by people from Gilgit, Chilas and Astore while he was preoccupied in the campaigns in Laddakh,
forced Ali Sher Khan Anchan to march on Gilgit with an Army worthy of his glorious name. He conquered Astore, Gilgit, Hunza, Nagar and Chilas. From Gilgit
he advanced to and conquered Chitral and Kafiristan. To commemorate his victory he planted a Chinar Tree (Plane Tree) at Chitral near the village of Bronshel.
In Balti folk songs and stories Chitral is known by the name of Brushal and this Chinar tree is referred to as Brosho Shingial or the Chinal of Broshal-corrupted
form of Bronshal. In the folk lore named after this Chinar of Brushal-Brosho Shingial, the exploits of Ali Sher Khan are enumerated and tribute is paid to the
Anchan for his remarkable conquest and the boundary of his kingdom from Purang in the east to Brushal or Chitral in the West and in doing so, the Balti
people have also been allowed to share the tribute. In one line the western and eastern boundaries of the Maqpon Empire have been defined Leh Purang na
Brushal Shingel meaning from Lehs Purang to Brushals Chinar Tree. Ali Sher Khan Anchan conquered most of the principalities of Kargil and introduced
Balti culture in the Kargil District. Anchan also took a lot interest in constructions, water channel (stream) was constructed from Hargisa Nullah near Koshmara
to the Kachura lake. It was dug on the pattern of those found in Srinagar. Shikaras (small boats) ferried between Kushmara and Kachura. This stream had the
twin purpose of providing irrigational facilities to the people as well as recreation to the royal princesses. Ruins of the stream are still to be found in Giayul village.
Ali Sher Khan is also credited with the construction of a dam on the Satpara Lake which irrigates Skardu. During the winter months the doors of the barrage
were closed and in spring time opened according to irrigational needs. This practice is followed even to this day. The construction of the Kharfocho Fort has
been attributed by Hashmatullah to Maqpon Bukha or more correctly, Bugha, one of his ancestors. Cunningham and Moghal historians are of the view that the
fort was constructed by Ali Sher Khan. Fosco Maraini says that everything of note in Skardu was put down to the credit of Ali Sher Khan.
Ali Mir (died 1635) was the ruler of Baltistan from Maqpon dynasty from 1625 until his death in 1635.
Adam Khan (died 1660) was the ruler of Baltistan from Maqpon dynasty from 1635 until his death in 1660.
Shah Murad (died 1680) was the ruler of Baltistan from Maqpon dynasty from 1660 until his death in 1680.
Shir Khan (died 1710) was the ruler of Baltistan from Maqpon dynasty from 1680 until his death in 1710.
Muhammad Rafi (died 1745) was the ruler of Baltistan from Maqpon dynasty from 1710 until his death in 1745.
Sultan Murad II (died 1780) was the ruler of Baltistan from Maqpon dynasty from 1745 until his death in 1780.
Azam Khan (died 1785) was the ruler of Baltistan from Maqpon dynasty from 1780 until his death in 1785.
Muhammad Zafar Khan (died 1787) was the ruler of Baltistan from Maqpon dynasty from 1785 until his death in 1787.
Ali Sher Shah (died 1800) was the ruler of Baltistan from Maqpon dynasty from 1787 until his death in 1800.
Ahmed Shah (died1841) was the ruler of Baltistan from Maqpon dynasty from 1800 until his death in 1841 and Kashmir in 1840. Ahmad
Shah was defeated and lost independence against the Dogra general Zorawar Singh in 1840.
Mahmud Shah was the ruler of Baltistan from Maqpon dynasty from 1841 until ?
Ali Shah was the ruler of Baltistan from Maqpon dynasty in second half 19th century.
Shah Abbas was the ruler of Baltistan from Maqpon dynasty in second half 19th century.

Amb
Amb was a princely state of the former British Indian Empire. In 1947 by the Indian Independence Act 1947, the British abandoned their supremacy, and
following the Partition of India Amb's Nawab decided to give up his state's independence by acceding to the new country of Pakistan. However, Amb continued
as a distinct state within Pakistan until 1969, when it was incorporated into the North West Frontier Province (now Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa). In 1972, the royal
status of the Nawab was abolished by the Government of Pakistan.
List of Rulers (title Mir; from 1919, Nawwab) of Amb
Mir Haibat Khan (died 1803) was ruler of the princely state of Amb from 1800 until his death in 1803. Mir Haibat Khan was the eldest son of Mir Gul
Muhammad Khan and declared to be the chief of Tanawal.
Mir Hashim Ali Khan (died 1809) was ruler of the princely state of Amb from 1803 until his death in 1809. He was son of Mir Haibat Khan and brother to
Mir Nawab Khan, following)
Mir Nawab Khan (died 1818) was ruler of the princely state of Amb from 1809 until his death in 1818
Mir Painda Khan (died 1844) was a powerful Tanoli chief and ruler of the princely state of Amb from 1818 until his death in 1844. He was the son of Mir
Nawab Khan, famed for his rebellion against Maharaja Ranjit Singh's governors of Hazara. Painda Khan "played a considerable part in vigorously opposing the
Sikhs." Starting in circa-1813, Mir Painda Khan began a rebellion against the Sikhs that would continue throughout his lifetime. To combat Khan, Hari Singh
Nalwa, the Sikh Governor of Maharaja Ranjit Singh to Hazara, created forts at strategic locations during his governorship. Painda Khan's rebellion against the
Sikh empire cost him a major portion of his kingdom, leaving only the tract around Amb,
[2]
with his twin capitals Amb and Darband. This increased his resistance
against the Sikh government. In 1828 Mir Painda Khan gifted the territory of Phulra as an independent Khanate to his brother Madad Khan. This territory was
later recognized by the British as a semi-independent Princely State. Painda Khan was the Nawab of Amb who took over the valley of Agror in 1834.
The Swatis appealed to Sardar Hari Singh, who was unable to help them but in 1841, Hari Singh's successor restored Agror to Ata Muhammad, a descendant of
Sad-ud-din. General Dhaurikal Singh, commanding officer of the Sikh troops in Hazara, had Painda Khan poisoned to death in September 1844.
Mir Jehandad Khan (died 1868) was a tribal chief of the Hazara region of northwestern Pakistan abd ruler of the princely state of Amb from 1844 until his
death in 1868. It was said, "Of all the tribal chiefs of Hazara, the most powerful [was] said to be Jehandad Khan of the Tanoli."

His territories laid on both banks
of the Indus, and, as the son of Painda Khan, Jehandad Khan was particularly well respected among his peoples.
[1]
Respecting Jehandad Khan's authority over his
territory was a necessity for the British; in the words of Major J. Abbott, 'His (Jehandad's) territory interposes between Hazara and the strongest and most
troublesome of the independent tribes. He can send 50 or 60 matchlocks to retaliate a fray which might cost us an army of 8000 men. Jehandad Khan is naturally
of a gentle and sincere temperament, and has fewer vicious propensities than most Asiatics.' When Sikh power was on the decline in 1845 Jehandad Khan
blockaded the garrisons of no less than 22 Sikh posts in Upper Tanawal; and when they surrendered at discretion, he spared their lives, as the servants of a fallen
Empire. "The act, however, stood him afterwards in good stead; for, when Hazara was assigned to Maharaja Golab Singh, that politic ruler rewarded Jehandad
Khan's humanity with the jagir of Koolge and Badnuck in Lower Tannowul." As far as Jehandad Khan's hereditary domain of Upper Tanawal, with the capital at
Amb is concerned, the term 'jagir' has never been applicable to it. The British Government considered Upper Tannowul as a chiefship held under the British
Government, but in which, as a rule, they did not possess internal jurisdiction. The Chief managed his own people in his own way without regard to British laws,
rules or system. This tenure resembled that on which the Chiefs of Patiala, Jhind, Nabha, Kapurthala and others held their lands. He was the son of Mir Painda
Khan. When he died, he left a nine year old boy Muhammad Akram Khan.
Muhammad Akram Khan (died 1907) was the chief of the Tanolis and ruler of the princely state of Amb from 1868 until his death in 1907. He was son
of Mir Jahandad Khan was Nawab Sir Akram Khan (K.C.S.I)(18681907). He was a popular chief and it was during his tenure that the fort at Shergarh was
constructed, along with Dogah and Shahkot Forts. His rule was a peaceful time for Tanawal with no major conflicts.
Muhammad Khan Zaman Khan, K.C.I.E (or correctly, Nawab Khan-i-zaman Khan, died February 26, 1936) was the chief of the
Tanolis and ruler of the princely state of Amb from 1907 until his death on February 26, 1936. He was son of Nawab Muhammad Akram
Khan. He was helped the British in carrying out several of the later Black Mountain (Kala Dhaka/Tor Ghar) expeditions.



Muhammad Farid Khan, K.B.E (1893 - 1969) was the chief of the Tanolis and ruler of the princely state of Amb from 1936 until 1947. He was succeeded
his father Nawab Khanizaman Khan. He had had a very good relationship with The Quaid e Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnahand Nawabzada Liaquat Ali Khan.
His contributions to the Pakistan movement have been acknowledged by letters from The Quaid e Azam. In 1947 the Nawab ofAmb, Muhammad Farid Khan,
acceded to Pakistan by signing the Instrument of Accession of his State, in favour of Pakistan. In 1969, the State was incorporated into the North-West Frontier
Province. He died in 1969, and in 1971 the royal status of the Nawab was abolished by the Government of Pakistan. Nawab Muhammad Farid Khan sent an
army of 1500 Amb State soldiers under the leadership of Subedar Major Shah Zaman Khan to take part in the Kashmir Liberation Movement from 1947 to
1948 (Kashmir Conflict). The Amb State force carried its own artillery to the battle. They fought bravely alongside other frontier tribesmen and came under fire
by the Indian airforce just three kilometers from Baramulla sector. Around 200 Amb State soldiers lost their lives in the battle.
Saeed Khan (1934 - 1973) was the chief of the Tanolis and titular ruler of the princely state of Amb from 1971 until his death in 1973.
Salahuddin Khan was the chief of the Tanolis and titular ruler of the princely state of Amb in 1973. He is a Pakistani politician and the
present titular Chief of the Tanolis of the former princely state of Amb or Tanawal. He has been elected five times to the National Assembly of
Pakistan and has belonged to several political parties, including Pakistan Tehreek-i-Insaf. In Pakistan's General Elections of 2013 he stood in and is
a candidate for Constituency NA-21. Khan is the son of Nawab Muhammad Saeed Khan. He holds the record as the youngest parliamentarian
ever to be elected to the National Assembly of Pakistan. After that, he went on to be elected to the National Assembly five times, between 1985
and 1997, a feat only achieved by seven other Pakistani parliamentarians, including the former Pakistani Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif. Khan has
held portfolios in the federal government, including his service as Parliamentary Secretary for Production (1991-1993). He later chaired the
National Assembly's Standing Committee on Sports, Tourism, Culture and Youth Affairs (1997-1999) and has been a member of several other
parliamentary Standing Committees. Khan also served as interim Provincial Minister in the Kyber Pakhtunkhwa Government, from 1990 to 1991.
He has twice led a delegation of Pakistan to the United Nations General Assembly and also at several other international forums, such as the Commonwealth
election observer in Kenya, SAARC and the Cancun Summit on Natural Habitat.
Chitral
Chitral (or Chitrl) (Urdu: ) was a princely state in alliance with British India until 1947, then a princely state of Pakistanuntil 1969. The ruler, or Mehtar, of
Chitral was given the title of His Highness by the British and enjoyed a hereditary salute of 11 guns.
[1]
The area of the state now forms the Chitral
District of Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa. The former princely capital, Chitral Town, is situated on the west bank of the Chitral (or Kunar River) at the foot of Tirich
Mirwhich at 7,708 m (25,289 ft) is the highest peak of the Hindu Kush. The borders of the state were seldom stable and fluctuated with the fortunes of Chitrals
rulers, the Mehtars. The official language of the state was Persian but the general population was mainly of the Khow tribe, who spoke the Khowar language (or
Chitrali), which is also spoken in parts of Yasin,Gilgit and Swat. The Khowar language belongs to the Proto Indo-European group of languages. The entire region
that now forms the Chitral District was a fully independent monarchy until 1895, when the British negotiated asubsidiary alliance with its hereditary ruler, the
Mehtar, under which Chitral became a princely state, still sovereign but subject to the suzerainty of the Indian Empire. Chitral retained a similar status even after
its accession to Pakistan in 1947, not becoming an administrative district of Pakistan until 1969.
List of Rulers (title Mehtar) of Chitral
Sangeen Ali I was a ruler of the princely state of Chitral around 1560. The ruling family of Chitral traces its descent from the son of a Khorasan prince, Baba
Ayub Mirza who was also a disciple of the saint Kamal Shah Shams ud-din Tabrizi. Ayub Mirza was the grandson of Shah Abu'l Ghazi Sultan Mirza Husayn
Bayqarah, the great grandson of Emperor Timurlane. Baba Ayub Mirza arrived in Chitral and married the daughter of the ruler Shah Raees, a supposed
descendant of Alexander the Great. The grandson of this marriage founded the present Katoor dynasty. Accordingly, the family actually owes its fortunes to
Sangan Ali, sometime Minister to Shah Rais, ruler of Chitral during the sixteenth century. His sons seized power following his death in 1540, establishing a new
ruling dynasty over the state. The present ruling dynasty descends from the second of these two sons. The period between Sangan 'Ali's accession to power and
modern times is clouded by fratricidal warfare. So much so that it is nearly impossible to date the reigns or lives of many of the rulers. Only during the middle of
the nineteenth century, European travelers, administrators and scholars began to enter the area and take an interest in its history, and gradually the history of the
country, its people, languages and culture, began to emerge from the mists of time. However, this task is far from complete and it will be many years before
Chitral yields up all its mysteries and secrets.
Muhtarram Shah Kator I was a ruler of the princely state of Chitral around 1585.
Sangeen Ali II was a ruler of the princely state of Chitral around 1655
Ghulam Mohammad was a ruler of the princely state of Chitral from ? until 1700.
Shah Alam was a ruler of the princely state of Chitral from 1700 until ?
Mohammad Shafi was a ruler of the princely state of Chitral in the first half 18th century.
Faramurz Shah (died 1790) was a ruler of the princely state of Chitral from 1755 until 1770.
Shah Afzal I was a ruler of the princely state of Chitral from 1770 until 1775.
Shah Fazil was a ruler of the princely state of Chitral from 1775 until 1778.
Mohammad Mohtaram Shah II (died 1841) was a ruler of the princely state of Chitral from 1778 until 1788 and from 1833 until 1837
Shah Nawaz Khan was a ruler of the princely state of Chitral from 1788 until 1798 and from 1817 until 1833.
Shah Khairullah Kushqte (died c.1818) was a ruler of the princely state of Chitral from 1798 until 1817.
Shah Mohammad Afzal II (died 1853) was a ruler of the princely state of Chitral from 1837 until his death in 1853. Shah Afzal II who ruled during the
first half of the nineteenth century, fought against the Afghans in support of his allies, the rulers ofBadakhshan. He also fought against the Dogras and against his
Kushwaqte kinsmen, but later switched sides and concluded treaty relations with the Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir, thereafter becoming an ally of Kashmir in
return for an annual subsidy to pay for troops and the supervision of the Afghan border.
Mohammad Mohtaram Shah III (died 1858) was a ruler of the princely state of Chitral from 1853 until his death in 1858.
Shah Mohammad Aman al-Mulk II (1820 - 1892) was a ruler of the princely state of Chitral from 1858 until his death in 1892.
Aman ul-Mulk, Afzal's younger son, succeeded his brother in 1857. After a brief dispute with Kashmir, in which he laid siege to the garrison
at Gilgit and briefly held the Puniyal valley, he accepted a new treaty with the Maharaja in 1877. Aman ul-Mulk was such a strong ruler that
no serious attempt to challenge his authority was made during his reign. Describing Aman ul-Mulk in 1899 Algernon Durand wrote, "His
bearing was royal, his courtesy simple and perfect, he had naturally the courtly Spanish grace of a great heredity noble". Lord
Curzon, Viceroy of India from (1897-1902) visited Chitral in 1890 while he was a member of the British Parliament. He witnessed the
proceedings of the Mahraka (Royal Court) presided over by Aman ul-Mulk and recorded in his diary, Chitral, in fact, had its parliament and
democratic constitution. For just as the British House of Commons is an assembly, so in Chitral, the Mehtar, seated on a platform and
hedged about with a certain dignity, dispensed justice or law in sight of some hundreds of his subjects, who heard the arguments, watched the process of debate,
and by their attitude in the main decided the issue. Such durbars were held on most days of the week in Chitral, very often twice in the day, in the morning and
again at night. Justice compels me to add that the speeches in the Mahraka were less long and the general demeanour more decorous than in some western
assemblies (Curzon 1923:133). For forty years his was the chief personality on the frontier. After a relatively long reign, he died peacefully in 1892.
Mohammad Afzal al-Mulk (1875 December 1, 1892) was a ruler of the princely state of Chitral from August 30 until December 1,
1892. He was the fifth son of Shah Muhammad Aman ul-Mulk II, Mehtar of Chitral and Yasin, Master of Ghizr, Ishkoman and Suzerain
of Kafiristan, by his first wife. He was appointed by his father as Heir Presumptive with the title of Tsik Mehtar. He was Governor of Matuj
until 1892. He was seized Chitral following the death of his father, in August 30, 1892. He was proclaimed ruler in the absence of his elder
brother, Sardar Muhammad Nizam ul-Mulk, the legitimate Heir Apparent. Opposed by several factions within the family and the state,
prompting his uncle to return from Afghanistan and seize the throne. m. a daughter of the Mir of Shighnan, a refugee from Badakhshan
following the Russian advance into Central Asia. He was k. (s.p.m.) by his paternal uncle Sher Afzal, at Chitral Fort, 1st December 1892
(bur. at the Mehtari Qabiristan, Jangbazar, Chitral), having had issue, three daughters.
Shir Afzal Khan (1873 - 1895) was a ruler of the princely state of Chitral from December 1 until December 12, 1892. He was younger son of Shah
Muhammad Afzal II, Mehtar of Chitral. Fled to Afghanistan in 1858, where he cultivated the friendship of the Amir 'Abdu'l Rahman. Returned to Chitral with
troops and funds, killed his nephew, Mehtar Azfal ul-Mulk, and seized the throne, on December 1, 1892. He was briefly held Chitral Fort until his flight on
December 12, 1892. Fled into Afghanistan early in 1893, returned in 1894 and attempted to seize power again, but was captured and exiled to Madras in
September 1895. He died there, before 1923 (bur. at the Mehtari Qabiristan, Jangbazar, Chitral), having had issue, two daughters.
Mohammad Nizam al-Mulk (1874 January 1, 1895) was a ruler of the princely state of Chitral from December 12, 1892 until
his death in 1895. He was the third son of Shah Muhammad Aman ul-Mulk II, Mehtar of Chitral and Yasin, Master of Ghizr, Ishkoman
and Suzerain of Kafiristan, by his first wife, the Sayyida Khonza, educ. privately. He was appointed by his father as Heir Apparent with
the title of Sardar. He was negotiated the treaty with Kashmir, on behalf of his father, in 1877. Governor of Yasin 1882-1892. He was fled
to Gilgit when his younger brother seized power, on August 30, 1892. He was succeeded as the rightful heir on his death, 1st December
1892. Returned to Mastuj, where he collected troops and funds, then entered Chitral and drove out his uncle, Sher Afzal. He was
installed at Chitral Fort, on December 12, 1892. He was came under British protection by virtue of the Durand Agreement in 1894,
losing Kafiristan and the Kunar Valley when they were recognised as Afghan territory. He was married daughter of Rahmatu'llah Khan,
Khan of Dir. He was murdered while out hawking at Broz, on January 1, 1895 and buried at the Mehtari Qabiristan, Jangbazar, Chitral.
Mohammad Amin al-Mulk (1878 December 18, 1923) was a ruler of the princely state of Chitral from January 1 until May 1,
1895. He was the eighth son of Shah Muhammad Aman ul-Mulk II, Mehtar of Chitral, by his wife, a sister of the Khan of Asmar, in
Afghanistan, educ. privately. He seized control of Chitral Fort and usurped the throne after arranging for the murder of his elder half-
brother, 1st January 1895. However, his assumption of power was declared invalid by the British authorities 3rd March 1895. He fled to
Jandol when Chitral was invaded by a joint British and Kashmiri military force, and formally deposed in favour of his younger brother,
Shuja ul-Mulk, on May 1, 1895. Captured and exiled to Madras with his principal conspiritor, his uncle Sher Afzal, September 1895. m.
at Madras, Kulsum Mahal Khonza, Amma Ji (d. at Mazhar-i-Sharif, Afghanistan, 194x), an Indian Parsee lady and former nurse from
Madras. He died at Ootacamund, Madras Presidency, ca December 18, 1923 (buried at the Mehtari Qabiristan, Jangbazar, Chitral, in
1925), having had issue, a son and three daughters.
Mohammad Shoja` al-Mulk, also known as Ala Hazrat (1882 October 13, 1936) was a ruler of the princely state of Chitral
from May 1, 1895 until his death on October 13, 1936. He belonged to the royal Katur dynasty which ruled the state from 1571 to
1969, when the princely state of Chitral was merged into Pakistan to form the district of Chitral. He was made Companion of the
Indian Empire (C.I.E) by the British in 1903, and Knighted (K.C.I.E) in 1919. He was granted a personal gun salute of 11 guns and
the title of His Highness. Mehtar Shuja ul-Mulk was born into the ruling family of Chitral in 1881. He was the second youngest son
of Aman ul-Mulk, the Great Mehtar of Chitral who ruled the state from 1857 to 1892, during which the state reached its territorial
peak. Shuja ul-Mulks mother was an Afghan princess, the daughter of the Khan of Asmar. When the Mehtar Aman ul-Mulk died in
1892, a long war of succession ensued between Aman ul-Mulk's sons as there was no clear any law of succession. His elder brother
Afzal ul-Mulk proclaimed himself ruler and proceeded to eliminate several potential contenders to his throne. This initiated a war of
succession, which lasted three years. By virtue of the rank of his mother, Shuja ul-Mulk was one of the two sons who were regarded
as having the strongest claim to Mehtarship. At about that time, Chitral came under the British sphere of influence following
the Durand Agreement. The approach of the Chitral Expedition, a strong military force composed of British and Kashmiri troops,
and the ensuing Siege of Chitral settled the issue of succession and Shuja ul-Mulk was recognized as successor to his father. The siege and gallant relief of Chitral
is considered to be one of the most dramatic events in the history of the North-West Frontier of India. Shuja ul-Mulk was installed as Mehtar at a darbar held at
the Chitral Fort on 2 September 1895. Mehtar Shuja ul-Mulk reigned under a Council of Regency until he came of age and was invested with full ruling powers.
He ruled for forty-one years, during which Chitral enjoyed an unprecedented period of internal peace. He visited various parts of India and met a number of
fellow rulers, as well as making the Hajj to Arabia and meeting Ibn Saud, theMonarch of Saudi Arabia. In the winter of 1899-1900, Mehtar Shuja-ul-Mulk in
company of the chief of the Gilgit Agency visited the Viceroy of India at Calcutta. In May 1902, the Mehtar was present at the Vice-Regal Durbar
at Peshawar. He was invited to the Delhi Durbar and attended the Coronation Durbar at Delhi in 1903 where he was made Companion of the Indian Empire
(C.I.E). He attended the Coronation Darbar at Delhi again in 1911. He was granted a personal salute of 11-guns and the title of His Highness in 1919. The salute
and title were made permanent and hereditary to his successors in 1932. Describing him in 1937, B. E. M. Gurdon wrote, "Shuja-ul-Mulk was a devout Sunni,
and made the pilgrimage to Mecca in 1924, but bigotry and fanaticism found little place in his character. Shuja ul-Mulk sent his sons abroad to acquire a modern
education. The princes traveled to far-off places such as Aligarh and Dehradunaccompanied by the sons of notables who were schooled at state expense. The
Mehtar's Bodyguard was raised by H.H. Mehtar Shuja-ul-Mulk in the early 1900s and consisted of a professional standing army which had been raised by his
father Mehtar Aman-ul-Mulk in the 1880s. He supported the British during the Third Afghan War in 1919, during which four of his sons and the Chitral State
Forces served in several actions guarding the border against invasion. In 1911 Mehtar Shuja-ul-Mulk ordered Mirza Muhammad Gufran to write a book
documenting the history of Chitral for which he received considerable tracts of land in different parts of the state. Tarikh-i-Chitrar was written in Persian,
compiled and finalized in 1921. It is a landmark work for the history of Chitral and the HinduKush region. A love of sport, characteristic of the peoples of
the Hindu Kush, was shared by the Mehtar. Shooting, falconry, polo, chess, and listening to singing accompanied on the sitar, all came within the ambit of his
relaxations. Falconry was his favorite sport, and he was very proud of the unrivaled skill of his falconers. Mehtar Shuja ul-Mulks sister was married to Miangul
Abdul Khaliq, the grandfather of the Wali of Swat. She acted as de facto ruler of Swat for many years after the death of her husband. Another one of his sisters
was married to the Nawab of Dir. His daughter was married to Naqibzada Pir Sayyid Jamal ud-din Al-Gilani, a direct descendent of Abdul Qadir Gilani,
patronym of the Qadiriyya order. His granddaughter was married to Nawab Muhammad Said Khan, the Nawab of Amb. He had following titles and honours:
His Highness (Ala Hazrat), Knight Commander of the Indian Empire (K.C.I.E), Companion of the Indian Empire (C.I.E), 11 gun salute, Hon. Cdt. The Chitral
Scouts, Col. Cdt. Chitral State Scouts, Elected Member of the Himalayan Club, Delhi Durbar Gold Medal (1903), Delhi Darbar Gold Medal (1911) and Delhi
Darbar Silver Jubilee Medal (1935). Shuja ul-Mulk died on October 13, 1936. He was buried in his ancestral graveyard adjacent to the Royal Fort in Chitral. He
was succeeded by his eldest son Mehtar Nasir-ul-Mulk.
Mohammad Naser al-Mulk (1897 June 29, 1943) was a ruler of the princely state of Chitral from 1936 until his death on June
29, 1943. Naser al-Mulk succeeded his father in 1936. He received a modern education, becoming a noted poet and scholar in his own
right. He took a deep interest in military, political and diplomatic affairs, and spent much of his time on improving the administration.
Dying without a surviving male heir in 1943, his successor was his younger brother, Muzaffar-ul-Mulk. He had issue, two sons and two
daughters: son born and died at Chitral in1932, Shahzada Muhammad Aman ul-Mulk born at Chitral on April 1, 1937. He died three
weeks later, Shahzadi Razia Sultan, H.H. the Khonza of Chitral, born at Chitral, on February 23, 1934 and Shahzadi Ayesha Sultana
Begum born at Chitral, on March 24, 1935.
Mohammad Muzaffar al-Mulk (1901 January 7, 1949) was a ruler of the princely state of Chitral from 1943 until his death on January
7, 1949. He was man with a military disposition, his reign witnessed the tumultuous events surrounding the transfer of power in 1947. His
prompt action in sending in his own Body Guard to Gilgit was instrumental in securing the territory for Pakistan. The unexpected early death
of Mozaffar-al-Mulk saw the succession pass to his relatively inexperienced eldest son, Saif-ur-Rahman, in 1949.

Sayf ar-Rahman (1926 October 14, 1954) was a ruler of the princely state of Chitral from 1949 until his death on October 14, 1954. The
unexpected early death of Muzaffar-ul-Mulk saw the succession pass to his relatively inexperienced eldest son, Saif-ur-Rahman, in 1948. Due to
certain tensions he was exiled from Chitral by the Government of Pakistan for six years. They appointed a board of administration composed of
Chitrali and Pakistani officials to govern the state in his absence. He died in a plane crash while returning to resume charge of Chitral in 1954.

Mohammad Naser Sayf al-Mulk (1950 - 2011) was a ruler of the princely state of Chitral from 1954 until July 28, 1969. Saif ul-
Mulk succeeded his father at the age of four. He reigned under a Council of Regency for the next twelve years, during which Pakistani
authority gradually increased over the state. Although installed as a constitutional ruler when he came of age in 1966, he did not enjoy his
new status very long. Chitral was absorbed and fully integrated into the Republic of Pakistan by Yahya Khan in 1969. In order to reduce
the popular Mehtar's influence, he, like so many other princes in neighbouring India, was "invited" to represent his country abroad. He
served in various diplomatic posts and retired from the service as Consul-General in Hong Kong in 1989. He was deprived of official
recognition of his rank, titles and honours by the Government of Pakistan, on January 1,1972 (subsequently relaxed for social use together
with continued official recognition as head of his house and family). Joined the Pakistan Foreign Service 1973, and served as First Secretary
at the Pakistan Embassy in Ankara, Turkey 1974-1979, Deputy Chief of Protocol in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs at Peshawar and
Islamabad 1979-1985, and Assist Consul-Gen in Hong Kong 1985-1989. Patron Chitral Polo Assoc 1957-2011, and Anjuman-e-Tariqe
Khowar 1960-2011, Patron and Guardian of The Ayubia Union, etc. Rcvd: Queen Elizabeth II Coron Medal (June 2, 1953). He was married H.H. Ismat
Khonza (born 1956), daughter of Nawab Muhammad Said Khan, Nawab of Amb, by his wife, Ayesha Sultana Begum, younger daughter of Lieutenant-Colonel
H.H. Nasir ul-Mulk, Mehtar Sir Muhammad Ahmad, Mehtar of Chitral, KCIE, by his first wife, the daughter of the Mir Hakim of the Raza Khel tribe of Laspur.
He d. suddenly from heart failure, at Islamabad, 18th October 2011 (bur. at the Mehtari Qabiristan, Jangbazar, Chitral), having had issue, two sons and two
daughters: Shahzada Fateh ul-Mulk Ali Nasir, Mehtarbak, Wali-Akht Sahib, who succeeded as H.H. Mehtar Fateh ul-Mulk Ali Nasir (born November 27,
1983) Mehtar of Chitral, Shahzada Hammad ul-Mulk Nasir (born September 20, 1990), Shahzadi Zainab Begum (August 10, 1978) educ. MBA. married at
Islamabad, September 15, 2005, Yasir Raza, son of K.M. Raza, a Saddozai businessman from Kashmir and Shahzadi Nadia Nasirm (born January 3, 1980).
Shahzada Asad ar-Rahman (1928 - 2005) was regent of the princely state of Chitral from 1954 until May 1966.


Dir (Dhir)
Dir (Dhir) was a small princely state in a subsidiary alliance with British India until August 1947 when the British left the subcontinent. For some months it was
unaligned, until February 1948, when its accession to the new Dominion of Pakistanwas accepted. Dir ceased to exist as a state in 1969, when it was incorporated
into Pakistan. The territory it once covered, some 5,282 km
2
(2,039 sq mi), is today within the Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan, forming two districts
called Upper Dir and Lower Dir. Most of the state lay in the valley of the Panjkora river, which originates in the Hindu Kush mountains and joins the Swat
Rivernear Chakdara. Apart from small areas in the south-west, Dir is a rugged, mountainous zone with peaks rising to 5,000 metres (16,000 ft) in the north-east
and to 3,000 metres (9,800 ft) along the watersheds, with Swat to the east and Afghanistan andChitral to the west and north. Dir took its name from its main
settlement, also called Dir, location of the ruler's palace. The princely state was established by Akhund Baba, the leader of a Pakhtun clan, and ruled afterwards
by his descendants.
List of Rulers (title Khan; from Jun 1897, Nawwab Khan Bahador) of Dir (Dhir)
Akhund Baba (Mulla Illas Khan) was a ruler of the princely state of Dir (Dhir) from 1826 until ?
Gholam Khan Baba was a ruler of the princely state of Dir (Dhir) in the first half 19th century.
Zafar Khan was a ruler of the princely state of Dir (Dhir) in the first half 19th century.
Qasem Khan was a ruler of the princely state of Dir (Dhir) from ? until 1863.
Ghazzan Khan was a ruler of the princely state of Dir (Dhir) from 1863 until 1874.
Rahmat Allah Khan (died 1925) was a ruler of the princely state of Dir (Dhir) from 1875 until 1886.
Mohammad Sharif Khan (1848 - December 1904) was a ruler of the princely state of Dir (Dhir) from 1886 until 1890 and from 1895 until his death in
December 1904. In 1895, however, while the forces of Umara Khan were besieging a British force near Malakand, Muhammad Sharif Khan decided to make his
soldiers join the British relief force coming in aid, the Chitral Expedition. During that expedition Sharif Khan made an agreement with the British Government to
keep the road to Chitral open in return for a subsidy. The British eventually won the war and exiled Umara Khan. As a reward for his help, Sharif Khan was
given the whole Dir and also the lower Swat (the latter territory would be lost in 1917 to the Wali of Swat). Moreover, some years later he received the title of
Nawab.
Mohammad `Omara Khan (1850 - 1903) was a ruler of the princely state of Dir (Dhir) from 1890 until 1895.
Awrangzeb Badshah Khan (died 1925) was a ruler of the princely state of Dir (Dhir) from 1904 until 1913 and from 1914 until his death in 1925. The
Nawab title was inherited by Sharif's oldest son, Awrangzeb Badshah Khan, who ruled between 1904 and 1925. In 1906 his younger brother, Miangul Jan, tried
in vain to conquer the power with the assistance of the Khan of Marwa, Saiyid Ahmad Khan, a former ally of Mohammad Sharif. A second attempt in 1913 was
crowned by success, but for a very short time, as in 1914 Awrangzeb regained the rule over Dir. Also the other son of Mohammad Sharif, Mohammad Isa Khan,
attempted around 1915 to seize the Dir throne by allying with the Khan of Barwa, but Awrangzeb managed to conserve the rule.

At Awrangzeb's death, in 1925,
the title passed to his eldest son, Mohammad Shah Jahan Khan, who was supported by the British Government against the small rival faction that favored his
brother Alamzeb Khan.
Miangul Jan Khan (died 1914) was a ruler of the princely state of Dir (Dhir) from 1913 until his death in 1914.
Alamzeb Khan was a ruler (usurper) of the princely state of Dir (Dhir) in 1925. At Awrangzeb's death, in 1925, the title passed to his eldest son, Mohammad
Shah Jahan Khan, who was supported by the British Government against the small rival faction that favored his brother Alamzeb Khan. Alamzeb was exiled in
1928 because of his attempts to take the power.
Mohammad Shah Jahan Khan (1890? November 9, 1960) was a ruler of the princely state of Dir (Dhir) from 1925 until his death on November 9,
1960. At Awrangzeb's death, in 1925, the title passed to his eldest son, Mohammad Shah Jahan Khan, who was supported by the British Government against the
small rival faction that favored his brother Alamzeb Khan. Alamzeb was exiled in 1928 because of his attempts to take the power. Jahan Khan was loyal to the
British, who nominated him KBE in 1933. In 1947, Jahan Khan sent his troops to support Pakistan during the First Kashmir War, and in 1948 united his
princely state with the new Dominion of Pakistan. He also nominated his sons (Muhammad Shah Khan Khusro, Shahabuddin Khan and Mohammad Shah)
governors of different provinces. The politics of Nawabs are described as reactionary and harsh. The Italian anthropologist Fosco Maraini, who visited the state
in 1959 during an expedition towards Hindu-Kush, reports the opinion of the people as the Nawab Jahan Khan (who was about 85 years old at that time) being a
tyrannical leader, denying his subjects any freedom of speech and instruction, governing the land with a number of henchmen and seizing for his harem any girl
or woman he wanted. Maraini also noticed the lack of schools, sewers and paved roads, and the presence of just a rudimentary newly-built hospital. The Nawab
was negatively compared to the Wali of Swat, whose liberal politics allowed his state to enter into the modern era. As a consequence of the oppressive political
climate, uprisings began eventually to explode. A repressed revolt in 1959 is reported in Maraini's account. Another insurrection in 1960 led to the death of 200
soldiers and put the Nawab in bad light in the view of the press. General Yahya decided to exile Jahan Khan, who would die in 1968. His throne passed in
October 1961 to his eldest son, Mohammad Shah Khosru Khan, educated in India and a serving Major General of Pakistan Army.
Mohammad Shah Khosru Khan (born 1936) was a ruler of the princely state of Dir (Dhir) from 1960 until July 28, 1969. Mohammad Shah Khosru
Khan, educated in India and a serving Major General of Pakistan Army. However, the effective rule of Dir was taken by the Political Agent. A few years later, on
July 28, 1969, the Dir state was incorporated into Pakistan, ceasing its existence.


Hunza
Hunza (Urdu: ), also known as Kanjut, was a princely state in a subsidiary alliance with British India from 1892 to August 1947, for three months was
unaligned, and then from November 1947 until 1974 was a princely state of Pakistan. Hunza covered territory now forming the northernmost part of
the Northern Areas of Pakistan.The state bordered the Gilgit Agency to the south, the former princely state of Nagar to the east, China, to the north
and Afghanistan to the northwest. The state capital was Baltit (also known as Karimabad). The area of Hunza now forms the Aliabad tehsil of HunzaNagar
District. Hunza was an independent principality for centuries. It was ruled by the Mirs of Hunza, who took the title of Thum. The Hunzas were tributaries and
allies to China, acknowledging China as suzerain since 1761. When the Hunzas raided theKyrgyzstan, they sold Kirghiz slaves to Chinese. From 1847 the Mir of
Hunza gave nominal allegiance to China. This resulted from assistance given by Mir Ghazanfur Khan to China in suppressing a rebellion in Yarkand, following
which China granted Hunza a jagir (Land grant) in Yarkand and paid the Mir a subsidy. In the late 19th century Hunza became embroiled in the Great Game,
the rivalry between Britain and Russia for control of the northern approaches to India. The British suspected Russian involvement "with the Rulers of the petty
States on the northern boundary of Kashmir"; In 1888 the Russian Captain Bronislav Grombchevsky visited Hunza, and the following year the British
Captain Francis Younghusband visited Hunza to express British displeasure at Kanjuti raids in the Raskam. Younghusband formed a low opinion of the ruler,
Safdar Ali, describing him as "a cur at heart and unworthy of ruling so fine a race as the people of Hunza". In 1891 the British mounted the Hunza-Nagar
Campaign and gained control of Hunza and the neighbouring valley of Nagar. Hunza rulers claimed descent from Alexander the Great, and viewed themselves
and the Emperor of China as being the most important leaders in the world. The last fully independent ruler, Mir Safdar Khan, who ruled from 1886, escaped to
China. His younger brother Mir Mohammad Nazim Khanwas installed by the British as Mir in September 1892, and Hunza became a princely state in
a subsidiary alliance with British India, a status it retained until 1947. The Kuomintang Republic of China government engaged in secret negotiations with the Mir
of Hunza over restoring the state's previous relations with China, amidst the partitioning of British India, with the Hunza state independent from India and
Pakistan. The Kuomintang also plotted to expand its influence into Kashmir, taking advantage of the weakness of the newly independent India. However, due to
the war of 1947 that erupted between Pakistan and India over their dispute in Kashmir, the Mir of Hunza changed his mind and acceded to Pakistan, after a
coup against India in Gilgit.
List of Rulers (title Mir; 1909-1947 Raja) of Hunza
Salim Khan I was a ruler of the princely state of Hunza in the second half 17th century. According to Kanjuti traditions, as related by McMahon, the Mirs
eighth ancestor, Shah Salim Khan, pursued nomadic Khirghiz thieves to Tashkurghan and defeated them. To celebrate this victory, Shah Salim Khan erected a
stone cairn at Dafdar and sent a trophy of a Khirghiz head to the Chinese with a message that Hunza territory extended as far as Dafdar. The Kanjutis were
already in effective possession of the Raskam and no question had been raised about it. The Mirs claims went a good deal beyond a mere right of cultivation. He
asserts that forts were built by the Hunza people without any objection or interference from the Chinese at Dafdar, Qurghan, Ujadhbhai, Azar on the Yarkand
Riverand at three or four other places in Raskam.
Shah Sultan Khan was a ruler of the princely state of Hunza in the second half 17th century.
Hari Thum Khan was a ruler of the princely state of Hunza from late 17th century until 1710.
Shahbaz Khan was a ruler of the princely state of Hunza from 1710 until 1740.
Shah Khan II was a ruler of the princely state of Hunza from 1740 until ?.
Ghulam Nasir Khan was a ruler of the princely atate of Hunza during 1740s.
Shahbeg Khan was a ruler of the princely state of Hunza from ? until 1750.
Shah Khisro Khan was a ruler of the princely state of Hunza from 1750 until 1780.
Mirza Khan II was a ruler of the princely state of Hunza from 1780 until 1790.
Salim Khan II (died 1825) was a ruler of the princely state of Hunza from 1790 until his death in 1825.
Ghazanfar `Ali Khan (died 1864) was a ruler of the princely state of Hunza from 1825 until his death in 1864.
Mohammad Ghazan Khan I (died 1886) was a ruler of the princely state of Hunza from 1864 until his death in 1886.
Safdar `Ali Khan (1865 September 15, 1930) was a ruler of the princely state of Hunza from 1886 until September 15, 1892. In the late 19th century
Hunza became embroiled in the Great Game, the rivalry between Britain and Russia for control of the northern approaches to India. The British suspected
Russian involvement "with the Rulers of the petty States on the northern boundary of Kashmir"; In 1888 the Russian Captain Bronislav Grombchevsky visited
Hunza, and the following year the British Captain Francis Younghusband visited Hunza to express British displeasure at Kanjuti raids in the Raskam.
Younghusband formed a low opinion of the ruler, Safdar Ali, describing him as "a cur at heart and unworthy of ruling so fine a race as the people of Hunza". In
1891 the British mounted the Hunza-Nagar Campaign and gained control of Hunza and the neighbouring valley of Nagar. Hunza rulers claimed descent
from Alexander the Great, and viewed themselves and the Emperor of China as being the most important leaders in the world. The last fully independent
ruler, Mir Safdar Khan, who ruled from 1886, escaped to China.
Mohammad Nazim Khan (1867 July 22, 1938) was a ruler of the princely state of Hunza from September 15, 1892 until his death on July 22, 1938. Mir
Mohammad Nazim Khan was installed by the British as Mir in September 1892 and Hunza became a princely state in a subsidiary alliance with British India, a
status it retained until 1947.
Mohammad Ghazan Khan II (1895 - 1946) was a ruler of the princely state of Hunza from 1938 until his death in 1946.
Mohammad Jamal Khan (1912 - 1976) was a ruler of the princely state of Hunza from 1946 until September 25, 1974.


Jandol
Jandol was a princely state in present Pakistan.
List of Rulers (title Khan) of Jandol
Faiz Talab Khan was a ruler of the princely state of Jandol in the second half 19th century.
Aman Khan was a ruler of the princely state of Jandol from ? until 1879.
Mohammad `Omara Khan (1850 - 1903) was a ruler of the princely state of Jandol from 1881 until 1895.
Abdul Latif Khan was a ruler of the princely state of Jandol from 1895 until around 1917.


Nagar
Nagar (Urdu: , riasat nagar) was a princely state in the northernmost part of GilgitBaltistan. Until August 1947 it was in a subsidiary alliance with British
India and bordered the states of the Gilgit Agency to the south and west and the princely state of Hunza to the north and east. From November 1947 to 1974,
like Hunza, it was a princely state of Pakistan. The state capital was the town of Nagar. Nagar covered territory which is now in the far north of Pakistan. The area
of Nagar now forms three tehsils of the HunzaNagar District. Nagar was an autonomous principality in close association with neighbouring Hunza.
The British gained control of both statesbetween 1889 and 1892. Both thereafter had the status of princely states until 1947, but both were considered as vassals
ofJammu and Kashmir, although never ruled directly by it. The rulers of Nagar sent annual tributes to the Jammu and Kashmir Durbaruntil 1947, and along with
the ruler of Hunza, were considered amongst the most loyal vassals of the Maharajas of Jammu and Kashmir. In November 1947, the state acceded to Pakistan,
which became responsible for its external affairs and defence, but it continued to be internally self-governing. In 1968 Syed Yahya Shah, the first educated
politician of the valley, demanded civil rights from the Mir of Nagar. In 1974, when Ayub Khan's dictatorship ended in Pakistan and the Pakistan People's Party
under Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto came into power through elections, the government forced the Mirs of Hunza and Nagar to abdicate. The areas were then merged into
the Northern Areas.
List of Rulers (title Tham; from 1905 Mir) of Nagar
Fadl Khan was a ruler of the princely state of Nagar.
Da`ud Khan was a ruler of the princely state of Nagar.
`Ali Dad Khan was the twice times ruler of the princely state of Nagar.
Hari Tham Khan was a ruler of the princely state of Nagar.
Kamal Khan was a ruler of the princely state of Nagar in the first half 19th century.
Rahim Khan I was a ruler of the princely state of Nagar from 1828 until 1837.
Asgar Khan was a ruler of the princely state of Nagar in 1837.
Eskandar Khan I (died 1840) was a ruler of the princely state of Nagar from 1837 until his death in 1840.
Rahim Khan II was a ruler of the princely state of Nagar from 1840 until 1845.
Ja`far Zahed Khan (died 1904) was a ruler of the princely state of Nagar from 1845 until 1891 and from 1892 until his death in 1904.
Gauri Khan (died 1891) was a ruler of the princely state of Nagar in 1891.
Raja Ozor Khan (died 1922) was a ruler of the princely state of Nagar fro 1891 until 1892.
Shah Eskandar Khan Bahadur II (1871 March 17, 1940) was a ruler of the princely state of Nagar from 1905 until his death on March 17, 1940.
Showkat `Ali Khan (1909 - 2003) was a ruler of the princely state of Nagar from 1940 until September 25, 1974.


Phulra
Phulra was a minor princely state in the days of British India, located in the region of the North West Frontier to the east of the nearby princely state of Amb.
There is some uncertainty as to whether Phulra ranked as a full princely state of India before 1919, and until then it may have had the status of a landed estate
or jagir, but in 1919 it was given imperial recognition. In 1947, soon after the British had departed from the subcontinent, the ruler of Phulra signed
an Instrument of Accession to the newDominion of Pakistan, and Phulra was a princely state of Pakistan from then until 1950, when it was incorporated into
the North West Frontier Province following the death of its last Nawab. The territory covered by the state remains part of the present-day Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa,
as a Union Council of the tehsil of Mansehra.
List of Rulers (title Khan Sahib) of Phulra
Madat Khan was a ruler of the princely state of Phulra from 1828 until 1878.
Abdulla Khan was a ruler of the princely state of Phulra from 1878 until 1888.
Abdurrahman Khan was a ruler of the princely state of Phulra from 1888 until 1897
Muhammad Khan (1879 - 1935) was a ruler of the princely state of Phulra from 1897 until his death in 1935.
Abdul Latif Khan was a ruler of the princely state of Phulra from 1935 until 1973.


Swat
The Princely State of Swat (Urdu: ) was a province of the Durrani Empire ruled by local rulers known as theAkhunds, then until 1947 a princely
state of the British Indian Empire, which was dissolved in 1947, when the Akhwandacceded to Pakistan. The state lay to the north of the modern Khyber-
Pakhtunkhwa Province of Pakistan and continued within its 1947 borders until 1969, when it was dissolved. The area it covered is now divided between the
present-day districts of Swat,Buner and Shangla. The modern area of Swat was ruled sporadically by religious leaders, who variously took the title of Akhoond,
also spelt Akhund or Akond. The Akhund of Swat who died in 1878 was particularly famous as the subject of a well known humorist poem byEdward Lear, The
Akond of Swat. The nonsensical poem suggests a far away place and a mystical person, at least through the eyes of a Victorian poet and painter. The Islamic State
of Swat was established in 1849 under Sayyid Akbar Shah with Sharia law remaining in force, but the state was in abeyance from 1878 to 1915. Thereafter Said
Abdul-Jabbar Khan, a prominent Gujar, was made ruler by a local Jirga and had trouble exercising power. In 1917 another Jirga appointed Miangul Golshahzada
Abdul-Wadud, also a Gujar, founder of the 'Wali' dynasty of Swat. The British recognised this ruler and the state as a princely state in 1926. Following
the Partition of India in 1947, the ruler acceded the state to Pakistan, while retaining considerable autonomy. The ruler of Swat was accorded a 15-gun hereditary
salute in 1966, but this was followed by the abolition of the state in 1969 by Government of Pakistan.
List of Rulers (title Amir-e Shariyat; from Nov 1918, Badshah; from May 3, 1926, Wali) of Swat
Sayyed Akbar Shah (1793 May 11, 1857) was a ruler of the princely state of Swat from 1849 until his death on May 11, 1857. The Islamic State of Swat
was established in 1849 under Sayyid Akbar Shah with Sharia law remaining in force.
Sayyed Mubarak Shah Sahib was a ruler of the princely state of Swat from 1857 until 1863.
Akhund Abdul Ghaffur commonly known as Saidu Baba (1793 1878) was a ruler of the princely state of Swat from 1863 untilhis death in 1878. He was
a Pashtun of the Safi (Gandhari) tribe, and a prominent Sufisage, from Bar Swat. Akhund Ghaffur was a supporter of the Afghan Emir Dost Mohammad Khan,
and opposed the Sikh and British forces. Akhund Ghaffur was an influential pir (Sufi master) and his residence in Swat was the destination for numerous
pilgrimages by his disciples to consult him. Akhund Ghaffur was succeeded by a notable line of Sufi pirs. In 1831, when the Muslim activist Syed Ahmad
Barelvi was killed by the Sikhs along with hundreds of Barelvi's mujahideen in the battle of Balakot, many of his mujahideen stayed in Buner under the
protection of Akhund Ghaffur. They started a new uprising against the British Empire under Akhund Ghaffur's leadership in 1862. In 1834, Akhund Ghaffur
cooperated with the Afghan Emir Dost Mohammad Khan in the battle against the Sikh Empire and brought a number of Ghazis and Talib al-'Ilm to thebattle of
Peshawar. In return, the Afghan Emir awarded Akhund Ghaffur with lands in Swat, Lundkhwar and Mardan among the Yusufzai. Eventually, when Akhund
Ghaffur was about 43 years old, he permanently settled in Saidu Sharif and gradually turned it into a thriving city. In 1863, Akhund Ghaffur lead the Yusufzai in a
successful battle at the Ambela pass and repelled the British forces' Ambela Campaign. Akhund Ghaffur conferred a scheme for a united throne of Swat. In
1849, he nominated Sayyid Akbar Shah, a descendant of Pir Baba, as the emir of the Islamic state of Swat. After Akbar Shah's death in 1857, Akhund Ghaffur
assumed control of the state himself till his own death in 1878. Akhund Ghaffur's greatest conflict was with Sayyid Maruf Bey Kotah Mullah, a supporter of the
British-sponsored Emir Shah Shujah who had opposed Emir Dost Mohammad Khan in the battle against the Sikhs. Akhund Ghaffur referred to Kotah Mullah
as a disciple of Pir Roshan and practitioner of heretical rituals, and managed to convince the Yusufzai of Buner to push Kotah Mullah out of the village where he
was being hosted.
Sayyed `Abd al-Jabbar Khan (c.1878 - 1925) was a ruler of the princely state of Swat from April 28, 1914 until September 1917.
Miyangol Golshahzada `Abd al-Wadud (1882 October 1, 1971) was a ruler of the princely state of Swat from
September 1917 until December 12, 1949. He was the Wali of Swat (princely state) and a descendant of the Akhund of
Swat.He was elected as Badshah Sahib (King) of Swat by a Loya Jirga held at Kabal, on November 1918 and recognized by the
British authorities as ruler, and formally installed as Wali of Swat, at Saidu Sharif, on May 3, 1926. He ruled Swat from 1918 to
1949 and abdicated in favour of his eldest son, Miangul Jahan Zeb
[1]
whom he carefully educated to run the State effectively.
H.H. Miangul Gulshahzada Sir Abdul Wadud was born at Saidu Sharif, in 1881.He was the elder son of Miangul Abdul
Khaliq Khan and grandson of Shah Muhammad Aman ul-Mulk II, Mehtar of Chitral. He was educated privately. In
1915,when the tribes of Upper Swat elected Sayed Abdul Jabbar Shah as their king ,he opposed the election and went into
exile at Dalbar 1915-1916. Abdul Jabbar could not defend the territory in a counter attack of Nawab of DIR in 1916. Chaotic
anarchy then ensued. Miangul Abdul Wadud returned and took up arms against him in 1916.As a result the Jirga of Swat,
decided to oust Abdul Jabbar Shah as king and appointed Miangul Abdul Wadud, one of the grandsons of the Akhund of
Swat, as king in1917. He established his rule in Swat and annexed Buner and Chakisar to his dominion. Thus he controlled most of the Swat area by 1923.
Miangul Abdul Wadud was proclaimed the Wali of Swat in1926 with an annual allowance of Rs10,000 from the Government of India. He had three wives and a
father of eight daughters and four sons. It is noteworthy that though Miangul Abdul Wadud was elected king and locally known as Bacha or Badshah,(King)
the authorities only granted him the title of Wali, which meant a religious ruler. This was obviously with reference to his descent from the Akhund of Swat.
Miangul Abdul Wadud wanted to retain the title of Badshah or Bacha but was denied by the political authorities on the basis that no ruler in India was a king,
and that only the King-Emperor in Britain had the right to be styled in such a manner. Miangul Abdul wadud acceded to Pakistan in late 1947. Miangul Abdul
Wadud abdicated in favour of his eldest son, Mianagul Jahanzeb on 12 December 1949 who ruled Swat(princely state) wisely till its merger in Pakistan 1969.He
had following honours and awards: Silver Jubilee (1935), Coron. (1937) and Pakistan Independence (1948) medal. He died at the Royal Palace, Aqba(Now Iqra
Academy), on1st October 1971 and buried there at the Badshah Sahib Mausoleum.
Miyangol `Abd al-Haqq Jahanzib (June 5, 1908 September 14, 1987) was a ruler of the princely state of Swat from 1949
until July 28, 1969. He served as the Wli of Swat between 1949 and 1969, taking over from his father, Miangul Abdul Wadud
(Badshah Sahib). He is remembered for the hard work he put into building schools, hospitals and roads for his people, but also for
his absolute rule over the region, which ended when Pakistan took control after local unrest. Jahan Zeb was also a conscienscious
protector of the landmarks of previous cultures. Major-General H.H. Miangul Abdul Haq Jehanzeb, Ghazi-i-Millat, Wali of Swat,
born at Saidu-Sharif, on June 5, 1908, was the eldest son of H.H. Miangul Gulshazada Sir Abdul Wadud, Wali of Swat. He was
educated in Islamia Collegiate school and Islamia College, Univ. of Peshawar. 1923. He has four sons and one daughter.H.H. Miangul
Aurangzeb, WaliAhad of Swat,(Former Governor of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa,& Balochistan), Miangul Shahzada Alamzeb.(father
of Miangul Akbarzeb, Pakistani High Comminissioner to Canada), Miangul Shahzada Amirzeb.Member of the National Assembly of
Pakistan 1977 AND Miangul Shahzada Ahmedzeb. H.H Miangul Jahanzeb was appointed as successor (Wali Ahad)" in 1933. His
father, Miangul Abdul Wadud(Wali of Swat) abdicated in favour of his eldest son(Miangul Jahanzeb), whom he had carefully
educated. He was enthroned as Wali of Swat on June 12,1949 and granted the title of Ghazi-e-Millat (1951) and a hereditary salute. The Wali headed each
department of his administration. His role was that of king and religious leader, chief minister and commander-in-chief, chief exchequer and head qazi. He
ensured that his government provided: 1) good administration and productive revenue collection; 2) a judicial system that provided quick and free justice to all. 3)
A qala(forts) system that provided security and protection to the people; 4) Grassroots developments, centered on jobs, welfare, education and health services to
all; Finally 5) instant communication through roads, bridges, and telegraph and penal codes provided complete rule of law; and telephones and informers that
kept the Wali informed of the latest developments. This was a unique system of administration. He surpassed the other contemporary rulers in the field of
education. Before Jahanzebs era, Swat did not have a modern education system. Bacha laid the foundations of the modern education system in Swat, which was
rapidly developed by his son later on. The Wali founded a girls high school in Saidu Sharif which is the first female educational institution in swat. Jahanzeb
College for Men has the importance of Alligarh College in the entire Malakand division. He also established a missionary school at Sangota for girls. For his
unending love for knowledge he was given the title of Sultanul Uloom (master of knowledge) by the people of Swat. Jahan Zeb was also a conscienscious
protector of the landmarks of previous cultures. In the era of the last Wali of Swat State Miangul Abdul Haq Jahanzeb, the ruins were protected and preserved.
The ruler had also signed an agreement with the Italian government for exploring ruins. The Swat Museum was also built under his rule in 1959. The museum
contains some of the finest collections of Gandhara art, including magnificent pieces of Buddhist sculpture. The Wali knew the importance of culture and
heritage and during his time, cultural dance shows and festivals on Eid were conducted under the governments patronage.The architectural style unique to Swat
was maintained and the buildings were provided with all basic facilities.
[8]
Foreign Heads of State and VIPs became regular visitors to the valley, and the Wali
became a frequent player on the national stage. In 1961 the Queen of England- Elizabeth II, as a guest of the Wali, had loved Swat and called it The Switzerland
of the East. The first prime Minister of Pakistan Liaqat Ali Khan also visited Swat to attend the coronation ceremony of the Wali. He had following honours
and awards: Hon, Major Geneneral, Pakistan Army, 1955, Hon. LL.D. (Univ. of Peshawar) 1965, Pakistan Independence (1948) medals, The Orders of
Pakistan 2nd class (Hilal-i-Pakistan) (1961), Great Leader (Hilal-i-Quaid-i-Azam) (1959), Hilal-i -Humayun 1st class of Iran, GO of the Order of Merit of the
Republic of Italy, Silver Jubilee (1935) AND 15 Guns solute(1958) He died on September14, 1987 at Saidu Sharif. His funeral was attended by the then Prime
Minister of Pakistan,Muhammad Khan Junejo, Governor, NWFP and other high officials.He was buried in his ancestral graveyard at Saidu Sharif.







Yasin
Yasin was the princely state in present Pakistan. Yasin was originally ruled by the Khushwakhte Dynasty, a collateral line of the Katur Dynasty of Chitral. The
Rajas of Yasin were great warriors and fought against the Sikhs and the Dogras of Kashmir, but this house eventually lost power and the ownership of Yasin
changed hands several times between the Mehtar of Chitral, and the Maharaja of Kashmir. Although sparsely populated, Yasin was of strategic importance
because it leads to a high mountain pass, to Yarkhun in Chitral, and then to Broghol Pass, the Wakhan Corridor ofAfghanistan, and into Tajikistan. Thus, Yasin
could have formed an invasion route from Czarist Russia into British India. The primary language of Yasin Valley is the Burushaski language. The Khowar
language is also spoken. The majority of the people in Yasin are Ismailis who lead their lives according to the Islamic principles more concerned with the imam
of the time. Currently Aga Khan IV is the imam and spiritual leader of the Ismailis. However, other sects of Islam such as Sunni and Shia also live in Yasin.
Ethnically, the people of Yasin are of Burusho origin; however, there are the migrants from different parts of the country, mainly from Chitral and even from
outside the country, such as Central Asia. The people of Yasin are known for their honesty, hard work, and bravery.
List of Rulers (title Mehtar; from 1960, Raja) of Yasin
Shah Khuswaqte I was a ruler of the princely state of Yasin from around 1640 until 1700.
Malik Aman Shah I was a ruler of the princely state of Yasin from 1817 until 1833.
Gohar Aman Shah Khuswaqte (died 1860) was a ruler of the princely state of Yasin from 1833 until 1855.
Karim Khan I was a ruler of the princely state of Yasin from 1856 until 1860.
Malik Alam Shah II was a ruler of the princely state of Yasin from 1860 until 1862 and in 1870.
Ghulam Muhiuddin Khuswaqte was a ruler of the princely state of Yasin from 1862 until 1870 and from 1872 until 1880.
Afzal al-Mulk II was a ruler of the princely state of Yasin from 1895 until 1906.
Jao Abdul Rahman Khan (1877 - 1948) was a ruler of the princely state of Yasin from 1906 until 1911 and from 1922 until his death in 1948.
Shahid al-Alam Khan was a ruler of the princely state of Yasin from 1911 until 1812.
Sifat Bahadur Khan (died 1922) was a ruler of the princely state of Yasin from 1912 until his death in 1922.
Karim Khan II was a ruler of the princely state of Yasin from 1848 until 1972.


Punial
Punial State was formerly a princely state (under the British it was a "Special Political District" of the Gilgit Agency and not a Princely State) in the northwest part
of the Northern Areas which existed until 1974. The state bordered the Gilgit Agency to the south, the former princely state of Yasin to the west, Ishkoman to
the north and Afghanistan (Wakhan Corridor) to the northwest. The state capital was the town of Sher Qila. The area of Punial now forms the above
named tehsil of Ghizer District. Punial was an independent principality for several centuries. The British gained control of the area and the neighbouring valleys
by mid 19th century followed by a military engagement of severe intensity. The first Rah of Punial was Isa Bagdur, succeeded by his son Akbar Khan, who in
1913 was deposed by the British and replaced by his son, Anwar Khan, succeeded in turn by his son Jan Alam. This area and other neighbouring states were
never ruled directly by Kashmir.
List of Rulers of Punial
Isa Bagdur was the first ruler of Punial in the first half 19th century.
Akbar Khan was the second ruler of Punial from the second half 19th century until 1913 when he was deposed by the British and replaced by his son, Anwar
Khan,
Anwar Khan was the second ruler of Punial in the first half 20th century.
Jan Alam was the second ruler of Punial in the first half 20th century.


Gilgit
Gilgit was formerly state in present Pakistan. Gilgit was ruled for centuries by the local Trakhn Dynasty or Tarkan Dynasty, which ended about 1810 with the
death of Raja Abas, the last Trakhn Raja. The rulers of Hunza and Nager also claim origin with the Trakhn dynasty. They claim descent from a heroic
Kayani Prince of Persia,Azur Jamshid (also known as Shamsher), who secretly married the daughter of the king Shri Badat. She conspired with him to overthrow
her cannibal father. Sri Badat's faith is theorised as Hindu by some and Buddhist by others. However, considering the region's Buddhist heritage, with the most
recent influence being Islam, the most likely preceding influence of the region is Buddhism. Though the titular Sri and the name Badat denotes a Hindu origin of
this ruler. Prince Azur Jamshid succeeded in overthrowing King Badat who was known as Adam Khor (literally man-eater), often demanding a child a day from
his subjects, his demise is still celebrated to this very day by locals in traditional annual celebrations. In the beginning of the new year, where a Juniper procession
walks along the river, in memory of chasing the cannibal king Sri Badat away. Azur Jamshid abdicated after 16 years of rule in favour of his wife Nur Bakht
Khatn until their son and heir Garg, grew of age and assumed the title of Raja and ruled, for 55 years. The dynasty flourished under the name of the Kayani
dynasty until 1421 when Raja Torra Khan assumed rulership. He ruled as a memorable king until 1475. He distinguished his family line from his step
brother Shah Rais Khan (who fled to the king of Badakshan and with who's help he gained Chitral from Raja Torra Khan), as the now-known dynastic name
of Trakhn. The descendants of Shah Rais Khan were known as the Ra'issiya Dynasty.
List of Rulers of Gilgit
Badat, Adam Khor (literally man-eater) was a ruler of Gilgit. He was known as Adam Khor (literally man-eater), often demanding a child a day from his
subjects, his demise is still celebrated to this very day by locals in traditional annual celebrations. In the beginning of the new year, where a Juniper procession
walks along the river, in memory of chasing the cannibal king Sri Badat away.
Azur Jamshid was a ruler of Gilgit. Prince Azur Jamshid succeeded in overthrowing King Badat who was known as Adam Khor (literally man-eater), often
demanding a child a day from his subjects, his demise is still celebrated to this very day by locals in traditional annual celebrations. In the beginning of the new
year, where a Juniper procession walks along the river, in memory of chasing the cannibal king Sri Badat away. Azur Jamshid abdicated after 16 years of rule in
favour of his wife Nur Bakht Khatn until their son and heir Garg, grew of age and assumed the title of Raja and ruled, for 55 years.
Nur Bakht Khatn was a ruler of Gilgit. Azur Jamshid abdicated after 16 years of rule in favour of his wife Nur Bakht Khatn until their son and heir Garg,
grew of age and assumed the title of Raja and ruled, for 55 years.
Garg was a ruler of Gilgit. Azur Jamshid abdicated after 16 years of rule in favour of his wife Nur Bakht Khatn until their son and heir Garg, grew of age and
assumed the title of Raja and ruled, for 55 years.
Torra Khan was a ruler of Gilgit from 1421 until 1475. He ruled as a memorable king until 1475. He distinguished his family line from his step brother Shah
Rais Khan (who fled to the king of Badakshan and with who's help he gained Chitral from Raja Torra Khan), as the now-known dynastic name of Trakhn. The
descendants of Shah Rais Khan were known as the Ra'issiya Dynasty.
Malika Jawar Khatun was a ruler of Gilgit from 1689 until 1705.
Shah Goritham was a ruler of Gilgit from 1705 until ?
Sulaiman Shah (died 1826) was a ruler of Gilgit from 1800 until 1802 and from 1825 until his death in 1826.
Muhammad Khan I (died c.1826) was a ruler of Gilgit from 1802 until 1822.
Abbas Khan, Asghar Khan (died c.1826) was a ruler of Gilgit from 1822 until 1825.
Malika Sahibnuma was a ruler of Gilgit from 1826 until 1828.
Tahir Shah of Nagar was regent of Gilgit from 1827 until 1828 and ruler of Gilgit from 1836 until 1837.
Azar Khan was a ruler of Gilgit from 1828 until 1836.
Shah Sikandar was a ruler of Gilgit from 1837 until 1840.
Gohar Aman was a ruler of Gilgit from 1840 until 1842.
Karim Khan was a ruler of Gilgit from 1842 until 1844.
Muhammad Khan II (died 1847) was a ruler of Gilgit from 1844 until his death in 1847.
Malik Aman was a ruler of Gilgit from 1847 until 1848.
Shah Rais Khan was the President of Gilgit from November 1 until November 16, 1947.

Manfuha
Manfuha (Arabic: ) was an ancient village in the Nejd region of central Saudi Arabia. Established on the edge of the narrow, fertile valley known as Wadi
Hanifa, Manfuha was until the mid-20th century considered a twin village to the current Saudi capital of Riyadh. According to Yaqut's 13th century geographical
encyclopedia Mu'jam Al-Buldan, Manfuha was built a few centuries before Islam at the same time as Hajr (now Riyadh) by members of the Banu Hanifa tribe
and their cousins from the tribe of Bakr. Manfuha was home to the famous Arab poet Al-A'sha, who died at around the same time as the Muslim prophet
Muhammad, but little is heard of Manfuha after that time. At the turn of the 20th century, its population was made up largely of members of Banu
Hanifa and Bakr (who by now had come to identify themselves with the related tribe of 'Anizzah), as well as members of Tamim and Subay'. Like all Nejdi towns,
its population also included a large percentage of non-tribally-affiliated tradesmen (sonnaa'), as well as many slaves and freedmen working as agricultural laborers.
Like Riyadh, the town was surrounded by gardens and palm groves.In the late 18th century, Manfuha fell under the rule of the energetic ruler of Riyadh, Deham
ibn Dawwas, who at the time was vigorously resisting the expansion of the newWahhabist state established by the Al Saud clan of neighboring Diriyah (see First
Saudi State). Both towns eventually succumbed to the Saudis, however, who ruled over Manfuha until their state was destroyed by an Ottoman-Egyptian invasion
in 1818. From then on, the town's fortunes largely followed those of its neighbor, Riyadh, returning to Saudi rule under Turki ibn Abdallah in 1824, then falling
under the rule of the Al Rashid clan of Ha'il in the 1890s, before reverting to Saudi rule less than ten years later under the founder ofSaudi Arabia, Abdul Aziz
Ibn Saud. As the neighboring Saudi capital expanded exponentially in the 20th century, fueled by the country's oil wealth, the walls of both Manfuha and Riyadh
were torn down, and Manfuha was quickly swallowed in whole by the growing metropolis. Today, Manfuha is among the poorer districts of Riyadh. Most of its
original inhabitants have left to newer districts of the capital, and the area is now mostly inhabited by low-income guest-workers from Egypt and South Asia, as
well as the families of former African slaves. Some of the town's old mud-brick buildings remain, as well as an ancient observation tower. A wide avenue cuts
through the center of Manfuha, named Al-A'sha Street, after its most famous son.
List of Sheikhs of Manfuha
Dawwas ibn `Abd Allah ibn Sha`lan (died 1726) was a ruler of Manfuha from 1682 until his death in 1726.
Muhammad I (died 1727) was a ruler of Manfuha from 1726 until his death in 1727.
`Abd Allah I ibn Faris was a ruler of Manfuha from 1727 until ?
`Ali ibn Mazru` was a ruler of Manfuha from around 1746 until ?
Muhammad II ibn `Abd Allah ibn Faris was a ruler of Manfuha from 1755 until ?
`Abd Allah II ibn Mazru` was a ruler of Manfuha from around 1809 until ?
Ibrahim ibn Mazru` was a ruler of Manfuha from ? until 1825.
Mishari ibn `Abd ar-Rahman ibn Mishari ibn Sa`ud was a ruler of Manfuha from 1825 until 1834.

Ar-Bir
Ar-Bir was sheikdom in present Saudi Arabia
List of Sheikhs of Ar Bir
Muhammad ibn al-`Aqir was a ruler of Ar Bir in the second half 17th century.
`Abd Allah ibn al-`Aqir was a ruler of Ar Bir in the first half 18th century.
Hamad ibn Muhammad was a ruler of Ar Bir in the second half 18th century.


Raudha
Raudha was sheikdom in present Saudi Arabia
List of Sheikhs of Raudha
Madhi ibn Ghazir was a ruler of Raudh from around 1697 until the first half 18th century.
Muhammad (died 1745) was a ruler of Raudh from ? until his death in 1745.
Fauzan ibn Ghazir ibn Madhi was a ruler of Raudh from 1745 until 1757.
`Umayr ibn Ghazir was a ruler of Raudh from 1757 until ?.
`Aun ibn Mani' al-Madhi was a ruler of Raudh from ? until 1782.
`Aqil ibn Man'i al-Madhi was a ruler of Raudh from 1782 until ?.

Khardj
Khardj was the Emirat in present Saudi Arabia
List of Emirs of Khardj
Zamil ibn `Uthman Mishari was a ruler of Khardj from around 1688 until ?.
Zayid (died 1783) was a ruler of Khardj from around 1740 until 1776 and from 1776 until his death in 1783.
Sulayman ibn `Ufaysan was a ruler of Khardj in 1776 and from 1785 until 1793.
Barrak (died 1784) was a ruler of Khardj from 1783 until his death in 1784.
Turki was a ruler of Khardj from 1784 until 1785.
Ibrahim ibn `Ufaysan was a ruler of Khardj from 1793 until 1804.
Zaqm ibn Zamil was a ruler of Khardj from 1823 until 1825.
`Umar ibn Muhammad ibn `Ufaysan (died 1839) was a ruler of Khardj from 1825 until 1828/1830.
Fahd ibn `Abd Allah ibn`Ufaysan was a ruler of Khardj from 1830 until 1840s.
Sa`ud ibn Faysal of Nejd was a ruler of Khardj from 1847 until 1865.


`Unayzah (`Anayza)
`Unayzah (`Anayza) was the Emirate in present Saudi Arabia. The city has been ruled by the Al Sulaim family since 1818. They came to power when Prince
Yehya Al-Sulaim in 1822 killed the governor appointed by the Ottoman emperor, Abdullah Al-Jamei. This dynasty still rules the city according to a written treaty
between them and the Saudi royal family.
List of Emirs of `Unayzah (`Anayza)
`Abd Allah ibn Hamad ibn Zamil (died 1768) was a ruler of`Unayzah (`Anayza) in 1768.
Yahya ibn `Ali was a ruler of `Unayzah (`Anayza) from 1768 until 1788.
`Abd Allah II ibn Yahya was a ruler of `Unayzah (`Anayza) from 1788 until ?.
`Abd Allah III ibn Rashid al-`Alaiyan (died 1819) was a ruler of `Unayzah (`Anayza) from ? until his death in 1819.
`Abd Allah IV al-Djama'i was a ruler of `Unayzah (`Anayza) from 1819 until 1822.
Sulayman ibn Rashid al-`Alaiyan was a ruler of `Unayzah (`Anayza) during 1820s.
Yahya II was a ruler of `Unayzah (`Anayza) from 1830s until 1841.
`Abd Allah V was a ruler of `Unayzah (`Anayza) from 1841 until 1845.
Ibrahim was a ruler of `Unayzah (`Anayza) from 1845 until 1848.
Nasir as-Suhaym (died 1858) was a ruler of `Unayzah (`Anayza) from 1848 until 1849.


Burayda
Burayda was the Emirate in present Saudi Arabia.
List of Emirs of Burayda
Hamud al-Duraybi was a ruler of Burayda in 1768.
Rashid al-Duraybi was a ruler of Burayda from 1768 until 1769 and from 1770 until 1775.
al-`Alaiyan was a ruler of Burayda from 1769 until 1770.
`Abd Allah ibn Hasan al-`Alaiyan (died 1776) was a ruler of Burayda from 1775 until his death in 1776.
Muhammad al-`Ali ash-Shayr was a ruler of Burayda from 1823 until 1826/28.
`Abd al-`Aziz al-Muhammad ibn Hasan (died 1861) was a ruler of Burayda from 1826/28 until 1850, from 1851 until 1859 and from 1859 until his
death in 1861.
`Abd al-Muhsin al-Muhammad ibn Turki was a ruler of Burayda from 1850 until 1851.
`Abd Allah ibn `Abd al-`Aziz ibn `Adwan al-`Alaiyan (died 1859) was a ruler of Burayda in 1859.
Muhammad ibn Ghanim (died 1859) was a ruler of Burayda in 1859.
`Abd ar-Rahman ibn Ibrahim of Manfuha was a ruler of Burayda from 1861 until 1863.
Muhammad ibn Ahmad as-Sudayri was a ruler of Burayda in 1863.
Sulayman ar-Rashid al-`Alaiyan was a ruler of Burayda in 1863.
Zamil as-Sulaym (1831 1891) was a ruler of Burayda from 1867 until his death in 1891.


`Auda
`Auda was the Shekdom in present Saudi Arabia.
List of Sheikhs of `Auda
`Abd Allah ibn Sultan (died 1757) was a ruler of `Auda from ? until his death in 1757.
`Uthman ibn Sa`dun (died 1767) was a ruler of `Auda from 1757 until his death in 1767.
Mansur ibn Abd Allah ibn Hamad was a ruler of `Auda from 1767 until ?.


Djaladjil
Djaladjil was the Sheikdom in present Saudi Arabia.
Sheikh of Djaladjil
Suwayhid I was a ruler of Djaladjil from around 1762 until 1770s.

Harma
Harma was the Sheikdom in present Saudi Arabia.
List of Sheikhs of Harma
`Uthman ibn `Abd Allah was a ruler of Harma from ? until 1777.
Nasir ibn Ibrahim was a ruler of Harma from 1777 until 1779.

Madjm`a
Madjm`a was the Sheikdom in present Saudi Arabia.
List of Sheikhs of Madjm`a
Hamad ibn `Uthman was a ruler of Madjm`a from around 1658 until 1778.
`Abd Allah ibn Djaladjil was a ruler of Madjm`a from 1779 until early 19th century.
Mazyad was a ruler of Madjm`a from early 19th century until 1823.
Muhammad ibn Saqr was a ruler of Madjm`a from 1823 until ?.
Ibn `Abdan was a ruler of Madjm`a from 1823 until 1827.
Ahmad ibn Nasir as-Sani (died 1861) was a ruler of Madjm`a from 1827 until 1839.
Muhammad ibn Ahmad as-Sudayri was a ruler of Madjm`a from 1839 until 1841 and from 1840s until 1853.
`Abd Allah ibn Husayn was a ruler of Madjm`a in 1841 and from 1853 until ?
`Abd al-`Aziz ibn Mishari ibn `Aiyaf was a ruler of Madjm`a during 1840s.

Shaqr
Shaqr was the Sheikdom in present Saudi Arabia.
List of Sheikhs of Shaqr
`Abd Allah ibn Hamad ibn Ghayhab was a ruler of Shaqr from around 1803 until ?
Hamad ibn Yahya ibn Ghayhab was a ruler of Shaqr from around 1818 until 1834.

Tarmada
Tarmada was the Sheikdom in present Saudi Arabia.
Sheikh of Tarmada
Ibrahim ibn Sulayman was a ruler of Tarmada from around 1853 until ?.


Mutayr
Mutayr was the Sheikdom in present Saudi Arabia. Mutayr (Arabic: ; also spelled Mutair and Mtayr) is one of the largest Sunni tribes of the Arabian
Peninsula. The traditional leaders (or "shaykhs") of Mutayr are the Doshan clan (singular "Dewish"). The main branches of Mutayr today are Banu Abdullah, Al-
'Olwa, and Braih. Mutayr's original homelands were the highlands of northern Hejaz near Medina and Najd. At some point in the 17th century, however, the
tribe began a large-scale migration eastwards into northern Nejd, displacing many other bedouin tribes in the area, such as Harb and 'Anizzah who were forced to
move northwards after. By the 20th century, Mutayr's tribal lands extended from the highlands east of Medina, through the region of Al-Qasim, to the borders
of Kuwait. A rivalry developed between Mutayr and Harb, who inhabited roughly the same areas as Mutayr, as well as with 'Utaybah, who had just moved into
Nejd from the southern Hejaz. Nowadays Mutayr are considered to be the largest tribe in the area of Najd. According to the British delegate in Kuwait Mr.Dixon
Mutayr were the strongest tribe in Najd and Ibn sa'uod relied on it in forcing other tribes. Because Mutayr were the dominant nomadic tribe of Al-Qasim, which
was the main bone of contention between the clans of Al Saud and Al Rashid vying for control of Nejd in the early 20th century, Mutayr came to play an
important role in the history of Arabia during that era. Mutayr, then, was led by Faisal Al-Dewish, who frequently changed sides in the conflict between the two
Nejdi leaders. In 1912, the ruler of Riyadh, Abdul Aziz Ibn Saud undertook to settle the nomads of his realm in newly created villages (hijras), where the
bedouins were to be indoctrinated into a puritanical form of Islam and become warriors for Ibn Saud's cause. These new forces were known as the
Ikhwan ("Brotherhood"), and Faisal Al-Dewish had led the Ikhwan movement enthusiastically, providing Ibn Saud with crucial military support. The most
important Mutayri settlement was al-Artawiyya, at the northern edge of the Dahna desert.
List of Sheikhs of Mutayr
Faysal ibn Wathban ad-Duwish (died 1832) was a ruler of Mutayr from around 1796 until his death in 1832.
Muhammad al-Makni was a ruler of Mutayr from 1832 until 1840s.
Humaydi (died 1856/57) was a ruler of Mutayr from around 1847 until his death in 1856/57.
`Ammash ad-Duwish was a ruler of Mutayr during 1860s.
Faysal II ad-Duwish was a ruler of Mutayr from around 1907 until 1908.



`Asir
`Asir was the Sheikdom in present Saudi Arabia.
List of Sheikhs of `Asir
Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Khayrat was a ruler of `Asir from 1728/1729 until 1762/1763.
Muhammad (died 1809) was a ruler of `Asir from 1762/1763 until his death in 1809.
Sharif Hamud ibn Muhammad Abu Mismar was a ruler of `Asir from 1762/1763 until his death in 1809.
`Abd al-Wahhab Muhammad ibn Abu Nuqta ar-Rufayda (died 1809) was a ruler of `Asir (in `Asir as-Sarat) from 1801 until his death in 1809.
Tami ibn Shu`ayb (died 1815) was a ruler of `Asir (in `Asir as-Sarat) from 1809 until his death in 1815.
al-Husayn ibn `Ali ibn Haydar (died 1851) was a ruler of `Asir from 1840 until 1848 (in rebellion in Abu Arish).
Haydar was a ruler of `Asir from 1848 until 1855 (in rebellion in Abu Arish).
al-Hasan ibn Muhammad was a ruler of `Asir from 1850s until 1863 (in rebellion in Abu Arish).


Upper `Asir
Upper `Asir was the Sheikdom in present Saudi Arabia.
List of Sheikhs of Upper `Asir
Sa`id ibn Muslat al-Mughaydi was a ruler of Upper `Asir from 1823/1824 until ?.
`Ali ibn Mudjattil al-Mughaydi was a ruler of Upper `Asir from ? until 1833/1834.
`Al'ud ibn Mar`i ibn Musa al-Mughaydi (died 1856/57) was a ruler of Upper `Asir from 1833/1834 until his death in 1856/1857.
Muhammad (died 1872) was a ruler of Upper `Asir from 1856/1857 until his death in 1872.
al-Hasan ibn `Ayad was a ruler of Upper `Asir in Abha from 1914 until 1916.


Lower `Asir
Lower `Asir was the Sheikdom in present Saudi Arabia.
List of Imams and Sheikhs of Lower `Asir
Sayyid Ahmad al-Idrisi al-Hasani (1760 1837) was a ruler of Lower `Asir from 1830 until his death in 1837.
Sayyid Muhammad (I) ibn Ahmad al-Idrisi al - Hasani (died 1889) was a ruler of Lower `Asir from 1838 until his death in 1889.
Sayyid Ali (I) ibn Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Idrisi al-Hasani (died 1904) was a ruler of Lower `Asir from 1889 until his death in 1904.
Sayyid Muhammad (II) ibn Ali al-Idrisi al-Hasani (1876/7 March 20, 1923) was a ruler of Lower `Asir from 1909 until his death on March 20,
1923.
Sayyid Ali (II) ibn Muhammad al-Idrisi al-Hasani (born 1905) was a ruler of Lower `Asir from March 20, 1923 until February 1926.
Sayyid al-Hasan ibn Ali al-Idrisi al-Hasani was a ruler of Lower `Asir from February 1926 until November 20, 1930.


Najran
Najran was the Sheikdom in present Saudi Arabia.
List of Rulers (Da'ias) of Najran
Muhammad ibn Isma'il was a ruler of Najran from 1677 until 1717.
Hibbat-Allah was a ruler of Najran from 1717 until 1747.
Isma'il I was a ruler of Najran from 1747 until 1760.
Hasan I `Ali was a ruler of Najran from 1760 until 1774.
`Abd al-`Ali ibn Hasan was a ruler of Najran from 1774 until 1780.
`Abd Allah I ibn `Ali was a ruler of Najran from 1780 until 1810.
Yusuf was a ruler of Najran from 1810 until 1819.
Husayn ibn Hasan ibn `Ali was a ruler of Najran from 1819 until 1826.
Isma'il II ibn Muhammad was a ruler of Najran from 1826 until 1841.
Hasan II was a ruler of Najran from 1841 until 1846.
Hasan III ibn Isma'il was a ruler of Najran from 1846 until 1872.
Ahmad was a ruler of Najran from 1872 until 1889.
`Abd Allah II ibn `Ali ibn Husayn ibn `Ali was a ruler of Najran from 1889 until 1905.
`Ali I ibn Hibbat Allah was a ruler of Najran from 1905 until 1912.
`Ali II ibn Muhsin ibn Husayn (died 1936) was a ruler of Najran from 1912 until 1934.

`Ayayna
`Ayayna was the Sheikdom in present Saudi Arabia.
List of Sheikhs of `Ayayna
`Abd Allah III ibn Muhammad was a ruler of `Ayayna from 1685 until 1725.
Muhammad II ibn Hamad Harfash was a ruler of `Ayayna from 1725 until 1740.
`Uthman ibn Hamad (died 1750) was a ruler of `Ayayna from 1740 until his death in 1750.
Mishari ibn Ibrahim ibn Mu`ammar was a ruler of `Ayayna from 1750 until 1759.
Sultan ibn Muhsin al-Mu`ammari was a ruler of `Ayayna from 1759 until 1760.
Nasir II ibn`Uthman (died 1768) was a ruler of `Ayayna from 1760 until his death in 1768.
Durma
Durma was the Sheikdom in present Saudi Arabia.
List of Sheikhs of Durma
Muhammad I was a ruler of Durma from ? until 1684.
Ibrahim (died 1751) was a ruler of Durma from ? until his death in 1751.
`Abd Allah ibn `Abd ar-Rahman al-Muraydi was a ruler of Durma from 1751 until 1752/1753.
Muhammad II was a ruler of Durma from 1753 until 1757.

Ghatghat
Ghatghat was the Sultanate in present Saudi Arabia.
Sultan of Ghatghat
ibn Bikhad was a ruler og Ghatghat around 1924.


al-Hasa`
al-Hasa` sometimes Al-Ahsa, El Hasa, or Hadjar (Arabic: al-As, locally al-as; Turkish: Lahsa) was the Sheikdom in present Saudi Arabia.
List of Sheikhs of al-Hasa`
Barrak I bin Ghurair was a ruler of al-Hasa` from 1670 until 1682.
Muhammad I (died 1691) was a ruler of al-Hasa` from 1682 until his death in 1691.
`Ali (died 1736) was a ruler of al-Hasa` from 1723 until his death in 1736.
Sulayman (died 1752) was a ruler of al-Hasa` from 1736 until his death in 1752.
`Uray'ir ibn Dudjayn ibn Sa`dun (died 1774) was a ruler of al-Hasa` from 1752 until his death in 1774.
Butaiyin (died 1774) was a ruler of al-Hasa` from in 1774.
Dudjayn (died 1774) was a ruler of al-Hasa`in 1774.
Sa`dun II was a ruler of al-Hasa` jointly with Muhammad II from 1774 until 1789.
Muhammad II was a ruler of al-Hasa` was a ruler of al-Hasa`jointly with Sa`dun II from 1774 until 1789.
`Abd al-Muhsin bin `Abd Allah (died 1791) was a ruler of al-Hasa` (in the North from 1789 until his death in 1791. He was also regent of al-Hasa`
from 1787 until 1789.
Zayid was a ruler of al-Hasa`(in South) from 1789 until 1793 and from 1793 until 1794.
Barrak II was a ruler of al-Hasa` (in North) from 1791 until 1793 and from 1794 until 1795.
Madjid was a ruler of al-Hasa`jointly with Muhammad III in 1818 and from 1823 until 1830.
Muhammad III was a ruler of al-Hasa`jointly with Madjid in 1818 and from 1823 until 1830.
`Umar ibn Muhammad was a ruler of al-Hasa`from 1830 until 1838 and in 1842.
`Abd Allah ibn Ghanim was a ruler of al-Hasa`in Qatif from 1830 until 1839.
Mehmed Efendi I (died 1839) was a ruler of al-Hasa`in Hutuf in 1839.
Mehmed Efendi II was a ruler of al-Hasa`in Hufuf from 1839 until 1840.
Hamad ibn Mubarak was a ruler of al-Hasa`from 1840 until 1841.
Musa al-Hamli was a ruler of al-Hasa` in 1841
Fahd ibn `Abd Allah was a acting ruler of al-Hasa`in 1842.
Bilal ibn Salim al-Harq was a ruler of al-Hasa`in 1842.
`Abd Allah ibn Battal al-Mutayri was a ruler of al-Hasa`in 1843.
Ahmad ibn Muhammad as-Sudayri was a ruler of al-Hasa` from 1844 until 1853 and from 1857 until 1861.
Muhammad ibn Ahmad was a ruler of al-Hasa`from 1853 until 1857 and from 1861 until 1870.
Nasir ibn Djabir al-Khalidi was a ruler of al-Hasa`from 1870 until 1871.
Fariq Pasha was a ruler of al-Hasa`from 1871 until 1872.

Jebel Shammar (Hil)
The Emirate of Jabal Shammar, also known as the Emirate of Ha'il was a state in the Nejd region of Arabia, existing from the mid-nineteenth century to
1921. Jabal Shammar (Arabic: ) in English is translated as the "Mountain of theShammar". Jabal Shammar's capital was Ha'il.
[2]
It was led by
a monarchy of the House of Rashid. It includes parts of modern day Saudi Arabia, Iraq, and Jordan.
List of Emirs of Jebel Shammar (Hil)
Abdullah I bin Ali al Rashid was a founder and ruler ruler of Jebel Shammar (Hil) from 1835 until 1847. Abdullah came to power
after leading a revolt (together with his brother prince Ubayd Al Rashd) against the ruler of Ha'il, Muhammad bin Ali, who was a fellow
member of the Jaafar al-Shammari lineage. As a leader, Abdullah was praised for bringing peace and stability both to Ha'il and to the
surrounding region. Abdullah demanded from his brother prince Ubayd an ahd (covenant), according to which succession to the office of amir
would remain in Abdullah's line.


Tall ibn Abdullah al Rashid (died 1867) was a ruler of Jebel Shammar (Hil) from 1847 until his death in 1867. The son of Abdullah, Talal is
remembered for his relative liberalism and interest in building projects. During his rule, the Barzan Palace in Ha'il was completed. He established regular trade
connections with Iraq and expanded the Rashidi sphere of influence: "The inhabitants of Kaseem, weary of Wahhabee tyranny, turned their eyes towards Telal,
who had already given a generous and inviolable asylum to the numerous political exiles of that district. Secret negotiations took place, and at a favourable
moment the entire uplands of that provinceafter a fashion not indeed peculiar to Arabiaannexed themselves to the kingdom of Shommer by universal and
unanimous suffrage." (William Gifford Palgrave, 1865: 129.). Talal was considered relatively tolerant towards foreigners, including traders in Ha'il: "Many of these
traders belonged to the Shia sect, hated by some Sunni, doubly hated by the Wahabees. But Telal [sic] affected not to perceive their religious discrepansies, and
silenced all murmurs by marks of special favour towards these very dissenters, and also by the advantages which their presence was not long in procuring for the
town". (William Gifford Palgrave 1865: 130.) In the 1860s, internal disputes in the House of Saud allowed a Rashidi/Ottoman alliance to oust them. The Rashidi
occupied the Saudi capital of Riyadh in 1865 and forced the leaders of the House of Saud into exile. Talal later died in a shooting incident which has been
termed "mysterious". Charles Doughty, in his book Travels in Arabia Deserta, writes that Talal committed suicide. Talal left seven sons, but the oldest, Bandar,
was only 18 or 20 when his father died.
Mutib II bin Abd al-Azz al Rashid (died 1869) was a ruler of Jebel Shammar (Hil) from 1867 until his death in 1869. A younger brother of Talal,
he was supported by senior members of the Rashid family and the sheikhs of the Shammar sections. After only a year, he was shot and killed in the Barzan
Palace by his nephew and next amir, Bandar. Doughty's version of the events is that Bandar and Badr, the second-oldest son, cast a silver bullet to kill their uncle
because they knew he wore an amulet that protected him against lead.
Bandar bin Tall al Rashid (died 1872) was a ruler of Jebel Shammar (Hil) from 1869 until his death in 1872. He was ruled for only a short time before
he was killed by his uncle, Muhammed, the brother of Mutib. Bandar reportedly married his uncle's widow and had a son by her.
Muhammad I bin Abdullah al Rashid was a ruler of Jebel Shammar (Hil) from 1872 until 1897. A confrontation outside Ha'il with his nephew, the
young Amir Bandar, ended with Muhammed killing Bandar. Muhammed then continued his journey to Ha'il and announced himself as the new amir. In order
to prevent the possibility of revenge, Muhammed gave orders for the execution of all of Bandar's brothers (the sons of Talal), Bandar's cousins (the children of
Talal's sister), and their slaves and servants. Only one of Talal's sons, Naif, survived. In spite of the inauspicious beginning, his rule turned out to be the longest in
the history of the Rashidi dynasty. His rule became "a period of stability, expansion and prosperity" (ref.: p. 61, Al Rasheed). His expansion reached al-
Jawf and Palmyra to the north and Tayma and Khaybar to the west. In 1891, after a rebellion, Abd al-Rahman bin Faysal bin Turki Al Saud left Riyadh.
The Saudfamily, including the ten year old Abdul Aziz Al-Saud, went into exile in Kuwait.
Abdul Aziz bin Mutib al Rashid (1870 April 13, 1906) was a ruler of Jebel Shammar (Hil) from 1897 until his death on April 13,
1906. He was son of Mutib, the third amir, he was adopted by his uncle Muhammed, the fifth amir, and brought up to be his heir. After
Muhammed died of natural causes, Abd al-Aziz succeeded him unopposed. However Rashidi rule was insecure as their Ottoman allies were
unpopular and weakening. In 1904, the young Ibn Saud, the future founder of Saudi Arabia, returned from exile with a small force and retook
Riyadh. Abd al-Aziz died in the battle ofRawdat Muhanna with Ibn Saud in 1906.

Mutib II bin Abd al-Azz al Rashid (1888 January 1907) was a ruler of Jebel Shammar (Hil) from April 1906 until his death in January 1907. He
was succeeded his father as amir. However, he was not able to win support of the whole family and, within a year, he was killed by Sultan bin Hammud.
Sultan bin Hammud al Rashid (1870 - January 1908) was a ruler of Jebel Shammar (Hil) from January 1907 until his death in January 1908. He was
grandson of Ubayd (the brother of the first amir), he was criticized because he ignored the ahd (covenant) between his grandfather and the first amir. He was
unsuccessful in fighting Ibn Saud, and was killed by his own brothers.
Sa`ud I bin Hammud al Rashid (1875 - September 1909) was a ruler of Jebel Shammar (Hil) from January until his death in September 1908. He was
grandson of Ubayd. Saud was killed by the maternal relatives of Saud bin Abd al-Aziz, the tenth amir.
Sa`ud II bin Abdul Aziz al Rashid (1885 - 1920) was a ruler of Jebel Shammar (Hil) from 1908 until his death in 1920. He was boy of 10 when he was
made amir, his maternal relatives of the Al Sabhan family ruled as regents on his behalf until he came of age, based on the constitution of Emara. In 1920, he was
assassinated by his cousin, Abdullah bin Talal (a brother of the 12th amir). Two of his widows remarried: Norah bint Hammud Al Sabhan became Ibn Saud's
eight wife, and Fahda bint Asi Al Shuraim of the Abde section of the Shammar tribe became Ibn Saud's ninth wife and the mother of King Abdullah of Saudi
Arabia.
Abdullah II bin Mutib al Rashid (1906 - 1947) was a ruler of Jebel Shammar (Hil) from May 1920 until 1921. He was son of the 7th
amir, he surrendered to Ibn Saud in 1921, after having come to the throne the year before, at the age of thirteen.


Muhammad II bin Tall al Rashid (died 1954) was a ruler of Jebel Shammar (Hil) in 1921. He was grandson of Naif, the only surviving son of Talal,
the 2nd Amir. Muhammad bin Talal's wife Nura bint Sibban married King Abdulaziz after he was imprisoned by him.
[3]
Surrendered to Ibn Saud. One of the
daughters of Muhammad bin Talal, Watfa, married Prince Musa'id bin Abdul Aziz, the fifteenth son of Ibn Saud. Prince Musa'id and Watfa became the parents
of Prince Faisal bin Musa'id, the assassin of King Faisal.


Mae Hong Son
Mae Hong Son was the former state in present Thailand.
List of Lords (title Partasakti) of Mae Hong Son
Phaya Singhanat Racha (Chankale) (died 1884) was the Lord of Mae Hong Son from 1874 until his death in 1884.
Chao Nang Mia (died 1891) was the Lord of Mae Hong Son from 1884 until his death in 1891.
Phaya Phithak Sayam Khet (Pu Khun Tho) (died 1905) was the Lord of Mae Hong Son from 1891 until his death in 1905.
Phaya Phisan Hong Son Buri (Khun Lu) was the Lord of Mae Hong Son from 1905 until 1941.

Nan
Nan was the former state in present Thailand. Little-known Nan goes back to the depths of the history of Thailand. For centuries it was a separate,
autonomous kingdom with few relationships with the outside world. There is much evidence of prehistoric habitation, but it wasn't until several
small mueang united to form Nanthaburi on the Nan riverin the mid-14th century - contemporary with the creation of Luang Prabang and the Lan Xang (Million
Elephants) kingdom in Laos - that the city became a power to be taken into account. Associated with the mighty Sukhothai kingdom, the mueang took the title
Wara Nakhon and played a significant part in the development of early Thai nationalism. By the end of the -14th century Nan was one of the nine northern
Thai-Lao principalities that comprised Lan Na Thai (now Lanna) and the city state flourished throughout the 15th century under the name Chiang Klang (Middle
City), a reference to its position roughly midway between Chiang Mai (New City) and Chiang Thong (Golden City, which is today'sLuang Prabang).
The Burmese took control of the kingdom in 1558 and deported many of the inhabitants to Burma as slaves; the city was completely deserted until western
Thailand was retaken from the Burmese in 1786. The local dynasty then regained local sovereignty and it remained semi-autonomous until 1931 when Nan
finally accepted fullBangkok dominion, part of its territory had been annexed to Laos by the French in the late 19th century. Parts of the old city wall and several
early wats dating from the Lannaperiod can be seen in contemporary Nan. The city's wats are distinctive; some temple structures show Lanna influence, while
others belong to the Thai Lue legacy brought from Xishuangbanna in China, where the Thai Lue people came from.
List of Princes (title Chao) of Nan
Attawalapanyo was the Prince of Nan from 1786 until 1810.
Sumanathewalat was a Prince of Nan from 1810 until 1825.
Mahayot was a Prince of Nan from 1825 until 1836.
Acittawaong was a Prince of Nan from 1836 until 1838.
Mahawong was a Prince of Nan from 1838 until 1851.
Anantayot was a Prince of Nan from 1851 until 1891.
Suliyaphong Phallitidet was a Prince of Nan from 1891 until 1918.
Mahaphrom Sulathada (died 1931) was a Prince of Nan from 1818 until his death in 1831.


Pattani Sultanate
Pattani (Patani) or the Sultanate of Pattani was a Malay sultanate that covered approximately the area of the modern Thaiprovinces of Pattani, Yala,
Narathiwat and much of the northern part of modern Malaysia. The 67th century Hindu state of Pan Pan may or may not be related. Langkasuka was a Hindu-
Buddhist kingdom, founded in the region as early as the 2nd century CE, which appeared in many accounts by Chinese travelers, the most famous of whom was
the Buddhist pilgrim I-Ching. The kingdom drew trade from Chinese, Indian, and local traders as a stopping place for ships bound for, or just arrived from,
the Gulf of Thailand. Langkasuka reached its greatest economic success in the 6th and 7th centuries and afterward declined as a major trade center. Political
circumstances suggest that by the 11th century Chola invasion, Langkasuka was no longer a major port visited by merchants. However, much of the decline may
be due to the silting up of its harbor, shown most poignantly today because the most substantial Langkasukan ruins lie approximately 15 kilometers from the sea.
Pattani became part of the Hindu-Buddhist Empire of Srivijaya, a maritime confederation based in Palembang. Srivijaya dominated trade in theSouth China
Sea and exacted tolls on all traffic through the Straits of Malacca. Malay culture had substantial influence on the Khmer Empire, and the ancient city of Nakhon
Pathom. The founding of the Islamic kingdom of Patani is thought to have been around the mid-13th century CE, with folklore suggesting it was named after an
exclamation made by Sultan Ismail Shah, Pantai Ini! ("This beach" in the local Malay language). However, some think it was the same country known to the
Chinese as Pan Pan. Despite claims that the origins of the name Pattani means "this beach", it may be the same country known to the Chinese as Pan Pan.
List of rulers of Pattani Sultanate
Inland Dynasty (Sri Wangsa)
Sultan Ismail Shah (died 1530) was the founder and ruler of the Pattani Sultanate from 1516 until his death in 1530, according to one account, and the first
ruler to convert to Islam. In fact, other rulers must have preceded him. It is also likely that during his reign the Portuguese first visited the port to trade, arriving in
1516. He was called King Phaya Tu Nakpa before his conversion. A sheikh named Sa'id or Shafi'uddin from Kampong Pasai (presumably a small community of
traders from Pasai who lived on the outskirts of Patani), reportedly healed the king of a rare skin disease and after much negotiation (and recurrence of the
disease), the king agreed to convert to Islam, adopting the name Sultan Ismail Shah. All of the sultan's officials also agreed to convert. However, there is
fragmentary evidence that some local people had begun to convert to Islam prior to this.
Sultan Mudhaffar Shah (died 1564) was the ruler of the Pattani Sultanate from around 1530 until his death in 1564. He was son of Sultan Ismail Shah, who
died during an attack on Ayudhya (Siam).
Sultan Manzur Shah (died 1572) was the ruler of the Pattani Sultanate from 1564 until his death in 1572. He was brother of Sultan Mudhaffar Shah.
Sultan Patik Siam (died 1573) was the ruler of the Pattani Sultanate from 1572 until his death in 1573. He was son of Sultan Mudhaffar Shah, who was
murdered by his half-brother, Raja Bambang.
Sultan Bahdur (died 1584) was the ruler of the Pattani Sultanate from 1573 until his death in 1584. He was son of Sultan Manzur Shah, who was considered
a tyrant in most accounts.
Ratu Hijau (the Green Queen) (died 1616) was a Malay sovereign Queen of the Pattani Sultanate from 1584 until her death in 1616. Her name means "the
Green Queen" in English. She was the eldest daughter of Sultan Mansur Shah. According to the Portuguese chronicler Mendez Pinto, she came to the throne in
1584 as a sister of the murdered Patani king after twenty years of unstable rule. She was already in power when the first Dutch and English Company agents
visited this region of what is now southern Thailand. She was also known as the 'great queen of Patani'. According to Jacob van Neck's writing in 1604, he
reported a relatively prosperous state under Ratu Hijau, who was "one well-disposed to merchants". The Malay monarchy under her rule absorbed diversity of
foreign traders into a polyglot elite united by the royal person, a Malay lingua franca, and a pattern of rules and sacred regalia passed down from courts such
as Melaka and Pasai. The majority of the merchants were said to be Chinese merchants, of which the most important of them, such as the leading commercial
official Datu Sirinara, had converted to Islam and adopted Malay court etiquette. She was succeeded by her younger sister Ratu Biru.
Ratu Biru (the Blue Queen) (died 1624) was a Malay sovereign Queen of the Pattani Sultanate from 1616 until her death in 1624. She was succeeding her
sister Ratu Hijau. She was the second of three daughters of Sultan Manzur Shahwho ruled the country. She was succeeded by her sister Ratu Ungu. In Malay, her
name means "Blue" or "Blue Queen."
Ratu Ungu (the Purple Queen) (died 1635) was a Malay sovereign Queen of the Pattani Sultanate from 1624 until her death in 1635. She was succeeding her
sister Ratu Biru. She was the third successive and last daughter of Sultan Mansur Shah to rule the country and was succeeded by her daughter Ratu Kuning.
Following the usurpation of the throne of Ayudhya by King Prasartthong in 1629, she refused to send the bunga mas(golden flowers) which were typically sent as
a sign of Patani's tributary status to Siam. Therefore, Ayudhya sent an army south in 1632 to quell her rebellion, but the attack was repulsed. A subsequent attack
by Siam in 1634 was supposed to be joined by the Dutch but the latter's ships arrived too late and again the attack failed. Finally in 1636, just following the death
of Ratu Ungu, a peace settlement was reached to restore relations between the two countries. In Malay, her name means "purple" or "purple queen."
Ratu Kuning (the Yellow Queen) (died 1649/88) was a Malay sovereign Queen of the Pattani Sultanate from 1635 until her death between 1649/1688. She
was daughter of Ratu Ungu and last queen of the Inland Dynasty. Controversy surrounds the exact date of the end of her reign.
First Kelantanese Dynasty
Raja Bakal was the ruler of the Pattani Sultanate from 1688 untl 1690 or from 1651 until 1670 after a brief invasion of Patani by his father in 1649, Raja Sakti I
of Kelantan, he was given the throne in Patani.
Raja Emas Kelantan was the ruler of the Pattani Sultanate from 1690 until 1704 or from 1670 until 1698, thought by Teeuw & Wyatt to be a king, but
claimed by al-Fatani to be a queen, the widow of Raja Bakal and mother of the succeeding queen.
Raja Emas Chayam was the ruler of the Pattani Sultanate from 1704 until 1707 or 1698 until 1702 and from 1716 until 1718. She was daughter of the two
preceding rulers, according to al-Fatani.
Raja Dewi was the ruler of the Pattani Sultanate from 1707 until 1716.
Raja Bendang Badan was the ruler of the Pattani Sultanate from 1716 unril 1720 or from ? until 1715. He was afterwards raja of Kelantan, 17151733.
Raja Laksamana Dajang was the ruler of the Pattani Sultanate from 1720 until 1721.
Raja Alung Yunus was the ruler of the Pattani Sultanate from 1728 until 1729 or from 1718 until 1729.
Raja Yunus (died 1749) was the ruler of the Pattani Sultanate from 1729 until his death in 1749.
Raja Long Nuh (died 1771) was the ruler of the Pattani Sultanate from 1749 until his death in 1771.
Sultan Muhammad (died 1785) was the ruler of the Pattani Sultanate from 1771 until his death in 1785.
Tengku Lamidin (died 1791) was the ruler of the Pattani Sultanate from 1785 until his death in 1791.
Datuk Pengkalan (died 1808) was the ruler of the Pattani Sultanate from 1791 until his death in 1808.
Nai Khwan Sai was the ruler of the Pattani Sultanate from 1808 until 1815.
Nai Pai was the ruler of the Pattani Sultanate from 1815 until 1816.
Second Kelantanese Dynasty
Tuan Sulung was the ruler of the Pattani Sultanate from 1816 until 1832.
Nik Yusof was the ruler of the Pattani Sultanate from 1832 until 1837.
Along Yenal was the ruler of the Pattani Sultanate from 1837 until 1839.
Tuan Besar was the ruler of the Pattani Sultanate from 1839 until 1842.
Sultan Phraya Long Muhammad Ibni Raja Muda Kelantan, Raja Kampong Laut Tuan Besar Long Ismail Ibni Raja Long Yunus (died 1856) was
the ruler of the Pattani Sultanate from 1842 until his death in 1856.
Tuan Long Puteh Bin Sultan Phraya Long Muhammad (Phraya Pattani II) (died 1881) was the ruler of the Pattani Sultanate from 1856 until his
death in 1881.
Tuan Besar Bin Tuan Long Puteh (Phraya Pattani III) (died 1890) was the ruler of the Pattani Sultanate from 1881 until his death in 1890.
Tuan Long Bongsu Bin Sultan Phraya Long Muhammad (Sultan Sulaiman Sharafuddin Syah, Phraya Pattani IV) (died 1898) was the ruler of the
Pattani Sultanate from 1890 until his death in 1898.
Sultan Abdul Kadir Kamaruddin Syah (Phraya Pattani V) was the last ruler of the Pattani Sultanate from 1898 until his death in 1902.

Sultanate of Singora
The Sultanate of Singora was a port city located on and around the foothills of Khao Daeng mountain, now in Singha Nakhon, Songkhla Province, Thailand.
The city was the precursor of the present-day town of Songkhla and flourished briefly before it was destroyed by Siamese troops in 1680. Singora was known to
British and Dutch traders as Sangor and Sangora; contemporary French writers referred to it as Singor, Cingor and Soncourat;; Indian, Persian and Arab
merchants called it Sing La. A notable artifact from Singora is the cannon displayed next to the flagpole in the grounds of the Royal Hospital Chelsea,London.
The Siamese took the cannon when Singora was destroyed and sent it back to the capital, Ayuthaya. It remained there until it was captured during the Burmese
Siamese war of 17651767 and transported to Burma. It was then seized by the British in the third Anglo-Burmese War (18851887) and shipped to England. In
1887 it was presented to the Royal Hospital Chelsea. An Arabic inscription on the cannon refers to Sulaiman Shah, the Persian sultan who ruled Singora from
1619 until 1668.
List of Sultans of Singora Sultanate
Dato Mogol (died 1619) was the founder and ruler of Singora Sultanate from 1605 until his death in 1619. Singora was founded in 1605 by Dato Mogol, a
Persian nobleman who had fled Java to escape colonial oppression. The city was initially a vassal state of Siam and paid tribute to Ayuthaya. From its inception, it
was designated a duty-free port and vied with the neighboring Sultanate of Pattani for trade. Early references to Singora appear in British and Dutch sources.
A Cottonian manuscript at the British Library, for example, contrasts the taxes levied at Singora with those at Pattani (spelled Patania): "itt were not amiss to build
astrong howse in Sangora which lyeth 24 Leagues northwarde of Patania, under the goverment of Datoe Mogoll, vassall to the King of Siam. (...) this howse
willbee found to bee verie Necessarie, for the charges willbee too highe in Patania besides inconveniences there; which charges you shall spare at Sangora: there
you pay no Custome, onlie a small gift to Datoe Mogoll cann effect all here" British East India Company, A letter of instructions from the East Indian Company
to its agent in East India, 1614. The head of the Dutch East India Company factory in Ayuthaya described Singora as one of Siam's principal cities and an
important trading center for pepper. In 1622 the Dutch exported more than 500 tons of pepper from Singora. Further benefits accrued from Singora's location:
the city had an ideal, natural harbor, and was part of a network of overland and riverine routes that expedited trans-peninsular trade with Kedah. Dato Mogol
died in 1619 and was succeeded by his eldest son, Sulaiman.
Sulaiman (died 1668) was a ruler of Singora Sultanate from 1619 until his death in 1668. He was succeeded in 1619 his father Dato Mogol founder of Singora
Sultanate. In 1642, in an act that triggered decades of conflict, Sulaiman proclaimed political independence from Ayuthaya and appointed himself Sultan
Sulaiman Shah. He eradicated piracy and transformed Singora into a prosperous, cosmopolitan entrept that not only attracted merchants from Europe but also
became the preferred destination in Siam for traders from India, Persia and Arabia. In attempts to reclaim Singora, Ayuthaya launched at least four maritime
attacks during Sulaiman's reign, some of which were accompanied by Dutch vessels. Each campaign failed; one ended in ignominy when the Siamese admiral
"ran away". To help fend off overland assaults, Sulaiman assigned his brother, Pharisees, to develop the nearby town of Chai Buri inPhatthalung Province. Sultan
Sulaiman died in 1668 and was succeeded by Sultan Mustapha. Exploring the ruins of Singora is an adventure for history and archaeology enthusiasts. The
remains of fourteen forts can be visited: six of these (forts 4,5,6,7, 8 and 10) are located on Khao Daeng mountain; the others are scattered around the
foothills. One of the best preserved is fort 9: it is situated on a small hill and visible from the main road that leads from Singha Nakhon to Ko Yo Island. Fort 8 is
also well preserved. It is accessible via a stairway near the Sultan Sulaiman Shah mosque and offers panoramic views of Rat Island and Songkhla. Better views,
however, can be had from fort 6 at the top of Khao Daeng. The fort can be reached by ascending a flight of 670 steps that starts near the small archaeological
museum. The climb to the summit passes forts 4 and 5. Fort 1 is of interest insofar as it adjoins the only remaining section of the original city walls. The tomb of
Sultan Sulaiman Shah enjoys an atmospheric setting in a Muslim graveyard about 1 km north of Khao Daeng. It is housed in a small, Thai-style pavilion
surrounded by large trees. The cemetery is mentioned in the Sejarah Kerajaan Melayu Patani (History of the Malay Kingdom of Patani), a Javi account drawn
mostly from the Hikayat Patani. The text describes Sultan Sulaiman as a soldier who died in battle and the cemetery as "full of nothing but jungle". The tomb is
an object of pilgrimage in the deep south of Thailand, where Sultan Sulaiman is revered by both Muslims and Buddhists alike.
Mustapha was a ruler of Singora Sultanate from 1668 until 1680. Singora's military confidence at this time is evidenced by a war it fought with Pattani. Despite
being outnumbered four to one, Singora rejected attempts at mediation by the Sultan of Kedah and trusted in its "stout and experienced soldiers" who after years
of battle had become skilled marksmen and cannoneers. It was also during the reign of Sultan Mustapha that Greek adventurer, Constance Phaulkon, came to
Siam. After arriving in Ayuthaya in the late 1670s, he embarked on a mission to smuggle arms to Singora. His escapade ended in disaster, however, when he was
shipwrecked off the coast of Ligor (present-day Nakhon Si Thammarat). In 1679, Siamese King Narai's armada began a final offensive to quash the Singora
rebellion. Some of the events were recorded by Samuel Potts, a British East India Company trader based in Singora at the time. In one of his letters he reported
on the city's preparations for war: "This King has fortified his City, gunned his Forts upon the hills, making all the provision he can for his defence, not knowing
how soon the King of Siam will oppose him" Samuel Potts, Samuel Potts at Sangora to Richard Burnaby at Siam, January 22, 1679. In a letter from August of
the same year, Potts wrote that the Siamese fleet had arrived and added "I cannot remain secure where I am". The battles that followed were decisive: Singora was
devastated beyond recovery and abandoned. The aftermath was documented by representatives of the French embassies to Siam in 1685 and 1687. One report
told how Singora's "trs bonne citadelle" had been razed after a war of more than thirty years; Diplomat Simon de la Loubere wrote that the war had lasted twenty
years and ended when the sultan was captured by a French cannoneer working for the Siamese army.


Songkhla
Songkhla was the former state in present southern Thailand. The name Songkhla is actually the Thai corruption of Singgora (Jawi: ); its original name
means 'the city of lions' in Malay. This refers to a lion-shaped mountain near the city of Songkhla. Songkhla was the seat of an old Malay Kingdom with
heavy Srivijayan influence. In ancient times (200 AD - 1400 AD), Songkhla formed the northern extremity of the Malay Kingdom of Langkasuka. The city-state
then became a tributary of Nakhon Si Thammarat, suffering damage during several attempts to gain independence. Archaeological excavations on the isthmus
between Lake Songkhla and the sea reveal that in the 10th through the 14th century this was a major urbanized area, and a center of international maritime trade,
in particular with Quanzhou in China. The long Sanskrit name of the state that existed there has been lost; its short Sanskrit name was Singhapura ("Lion City").
The short vernacular name was Satingpra, coming from the Mon-Khmer sting/steng/stang (meaning "river") and the Sanskrit pura ("city").
[1]
Since the 18th century,
Songkla has been firmly under Thai suzerainty. In 1909, Songkhla was formally annexed by Siam as part of Anglo-Siamese Treaty of 1909, negotiated with
the British Empire. In the 18th century many Chinese immigrants, especially from Guangdong and Fujian, came to the province. Quickly rising to economic
wealth, one of them won the bidding for the major tax farm of the province in 1769, establishing the Na Songkhla (from Songkhla) family as the most wealthy and
influential. In 1777 the family also gained political power, when the old governor was dismissed and Luang Inthakhiri (Yiang, Chinese name Wu Rang ())
became the new governor. In 1786 the old governor started an uprising, which was put down after four months. The position was thereafter inherited in the
family and was held by 8 of his descendants until 1901, when Phraya Wichiankhiri (Chom) was honorably retired as part of the administrative reforms of
Prince Damrong Rajanubhab. The family's former home was converted into the Songkhla National Museum in 1953. Songkhla was the scene of heavy fighting
when the Imperial Japanese Army invaded Thailand on 8 December 1941 and parts of the city were destroyed. Songkhla was not initially affected by the recent
outbreak of Pattani Separatism, which began in 2004. However, bombs planted in 2005 and 2007 created fear the insurgence might spread into Songkhla
province. The districts Chana and Thepha bordering Pattani have been under martial law since 2005.
List of Princes of Songkhla
Luang Inthakhiri (Wu Rang, Hao Yiang) was a Prince of Songkhla from 1777 until 1784. In the 18th century many Chinese immigrants, especially
from Guangdong and Fujian, came to the province. Quickly rising to economic wealth, one of them won the bidding for the major tax farm of the province in
1769, establishing the Na Songkhla (from Songkhla) family as the most wealthy and influential. In 1777 the family also gained political power, when the old
governor was dismissed and Luang Inthakhiri (Yiang, Chinese name Wu Rang ()) became the new governor.
Hao Bun Hui (Inthakiri Bun Hui) was a Prince of Songkhla from 1784 until 1812.
Phraya Wisetphakdi was a Prince of Songkhla from 1812 until 1817.
Phra Sunthararunak (Wichiankiri Thianseng) was a Prince of Songkhla from 1817 until 1847.
Phra Wichiankiri Bunsang was a Prince of Songkhla from 1847 until 1865.
Phra Wichiankiri Men was a Prince of Songkhla from 1865 until 1884.
Phra Wichiankiri Chum was a Prince of Songkhla from 1884 until 1888.
Phra Wichiankiri Chom was a Prince of Songkhla from 1888 until 1901 when he was honorably retired as part of the administrative reforms of
Prince Damrong Rajanubhab.

Ryukyu Kingdom
The Ryukyu Kingdom (Japanese: Ryky koku; Ryukyuan: Ruuchuu-kuku; traditional Chinese: ;simplified Chinese: ;
pinyin: Liqi Gu; historical English name: Lewchew, Luchu) was an independent kingdom which ruled most of the Ryukyu Islands from the 15th century to
the 19th century. The Kings of Ryukyu unified Okinawa Islandand extended the kingdom to the Amami Islands in modern-day Kagoshima Prefecture, and
the Sakishima Islands nearTaiwan. Despite its small size, the kingdom played a central role in the maritime trade networks of medieval East and Southeast Asia.
List of Ryukyuan kings
Shunten Dynasty
Shunten (
?
, 1166-1237), also known as Shunten- (
?
) was a king of the Ryky Islands from 1187 until his death in 1237. Shunten is the earliest
king inOkinawa for whom a name is known. He is said to have taken power after defeating a usurper to the throne by the name of Riy who had overthrown the
25th king of the Tenson Dynasty. The Chzan Seikan (1650), the first official history of the Rykyan Kingdom, and Chzan Seifu (1701) state that Shunten was
the son of Minamoto no Tametomo (1139 1170). Tametomo was exiled to a penal colony on Izu shima following his defeat in the Hgen Rebellion of 1156.
According to this theory, Tametomo then became lost at sea some time later, arrived on Okinawa, and settled down with the younger sister of the anji, or local
ruler, of zato. zato is located at the south of Okinawa Island in the present-day city ofNanj. Shunten, according to the two histories, was the son of
Tametomo and the sister of the zato anji. Shunten was known as Sonton () prior to becoming king. He became the became anji of Urasoe in 1180 at the
age of 15 after gathering a base of popular support in the area. In 1187, he overthrew Riy and established his royal seat of power at Urasoe castle, marking the
beginning of a new dynasty of rulers. Shunten's reign was long; by legend he is said to have ruled for 51 years. Shunten died in 1237 at the age of 71 and was
succeeded by his son Shunbajunki (1237 1248). He is buried at Urasoe ydore, and enshrined at Naminoue Shrine along with three other Ryukyuan kings.
Shunten's dynasty ended in the third generation when his grandson Gihon abdicated, went into exile, and was succeeded by Eiso, who began a new royal lineage.
Shunbajunki (
?
, 1185 -1248) was a king of the Ryky Islands from 1237 until his death in 1248.Shunbajunki was the second of the Shunten Line.
He succeeded his father Shunten in 1237. Shunbajunki's reign is noted for the construction of Shuri Castle, and the introduction of the Japanese kana writing
system. TheChinese language and writing system was not to be introduced until roughly a century later; even after that time, government documents continued to
be written in kana, as did much poetry. Shunbajunki died in 1248, and was succeeded by his son Gihon.
Gihon (
?
) (c. 1206 - c. 1260), also known as Yoshimoto or as Yiben in Chinese,
[1]
was a king of the Ryky Islands from 1248 until his death around 1260.
Gihon was the third and last of the Shunten Lineage. He succeeded his father Shunbajunki at the age of 44, in 1248. Gihon's reign was marked by terrible
disasters, including famine, epidemics, and devastating typhoons. Around 1254, he appointed a young lord by the name of Eiso to be Regent (Sessei), and to aid
in managing these disasters. When Gihon abdicated in 1259 or 1260, he "withdrew into the forest alone." Eiso succeeded him as "king" and began a new royal
lineage. The precise location, date, and circumstances of Gihon's death are unknown, though it is safe to assume he died shortly after his abdication. Local
legends allege that he was last seen at Hedo-misaki, the northernmost point on Okinawa Island.
Eiso Dynasty
Eiso (
?
, Chinese pronunciation "Yingzu") (12291299), was a king of the Ryky Islands from 1260 until his death in 1299. Eiso was a member of the
Tenson family; and he is also known as the first of the Eiso Lineage of Ryukyuan monarchs. He served as Regent from 1235 to 1260, and afterwards as king,
succeeding Gihon and reigning until his death in 1299. Eiso's reign is generally seen as one of great growth for the fledgling Okinawan principality. Eiso instituted
a variety of tax and land reforms, and the nation recovered from famines and other problems which plagued the previous reigns. Several outlying islands,
including Kumejima, Kurama, and Iheya, came into the sphere of Okinawan control, and began sending tribute in 1264. An envoy was sent to Amami shima in
1266, though it was not until much later that Okinawa's sphere of control would be expanded to include the Amami Islands. In short, Eiso's reign saw the
establishment of many governmental institutions, and helped to set the foundation for the structure of the government of the following centuries. Eiso's reign also
saw contact with the Mongol Empire, which was at the time planning to invade Japan. Envoys from the court of Kublai Khan arrived in Okinawa twice, in 1272
and 1276, asking that the fledgling kingdom submit to the Mongols' authority and contribute to the effort to invade Japan. The envoys were rebuffed both times,
and forcibly repelled the second time, though they made off with 130 Okinawan captives. Eiso died at the age of 71, and was succeeded by his son Taisei.
Taisei (
?
, died 1309) was a king
[1]
of the Ryky Islands from 1299 until his death in 1309. He was the second ruler in the Eis lineage of monarchs; that is,
his father was King Eis and his son was King Eiji. The years of Taisei's reign at Shuri were uneventful Taisei was the grandfather of Tamagusuku, who would
become the first monarch of the kingdom of Chzan in central Okinawa.
The First Sh Dynasty
Sh Hashi () (13711439) was the last king of Chzan and the first king of the Ryky Kingdom (today Okinawa Prefecture, Japan) from 1422 until his
death in 1439, uniting the three kingdoms of Chzan, Hokuzan, and Nanzan by conquest. His name as rendered in Japanese is "Sh Hashi"; in Chinese, he is
known as Shang Bazhi. As lord (aji) of Soshiki Mairi, he was seen as an able, well-liked administrator within his own lands, who rose in prominence at the
opening of the 15th century. He led a small rebellion against the lord of Azato district in 1402. Hashi then went on to overthrow King Bunei of Chzan in
1404
[1]
and placed his father Sh Shish on the throne. Even with his father as King, however, Hashi held true political power, and organized envoys to Nanking,
to assure China, to which the Ryky kingdoms were tributaries, of his kingdom's continued cooperation and friendship. He also reorganized much of the
administrative organs of the kingdom to better fit Chinese models. The people of Chzan also quickly adopted many elements of Chinese culture, and came to
be recognized as "civilized", at least somewhat more so than earlier, by the Chinese. Hashi also oversaw the expansion and embellishment of Shuri Castle, and the
placement of distance markers throughout the land, marking the distance to Shuri. Meanwhile, though Hokuzan, the neighboring kingdom to the north, held no
advantages over Chzan economically or in terms of political influence, Hashi viewed their capital city castle of Nakijin gusuku as a threat militarily. When that
opportunity presented itself in 1419, after three Hokuzan aji (local lords) turned to his side, Hashi led his father's army, and conquered Nakijin in a swift series of
attacks. The king of Hokuzan, along with his closest retainers, committed suicide after a fierce resistance. A year after his father's death in 1421, Hashi requested
official recognition and investiture from the Chinese imperial court, and received it in due course. It may be interesting to note that, despite the nominal
independence of Ryky into the 19th century, this practice would continue. The court bestowed upon him the family name Shang (Sh in Japanese), registered
a new title in their annals: Liuqiu Wang (, Jap: Ryky-, King of Ryky), and sent Hashi's emissary back with a ceremonial dragon robe, and
a lacquer tablet with the word Chzan inscribed upon it. This Chzan tablet was then placed on display outside Shuri Castle, where it remained until the 20th
century. Thus, succeeding his father as king of Chzan in 1422, and appointing his younger brother Warden of Hokuzan, he seized zato gusuku, capital of
Nanzan, in 1429, from LordTaromai. Thus uniting the island of Okinawa, he founded the Ryky Kingdom and the Sh Dynasty. Up to this point, the three
kingdoms had operated on a very simple feudal model. Peasants were subsistence farmers who paid taxes to their local aji and performed various other labors
and services to him; the aji in turn owed taxes and services to the head of their kingdom (hypothetically a king, but called a prince in many English-language texts
on the subject). Sh Hashi did not effect drastic dramatic changes upon this system, but reinforced it as part of his unification efforts; aji were made to owe their
allegiance to his royal government at Shuri, rather than becoming lordless rebels or the like upon the defeat and absorption of their kingdom. Hashi also oversaw
a significant expansion of trade, particularly with China, and organized envoys to other Asian countries as well. Documents survive today chronicling a number of
missions to Ayutthaya, the capital of Siam at the time, to resolve trade issues. Recognizing the importance of trade to Ryky's continued prosperity, Sh Hashi
promoted it strongly, and even ordered a bell cast and installed at Shuri Castle, upon which was inscribed "Ships are means of communication with all nations;
the country is full of rare products and precious treasures." Through this trade, friendly diplomatic relations, and the overall organization and unity created by
Sh Hashi, Ryky absorbed much of the foreign influences that would come to define its culture. Some examples include the Chinese ceremonial robes worn
by kings and high officials when meeting with Chinese officials, the Japanese-inspired custom of aristocratic members of society wearing two swords, and the
fusion of native, Japanese, Chinese, and Southeast Asian elements of music and dance. Sh Hashi died in 1439, at the age of sixty-eight, having united Ryky
and established its place as a small, but recognized, power in the region. Upon his death, the court appointed his second son, Sh Ch, his successor, and sent
emissaries to the Chinese court to ask for investiture, to the Japanese Shogun in Kyoto and to the courts of a number of other kingdoms, as diplomatic missions.
Sh Ch ( Sh Ch
?
, 13911444) was a king of the Ryky Kingdom, the 3rd of the line of the First Sh Dynasty from 1439 until his death in 1444. Sh
Ch was the second son of his father, King Sh Hashi. After Hokuzan Kingdom's annexation, Sh Ch was appointed "Warden of Hokuzan" (
Hokuzan Kanshu
?
) in 1422. Sh Ch was installed as the king after his father's death. During his reign, Ryukyu began to trade with Java.
Sh Shitatsu (
?
, 14081449) was king of Ryky Kingdom from 1444 until his death in 1449. Sh Shitatsu was the eldest son of kingSh Ch. He died
in 1449 without an heir, his uncle Sh Kinpuku was installed as the king.
Sh Kinpuku ( Sh Kinpuku
?
, 13981453) was a king of the Ryky Kingdom from 1449 until his death in 1453, the 5th of the line of the First Sh
Dynasty. Sh Kinpuku succeeded his nephew, Sh Shitatsu, in 1449. A one-kilometer-long dam, which known as Chk Dam (Chktei
?
), was built
by Kaiki (, a somewhat mysterious figure from Ming China) in 1451. The dam was built from Naha harbor toTomari harbor, connecting plenty of tiny isles.
King Sh Kinpuku died in 1453, a succession dispute erupted between the king's son Shiro (
?
) and his younger brother Furi (
?
). Shuri Castle was burned
down in the conflict, and both of them died in the incident. After the incident, the king's another younger brother, Sh Taiky, came to the throne.
Sh Taiky (
?
, c. 14151460) was a king of the Ryky Kingdom from 1454 until his death in 1460. His reign saw the construction of many Buddhist
temples, and the casting of the "Bridge of Nations" Bell (Bankoku shinry no kane
?
). Sh Taiky was the seventh son of Sh Hashi, founder of the
Ryky Kingdom and of the Sh Dynasty. In 1453, he was named Prince of Goeku, and given Goeku magiri (today part of Okinawa City) as his domain. When
King Sh Kinpuku died in 1453, a succession dispute erupted between the king's son Shiro (
?
) and his younger brother Furi (
?
). Shuri Castle was burned
down in the conflict, which ended in the death of both Shiro and Furi, and the succession of Sh Taiky to the throne. Having studied under Kaiin, a Zen monk
from Kyoto, Sh Taiky had a number of Buddhist temples founded, including the Kgen-ji, Fumon-ji, Manju-ji, and Tenry-ji., and the so-called "Bridge of
Nations" Bell cast. The bell, with an inscription describing the kingdom's prosperity in maritime trade and diplomacy, hung in Shuri Castle for centuries and
became a famous symbol of the castle and of the kingdom. Sh Taiky's reign was, indeed, a period of prosperity in maritime trade. Historian George H.
Kerr writes that Okinawan merchants sometimes earned as much as a thousand-percent return on luxury goods, that Naha grew more fully into a prosperous-
looking port town, and the estates of the local lords (anji) grew as well. However, Kerr also writes that Sh Taiky's patronage of Buddhism and temple-building
efforts far exceeded that which would have been demanded or supported by the populace, and that these activities impoverished the royal treasury. The reign of
Sh Taiky also saw one of the more famous episodes of political intrigues among the Aji in the history & legends of the kingdom. Informed by Amawari, lord
ofKatsuren gusuku and son-in-law of the king, that Gosamaru, lord of Nakagusuku and father-in-law to Sh Taiky, was plotting to overthrow the kingdom, Sh
Taiky allowed Amawari to lead a royal contingent to subjugate Nakagusuku. Following Gosamaru's defeat and subsequent death, the king discovered that it was
in fact Amawari who had been plotting against him from the beginning, and whose schemes led to the destruction of a loyal retainer. Katsuren was then
subsequently attacked by the Ryukyuan army led by Uni-Ufugusuku, and Amawari captured and executed. Upon his death in 1460, Sh Taiky was succeeded
by his son, Sh Toku.
Sh Toku ( Sh Toku
?
, 14411469) was the son of Sh Taiky and last king of his dynasty from 1461 until his death in 1469. He came to power as a
young man in a kingdom whose treasury had been depleted. He engaged in efforts to conquer islands and took Hachiman as his banner to emphasize his martial
spirit. His conquest of Kikai did not help financial matters. He either died young or was possibly killed by forces within the kingdom as details are somewhat
unclear. As is common for rulers who preside over the end of a dynasty moralists portrayed him as cruel, violent, and lacking in virtue.
The Second Sh Dynasty
Sh En (
?
)(14151476) was a king of the Ryky Kingdom from 1469 until his death in 1476, the founder of the Second
Sh Dynasty. Prior to becoming king, he was known as Kanamaru (
?
). Kanamaru was born into a family of peasant farmers
on Izena Island, a tiny island which lies off the northwestern coast of Okinawa Island. It is said that he lost his parents when he
was around twenty and undertook to provide for his aunt and uncle, brother and sister, and his wife, whom he married at a very
young age. In one year in which the island had suffered from a particularly severe drought, the rice patties of Kanamaru's family
were found to be full of water; accused of having stolen the water, Kanamaru was forced to flee his home, and ended up in
Ginama, in the northern region (Kunigami) of Okinawa Island. After several years living in Ginama, there too some type of
dispute or disagreement between Kanamaru and his neighbors emerged. Leaving Ginama, he traveled to Shuri, the capital of the
Ryky Kingdom, in 1441, and became a servant or retainer to the prince, Sh Taiky. After Sh Taiky became king in 1454,
Kanamaru was made royal treasurer, and was in 1459 granted the post ofOmonogusuku osasu no soba (
?
), a
position involving responsibility for matters regarding foreign relations and trade. He was also granted territory, and made Lord of Uchima ( Uchima-
udun
?
). There emerged a difference of opinion between Kanamaru, and Sh Toku, who succeeded Sh Taiky as king in 1461, possibly over the king's costly
military efforts on the island of Kikaigashima, leading Kanamaru to leave Shuri and retire to Uchima. Sh Toku died shortly afterwards, however, and it is said
that in the ensuing discussions among the elder bureaucrats to choose a successor, Kanamaru was selected by popular demand, and thus came to the throne,
taking the royal name Sh En. HistorianGeorge H. Kerr, however, points out that official histories produced in the following centuries were written with the
patronage of Sh En's successors; also that the circumstances surrounding Sh Toku's death remain something of a mystery, and the traditional account may
simply indicate that there was a shift in allegiances among the aristocrats and bureaucrats towards Kanamaru, or that those parties in support of Kanamaru simply
outnumbered those on the side of the late king. Sh En thus established the Second Sh Dynasty, taking on the honorary surname granted the kings of Ryky
by Ming Dynasty (and later, Qing Dynasty) China. He also banned members of the former Sh lineage from high government office, and from marrying into the
lineage of the new dynasty, and took steps to elevate the prestige of his own family. His father came to be honored as King of Izena, and a formal tomb was
constructed for Sh En's parents on Izena Island. Sh En also named his sister high priestess, or "noro", of Izena; the lineage of high priestesses descended from
her continued until the 20th century. His reign marked the beginning of an institutional shift in the royal government, away from rule by a charismatic or
otherwise gifted individual leader, i.e. the king, and towards a more bureaucratic system, with the king at its center. Sh En's childhood wife is believed to have
died, or otherwise separated from Kanamaru, before he rose to prominence at Shuri. He had his first son with his second wife, Yosoidon. Sh En died in 1476,
after ruling for only a few years, and was succeeded by his brother Sh Sen'i, to Yosoidon's chagrin. Presently, the high priestess, daughter of the late king and
Yosoidon, received a divine message indicating that Sh Sen'i should abdicate in favor of his nephew, son of Sh En, who then took the throne as Sh Shin.
Sh Sen'i ( Sh Sen'i
?
, 14301477) was a king of the Ryky Kingdom, the second of the line of the Second Sh Dynasty in 1477. He ruled for only six
months after his elder brother Sh En died, and was forced to abdicate to his nephew, Sh Shin. Sh Sen'i was named Prince of Goeku () after his
abdication, and given Goeku magiri (today part of Okinawa City) as his domain. But died in the same year, somebody thought he was murdered by the empress
dowager Ukiyaka ().
Sh Shin (
?
, 14651526) was a king of the Ryky Kingdom from 1477 until his death in 1526, the third of the line of the
Second Sh Dynasty. Sh Shin's long reign has been described as "the Great Days of Chzan", a period of great peace and relative
prosperity. He was the son ofSh En, the founder of the dynasty, by Yosoidon, Sh En's second wife, often referred to as the queen
mother. He succeeded his uncle, Sh Sen'i, who was forced to abdicate in his favor. Much of the foundational organization of the
kingdom's administration and economy is traced back to developments which occurred during Sh Shin's reign. As government became
more institutionalized and organized, the aji (, local lords) gradually lost power and independence, becoming more closely tied to
the central government at Shuri. In order to strengthen central control over the kingdom, and to prevent insurrection on the part of the aji, Sh Shin gathered
weapons from all the aji to be put to use for the defense of the kingdom, and ordered aji to make their residences in Shuri; lords separated from their lands and
from their people were far less able to act independently or to organize rebellion, and, over time, their emotional connections to Shuri grew, those with their
territory weakening. The residences at Shuri of the aji were divided into three districts one each for those coming from the northern, central, and southern areas
of Okinawa Island which had formerly been the independent kingdoms of Hokuzan, Chzan, and Nanzanrespectively. These regions were now
renamed Kunigami, Nakagami, and Shimajiri, respectively, place names which remain in use today. Through intermarriage, residence in Shuri, and other factors,
the aji came to be more integrated as a class, more closely associated with life and customs and politics at Shuri, and less attached to their ancestral territorial
identities. The aji left deputies, called aji okite (), to administer their lands on their behalf, and some years later a system of jito dai (), agents sent
by the central government to oversee the outlying territories, was established. Some aji of the northern regions were allowed to remain there, not moving to Shuri,
as they were too powerful for the king to force their obedience in this matter; the king's third son was made Warden of the North, however, and granted authority
to maintain peace and order in the region. The Shuri dialect of the Okinawan language used by administrators and bureaucrats became standardized at this time,
and a golden age of poetry and literature blossomed. The first volumes of the Omoro Sshi, a collection of poems, songs, and chants reflecting centuries-old oral
tradition as well as contemporary events, were completed in 1532. Along with later volumes, the Omoro Sshiwould become one of the chief primary sources for
modern-day historians studying the kingdom's history. The process of moving the aji to Shuri also brought about major changes to the city, including the
construction of a great many grand gates, pavilions, lakes, bridges, monuments, and gardens. There came to be a great demand for masons, carpenters, and
others, as well as for a wide variety of goods and materials, imported by each aji from his own territories. Okinawa Island quickly became more economically
integrated, with goods and labor traveling to and from Shuri and the neighboring port city of Naha.
[3]
Economic integration allowed territories to become more
specialized, and the production of luxury goods expanded significantly. Various kinds of hairpins and other ornaments became standard elements of the fashions
of courtiers and bureaucrats, new techniques in producing and weaving silk were imported, and the use of gold, silver, lacquer, and silk became more common
among townspeople. Urbanizationled to increased prosperity for merchants, traders, courtiers, townsmen and others, though historian George H. Kerr points out
that farmers and fishermen, who made up the vast majority of the Okinawan population, remained quite poor. Many monuments, temples, and other structures
were also erected during the prosperous reign of Sh Shin. A new palace building was constructed, in Chinese style, and court rituals and ceremonies were
dramatically altered and expanded, in emulation of Chinese modes. A pair of tall stone "Dragon Pillars" were placed at the entrance to the palace, patterned not
after Chinese, Korean or Japanese models, but after those of Thailand and Cambodia, reflecting, as Kerr points out, the reach and extent of Okinawan trade and
the cosmopolitan nature of the capital at this time. The Buddhist temple Enkaku-ji was built in 1492, Sgen-ji was expanded in 1496, and in 1501, Tamaudun,
the royal mausoleum complex, was completed. Sh Shin successfully petitioned the Korean royal court, several times, to send volumes of Buddhist texts; the first
metal movable type printing presses in the world had been invented in Korea in the 13th century. In the thirtieth year of his reign, a stele was erected in the
grounds of Shuri Castle, listing Eleven Distinctions of the Age enumerated by court officials. A reproduction of this stele, destroyed in the 1945 Battle of
Okinawa along with the castle, stands in the castle grounds today. The reign of Sh Shin also saw the expansion of the kingdom's control over several of the
outlying Ryukyu Islands. Okinawan ships began in the late 15th century to frequentMiyakojima and the Yaeyama Islands; following a series of disputes among the
local lords in the Yaeyama Islands which broke out in 1486, Sh Shin in 1500 sent military forces to quell the disputes and establish control over the
islands. Kumejima was brought under firm control of Shuri, and liaison offices were established in Miyako and Yaeyama, in 1500 and 1524 respectively. Sh
Shin also effected significant changes to the organization of the native noro (, high priestesses) cult and its relationship to the government. He owed his
uncle's abdication, and his own succession to his sister, the noro of the royal family, a special position known as the kikoe-gimi. He established a new residence
for the kikoe-gimi () just outside the gates to the castle, and erected high walls in 1519 around the Sonohyan Utaki, the sacred space and
accompanying sacred hearth which she tended. A system by which the king and kikoe-gimi appointed local noro across the kingdom was established, tying this
element of the native Ryukyuan religion into formal systems of authority under the government. After a fifty year reign, Sh Shin died in 1526, and was
succeeded by his son Sh Sei. It is said that after such a long reign, officials encountered difficulties in determining the proper way to conduct the royal funeral,
succession rituals, and other important related ceremonies. Historian George Kerr writes that "Okinawa was never again to know the halcyon days of Sho Shin's
reign."
Sh Sei () (14971555) was king of the Ryky Kingdom from 1526 until his death in 1555. He was the fifth son of King Sh Shin, who he succeeded.
Sh Sei suppressed a rebellion on Amami shima in 1537, and took steps to improve defenses against wak that same year. Sh Sei died in 1555, and was
succeeded by his second son Sh Gen.
Sh Gen () (15281572) was king of the Ryky Kingdom from 1556 until his death in 1572. He was called "Gen,
the mute," the king required considerable support from the Sanshikan (Council of Three), the chief council of royal advisors. His reign
marked the beginning of the Council's demonstration of significantly greater effectiveness and efficiency than previously. Sh Gen
received his official investiture from the Ming Court in 1562, and received emissaries from the Shimazu clan of the Japaneseprovince of
Satsuma in 1570 and 1572. The Shimazu wished to establish some control over the Ryukyus, making them either a tributary or a vassal
state. The kingdom resisted the Shimazu overtures, and a small punitive mission launched by the Shimazu created a small skirmish on
the island of Amami shima in 1571. He was the second son of King Sh Sei, who he succeeded, and was succeeded in turn by his
second son, Sh Ei.
Sh Ei (
?
, 15591588) was king of the Ryky Kingdom from 1573 until his death in 1588. Sh Ei was the son of Sh Gen and his wife, and was the
second son of king Sh Gen. He died in 1588 without an heir. His son-in-law Sh Nei was installed as the king.
Sh Nei (
?
, 15641620) was king of the Ryky Kingdom (modern-day Okinawa Prefecture, Japan) from 1587 until his death
in 1620. He reigned during the 1609 invasion of Ryky and was the first king of Ryky to be a vassal to the Shimazu
clan of Satsuma, a Japanese feudal domain. Sh Nei was the great-grandson of Sh Shin (, r. 14771526) and the adopted son-
in-law of Sh Ei (, r. 15731586). Early in Sh Nei's reign, Japanese warlord Toyotomi Hideyoshi planned an invasion of
Korea. Through messengers from Satsuma, he ordered that the kingdom contribute warriors to the invasion efforts, and was
refused; he also commanded that Ryukyu temporarily suspend its official missions to China. The mission traveled to Beijing anyway,
on business relating to Sh Nei's formal investiture, and related Hideyoshi's plans to Chinese Court officials there. A short while
later, Sh Nei sent a missive to Hideyoshi, as was customary upon the installation of a new ruler. He formally congratulated
Hideyoshi on having taken over Japan, and on bringing peace and prosperity to the realm, and sent along with the missive a gift
of Ming Chinese lacquerware. The letter referred to Ryukyu as a "small and humble island kingdom [which], because of its great distance and because of lack of
funds, has not rendered due reverence to you." Shimazu Yoshihisa, lord of Satsuma, then suggested that Ryukyu be allowed to supply food and other supplies
instead of manpower. Hideyoshi accepted this proposal, but Sh Nei ignored it, and sent no supplies. Following Hideyoshi's death in 1598, and Tokugawa
Ieyasu's subsequent rise to power, Sh Nei was asked by Satsuma to formally submit to the new shogunate, a request which was also ignored. Satsuma invaded
Ryukyu in the beginning of 1609, and Sh Nei surrendered on the fifth day of the fourth lunar month. Sh Nei was taken, along with a number of his officials,
to Sunpu to meet with the retired Shogun Tokugawa Ieyasu, then to Edo for a formal audience with Shogun Tokugawa Hidetada, and then to Kagoshima, where
he was forced to formally surrender and to declare a number of oaths to the Shimazu clan. At Edo, the shogun stated that Sh Nei should be allowed to remain
in power due to the long history of his line's rule over the islands. This marked the first time the ruler of a foreign country had come to Japan, and Shimazu
Tadatsune, the lord of Satsuma, made sure to take advantage of the political value of the occasion for himself. His successors would continue to make use of their
status as the only daimy to have a foreign king as a vassal to secure for themselves greater political privileges, stipends, and court ranking. In 1611, two years after
the invasion, the king returned to his castle at Shuri once Tadatsune and his advisors were satisfied that he would uphold the oaths he had sworn. Though
Satsuma initially exercised a strong hand in declaring policy in Ryukyu, and purging the royal government of those perceived as disloyal to Satsuma, by 1616 this
approach came to an end. "Japanization" measures were reversed, at the request of Satsuma, and Sh Nei was once more formally granted primacy over his
kingdom. For the remainder of his reign, Sh Nei would continue to bear all the trappings of royal authority, and exercised great power over his domain within
the frameworks set by Satsuma. Upon his death, Sh Nei was buried not in the royal mausoleum at Shuri, but rather at Urasoe Castle. Popular belief says this is
because he felt that by succumbing to Satsuma's invasion, he had deeply dishonored himself before his ancestors, and was unfit to be buried with them. However,
Sh Nei was originally from Urasoe, so a more mundane explanation may be the truer one. Sh Nei was forced to swear a number of oaths during his time in
Kagoshima, as he and his kingdom were formally made vassals to the Shimazu clan. The so-called Fifteen Injunctions (, Okite jgo-ka-j) were
among the most major, and primarily involved political and diplomatic matters. These stated, among other stipulations, that Ryky would not engage in trade or
diplomatic relations with foreign states without the consent of Satsuma. These policies, along with maritime restrictions and other stipulations, would govern
Ryky's domestic situation and foreign relations for over 250 years. Sh Nei and the members of his Council of Three were also required to swear that the
kingdom had long been a dependency of Satsuma (a falsehood), and that they acknowledged that their failure in recent years to live up to their obligations to
Satsuma had brought this invasion, a punitive measure, upon themselves. The oath went on to acknowledge the benevolence of Satsuma in allowing the king and
his councillors to return to their kingdom, and to continue to rule. Sh Nei swore to pass on these oaths to his descendants, further ensuring the relative
permanence of the vassal-lord relationship into which Ryky had been entered with Satsuma.
Sh H (
?
, 15901640), also known as Shengfeng, was a king of the Ryky Kingdom from 1621 until his death in 1640.

He succeeded Sh Nei, whose reign saw the invasion of Ryky by Japanese forces in 1609 and the subjugation of the kingdom
to Satsuma Domain, and ruled from 1621 until 1640. Sh H was the fourth son of Sh Ky, the third son of King Sh Gen. In
1616, he was appointed kokush, a high government position akin to prime minister or chief royal advisor, which would later be
replaced with sessei. Three years later, Sh H was named Prince of Nakagusuku and given Nakagusuku magiri as his domain.
King Sh Nei died without an heir in 1621, and Sh H was selected to succeed him. As the first king to be enthroned since
Satsuma's invasion in 1609, formal permission and acknowledgment of the king's authority and legitimacy was required before
performing the coronation ceremony, sending heralds to China, and assuming the responsibilities of the throne. In addition, while
Sh H retained powers related to organization of offices and administration of punishments, along with all the ritual prestige of
the throne, Sh Nei was the last king of Ryky to rule personally, directly, and absolutely as monarch. Much of the decisions and
behavior of Sh H's government were subject to Satsuma's approval. Relations with China were also strained. At the start of Sh
H's reign, Okinawan tribute ships were only welcome in Fuzhou once every ten years. The Chinese Imperial Court had reduced
the tribute missions to this frequency following the Japanese invasion in 1609, claiming that it was done in consideration of the
instability and poverty that the chaos of the invasion must have brought to the kingdom. In fact, these tribute missions, the only legal method of trading with Ming
China, were essential to the kingdom's economic prosperity. Therefore, in 1623, when investiture missions were exchanged, the Ryukyuan officials pushed for a
return to the system of sending tribute every other year; it was decided that missions would be allowed once every five years. After a twenty-year reign, Sh H
died in 1640, and was succeeded by his son, Sh Ken.
Sh Ken ( Sh Ken
?
, 16251647) was the 9th king of the Ryky Kingdom, who ruled from 1641 until his death in 1647. Sh Ken was the third son
of Sh H. He had two elder brothers named Sh Ky() and Sh Bun(), but both of them died before his father. So Sh Ken became the Heir
apparent of the kingdom, and was given Kume and Nakagusuku magiri as his domain. After Sh H's death, Sh Ken was installed as the king.
Many beacons were built during his reign.
Sh Shitsu (
?
, 16291668) was a king of the Ryky Kingdom who held the throne from 1648 until his death in 1668. The fourth son of King Sh H, he
was named Prince of Sashiki in 1637, at the age of eight, and was granted Sashiki magiri as his domain. In 1645, his domain was changed to that of Nakagusuku
magiri, and his title to Prince of Nakagusuku. Sh Shitsu succeeded his brother Sh Ken as king in 1648. His reign coincided with a period of rebellion and
instability in China, as factions loyal to the Ming Dynasty, which fell in 1644, continued to fight against the new Qing Dynasty order. On at least one occasion,
Ryukyuan tribute ships were attacked by pirates or rebels, who killed at least one of the Ryukyuan sailors and stole various objects; the authorities of Satsuma
Domain declared the head envoy and his deputy to be at fault and had them executed. Another incident involved an attack on an Okinawan mission on the road
to Beijing; the Ryukyuans defeated their attackers, and Hirata Tentsu came to be known as a national hero. Though there was initially some uncertainty,
particularly within Japan, as to whether the kingdom should support the new dynasty, or the Ming rebels, the Tokugawa shogunate left the decision up to
Satsuma. The king's eldest son, Sh Tei, who would later succeed him as king, journeyed to Beijing and submitted the formal royal seal given the kingdom by the
Ming rulers, to the Qing Court, which in turn granted the prince a new royal seal for the kingdom and declared its official recognition of Sh Shitsu as king. A
number of major reforms were effected in the final years of Sh Shitsu's reign, primarily at the guidance or suggestion of Sh Shken, who was appointed sessei, a
position which has been compared to prime minister, in 1666. Sh Shken also compiled theChzan Seikan ("Mirror of Chzan"), the first history of the
kingdom, at the king's orders. Upon his death in 1668, he was entombed in the royal mausoleum Tamaudun, and was succeeded by his eldest son, Sh Tei.
Sh Tei (
?
, 16451709) was the 11th King of the Second Sh Dynasty of the Ryky Kingdom, who held the throne from
1669 until his death in 1709. He was the ruler of Ryky at the time of the compiling of the Chzan Seibu () (a document
documenting Rykyan history). Sh Tei received a Confucian education, and was the first Rykyan monarch to do so. Sh Tei was
the monarch at the time when the Japanese bakufu began taking notice of trade of Chinese goods passing through the islands, during
the period of sakoku (when no contact between Japan and the outside world was foreign policy). The bakufu, instead of punishing
the Rykyan government, ordered detailed reports on the trade in 1685. The following year, trade was restricted to 2,000ry worth
per term, and was only able to be sold in markets that did not compete with the Dutch enclave in Nagasaki. The result of such trade
made the Rykyan economy boom. Sh Tei is the final Rykyan monarch to be given a god's name in official histories, due to the
changing image of the position (less a deity, more a Confucian sage). He was buried at the royal mausoleum Tamaudun in Shuri.
Sh Eki (
?
, 16781712) was the 12th king of the Second Sh Dynasty of the Ryky Kingdom, who ruled from 1710 until his death in 1712. It was said
that he was born with harelip, which made his grandfather Sh Tei worry. Fortunately, a Ryukyuan named Takamine Tokumei() met a Chinese
doctor Huang Huiyou() in Fuzhou. Huang taught Takamine how to repair a cleft palate. Takamine came back to Ryukyu in 1688, and had the Prince's
lip repaired in the next year. Sh Eki succeeded his grandfather Sh Tei as king in 1710, and died two years later.
Sh Kei (
?
, 17001752) was king of the Ryky Kingdom (today Okinawa Prefecture, Japan) from 1713 until his death in 1752.
His reign, strongly guided by royal advisor Sai On, is regarded as a political and economic golden age and period of the flowering of
Okinawan culture. After succeeding his father Sh Eki in 1713, Sh Kei appointed his regent and trusted advisor Sai On to the Sanshikan,
the Council of Three top royal advisors, in 1728. His reign is known for a great number of developments, including economic reforms
and conservation efforts implemented under the guidance of Sai On, political changes, and scholarly developments.

Sh Boku (
?
, 17391794) was a king of Ryukyu from 1756 until his death in 1794. His reign began in 1756. Although a period of
relative stability he had to contend with a tsunami in 1771 that devastated the Miyako Islands and Yaeyama Islands. His reign also saw the
Chinese envoy Chou Huang who wrote a sixteen volume topography of the islands for the Qianlong Emperor.

Sh On (
?
, 17841802) was king of the Ryky Kingdom from 1796 until his death in 1802. He made a great contribution to the education of Ryky
during his reign. Sh On was the eldest grandson of the former king, Sh Boku. His father Sh Tetsu() died when Sh Boku was still alive, so he became
the Heir apparent of the kingdom. After Sh Boku's death, Sh On was installed as the king. However, Sh On was only 11 years old, his teacher Sai
Seish() became the Kokushi(), serving as the king's regent. The Kokugaku() was established as the National Academy of Ryukyu Kingdom
in Shuri Castle on 1798. Four schools were also founded in the countryside, even farmers could receive education. But the idea of equal education was not
accepted by the Kumemura people, they launched a rebellion against the reform, and Sai Seish died in the incident. The rebellion was quickly pulled down,
then, some education privileges of Kumemura people were abolished. Sh On died when he was only 18 years old. He had only one child, Sh Sei, but died 1
year later. His little brother Sh Ksucceeded.
Sh Sei () was king of the Ryky Kingdom in 1803.
Sh K (
?
, Chinese pinyin: Shng Ho) (17871839) was a king of the Ryky Kingdom, who held the throne from 1804 until
1828, when he was forced to abdicate in favor of his son, Sh Iku. This was only the second time in the history of the kingdom that a king
abdicated; the 1477 abdication of Sh Sen'i was the first. It is said that towards the end of his reign, Sh K's "behavior became strange,
unbalanced, and unpredictable. The Sanshikan (the council of the top three elder royal advisors) appealed to the government of
Japan's Satsuma Domain and, with Satsuma's approval, forced Sh K to abdicate in 1828 and to retire to the countryside. An envoy
mission was prepared to formally inform Peking of the change in rulership, and a second royal manor was established in the countryside,
to maintain the prestige and dignities appropriate to Sh K's status. Historian George H. Kerr suggests the possibility that Sh K did not
in fact suffer from any mental illness, but rather contemplated radical actions such as seeking the kingdom's independence from Satsuma,
to which it was a vassal tributary, in the hopes that this would alleviate the intense economic difficulties faced by the kingdom. If this were the case, perhaps
the Sanshikan feared that such action was too radical, and too risky, and felt the need to prevent the king from going through with it.
Sh Iku (
?
, 18131847) was a king of the Ryky Kingdom from 1835 until his death in 1847. He was the eldest son of Sh
K. According to Chzan Seifu( ), he was appointed Sessei() in 1828, in place of his ailing father who was affected by
a mental illness. Sh K died in 1835, Sh Iku was installed as the king. Sh Iku was a Confucian scholar, and he also had
dedicated his life to education. But during his reign, the financial crisis was growing more and more serious. A French ship arrived
in Naha in 1844, Ryky was forced to trade with France. It was the first contact with Western countries.Thodore-Augustin
Forcade, a French priest sent by Paris Foreign Missions Society, came to Ryukyu to spread the gospel. Bernard Jean Bettelheim, a
British Protestant missionary, also arrived in Ryukyu in 1846. Bettelheim established the first foreign hospital on the island at
the Naminoue Gokoku-ji Temple. The king died in 1847, his second son Sh Tai successed as the last king of the Ryky
Kingdom.
Sh Tai ( ; August 3, 1843 August 19, 1901) was the last king of the Ryky Kingdom (June 8, 1848 October 10, 1872)
and the head of the Ryky Domain from October 10, 1872 until March 11, 1879. His reign saw greatly increased interactions
with travelers from abroad, particularly from Europe and the United States, as well as the eventual end of the kingdom and its
annexation by Japan as Ryky Domain (later Okinawa Prefecture). In 1879, the deposed king was forced to relocate to Tokyo. In
compensation, he was made a marquis in the Kazoku peerage system. Sh Tai became king of Ryky at the age of six and reigned
for nearly 31 years.
[1]
Developments surrounding pressures from Western powers to open the kingdom up to trade, formal
relations, and the free coming and going and settlement of Westerners in the Ryukyu Islands dominated the first decade or two of
his reign. While Westerners had been coming to the Rykys for several decades before to Sh Tai's accession in 1848, and were
almost always greeted warmly and provided with supplies, it was not until the 1850s that formal policies allowed and encouraged
trade and relations with Europeans and Americans. Commodore Matthew Calbraith Perry made port at Naha several times, both
before and immediately after his famous landing at Uraga Harbor in 1853; the Commodore was never permitted to meet with the
young king, despite his demands and his forced march to, and entry into, Shuri Castle. He did, however, meet with the royal regent
and other high officials of the royal government, eventually yielding the Lew Chew Compact of 1854, along with other agreements, which could be said to parallel
the Convention of Kanagawa signed that same year by representatives of the Tokugawa Shogunate, and to represent the "opening" of Ryky to trade and
relations with the United States. Trade and relations with other Western powers soon followed, backed by Shimazu Nariakira, lord of Satsuma, who saw in the
process opportunities to gain wealth and power. Relations with France were particularly strong; a French Mission was established in Naha, which in 1857 formally
granted a number of items of field artilleryto Sh Tai. Nariakira died suddenly in 1858. He was succeeded by his half-brother Shimazu Hisamitsu, to whom Sh
Tai was obliged to formally swear anew the oath of loyalty to the Shimazu clan that he and his ancestors had sworn since 1611. Hisamitsu reversed his half-
brother's policies regarding Ryky's interactions with the West; Satsuma's radical opposition to foreign influence was a driving force in the events of the following
decade in Japan. In 1864, after Sh Tai had been on the throne for 16 years, the customary mission was sent to China to formally request investiturefrom
the Chinese Imperial Court. Chinese representatives journeyed to Ryky two years later, formally granting on behalf of the Tongzhi Emperor recognition of Sh
Tai's authority as king. Following the 1868 Meiji Restoration, and the abolition of the han system four years later, the relationship of the kingdom to the former
Satsuma Domain (now Kagoshima Prefecture) and to the new Japanese central government at Tokyo was unclear and a subject of controversy between various
factions in the central government. Sh Tai, his advisors or officials were never consulted for advice, consent, or opinions. At the same time, in 1871, there
occurred an incident in which a Rykyan ship wrecked on the Taiwan coast and its crew was killed by the local natives. Kagoshima pressured Sh Tai to send a
formal petition to Tokyo, asking for redress; the event would blossom into an international incident and eventually lead to the dispatch of a Japanese
militaryexpedition to Taiwan in 1874. To help resolve this problem and others concerning the relationship between Ryky and Japan, Sh Tai was advised to
journey to Tokyo and formally pay his respects to Emperor Meiji, acknowledging at the same time his (and therefore his kingdom's) subordination to the
Emperor of Japan. Sh Tai refused, and sent Prince Ie, his uncle, and Ginowan Ueekata, one of the kingdom's top ministers, in his place, claiming illness
prevented him from making the journey himself. At Tokyo, the envoys were presented, on behalf of their king, with a proclamation declaring the kingdom to
now be "Ryky Han", that is, a feudal domain under the Japanese emperor in the manner of those abolished the previous year in the Japan mainland. This new
arrangement meant freedom from subordination to Satsuma, but it also meant incorporation into Japan and subordination to the Imperial government in Tokyo.
A pair of missions led by Matsuda Michiyuki, Chief Secretary of the Home Ministry, in 1875 and 1879 were aimed at reorganizing the administrative structure of
Ryky. Sh Tai and several of his chief ministers were granted formal ranks in the Japanese Imperial Court, and the king was ordered to appear in person in
Tokyo; he again claimed illness. Prince Nakijin led a small group of officials to express the domain's gratitude in his place. However, the kings intransigence in
refusing to come to Tokyo, and continued direct foreign relations with China was a matter of great concern to the new Meiji leadership, and Home Minister Ito
Hirobumi drew up plans in 1878 to end the domains autonomous and semi-ambiguous status. On March 11, 1879, Sh Tai formally abdicated upon the orders
of Tokyo, which abolished Ryky han and created Okinawa Prefecture, with officials appointed from Tokyo to administer the islands. The former king was
made to leave his palace, which he did on March 30, and to move to Tokyo, which he did after some delays owing to supposed illness and inability to travel,
leaving Okinawa finally on May 27, and arriving in Yokohama on June 8, from whence he traveled with his entourage of 96 courtiers to Tokyo. After meeting
with Emperor Meiji on June 17, 1879, Sh Tai was incorporated into the newly established kazoku peerage with the title of marquis ( kshaku
?
). In the rest
of his life he returned to Okinawa only once, in 1884, to pay formal respects to his ancestors at Tamaudun, the royal mausoleum in Shuri. Chinese Viceroy Li
Hongzhang protested the annexation of the former kingdom, and attempted to reopen the question of Ryky's sovereignty, by entering into discussions with
former US president Ulysses S. Grant and officials in Tokyo, but without success. Tokyo statesman kubo Toshimichi suggested in 1875 that if Marquis Sh Tai
were to be made hereditary governor of Okinawa, it would help quiet anti-Japanese elements in Okinawa and would help the prefecture better assimilate into the
nation. A major Okinawan movement called the Kd-kai proposed the same some years later, but the idea was ultimately rejected by Tokyo as it could
represent a failure of the current administration and could reignite issues over sovereignty of the islands. Although now a Marquis, much of the same formalities
and rituals appropriate for the Rykyan king continued to be performed for Sh Tai. He moved in the elite circles of Tokyo, and became involved in business.
Interests associated with the Sh family attempted to develop a copper mining operation on Okinawa in 1887, but with little success. The Marquis' business
managers, however, did succeed in establishing an Osaka-based company called "Maruichi Shten", which dealt in native Okinawan products, selling them in
Osaka and distributing them across the country. Sh Tai died in 1901, at the age of 58, and was entombed in the royal mausoleum at Shuri, Tamaudun. His
family observed traditional Rykyan mourning rituals for two years, after which they gave up traditional costume, rituals, court language, and ways of life,
adopting those of the rest of the Japanese kazoku aristocracy.
Chzan Kingdom
Chzan () was one of three kingdoms which controlled Okinawa in the 14th century. Okinawa, previously controlled by a number of local chieftains or
lords, loosely bound by a paramount chieftain or king of the entire island, split into these three more solidly defined kingdoms within a few years after 1314;
the Sanzan period thus began, and would end roughly one hundred years later, when Chzan's King Sh Hashi conquered Hokuzan in 1419 and Nanzan in
1429. The united Okinawan state was called the Ryky Kingdom, but would continue to be referred to as "Chzan" in various official documents of the
Ryukyuan royal government, and those of many other states in the region.
List of Kings of the Chzan Kingdom
Tamagusuku (
?
, c. 1296-c. 1336) was a king of the Ryky Islands in 1314 and "king" of the Okinawan kingdom of Chzan from roughly 1314 until his
death in 1336. He was the third son of Eiji (r. 1309-1313), he was the fourth ruler of the lineage of Eiso (r. 1260-1299). Succeeding his father Eiji as paramount
chief of Okinawa's territorial lords at the age of nineteen, Tamagusuku lacked the charisma and leadership skills to command respect and loyalty from those lords
(the anji). A number of these lords rebelled, and the island of Okinawa came to be divided into three kingdoms. Tamagusuku, remaining in Urasoe, became king
of Chzan. His failure to institute reforms or innovations in governance is generally claimed as one of the causes of the fall of the lineage (dynasty), which ended
with Tamagusuku's son and successor Seii.
Seii () (c. 1326 1349) was the second king of the Okinawan kingdom of Chzan from 1336 until his death in 1349. He succeeded his father,
Tamagusuku, in 1336, at the age of ten. His reign is characterized by the meddling of his mother in government affairs, and her corruption. The king's mother
took advantage of her privileges and position, and severely damaged popular support for her son. Seii died in 1349. The Governor of Urasoe, Satto, seized
power for himself. The Lord of Ozato fled south from Tamagusuku's capital at Urasoe and, along with his followers, formed the kingdom of Nanzan (,
Southern Mountain). The Lord of Nakijin, based some distance to the north, declared himself king of Hokuzan (, Northern Mountain).
Satto () (c. 1320 1395), also known as Chadu, was a king of Chzan, one of three kingdoms formerly on the island of Okinawa from 1350 until his death
in 1395. His reign was marked by expansion and development of Chzan's trade relations with other states, and the beginning of Okinawa's tributary
relations with Ming Dynasty China, a relationship that continued for roughly five hundred years, almost until the fall of the Qing Dynasty. Satto was Governor of
the Urasoe district, which surrounded and included Chzan's capital. On the death of King Seii in 1350, Satto seized the throne for himself. His own line, or
dynasty, however, did not last past his son, Bunei, who was ousted in 1405. Chinese envoys arrived in Chzan in 1372, requesting admission of Chinese cultural
supremacy and that Okinawa send representatives to Nanjing. Satto complied with these requests without hesitation, as this granted him formal license to trade
with the most powerful nation in the region. He sent his younger brother Taiki () to Nanjing in 1374, as the leader of a mission to formally submit to China,
entering into tributary and trade relations. The Hongwu Emperor entertained the Ryukyuan mission, accepted their gifts, and sent them back with various gifts
from China, including a royal seal, which served as a symbol of investiture. A Chinese official accompanied the returning mission, and represented the Imperial
Court in officially confirming Satto as king of Okinawa. Though Okinawa was never conquered or annexed by China, this custom of investiture, of formally
confirming the king in the eyes of the Chinese court, continued as part of tributary relations until the dismantling of the Ryky Kingdom five centuries later.
There were at least nine tributary missions to China over the next twenty years, three of them led by Taiki. Diplomatic and trade relations were also established
with a number of other states during Satto's reign, including the kingdoms of Korea and the Ayutthaya Kingdom of Thailand. Trade was conducted with these
kingdoms, and with China and Japan, via a number of small islands that served as way-stations. Tanegashima, for example, was used as a transfer and supply
point for traders bound for Japan's main islands and the Inland Sea. Miyakojima and the Yaeyama Islands, small islands to the south of Okinawa in the Ryukyu
island chain, were among those that sent tribute to Chzan. Satto also established the Chinese immigrant community of Kumemura in 1392, a short distance
from the capital at Shuri. These Chinese would, over the ensuing decades and centuries, intermarry with the local Ryukyuans; Kumemura grew into a center of
Chinese studies, and its Chinese inhabitants and their descendants served the kingdom as diplomats, interpreters, and related roles. Another important
development introduced by Satto was the creation of the post of -sh (), or King's Assistant. Though direct monarchical rule remained important and
powerful in Okinawa for at least a few generations, this marked the beginnings of a bureaucracy that gradually replaced the king's direct rule, drafting and
implementing policy in his name. Satto died in 1395, and was succeeded by his son Bunei. Missions sent to Nanjing announced the king's death, and formally
requested investiture for his successor. The "Mirror of Chzan," a history of Ryukyu written by Sh Shken in the 1650s, cites Satto's death as an example
of tent
[5]
(), a concept closely related to the Confucian Mandate of Heaven. Though he describes Satto as a good king overall, Sh accuses him of giving in
to luxurious temptations and of losing the proper degree of humility; thus, Sh explains, Satto was guided by tent to touch a venomous snake in his sleep and to
be killed.
Bunei () (died 1406), also known as Wuning, was the last king of Chzan, one of three kingdoms on the island of Okinawa from 1398 until his death in
1406, before it was united into the Ryky Kingdom by Sh Hashi. Bunei inherited the throne upon the death of his father, King Satto. His reign saw the
continuation of many of the previous trends and developments; in particular, Bunei sought to continue to develop commercial ties between Ryky and China. A
special headquarters was built in Naha for Chinese envoys and similar missions, and a trading center was established nearby. In addition, the royal annals began
to be compiled; the Rekidai Hoan (Treasury of Royal Succession) was first compiled in 1403. This period saw a great proliferation of trade and cultural
interaction between the three Okinawan kingdoms and other states in the region; sources seem to indicate, however, that only Chzan successfully established
relations with the Ashikaga shogunate of Japan in this period. An embassy was sent to Siam in 1409, and relations with kingdoms in Java and Sumatra remained
strong, having been established some time earlier by traders. All three Okinawan kingdoms, Chzan, Hokuzan, and Nanzan, sent emissaries to Korea in 1397,
likely separately, and established strong friendly relations with the newly formed Joseon dynasty. From Korea, Chzan saw a great influx of Buddhist ideas and
objects, and it is believed that Shint first entered Okinawa in a significant way at this time as well, from Japan. Naha became the busiest port on the island at this
time, bringing wealth and prestige to Chzan over its neighboring kingdoms, and enhancing already heightened tensions. The lords of both Hokuzan and Nanzan
died around the same time as Bunei's father Satto, and since China never recognized more than one king (or prince, in the Chinese view) of Okinawa, all three
clamored to be officially invested by the Chinese Imperial Court as the sole ruler of all of Okinawa. However, due to the recent chaos in Nanking, which was
taken by force by Zhu Di, installing himself as Ming Emperor, Bunei's request lay unanswered for eleven years. A missive was finally sent in 1406. Meanwhile, a
local lord (anji) named Hashi led a small rebellion in 1402, and brought down the lord of Azato district, near the site of the Chzan palace at Urasoe. It is not
clear exactly what discussions took place inside the royal court, or what actions were considered, but nothing was done for five years. In 1406, less than one year
after Bunei was officially recognized as king ("prince") of Chzan by China, Hashi led a larger rebellion, ousting Bunei and establishing Sh Shish, Hashi's father,
as King of Chzan. Though records do not indicate the details of Bunei's fate, it is likely that he either died at the hands of the rebels, or escaped to some distant
island to live out the rest of his days in relative solitude.
Sh Shish (
?
, died 1421), also known as Talumei, was a king of Chzan, one of three kingdoms on the island of Okinawa from 1407 until his death in
1421, before they were united into one island kingdom. He was the progenitor of what became the Sh Dynasty. The son of Shish was Sh Hashi, who is
known as the first king of the Ryky Kingdom. His kingship was acknowledged by the Yongle Emperor of China, who caused a diplomatic mission to be sent to
the Ryukyuan capital in 1415.



Nanzan Kingdom
Nanzan (), sometimes called Sannan (), was one of three kingdoms which controlled Okinawa in the 14th century. Okinawa, previously controlled by a
number of local chieftains or lords, loosely bound by a paramount chieftain or king of the entire island, split into these three more solidly defined kingdoms
within a few years after 1314; the Sanzan period thus began, and would end roughly one hundred years later, when Chzan's King Sh Hashi conquered
Hokuzan in 1419 and Nanzan in 1429.
List of Kings of the Nanzan Kingdom
Ofusato (, died 1398) was the first king of Nanzan, a kingdom in the southernmost end of Okinawa from 1337 until his death in 1398.
[1]
His chosen
capital was zato Castle, in zato village, near the present-day city of Nanj, Okinawa. He began the zato Dynasty of Nanzan. He presented himself to
the Chinese imperial court for recognition in 1388. After Ofusato died while in Korea, his brother Yafuso seized power and sought formal recognition
fromChina.
Oueishi (, died 1402) was the second king of Nanzan, a kingdom in the southernmost end of Okinawa from 1388 until his death in 1402.
Ououso ( so
?
, died 1413) was the third king of the Nanzan kingdom from about 1402 until his death in 1413. Ououso was the second son of the
former king, Oueishi. It was said that Ououso had studied in Nanjing for a long time, and had learned how to build a dragon boat there. After he returned
to Ryukyu, he built many dragon boats, and held Dragon boats races (Okinawan: or
?
, Haarii) in May every year. Ououso succeeded his father as
king in 1402. Ououso built a castle (gusuku) at Tomigusuku (
?
), and established himself there. He also paid tribute to Ming China as his father had.
According to Chzan Seifu (), Ououso donated several eunuchs to the Ming court, but the Yongle Emperor refused them. Ououso died in a coup
d'tat conducted by his elder brother Tafuchi. Tafuchi seized the power after his death, but was killed by Taromai in the same year.
Tafuchi (, died 1414) was the fourth king of Nanzan, a kingdom in the southernmost end of Okinawa from 1413 until his death in 1414.
Taromai (
?
, Okinawan: Taromii or Tarumii, died 1429) was the fifth and last king of the Okinawan kingdom of Nanzan from 1414 until his death in
1429. The details of Taromai's birth are not known for sure, and a number of theories exist. According to Kyy, an official history compiled by officials of
the Ryky Kingdom, Taromai was the eldest son of the previous king of Nanzan, Ououso. Taromai received investiture from officials of the Ming Dynasty in
1415, and sent tribute missions to Ming China eight times during his short reign. Nanzan was invaded and conquered by Chzan to the north, in 1429, marking
the unification of Okinawa Island, and the emergence of the unified Ryky Kingdom. According to some sources, Taromai's fall was the result of a loss of
popular support among the peasantry, after Taromai greedily traded Chzan a spring (i.e. a precious source of fresh water) for a gold-painted fence.
Historian George H. Kerr, however, notes that succession disputes among Taromai's heirs were seen as a sign of weakness by Sh Hashi, king of Chzan, and as
an opportunity to seize control of the kingdom.

Hokuzan Kingdom
Hokuzan () was one of three kingdoms which controlled Okinawa in the 14th century. Okinawa, previously controlled by a number of local chieftains or
lords, loosely bound by a paramount chieftain or king of the entire island, split into these three more solidly defined kingdoms within a few years after 1314;
the Sanzan period thus began, and would end roughly one hundred years later, when Chzan's King Sh Hashi conquered Hokuzan in 1416 and Nanzan in
1429.
List of Kings of the Hokuzan Kingdom
Haniji (, died 1395), sometimes spelled Haneji, was the founder of the Okinawan kingdom of Hokuzan, which he ruled from roughly 1322 until his
death in 1395. In the early 14th century, there was no centralized political authority on Okinawa, just a loose confederation of local chieftains, of which Haniji was
one, under a nominal head chieftain. The hereditary chief of Nakijin, Haniji gathered the chieftains of the north of the island into alliance with him and formed
the polity of Hokuzan (Northern Mountain) afterTamagusuku became head chieftain of the island. Tamagusuku lacked the political ability, charisma, or
leadership skills to command the loyalty of the chiefs, and so a number sided with Haniji, while a number of the chiefs of the southern portion of the island sided
with Ofusato, chief of zato and formed the polity of Nanzan (Southern Mountain), leaving Tamagusuku with the central portion of the island, and the polity
known as Chzan (Middle Mountain). Very little is known of the details of Haniji's life, or his rule. A lineage of officials in the royal bureaucracy by the name
Haneji () would come to be descended from him; the most famous of these being Sh Shken (16171675), also known as Haneji Chsh.
Min (, died 1400) was the king of the Okinawan kingdom of Hokuzan from 1396 until his death in 1400.
Hananchi (
?
, died 1416) was the third and last king of the Okinawan kingdom of Hokuzan from 1397 until his death in 1416. He became king in 1397,
upon the death of his father. He sent missions to Korea announcing his succession, and to China seeking investiture and recognition as ruler of all of Okinawa.
He was the most active of all kings of Hokuzan in diplomacy and trade with China, sending 14 tribute missions. Hananchi is said to have had great military
prowess, but to have relied too much on his personal strength and skill, to the detriment of his relationship with his retainers. When his home castle of Nakijin
gusuku came under attack from the armies of Sh Hashi in 1416, the attackers were kept at bay for a time, as the castle itself was quite strong. However,
Hananchi was betrayed by a retainer, Motobu Taihara, who opened the gates and allowed Sh Hashi's forces in. Defeated, Hananchi committed suicide.





Champa Kingdom
The kingdom of Champa was a Cham kingdom located in what is today central and southern Vietnam from approximately the 7th century through to 1832,
before being conquered and annexed by Vietnam. The kingdom was known variously as nagara Campa (Sanskrit : , Khmer: ) in Cham
and Cambodian inscriptions, Chm Pa in Vietnamese, Chim Thnh in Hn Vit and Zhn chng in Chinese records. The Cham people of modern
Vietnam and Cambodia are the remnants of this former kingdom. They speak Cham, a Malayo-Polynesian language. Champa was preceded in the region by a
kingdom called Lin-yi (, Middle Chinese *Lim Ip) or Lm p (Vietnamese) that was in existence from 192 AD; the historical relationship between Lin-yi
and Champa is not clear. Champa reached its apogee in the 9th and 10th centuries. Thereafter, it began a gradual decline under pressure from i Vit, the
Vietnamese polity centered in the region of modern Hanoi. In 1832, the Vietnamese emperor Minh Mng annexed the remaining Cham territories. M Sn, a
former religious center, and Hi An, one of Champa's main port cities, are now heritage listed.
List of Kings of Champa Kingdom
Dynasty I
Sri Mara (Sanskrit: , Thai: ) was the Hindu founder of the kingdom of Champa around 192.

He is known in Chinese records as Q Lin (),
which in Vietnamese pronunciation is Khu Lin (also ). Attempts have also been made to identify Sri Mara with Fan Shih-man of Funan (circa 230 CE). on
a stele recorded as Sri Mara (Chinese ). He was born in Tng Lm (Vietnamese pronunciation of Chinese , in what is today Qung Nam
Province of Vietnam) an area of tension between the Han Dynasty and the natives of Lm p (Vietnamese pronunciation of Chinese Lin Yi , the precursor
to Champa). In 137 or 192, he defeated the Chinese prefect and declared himself king of Lin-yi. This is considered the official founding of Champa, though
Cham legend dates the founding to be much earlier.
Sri Mara Ou Lian was the King of Champa Kingdom from 192 until ?.
Fan Xiong was the KIng of Champa Kingdom around 270.
Fan Yi (died 336) was the King of Champa Kingdom from 284 until his death in 336. Fan Tat also known as Pham Dat or Fan Yi was the King of Champa,
then known as Lin-yi. In 284, the King sent the first Cham envoy to the Eastern Jin Emperor. He died in 336, and was succeeded by his commander in chief.
Fan came to the throne after a protracted campaign led by his predecessor Fan Hsiung who led attacks on the Chinese province of Jiaozhi.
Dynasty II
Fan Wen was the King of Champa Kingdom from 336 until 349. Fan Wen was the commander in chief to Fan Yi, and, after Fan Yi's death in 336, he seized
the throne. In 340, he sent an embassy to China to request the province of Jiaozhi. His request was denied, and so Fan Wen recaptured Rinan in 347. He died
two years later on another campaign.
Fan Fo was the King of Champa Kingdom from 349 until 380. In 353, the King was defeated by the Chinesegovernor of Jiaozhi. The governor also recaptured
Jen Nan, which was previously captured by Fan Fo's predecessor, Fan Wen.
Fan Huta or Pham Ho Dat, Bhadravarman I, was the King of Champa Kingdom from 380 until 413. In 380, Fan Hu Ta took the throne and the regnal
name Bhadravarman I. Also in that same year, the King moved the capital to Indrapura in Quang Nam. He built temples and palaces, all facing north, at My
Son and Tra Kieu. In 399, Fan Hu Ta went on a military campaign up north and succeeded in capturing the Vietnamese provinces of Nhat Nam (region)
and Cuu Chan. He continued on his temple-building campaign as well, building Cham towers along the coast up north. From 405 to 413, he continuously battled
the Chinese governor Do Tue. However, at their last confrontation, Fan Hu Ta disappeared without a trace after being defeated by the governor.
Gangaraja, Fan Dizhen was the King of Champa Kingdom in early 5th century.
Manorathavarman was the King of Champa Kingdom in early 5th century.
Fan Diwen (died 420) was the King of Champa Kingdom in early 5th century.
Dynasty III
Fan Yang Mai I, Fan Yangmai was the King of Champa Kingdom from 420 until 431. Following years of internal trouble, Fan Yang Mai overthrew the
previous dynasty and seized the throne in 421. In 425, the Chinese invaded and defeated Champa and forced the Cham people to pay an annual tribute.
Fan Yang Mai II, Fan Duo was the King of Champa Kingdom from 431 until 455. In 431, the King was denied the aid of the King of Funan during a war
with the Chinese governor of Chiao Chou. In 433, Fan Yang Mai II, after being denied this territory, turned against the Khmers and annexed the Khmer district
of Panduranga.
Fan Shencheng was the King of Champa Kingdom from 455 until 484.
Fan Danggenchunc was the King of Champa Kingdom from 484 until 492.
Fan Zhunong was the King of Champa Kingdom from 492 until 502.
Fan Wenkuan or Fan Wenzan was the King of Champa Kingdom from 502 until 510.
Devavarman, Fan Tiankai was the King of Champa Kingdom from 510 until 527.
Vijayavarman was the King of Champa Kingdom from around 526/529.
Dynasty IV
Rudravarman I was the King of Champa Kingdom around 529.
Sambuvarman, Fan Fanzhi was the King of Champa Kingdom around 605.
Kanharpadharma, Fan Touli was the King of Champa Kingdom around 629.
Bhasadharma, Fan Zhenlong was the King of Champa Kingdom from 640 until ?.
Bhadresvaravarman was the King of Champa Kingdom from 645 until ?.
Isanavarman (died 653) was the King of Champa Kingdom around 650.
Vikrantavarman I, Zhuge Di was the King of Champa Kingdom from 653 until ? .
Vikrantavarman II was the King of Champa Kingdom from 686 until 731.
Rudravarman II was the King of Champa Kingdom around 731/758.
Dynasty V (of Panduranga)
Prithindravarman was the King of Champa Kingdom from 758 until ?.
Satyavarman was the King of Champa Kingdom around 770/787. The Cham king Satyavarman pursued the raiders and defeated them in a naval battle. In
781 AD, Satyavarman erected a stele at Po Nagar, declaring that he had regained control of the area and had restored the temple. In 787 AD, Javanese raiders
destroyed a temple dedicated to Shiva near Panduranga.
Indravarman I was the King of Champa Kingdom around 797/803.
Harivarman I was the King of Champa Kingdom from 803/817 until ?.
Vikrantavarman III was the King of Champa Kingdom from ? until 854.
Dynasty VI (of Bhrigu)
Indravarman II was the King of Champa Kingdom around 854/898. In 875, King Indravarman II founded a new northern dynasty at Indrapura (Dong
Duong near Da Nang in modern Vietnam). Eager to claim an ancient lineage, Indravarman declared himself the descendant of Bhrigu, the venerable sage whose
exploits are detailed in theMahabharata, and asserted that Indrapura had been founded by the same Bhrigu in ancient times. From 877 onward, the Chinese
knew Champa as "Cheng-cheng", discontinuing their use of the term "Huan-wang." Indravarman was the first Cham monarch to adopt Mahayana Buddhism as an
official religion. At the center of Indrapura, he constructed a Buddhist monastery (vihara) dedicated to the bodhisattva Lokesvara.
Jaya Sinhavarman I was the King of Champa Kingdom around 898/903.
Jaya Saktivarman was the King of Champa Kingdom in early 10th century.
Bhadravarman II was the King of Champa Kingdom around 910.
Indravarman III was the King of Champa Kingdom from 918 until 959.
Jaya Indravarman I was the King of Champa Kingdom from 959 until 965.
Paramesvaravarman I, Ph Mi Thu was the King of Champa Kingdom from 965 until 982. In 979, the Cham King Parameshvaravarman I (Ph Mi Thu
to the Viet) sent a fleet to attack Hoa Lu. The ill-fated expedition was however scuttled by a tempest. In 982, KingL Hon of the i Vit sent three
ambassadors to Indrapura. When the ambassadors were detained, L Hon decided to go on the offensive. Viet troops sacked Indrapura and killed King Ph Mi
Thu. They carried off Cham dancers and musicians who subsequently came to influence the development of the arts in i Vit. As a result of these setbacks,
the Cham abandoned Indrapura around 1000 AD. The center of Champa was relocated south to Vijaya in modern Binh Dinh.
Indravarman IV was the King of Champa Kingdom from 982 until 986.
Lieou Ki-Tsong of Annam was the King of Champa Kingdom from 986 until 989.
Dynasty VII
Harivarman II was the King of Champa Kingdom around 989.
Yan Pu Ku Vijaya was the King of Champa Kingdom around 999/1007.
Harivarman III was the King of Champa Kingdom around 1010.
Patamesvaravarman II was the King of Champa Kingdom around 1018.
Vikrantavarman IV was the King of Champa Kingdom from ? until 1030.
Jaya Sinhavarman II was the King of Champa Kingdom from 1030 until 1044.
Dynasty VIII (of the South)
Jaya Paramesvaravarman I was the King of Champa Kingdom from 1044 until ? .
Bhadravarman III was the King of Champa Kingdom from ? until 1061.
Rudravarman III, Che Cu was the King of Champa Kingdom from 1061 until 1074. In 1068 AD, however, the King of Vijaya Rudravarman III (Che Cu)
attacked i Vit in order to reverse the setbacks of 1044. Again the Cham were defeated, and again the i Vit captured and burned Vijaya. These events were
repeated in 1069, when the Viet general Ly Thuong Kiet took a fleet to Champa and occupied Vijaya. Rudravarman and 50,000 others were taken into captivity,
eventually purchasing his freedom in exchange for three northern districts of his realm. Taking advantage of the debacle, a leader in southern Champa rebelled
and established an independent kingdom. The northern kings were not able to reunite the country until 1084.
Dynasty IX
Harivarman IV was the King of Champa Kingdom from 1074 until 1080. In 1074 AD, King Harivarman IV took the throne, restoring the temples at
M Sn and ushering in a period of relative prosperity. Harivarman made peace with the i Vit, but provoked war with the Khmer of Angkor. In 1080, a
Khmer army attacked Vijaya and other centers in northern Champa. Temples and monasteries were sacked; cultural treasures were carried off. After much
misery, Cham troops under King Harivarman were able to defeat the invaders and restored the capital and temples.
Jaya Indravarman II was the King of Champa Kingdom from 1080 until 1081 and from 1086 until 1114.
Paramabhodhisatva was the King of Champa Kingdom from 1081 until 1086.
Harivarman V was the King of Champa Kingdom from 1114 until 1139.
Dynasty X
Jaya Indravarman III was the King of Champa Kingdom around 1139/1145.
Dynasty XI
Rudravarman IV was the King of Champa Kingdom from 1145 until 1147.
Jaya Harivarman I was the King of Champa Kingdom from 1147 until 1167. In 1149, however, the ruler of the southern principality of Panduranga, King
Jaya Harivarman, defeated the invaders and had himself consecrated king of kings in Vijaya. He spent the rest of his reign putting down rebellions in Amaravati
and Panduranga.
Jaya Harivarman II was the King of Champa Kingdom in 1167.
Jaya Indravarman IV (died 1192) was the King of Champa Kingdom from 1167 until 1190. Jaya Indravarman IV ascended to the throne in Champa. An
inscription characterized him as brave, well-versed in weapons, and knowledgeable of philosophy, Mahayana theories and the Dharmasutra. After securing peace
with the i Vit in 1170, Jaya Indravarman invaded Cambodia with inconclusive results. In 1177, however, his troops launched a surprise attack against the
Khmer capital of Yasodharapura from warships piloted up the Mekong River to the great lake Tonl Sap in Cambodia. The invaders sacked the capital, killed
the Khmer king, and made off with much booty.
Dynasty XII
Suryajayavarman was the King of Champa Kingdom from 1190 until 1191.
Suryavarman was the King of Champa Kingdom from 1190 until 1203.
Jaya Indravarman V was the King of Champa Kingdom in 1191.
Cam Bt thuc was the King of Champa Kingdom from 1203 until 1220.
Jaya Paramesvaravarman II, born Prince Angsaraja of Turai-vijaya, was the king of Champa from 1220 to 1254. In 1252, nonstop territorial growth by
Champa caused theVietnamese king Tran Thai Tong to retaliate. In the process, he captured Jaya Paramesvaravarman II's concubine, Bo La Gia, and took other
prisoners as well.
Jaya Indravarman VI was the King of Champa Kingdom from 1254 until 1265. During his reign, the Mongols invaded Champa under commander
Sogetu under Kublai Khan. Sogetu captured the port of Vijaya, but was defeated by Cham guerillas in the mountains after advancing to defeat Jaya Indravarman
VI.
Indravarman V (died 1288) was the King of Champa Kingdom from 1265 until his death in 1288. He was a king of Champa whose reign began in 1265 by
declining to give his respects in person to the Mongol Khan, Kublai Khan. He died, however, before he could face the wrath of Mongolia, leaving his son, Ch
Mn, to face the challenge.
Ch Mn or Jaya Simhavarman III (died 1307) was the King of Champa Kingdom from 1288 until his death in 1307. He was a king of Champa during a time
when the threat of the Mongols was imminent. In 1282, Kublai Khan tried to gain passage into Champa by pretending to settle a division with Java. Ch Mn
denied the Khan's entrance, and this angered him. Kublai Khan then asked Annam for entrance into Champa but received the same denial. In 1285, Kublai
Khan sent 500,000 troops to fight Champa and Annam. However, the death of one of his top leaders put an end to the Mongol invasion of Champa and Annam.
The mutual struggle against the Mongols brought Annam and Champa closer together. Thus, the Annamese king Tran Anh Tong married off his daughter,
Huyen Tran, to Ch Mn in exchange for the provinces of O and L. However, Ch Mn died soon after and the Princess's refusal to die with her husband was
considered a national disgrace to Champa. In response to this, Ch Mn's son, Che Chi, set out to recapture two districts ceded by Champa to Annam. He was
defeated, however, and died a prisoner in Annam.
Jaya Sinhavarman IV was the King of Champa Kingdom from 1307 until 1312. Because Ch Chi's Vietnamese mother refused to die with her husband and
Ch Chi's father, Ch Mn, Ch Chi set out to recapture two districts ceded by Champa to Annam in their time of peace brought on by the wedding of his father
and mother. He was defeated, however, and died a prisoner in Annam. After his capture, his brother, Che Da A Ba, was assigned to govern Champa by the Dai
Viet.
Ch Nang was the King of Champa Kingdom from 1312 until 1318. He was Annamese vassal king of Champa. During his reign, he tried to conquer
previously lost territories. In 1318, the Vietnamese king, Tran Minh Tong, dispatched generals Tran Quoc Chan and Pham Ngu Lao to defeat Che Nang. Che
Nang was defeated and escaped to Java.
Dynasty XIII
Ch A Nan was the King of Champa Kingdom from 1318 until 1342. He was originally from Annam but had reached high military ranks in Champa, and
thus succeeded to the throne. After he died, his Cham son-in-law Tra Hoa Bo De succeeded him, causing disturbance in his Annam side of the family,
particularly his legitimate heir, Che Mo. When his uncle Che Anan died in 1342, Tra Hoa succeeded him to the throne. Che Anan's legitimate heir, Che Mo,
was angered by this and later sought help from the country Annam.
Tr Hoa B was the King of Champa Kingdom from 1342 until 1360.
Po Binasuor, or Ch Bng Nga, Che Bunga (Bunga is the Malay word for 'flower', and "Ch" is the Vietnamese transliteration of Cei, a Cham word that means
"uncle" - and was, in the days of Champa, frequently used to refer to generals, died 1390) was the King of Champa Kingdom from 1360 until his death in 1390.
Also known as The Red King in Vietnamese stories, Po Binasuor was the last strong king of the kingdom of Champa. Ch Bng Nga apparently managed to
unite the Cham lands under his rule and by 1372 was strong enough to attack Vietnam from the sea. His Cham forces raided theVietnamese city of Thng
Long (modern Hanoi) twice in 1371 and 1378. The Chams then forced the king of i Vit to move statues of his ancestors' tombs at Thng Long to the
modern Hai Duong province in 1381. Following these victories, Ch Bng Nga threatened to retake all of the lost Cham territories. Additionally, he threatened
to take the two southern Vietnamese provinces, Nghe An and Thanh Ha. Because of these threats, the Vietnamese fled, and many Vietnamese commanders,
including H Qu Ly, future founder of the H Dynasty, were defeated in combat against Champa. In 1383, the Chams laid siege to the Vietnamese capital of
Thng Long (Hanoi) for six months. Ch Bng Nga died in 1390, reportedly

betrayed by his own General, La Khai. The events of Ch Bng Nga's reign spelled
the end of the Trn Dynasty in Vietnam, which was revealed as weak and ineffective in the face of the Cham General. After the conquest of Champa, the
Vietnamese assigned the surname "Ch" to all persons of Cham origin.
Dynasty XIV
Ko Cheng was the King of Champa Kingdom from 1390 until 1400. During his reign, he abandoned most of the territory won by his predecessor, Che Bong
Nga.
Jaya Sinhavarman V (also known by his pre-regnal name Ba Dich Lai) was the King of Champa Kingdom from 1400 until 1441. After his father's death in
1440, Indravarman VI turned against theKhmers. In order to maintain Dai Viet neutrality, he gave up the important province of Indrapura, which had been the
royal residence of the Cham rulers. Now that the threat of the Dai Viet had ended, Indravarman turned his attention to the Khmer Empire and succeeded in
defeating its king, Ponhea Yat, causing the final desertion of Angkor. Champa entered a time of peace and spirituality. A new religion, Islam, was introduced
from Java. However, this brought its consequences. The next time Annam would attack, Champa would not receive help from its former Buddhist and Hindu
allies.
Maija Vijaya was the King of Champa Kingdom from 1441 until 1446.
Moho Kouei Lai was the King of Champa Kingdom from 1446 until 1449.
Moho Kouei Yeou was the King of Champa Kingdom from 1449 until 1458.
Dynasty XV
Moho P'an Lo Yue was the King of Champa Kingdom from 1458 until 1460.
P'an Lo T'ou Ts'iuan or Bn La Tr Ton in Vietnamese (both based on readings of literary Chinese transliteration ) was the King of Champa
Kingdom from 1460 until 1471. In 1471, in a reaction to a Cham raid against Ha Chu, king L Thnh Tng of i Vit (Vietnam), invaded Champa. P'an-Lo
T'ou-Ts'iuan then called theKhmers for help. The Khmers, however, refused because they hadn't forgotten the destruction of Angkor by the Cham
king Indravarman VI. The Vietnamese then attacked the Cham capital of Vijaya, murdering 60,000 and imprisoning another 30,000. This was the final defeat of
Champa, which then became a minor Viet province.
Dynasty of South
Po Ro Me was the King of Champa Kingdom from 1627 until 1651.
Po Niga was the King of Champa Kingdom from 1652 until 1660.
Po Saut was the King of Champa Kingdom from 1660 until 1692. In 1692, the Cham Lord Po Saut rebelled against Nguyn Phc Trn who ruled southern
Vietnam. The revolt was at first unsuccessful and the aftermath was exacerbated by an outbreak of plague in Panduranga. However, a Cham aristocrat Oknha Dat
obtained the help of the general A Ban, a Lauw. But even the limited Cham rule in Panduranga officially came to an end in 1832, when the Emperor Minh
Mng annexed the area.
Dynasty of Po Saktiraidaputih, vassal Cham rulers under the Nguyn Lords
Po Saktirai da putih was the King of Champa Kingdom from 1695 until 1728.
Po Ganvuh da putih was the King of Champa Kingdom from 1728 until 1730.
Po Thuttirai was the King of Champa Kingdom from 1731 until 1732.
Po Rattirai was the King of Champa Kingdom from 1735 until 1763.
Po Tathun da moh-rai was the King of Champa Kingdom from 1763 until 1765.
Po Tithuntirai da paguh was the King of Champa Kingdom from 1765 until 1780.
Po Tithuntirai da parang was the King of Champa Kingdom from 1780 until 1781.
Chei Krei Brei was the King of Champa Kingdom from 1783 until 1786.
Po Tithun da parang was the King of Champa Kingdom from 1786 until 1793.
Po Lathun da paguh was the King of Champa Kingdom from 1793 until 1799.
Po Chong Chan was the King of Champa Kingdom from 1799 until 1822.


Terengganu Sultanate
Sultan
Tengku Muhammad Ismail (born 1998) was regent of Terengganu Sultanate from December 13, 2006 until December 12, 2011.
List of Chief Ministers (title Menteri Besar) of Terengganu Sultanate
Seri Amar Diraja Ngah Muhamad bin Yusof (1878 June 28, 1940) was the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of Terengganu Sultanate from April 21,
1925 until his death on June 28, 1940.
Tengku Seri Setia Raja Tengku Omar bin Othman was the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of Terengganu Sultanate from July 15, 1940 until May
6, 1942.
Jaya Perkasa Da Omar bin Mahmud was the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of Terengganu Sultanate from May 17, 1942 until December 16, 1945.
Tengku Panglima Perang Tengku Muhamad bin al-Marhum Sultan Ahmad was the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of Terengganu Sultanate
from December 17, 1945 until December 26, 1949.
Perdana Menteri Di Raja Dato' Seri Setia Raja Kamaruddin bin Idris was the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of Terengganu Sultanate from
December 27, 1949 until June 1959.
Mohd Daud bin Abdul Samad (1926 - 1983) was the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of Terengganu Sultanate from June 29, 1959 until November 8,
1961.
Tan Sri Ibrahim Fikri bin Mohammad was the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of Terengganu Sultanate from November 9, 1961 until September 3,
1970.
Mahmood bin Sulaiman was the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of Terengganu Sultanate from October 1, 1970 until September 4, 1971.
Nik Hassan bin Wan Abdul Rahman was the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of Terengganu Sultanate from September 5, 1971 until August 3, 1974.
Wan Mokhtar Ahmad (born 1932) was the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of Terengganu Sultanate from September 1, 1974 until December 2, 1999.
Abdul Hadi bin Awang (born October 20, 1947) was the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of Terengganu Sultanate from December
2, 1999 until March 25, 2004. He is the current President of the Parti Islam SeMalaysia, an Islamist political party in Malaysia. He was
Mentri Besar of Terengganu from 1999 to 2004, and he is the current state assemblyman for Rhu Rendang and Member of Parliament for Marang, both in
Terengganu. Hadi received his education in the neighbourhood schools before continuing his studies at the Islamic University of Madinah between 1969 and
1973, and later at Al-Azhar University. Upon his return to Malaysia he joined ABIM in 1977, where he quickly became the Selangor state chief for ABIM. A
year later, Hadi joined PAS, under which he contested a parliamentary seat in the 1978 Malaysian General Elections. He quickly rose through the ranks. He
became PAS deputy president in 1989, when Fadzil Noor was elected to the party presidency. In 2002, Hadi, then the PAS deputy President, became the party's
president when Fadzil died of a heart attack. He was advocated by Adam Tudor of Carter-Ruck. On April 10, 2008, he was hospitalised after suffering a mild
stroke.
Idris bin Jusoh (born November 15, 1955) was the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of Terengganu Sultanate from March 25, 2004
until March 25, 2008. He is a Malaysian politician and the current Education and Higher Learning Minister II from May 16, 2013. He
was the former Menteri Besar (Chief Minister) for the state of Terengganu and also the Chairman of MARA. He is a member of
the United Malays National Organisation (UMNO) which is part of the nation ruling coalition Barisan Nasional. Idris Jusoh or
popularly known as "Yeh" (Yeh is just a shortform for Idris, most Kelantanese call people with the name Idris as Yeh and Jertih, at least
according to some folklores, used to belong to Kelantan) attended elite school (STAR) from 1968 to 1973. Yeh was in Green House.
He was a school prefect too.Yeh is very qualified to be an Education Minister II - let it be known, he was one of the best students in
STAR during his time. Those days, best students were sent to Australia for matriculation even before the MCE(SPM) results were
known. And he was one of them. He came back to Malaysia before completing his studies in Australia because his father passed away.
Anyway, later on he attended USM and was at one time USM "overall best student". Not many of STAR students managed to secure an
award like that. Yeh became famous when he (almost single-handedly) won Terengganu for Barisan Nasional from PAS in 2004 and he
became the state MB. PAS, the incumbent party, won only 4 seats while Idris-led BN conquered 28. That was the "Gelombang Biru" time. He was MARA
chairman until his recent appointment as Minister of Education II. Yeh is married to a Kelantanese lady whom he met in USM. Following the 2008 Malaysian
general election, Barisan Nasional managed to win a majority in the Terengganu state election garnering 24 out of 32 state seats on offer, with PASwinning the
remaining 8 seats. In the formation of the new Terengganu state government, the federal government under the then Prime Minister Abdullah Ahmad
Badawi recommended Idris Jusoh as Menteri Besar, who received full support of twenty-three of the 24 Barisan Nasional state assemblymen elected. A crisis
soon ensued after the Sultan of Terengganu, Tuanku Mizan Zainal Abidin, who is also the Yang di-Pertuan Agong (Supreme Ruler) of Malaysia, refused to re-
appoint and swear in Idris as Menteri Besar. On March 22, 2008, the office of the Sultan of Terengganu announced the appointment of Kijal
assemblyman Ahmad Said instead of Idris Jusoh. The Prime Minister responded by saying that the appointment of Ahmad Said was unconstitutional as it went
against the wishes of the assemblymen and the Prime Minister's office who have supported Idris Jusoh candidacy for Menteri Besar. The 22 other BN
assemblymen had also pledged their support toward the appointment of Idris Jusoh according to Deputy Prime Minister Najib Tun Razak. Ahmad Said was
given warning that he would be stripped of his UMNO membership "for disobeying the party's leadership". However he was not stripped of his UMNO
membership. On March 26, 2008, Prime Minister Abdullah Ahmad Badawi and Sultan Mizan Zainal Abidin met at Istana Negara to resolve the impasse. The
Prime Minister accepted the King's appointment of Ahmad Said as Menteri Besar of Terengganu. He also apologised to the King for the public spat over the
appointment of the mentri besar, explaining that there was no intention to disparage or humiliate the royal household. This apparent backdown was due to threat
that the royal household would be prepared to dissolve the state assembly if there had been a motion of no-confidence against Ahmad Said by the 22 Umno state
assemblymen. The crisis was one of the only royal interventions in Malaysia in recent times. On September 10, 2013, referring to the National Education
Blueprint, he made a highlight in the news by saying this in a forum in Sabah, If some people feel the system is not good and want to send their children
overseas to study, the government cannot stop them. But the Ministry will work towards improving the countrys education system."
Seri Ahmad Said (born 1957) is the Menteri Besar of the state of Terengganu, Malaysia since 2008. He is a member of the United
Malays National Organisation (UMNO) which is part of the nation ruling coalition Barisan Nasional. He is currently the state
assemblyman of Kijal, Terengganu. Ahmad Said is a political science graduate from Universiti Sains Malaysia, and was elected an
assemblyman in 1990. He has 8 children with both women. His two wives live a kilometre apart. Following the 2008 Malaysian general
election, Barisan Nasional managed to win a majority in the Terengganu state election garnering 24 out of 32 state seats on offer,
with PASwinning the remaining 8 seats. In the formation of the new Terengganu state government, the federal government under the
then Prime Minister (PM) Abdullah Ahmad Badawi put forth the reappointment of Datuk Seri Idris Jusoh to a second term as Menteri
Besar. Abdullah claimed Idris received full support of twenty-three of the 24 Barisan Nasional state assemblymen elected. In what
political analysts described as a possible constitutional crisis, trouble began to precipitate after the Sultan of Terengganu, Tuanku Mizan
Zainal Abidin, who is also the current Yang di-Pertuan Agong (King) of Malaysia refused to re-appoint and swear in Idris as Menteri
Besar. Similar problems occurred in the state of Perlis where the PM's choice was also rejected and eventually the PM had to give in to
the Raja of Perlis. On March 22, 2008, the office of the Sultan of Terengganu announced the appointment of Kijal assemblyman Ahmad Said instead of Idris
Jusoh. The Prime Minister responded by saying that the appointment of Ahmad Said was "unconstitutional" as it went against the wishes of the assemblymen and
the Prime Minister's office who have supported Idris Jusoh's candidacy for Menteri Besar. The 22 other BN assemblymen had also pledged their support toward
the appointment of Idris Jusoh according to the then Deputy Prime Minister Najib Tun Razak. In spite of threats to strip Ahmad Said of his UMNO
membership "for disobeying the leadership", he went to the office in Wisma Darul Iman to begin the first day of his new appointment on March 25, 2008.
Ahmad Said was subsequently stripped of his UMNO membership. This technically disqualified him from representing the state UMNO and therefore
commanding the majority in the legislative assembly to be appointed as Menteri Besar in the first place. The ruling party also planned to vote down the Sultan's
choice through a motion of no-confidence by 22 UMNO state assemblymen. The opposition party Parti Islam SeMalaysia in the meantime promised that its
assemblymen would support Ahmad Said as Menteri Besar. On March 26, 2008, Prime Minister Abdullah Ahmad Badawi and Sultan Mizan Zainal Abidin met
at Istana Negara to resolve the impasse. The Prime Minister reversed his stance and decided to accept the King's appointment of Ahmad Said as Menteri Besar
of Terengganu. He also apologized to the King for the public spat over the appointment of the Menteri Besar, explaining that there was no intention to disparage
or humiliate the royal household. The apparent backdown was due to threat that the royal household would be prepared to dissolve the state assembly if the
motion of no-confidence was initiated against Ahmad Said, which would trigger another election in what is already a climate of discontent towards the ruling party
and the possibility of dissenting assemblymen defecting to the opposition. The UMNO Supreme Council proceeded to endorse Ahmad Said as the new Menteri
Besar of Terengganu. With the resolution of the impasse, Ahmad Said expressed his gratefulness over his appointment and paid tribute to Idris, an old friend he
has known since university, for the work he has done for the Terengganu people so far and to seek his advice. After the swearing in ceremony, he also expressed
hope in moving on to discharge his responsibility to the people and eradicate poverty within the state.

Selangor Sultanate
Selangor /sl/ also known by its Arabic honorific, Darul Ehsan, or "Abode of Sincerity" is one of the 13 states of Malaysia. It is on the west coast
of Peninsular Malaysia and is bordered by Perak to the north, Pahang to the east, Negeri Sembilan to the south and the Strait of Malacca to the west. It surrounds
the federal territories of Kuala Lumpur and Putrajaya, both of which were once under Selangor's sovereignty. In the 15th century, Selangor was ruled by
the Sultanate of Malacca. After the fall of Malacca to the Portuguese in 1511, the area became hotly disputed between the Portuguese, Johor, Aceh and Siam.
When the Dutch displaced the Portuguese from Malacca in 1641, they brought in Muslim Bugis mercenaries from Sulawesi. They established the present
hereditary sultanate in 1740. In many districts, Bugis settlers displaced the Minangkabau settlers from Sumatra, who had established themselves in Selangor some
100 years previously. In the 19th century, the economy boomed due to the exploitation of huge tin reserves and the growing importance of rubber. This attracted
a large influx of Chinese migrant laborers. Chinese secret clan societies, allied with Selangor chiefs, fought for control of the tin mines. The increasing violence
created social and economic havoc. It also opened a window of opportunity for the British government, which forced the Sultan of Selangor to accept a British
Resident in 1874. Under the stability imposed by the British, Selangor again prospered. In 1896, largely through the coordination of the Resident, Frank
Swettenham, Selangor united with Negri Sembilan, Perak and Pahang to form the Federated Malay States, with its capital in Kuala Lumpur. The Federated
Malay States evolved into the Federation of Malaya in 1948, which became independent in 1957, and Malaysia in 1963. The city of Kuala Lumpur functioned as
both the national capital of Malaysia and the state capital of Selangor. In 1974, Selangor relinquished Kuala Lumpur to the federal government. The Sultan of
Selangor, Sultan Salahuddin, reportedly shed tears of sadness upon signing away Selangor's sovereignty over its beloved capital. To commemorate Selangor's
sacrifice, the Sultan decreed that an archway be built on the borders of the new Federal Territory and Selangor; this archway is the Kota Darul Ehsan that now
towers majestically over a section of the Federal Highway between Bangsar andPetaling Jaya. The state capital was moved to Shah Alam after the cession.
Putrajaya, a new city designed to be the new administrative capital of Malaysia, was built by the federal government in Selangor. Sultan Salahuddin was asked
again to cede land to the federal government. Putrajaya became a federal territory in 2001.
List of Sultans of Selangor
Raja Lumu bin Daing Celak (1705 - 1778) was ruler (Raja Lumu) of Selangor from 1743 until 1766 and Sultan of Selangor Sultanate from 1766 until his
death in 1778.
Tuanku Ibrahim Shah ibni al-Marhum Sultan Salehuddin Shah (1736 - July 29, 1826) was the Sultan of Selangor Sultanate from 1778 until his
death on October 27, 1826 (from August 13, 1784 until July 29, 1786 in Pahang exile). He was the son of the famous Bugis warrior prince Daeng Chelak. He
took on the title of Sultan Sallehuddin of Selangor in 1742. The Bugis had already begun to settle on the West coast of the Malayan Peninsula towards the end of
the 17th century. Following Raja Lumu, two other Bugis Chiefs settled in the Selangor area: Raja Tua in Klang and Daeng Kemboja in Linggi, south ofLukut.
Raja Lumu originally met with opposition from the Sultans of Perak and Johor, as well as from the Dutch, but eventually managed to consolidate his position as
sovereign. By 1770, his legitimacy was strengthened by marriage to the niece of the Sultan of Perak. The latter, Sultan Muhammad "invested Salehuddin with the
insignia of Malay royalty and also attended the subsequent installation ceremony in Selangor". To this alliance, he soon added another, by marrying his own
daughter to the Sultan of Kedah, Sultan Abdullah Mukarram Shah.
Saiyid Ali bin Uthman Abdul Jalil Saifuddin (died 1821) was regent of Selangor Sultanate from July 13, 1784 until April 8, 1785.
Tuanku Muhammad Shah ibni al-Marhum Sultan Ibrahim Shah (1772 January 6, 1857) was the Sultan of Selangor Sultanate from October
27, 1826 until his death on January 6, 1857. His reign lasted 31 years until his death and saw the opening of tin mines in Ampang and the separation
ofSelangor into five independent districts. Muhammad Shah was not the son of his father's first wife, but since he was made the heir presumptive during his
father's reign, Selangor dignitaries accepted him as the next Sultan of Selangor. Sultan Muhammad Shah was not as competent in governing the state and did not
have total control over local rajas, village leaders or their districts. By the end of his rule, Selangor was separated into five individual territories,
namely Bernam, Kuala Selangor, Kelang, Langat and Lukut. Each area was governed by different leaders and Muhammad Shah only controlled Kuala Selangor.
Chinese settlers started mining for tin in the state during his time. The setting up of tin mines in Ampang brought business to the people and this was to be his
only recognized success.
Tuanku Abdus Samad ibni al-Marhum Raja Abdullah (1804 February 6, 1898) was the Sultan of Selangor Sultanate
from January 6, 1857 until his death on February 6, 1898. Abdul Samad was born in 1804 at Bukit Melawati in Selangor to Raja
Abdullah ibni Ibrahim Shah, younger brother of Sultan Muhammad Shah. His reign lasted 41 years from 1857 until his death in 1898.
His time on the throne saw the only civil war inSelangor, the establishment of Kuala Lumpur, the introduction of the Selangor flag and
coat of arms and the start of Britishinvolvement in Selangor state affairs. Before becoming the Sultan of Selangor, Abdul Samad held
the title of Tengku Panglima Raja and held authority over Langat. The third sultan of Selangor, Sultan Muhammad Shah, died on
January 6, 1857 without appointing an heir. This started a dispute between the royal court and dignitaries of Selangor to choose the next
sultan. To select the next sultan Malay customs dictate that the son of a royal wife takes precedence over the sons of other wives. This
makes Raja Mahmud the next legitimate heir but he was too young and was unable to exert his right. Sultan Muhammad's older and
more competent sons, Raja Laut and Raja Sulaiman were sons ofconcubines, the Sultan's sons-in-law, Raja Jumaat and Raja Abdullah,
were from the Riau branch of the family, hence they were all ineligible. This left Raja Abdul Samad, the nephew and son-in-law of the
late Sultan, as the candidate with the strongest contention. Raja Jumaat and Raja Abdullah became convinced that they could become the power behind the
throne if they supported Raja Abdul Samad to take the throne. With their patronage and the support of four other state dignitaries, a consensus was made to
select the nephew of Sultan Muhammad Shah, Raja Abdul Samad Raja Abdullah. Other sources state that Selangor went on for two years without a sultan until
he was favoured and that, unlike his predecessors, he was not formally installed by the Sultan of Perak. Following the successful establishment of the Ampang tin
mines by Muhamad Shah, Sultan Abdul Samad used the tin ore to trade with the states of the Straits Settlements. The mines in turn attracted even more Chinese
miners with the help of Raja Abdullah bin Raja Jaafar, one of his son-in-laws and Yap Ah Loy, a Chinese Kapitan. In 1866, the Sultan gave Raja Abdullah the
power and authority over Klang. This fueled the feud between Raja Abdullah and Raja Mahadi, who was the previous administrator of Klang. The dispute led to
the Klang War. The Sultan appointed his son-in-law, Tengku Dhiauddin Zainal Rashid (a.k.a. Tengku Kudin), as Vice Yamtuan and arbitrator twice during the
war; first on June 26, 1868 and again on July 22, 1871. At the same time he handed over management of the entire state. He also provided Langat to Tengku
Kudin to help him fund the handling of the war. Tengku Kudin in turn engaged the help of Pahang, mercenaries and Sir Andrew Clarke of theBritish Empire.
This marked the first British involvement in local politics. The Sultan later handed over the ruling power of Klang to Tungku Kudin after the war was won in
1874. In 1878 Tengku Kudin stood down from this post. After a number of piracy attacks took place in Selangor, Andrew Clarke assigned Frank Swettenham as
a live-in advisor to Sultan Abdul Samad in August 1874. Sultan Abdul Samad accepted James Guthrie Davidson as the first British Resident of Selangor in 1875.
In October the same year, Sultan Abdul Samad sent a letter to Andrew Clarke requesting for Selangor to be placed under the British protectorate. During his
reign, the areas of Semenyih, Beranang and Broga went under Selangor jurisdiction. Lukut however was handed to Dato' Kelana of Sungai Ujong on July 30,
1880. The Sultan was awarded the Order of St Michael and St George (KCMG) conferring the titleSir. Jugra became the royal capital of Selangor when Sultan
Abdul Samad built the Jugra Palace and moved there in 1875. The state capital was moved from Klang to Kuala Lumpur in 1880. In 1893, he helped found one
of Malaysia's premier schools, Victoria Institution in Kuala Lumpur along with Kapitan Yap Kwan Seng, K. Thamboosamy and Loke Yew. Sultan Abdul Samad
was made one of the first two patrons of the school. Sultan Abdul Samad was a member of the Council of Rulers for the Federated Malay States, under the
British colonial regime. The sultans of the four Federated Malay States ofPerak, Selangor, Negeri Sembilan, and Pahang were represented at the first Durbar,
which convened in 1897 at Kuala Kangsar, Perak. Sultan Abdul Samad interacted openly with his people as observers noted that he mingled by chatting in local
markets, while taking his daily walks or while watching acockfight. Sultan Abdul Samad died on February 6, 1898 at the age of 93 after reigning for 41 years. He
was laid to rest in his own mausoleum in Jugra. He had 12 children, 6 princes and 6 princesses from two wives. Raja Muda Musa, the heir apparent, died in 1884.
Due to this the next in line is Raja Muda Musa's eldest son, Sulaiman Shah Musa. The Sultan Abdul Samad Building in Kuala Lumpur, Sultan Abdul Samad
Secondary School in Petaling Jaya and the Sultan Abdul Samad Library in Universiti Putra Malaysia are named after him.
Raja Mahmud ibni al-Marhum Sultan Muhammad Shah (1849 - 1919) was regent of Selangor Sultanate from January 6, 1857 until 1859.
Tuanku Alaeddin Sulaiman Shah ibni al-Marhum Raja Muda Musa (1863 March 31, 1938) was the Sultan of
Selangor Sultanate from February 6, 1898 until his death on March 31, 1938. He was previously known as Raja Sulaiman before
being crowned Sultan. Sultan Sulaiman was knighted the Order of St Michael and St George (GCMG) by the United Kingdom in
1912 with the title Sir. The Sultan's rule was marked by Selangor joining the Federated Malay States, a federation of four
protected states in the Malay Peninsula, including Perak, Negeri Sembilan and Pahang, established by the British government in
1895, which lasted until 1946. It was during Sultan Sulaiman's reign that Istana Alam Shah was built in 1905. The Sultan went on
to live in the palace for 35 years until his death in 1938. Sultan Alaeddin Sulaiman Shah had many children, his first three sons in
chronological order being Tengku Musa Eddin, Tengku Badar Shah and Tengku Alam Shah. The first two sons were children by his royal consort, Tengku
Ampuan Maharum binti Tengku Dhiauddin of the royal house of Kedah. In 1903, Tunku Musa Eddin had been made Tengku Mahkota and was promoted
to Raja Muda or heir apparent in 1920. However, at the instigation of the British Resident, Theodore Samuel Adams (18851961; in office 1935 - 1937), Tengku
Musa Eddinwas dismissed as Raja Muda in 1934 for alleged "misbehaviour". Adams had accused Tengku Musa Eddin as a spendthrift and wastrel with a
penchant for gambling. However, many Malays in Selangor believed the real reason for Tengku Musa Eddin's dismissal was his refusal to follow Adam's orders.
Although Sultan Sulaiman pleaded for the case of Tengku Musa Eddin (even petitioning the Secretary of State for the Colonies and discussing the issue directly
with him in London), Tengku Alam Shah was instead proclaimed Raja Muda or heir to the throne over the head of his other half-brother Tengku Badar. The
appointment occurred on July 20, 1936. Tengku Alam Shah was proclaimed Sultan on April 4, 1938, four days after the death of Sultan Sulaiman. On January
26, 1939, he was crowned at Istana Mahkota Puri in Klang. Tengku Musa Eddin, then Tengku Kelana Jaya Putera, presided over the ceremony with no ill
feelings.
Tuanku Musa Ghiathuddin Riayat Shah ibni al-Marhum Sultan Alaeddin Sulaiman Shah (1893 - 1955) was the
Sultan of Selangor Sultanate from February 15, 1942 until September 14, 1945. He was Sultan of Selangor in Malaysia during
the Japanese occupation of that state (19421945). He received the Order of the Rising Sun from the Emperor of Japan. The eldest son
of Sultan Alaeddin (18981938) by his royal consort Tengku Ampuan Maharum binti Raja Muda Tunku Dziauddin of Kedah, he was
born in Jugra, Selangor. His name at birth was Tengku Musa Eddin. Educated privately, he was made Tengku Mahkota in 1903. He
succeeded his father's great-uncle Raja Laut bin Sultan Muhammad as Raja Muda or Crown Prince of Selangor in 1920. An intelligent
young man, he represented his father on the State Council established by the British colonial authority. However, at the instigation of the
British Resident, Theodore Samuel Adams (18851961; in office 1935 - 1937), Tengku Musa Eddin was dismissed as Raja Muda in 1934
for alleged "misbehaviour". Adams had accused Tengku Musa Eddin as a spendthrift and wastrel with a penchant for gambling. However,
many Malays in Selangor believed the real reason for Tengku Musa Eddin's dismissal was his refusal to follow Adam's orders. Although
Sultan Sulaiman pleaded for the case of Tengku Musa Eddin (even petitioning the Secretary of State for the Colonies and discussing the
issue directly with him in London), Tengku Alam Shah was instead proclaimed Raja Muda or heir to the throne over the head of his other half-brother Tengku
Badar. The appointment occurred on July 20, 1936. Tengku Musa Eddin was given the title of Tengku Kelana Jaya Putera, ironically the title for the heir-
apparent of the Yang di-Pertuan Muda (or Under-King) of Johor and Riau, from which the Sultans of Selangor are descended. Tengku Alam Shah was
proclaimed Sultan on April 4, 1938, four days after the death of his father. On January 26, 1939, he was crowned at Istana Mahkota Puri in Klang. Tengku Musa
Eddin presided over the ceremony with no ill feelings. During the Japanese occupation of Malaya, on January 15, 1942, Col. Fujiyama, the Japanese Military
Governor of Selangor, invited Sultan Hisamuddin Alam Shah to King's Housein Kuala Lumpur. In an interview with Major-General Minaki the Sultan confessed
that he had made speeches in support of the British war efforts but had been persuaded by the British resident to do so. After being told to surrender the regalia
to his older brother, the Japanese removed Sultan Hisamuddin and in November 1943, proclaimed Tengku Musa Eddin as the new Sultan of Selangor, taking
the regnal name Sultan Musa Ghiatuddin Riayat Shah. Sultan Hisamuddin Alam Shah declined to work with the Japanese and from 1943, refused their
allowance awarded to him and his children.
[8]
After the war, Sultan Musa in turn was dethroned by the British Military Administration under Lord Louis
Mountbatten upon the return of that colonial power to Malaya in 1945.Sultan Hisamuddin was installed again as Sultan of Selangor. Sultan Musa was exiled to
the Cocos Keeling Islands. Subsequently, he fell ill and was brought back to Selangor a few months before his death in 1955. Sultan Musa was buried beside his
father at the Royal Mausoleum in Klang. His consort, Syarifah Mastura Shahabuddin of Kedah, became Tengku Permaisuri or Queen during his brief reign. She
died in 1958. The couple had no children.
Sharafuddin Idris Shah ibni al-Marhum Sultan Salehuddin Abdul Aziz Shah (born December 24, 1945) is the
Sultan of Selangor Sultanate since November 22, 2001. He ascended the throne in 2001, succeeding his father, Sultan Salahuddin
Abdul Aziz Shah. He was also was regent of Selangor Sultanate from April 26, 1999 until November 21, 2001. Sharafuddin was
born on December 24, 1945, at Istana Jema'ah, Klang, as the first son of the Raja Muda (Crown Prince) of Selangor, Tengku Abdul
Aziz Shah and his first wife, Raja Saidatul Ihsan Tengku Badar Shah (c. 19232011). His father was the eldest son of Sultan
Hisamuddin Alam Shah and Raja Jemaah Raja Ahmad, who became the second Yang di-Pertuan Agong and Raja Permaisuri
Agong of Malaysia. His mother was a grandchild of both Sultan Alaeddin Sulaiman Shah and Sultan Abdul Jalil Shah of Perak. As
such, his parents were first cousins. He was named Tengku Idris Shah at birth. He began his education at Malay Primary
School, Kuala Lumpur, aged nine, before attending St. John's Institution until 1959. In 1960, his father became the Sultan of
Selangor, becoming Sultan Salahuddin Abdul Aziz Shah. That same year, Tengku Idris, 15, was proclaimed the Raja Muda (Crown
Prince) of Selangor; his formal installation occurred ten years later. He was sent abroad to continue his education, attending
the Hale School in Perth, Australia, from 1960 and later Langhurst College in Surrey, United Kingdom, from 1964. After returning
from the United Kingdom, Tengku Idris joined the government service, and was attached to the Selangor State Secretariat under
the administration of Menteri BesarHarun Idris. He served in the Kuala Lumpur District Office and police department. On April 24, 1999, he was appointed
Regent of Selangor after his father became the Yang di-Pertuan Agong. On November 22, 2001, Tengku Idris was proclaimed Sultan of Selangor, succeeding his
father, who died after only two years as Yang di-Pertuan Agong. He took the regnal nameSharafuddin (connoting 'religious enlightenment' in Arabic), and is
styled as Sultan Sharafuddin Idris Shah. His formal coronation took place on March 9, 2003 at Istana Alam Shah, Klang. As Sultan, he is known to have
revoked state awards conferred by him or by his father. In 2007, he revoked the Datuk title of a businessman who pleaded guilty for financial fraud. He has also
suspended others who have been charged in court for various misdealings or faced bankruptcy. In 2011, he suspended the datukship of former transport
ministerChan Kong Choy in relation to the latter being charged in court over the Port Klang Free Zone scandal. The 2008 general election saw sweeping political
change in Selangor. For the first time, Barisan Nasional (BN) did not win control of the state assembly. Sharafuddin presided over the swearing-in of the first non-
BN Menteri Besar of Selangor. In May 2009, he underwent a ten-hour open heart surgery at Stanford University Medical Center in Palo Alto, California. In
early 2011, he became embroiled in a crisis over the appointment of the state secretary, the state's highest-ranking civil servant. The federal government
appointed Mohd Khusrin Munawi to the position, which was consented to by Sharafuddin. However, the Pakatan Rakyat-led state government opposed the
appointment. The state government eventually relented, and Khusrin assumed his duties in February 2011. Sharafuddin married twice, and is presently divorced.
He acceded to the throne and reigns without a consort. In 1968, as Tengku Idris, he married Raja Zarina Raja Tan Sri Zainal. The marriage ended in divorce in
1986. Sharafuddin and Raja Zarina have two children: Tengku Zerafina (born 1969), currently an entrepreneur based in London. She married Colin Salem
Parbury on December 5, 2004 and Tengku Zatashah (born 1973), currently an executive in Paris. She married Aubry Rahim Mennesson (born 1972) on
February 28, 2008 at Istana Alam Shah, Klang. In 1988, Tengku Idris married American-born Nur Lisa Idris Abdullah (ne Lisa Davis). They divorced in 1997
and have one child:Tengku Amir Shah (born 1990), the current Raja Muda of Selangor. Sharafuddin is known for being adventurous, having circumnavigated the
world and scaled a mountain. At 30, he climbed Mount Kinabalu. Prior to becoming Sultan, Sharafuddin was an avid sailor. In 1995, he circumnavigated his
yacht, SY Jugra, around the world. The journey took 22 months. He sold the yacht before becoming Sultan
.
The Raja Muda Selangor International Regatta, a
major annual sailing event, is named after him
.
He has also taken part in rallies and long distance car races. He joined and completed the 1997 Peking to Paris
Motor Challenge in his 1932 Ford Model B. He covered 16,000 km in 43 days, winning the silver medal in the vintage car category. In 1986, he drove a Proton
Saga from Kota Kinabalu to Kuching, covering 1,111 km in two days. Sharafuddin's full style and title is: Duli Yang Maha Mulia Sultan Sharafuddin Idris Shah
Alhaj ibni Almarhum Sultan Salahuddin Abdul Aziz Shah Alhaj, Sultan of the State of Selangor and All Its Dependencies. In March 2001, he received an
honorary degree from Universiti Teknologi MARA. He is an Honorary Life President of the Football Association of Selangor.
List of Chief Ministers (title Menteri Besar) of Selangor Sultanate
Hamzah bin Abdullah was the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of Selangor Sultanate from June 1947 until July 1949.
Othman bin Mohamed was the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of Selangor Sultanate from March 1953 until September 1954.
Abdul Aziz bin Abdul Majid was the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of Selangor Sultanate from August 1955 until July 1957.
Abdul Jamil bin Abdul Rais was the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of Selangor Sultanate from July 1957 until May 1959.
Abu Bakar Baginda (died 1972) was the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of Selangor Sultanate from May 30, 1959 until March 19, 1964.
Harun Idris (July 1925 - 2003) was the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of Selangor Sultanate from March 19, 1964 until April 15,
1976. Harun was born in Petaling, Selangor, Malaysia to a Penghulu family of Javanese descent. He worked as a field officer with the
publicity department until 1948, when he was appointed District Officer for Gemas and Tampin, in the Malay Administrative Service.
After a short spell as magistrate in Kuala Langat, Klang and Kuala Lumpur, Dato Seri Harun left for the United Kingdom to study law
at Middle Temple, London and was called to the English Bar in the mid 50s. By 1957, he was a Sessions Court President, Registrar of
Companies, Deputy Public Prosecutor in Selangor and the State Legal Adviser until 1964 when his civil career ended and his political
career began. In March 1964, having won the State Assembly seat for Morib, Selangor, Dato Seri Harun was elected to the Umno
Supreme Council and served as Selangor Umno liaison chief from 1964 to 1976. From 1964 to 1976, Dato Seri Harun was appointed
the eighth Chief Minister of Selangor,
[2]
after Datuk Abu Bakar Baginda and he was the longest serving Chief Minister of Selangor,
holding office for exactly 12 years, until his resignation in April 1976. From the early 1970s until 1976, Harun was the Head of Umno
Youth and Supreme Council member. He was then expelled from UMNO and charged with corruption by the government, due to his
abuse of state funds. The chief investigating officer on the corruption case (16 counts of corruption) was Ang Chooi Tuan KMN, AMN, the highest ranking Anti-
Corruption Agency non-Malay/non-UMNO officer. Harun's career was marred by the May 13 racial riots, which had been triggered by a political rally held at his
residence in the national capital of Kuala Lumpur. Harun, who was perceived as a proponent of ketuanan Melayu (Malay supremacy, although this exact phrase
was not in use at the time), had seen UMNO suffer several losses in the Selangor State Assembly due to the 1969 general election. After the opposition held a
victory rally to humiliate the Malay government, UMNO leaders called for a retaliatory rally to be held on May 13 to "teach the Chinese a lesson". The discipline
of party members soon broke down, and the rally turned into a riot which lasted two days and cost at least 180 lives. Harun's role in the riot is not exactly clear.
Although the rally was to be held at his house (in which two innocent Chinese bystanders were killed) and then parade around the town, it has been claimed by
some including a member of the opposition in the state assembly and Parliament at the time that Harun was too pre-occupied with trying to form a new state
government to have given much thought to the rally, although it is not denied that he approved it. It has also been claimed that during the riot, Harun sheltered
some Chinese who had been forced into the mosque he attended by the rioters. There are also accusations that the Malays who gathered at his house were
supplied with knives and machetes. After meeting in large numbers at Harun's official residence in Jalan Raja Muda near Kampong Bahru, and hearing
inflammatory speeches by Harun and other leaders, the Malay mobs prepared themselves by tying ribbon strips on their foreheads and set out to kill Chinese.
The first hapless victims were two of them in a van opposite Harun's house who were innocently watching the large gathering. Little did they know that they
would be killed on the spot. Harun's political career did not stop after stepping down as Chief Minister. Between 1975 to 1977, he was found guilty on various
charges of corruption and was sentenced to six years' imprisonment. In 1981, Harun was released after receiving a pardon from the Yang Di-Pertuan Agong on
advice of Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad, after serving three years of his sentence. He served as Kuala Langat Umno Division Chief for 3 years until 1984.
Dato Seri Harun also served as a council member of the Selangor Royal Council from 1994 until his demise. On November 15, 1986 he was called to the
Malaysian Bar and thereafter returned to his old profession of law practice and became a senior partner of Harun Idris, Yeoh & Partners actively practising law
until his demise. Harun served as Semangat 46 Supreme Council member and Selangor Chief for a brief period from 1987 to 1990. In the year 2000, Dato Seri
Harun rejoined Umno and was a member of the Umno SS7 Sri Dagang Branch, in the Subang Division of Selangor. Dato Seri Harun died peacefully after a
short illness on October 19, 2003 at the age of 78 and is survived by his wife Datin Seri Salmah Sulaiman, three sons, three daughters, 18 grandchildren and four
great-grandchildren.
Hormat Rafei (1923 - 2001) was the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of Selangor Sultanate from April 15, 1976 until May 3, 1982.
Ahmad Razali Mohd Ali (1928 - 2001) was the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of Selangor Sultanate from May 3, 1982 until August 14, 1986.
Muhammad bin Haji Muhammad Taib (also fondly known as Mat Taib) (born 1945) was the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar)
of Selangor Sultanate from August 14, 1986 until April 14, 1997. He is a Malaysian politician who currently is a PAS member. He was
the former Rural and Regional Development Minister. He was also the United Malays National Organisation (UMNO) information
chief and former Menteri Besar of Selangor. He contested the post of UMNO deputy president in 2009 but lost. Born in Kampung
Sungai Manggis, Kuala Kalumpang, Hulu Selangor. He went to and English Primary School in Kuala Kubu, Baru. Muhammad is a
graduate from Universiti Malaya and was also a former teacher in SMK Kuala Kubu Baru. The political veteran joined UMNO in 1964,
and quickly rose within its ranks to be elected UMNO vice president in 2004. He was also appointed as Selangor Umno deputy state
liaison committee chief in the same year. Muhammad was also former Batang Kali state assemblyman, winning in the general elections of
1982, 1986, 1990 and 1995. He served as Menteri Besar of Selangor from 1986 to 1997. However, he was forced to resign as Selangor
Mentri Besar in April 1997 after he was charged in Australia over currency irregularities amounting to RM3.8mil. However, he was later
found not guilty. Muhammad Muhammad Taib was cleared by the court as he pleaded that he did not understand English and therefore did not understand the
currency regulations. However, in a later development, an investigative committee found that the court had erred in its judgment. Whilst serving as the Mentri
Besar of Selangor, he eloped with Sultan Salahuddin Abdul Aziz Shah's daughter, Tengku Puteri Zaharia Sultan Abdul Aziz Shah to Thailand where they
reportedly got married. Later when asked by the Sultan, Muhammad wrote to the Sultan saying that he did not eloped with the Selangor's Princess. After that he
wrote another letter saying that he is sorry that he eloped with the princess. They have since divorced and have a son together in July 1989, Muhammad Faez. In
2006, he was appointed as a senator in the Dewan Negara. This allowed him to be appointed as a minister by Prime Minister Tun Abdullah Ahmad Badawi in
March 2008. His stint in the Cabinet ended after a reshuffling by new Prime Minister Datuk Seri Najib Tun Razak in April 2009. On April 2013, Mat Taib
joined PAS, a component party of Pakatan Rakyat. He was formally introduced by the party on April 22, 2013 (Monday) two days after the 13th General
Election nomination day to avoid allegations that he took the step to be nominated in the general election. PAS is the only party that can lead Malaysia towards
Islam, Mat Taib said. Ironically, in previous statements Muhammad was a strong critic for the current Pakatan Rakyat led state of Selangor. He stated that
Pakatan Rakyat Selangor, under the helm of the current Mentri Besar of Selangor Tan Sri Khalid Ibrahim was losing grip of the state. He even stated that he
believes that Saiful Bukhari Azlan, the accuser of Anwar Ibrahim sexual escapades was the real victims and no one is helping Saiful Bukhari.
Abu Hassan Omar (born September 15, 1940) was the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of Selangor Sultanate from May 2, 1997 until
August 18, 2000. He received his early education at the Malay School of Bukit Belimbing (19461950) before furthering his studies atKlang
High School (19511957), Malay College Kuala Kangsar (19581959) and University of Hull, England (19601963 and 19711973). At the
University of Hull, he specialised in the Area and Regional Development for his Masters.

Mohamad Khir Bin Toyo (born August 6, 1965) was the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of Selangor Sultanate from August 18,
2000 until March 13, 2008. His Barisan Nasional government was defeated at the 2008 general election, following which he served as the
state's Opposition Leader until December 2010. He has been a member of the Selangor State Legislative Assembly since 1999, for the
seat of Sungai Panjang. He faced charges of corruption after stepping down as Chief Minister, and was convicted of graft in the High
Court on December 23, 2011. Of half Indonesian and half Malay descent, Khir was born on August 6, 1965, at Tali Air 2, Bt 4, Sungai
Burung, Tanjung Karang, Selangor, the fifth child of a total of nine siblings. His father, Joyo Erodikromo, was an immigrant
from Java, Indonesia while his mother, Siti Aminah Mohd Taib, is of Malay ethnicity. His wife is Datin Seri Zahrah Kechik who was born at Matang
Road, Taiping, Perak. She has six adopted children: 3 sons and 3 daughters. Before entering politics, Khir was a dentist. Khir was active in the youth wing of
the United Malays National Organisation (UMNO), serving on its executive council. In 2000, at the age of 35, he became the Menteri Besar of Selangor at the
insistence of Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad, following the resignation of Abu Hassan Omar. His appointment as Menteri Besar came in his first term as a
member of the Selangor State Assembly, having been elected as the member for Sungai Panjang in the 1999 election. His young age led to allegations, which he
denied, that he had dyed his hair grey to give voters the impression that he was older. Khir subsequently served as a member of UMNO's Supreme Council and
Chairman of Selangor Barisan Nasional from 2000 to 2008. In 2004, Dr. Mohamad Khir won UMNO Supreme Council with the highest votes. Other positions
that he holds in UMNO include the Chairman of the Selangor UMNO Communications Board and UMNO Division Head of Sungai Besar. He was the
Menteri Besar of Selangor until the 12th General Election in March 2008. The state of Selangor fell to opposition hands following its worst defeat in Malaysian
history. He was succeeded by Parti Keadilan Rakyat secretary-general, Abdul Khalid Ibrahim. However, he remains the state assemblyman of Sungai Panjang
constituency and became Selangor opposition chief. After the election, he ran for the leadership of UMNO Youth, but was defeated by Khairy Jamaluddin.
[7]
He
resigned as the opposition leader in December 2010, after he was charged with corruption over allegations that while he was the Menteri Besar, he was sold a
lavish mansion for less than its market value. Khir Toyo was finally sentenced to a jail term of 12 months for this act and his properties was ordered to be
confiscated. It was a mission set by Khir Toyo himself to make Selangor 'zero squatters' in line with national policy Wawasan 2020. The opposition criticised
Khir Toyo for approving housing project in squatters' area and forcing the residents to move out from their illegal homes. They claimed some of the village claim
to be illegal homes had been built before independence in 1957 and most squatters living in a prime area are left homeless and received low compensation. The
majority of the squatters are forced to rent or live in low-cost flats. However report show most of the land is under private owner.
"The (squatters) are occupying other people's land. The land will never be theirs as they are private land. They want the land but I can't give it to them" - Dr. Khir
Toyo.
Despite heavy criticism from opposition before this, the new Menteri Besar from opposition party, Tan Sri Abdul Khalid Ibrahim reported said the effort to
reduce the number of squatters and to free them from the clutches of poverty, should continue. In 2007, The state government had achieved 93.6 per cent
success in addressing the squatter problem, having evicted 44,701 of the 47,756 squatter families to-date from all the local authority areas in the state. The
remaining squatters to be moved by August are 1,090 families from the Selayang Municipal Council (MPS) and 257 families from the Klang Municipal Council
(MPK), the media secretariat in the Menteri Besar's Office said in a statement. A total of 1,708 squatter families were shifted following court cases, resettled to the
North Gombak Orang Asli settlement and planned villages, it said. However, four local authorities still had squatters. They are MPS (984), MPK (221), Shah
Alam City Council (307) and Ampang Jaya Municipal Council (196).
[15]
Khir Toyo had been accused of corruption for approving a construction project which
trespasses Bukit Cahaya Seri Alam in Shah Alam, a forest reserve.[5] However this land was approved before Khir took over power. To prove his innocence,
Khir had asked Anti-Corruption Agency of Malaysia to investigate the incident.[6]. In 2004, Anti-Corruption Agency declared no case against Khir Toyo. On
October 30, the current State government of Selangor began investigations into irregularities by the Selangor State Development Corporation when it was run by
Khir Toyo. A special investigative team which was set up for the purpose would probe how certain senior officers of the corporation were holding 30% shares in a
subsidiary. This included an investigation of RM100,000 gift to former Mentri Besar as a bonus. In 2007, the state government only collected RM17mil revenue
from sand mining instead of the RM170mil which it was supposed to get.
Abdul Khalid Ibrahim (born December 14, 1946) is the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of Selangor Sultanate since March 13,
2008. He is a former corporate figure of Malay descent and the current Treasurer-General of Parti Keadilan Rakyat (PKR, or People's
Justice Party). He was born in the village of Kampung Jalan Raja Abdullah in Kuala Selangor district, Selangor. He graduated from
theUniversity of Malaya with a Bachelor's Degree in Economics and later obtained an MBA from the University of Queensland.
Khalid began his career as a university lecturer. Later, he entered the corporate world and held the position of CEO from 1979 to
1994 in the government-controlled fund management firm Pemodalan Nasional Berhad (PNB). In 1981, he became famous for
leading the "dawn raid" on the London Stock Exchange, which resulted in PNB gaining a 51% share in British plantation concern
Guthrie in less than two hours. He later became the CEO of the Malaysianized Guthrie, now known as Kumpulan Guthrie Bhd, from
1995 to 2003. He later left the corporate scene and entered politics, joining the opposition party PKR. He was the opposition
candidate in the 2007 Ijok by-election for the Selangor State Legislative Assembly, contesting against K. Parthiban of the Malaysian
Indian Congress (MIC), a component party of the ruling Barisan Nasional (BN). In the Malaysian General Election 2008, he
contested for the Parliamentary and State Assembly seat for P124 Bandar Tun Razak and N11 Ijok where he won both seats. He was
appointed as the new Menteri Besar (State Premier) of Selangor and was sworn in on March 13, 2008 at Istana Bukit Kayangan. He is
also the first person not part of the Barisan Nasional ruling coalition to be appointed as Menteri Besar of Selangor. All previous thirteen Menteri Besar were
fromUnited Malays National Organisation (UMNO), a major component party of BN. Despite being an opposition party member, he retains his positions in
various quasi-government organizations due to his broad experience and integrity in business and industry. Among his notable positions include: Director, SIRIM
Bhd, Adviser, Islamic Development Bank, Fellow, Institute for Strategic and International Studies and Member, National Productivity Council. He had two
honours: International Alumnus of the Year 2002, University of Queensland, Australia and Honorary member, Business Advisory Council to the Asia Pacific
Economic Cooperation (APEC). Khalid was embroiled in the Talamgate controversy which highlighted the potential mismanagement of Selangor state
government's funds to bailout Talam Corporation Bhd via purchases of lands belonging to the said company. This followed revelations that the land of which
Talam owned that were taken over by the state government had valuation differences between market value and state valuation. Khalid Ibrahim later appoint
independent Auditor KPMG to evaluate the practice of recovering debts from Talam Corporation Bhd. KPMG is of the view that the Selangor government
made a sound commercial decision under the circumstances at that point in time in relation to the settlement arrangement. Khalid Ibrahim denied any claims
saying that Selangor will face water crisis in 2014. He stated that the Federal government was wrong to imply such things. However, water concessionaire Syabas
has maintained that there is a crisis in parts of Selangor, Kuala Lumpur and Putrajaya despite abundant raw water supply. The real problem lies with the poor
amount of treated water in which the current 34 plants cannot support future needs. Khalid kept on hitting out at Syabas by saying that the company and it
members did not carry out their duties well.

Sarawak
Heads of State (title Yang di-Pertua Negeri)
Tun Datuk Abang Openg bin Abang Sapie (1905 March 28, 1969) was the Yang di-Pertua Negeri (Governor) of
Sarawak from September 16, 1963 until his death on March 28, 1969. Upon the independence of Sarawak from Great Britain and
formation of Malaysia in 1963.Before that, the position of Governor of Sarawak was held by a British officer appointed by Queen
Elizabeth II and her precursor,King George VI. Before being appointed as the first Governor,he was active in politics. After his death
on 28 March 1969, he was replaced by Tuanku Bujang Tuanku Othman. He had following His sons,Datuk Amar Abang Haji Abdul
Rahman Zohari,now served as a Minister of Housing and Urban Development in current State Cabinet,and also a Member of The
Sarawak State Legislative for the Satok constituency,and Datuk Abang Karim is the Chairman of Sarawak Chamber of Commerce &
Industry (SCCI). He had following awards and honours: Seri Maharaja Mangku Negara, Panglima Negara Bintang Sarawak and
Member of the Order of the British Empire. Places named in honor of him: SMK Tun Abang Haji Openg, Kuching and Jalan Tun
Abang Haji Openg (Kuching, Sibu).
Tun Bujang bin Tunku Othman (1898 November 28, 1986) was the Yang di-Pertua Negeri (Governor) of Sarawak from
April 2, 1969 until April 2, 1977. Born to a renowned Malay family in Sibu, he was educated in Malay School and later joined the
Sarawak Civil Service as a Native Officer in 1934. He was awarded the title of "Datu" in June 1954, and a year later was promoted to
Sarawak Administrative Service as an Officer.He later retired from Sarawak Government Civil Service in December 1960. After his
retirement from the Civil Service, he became the President of Barisan Ra'ayat Jati Sarawak (BARJASA) in 1962, a political party in
favor of the formation of Malaysia. After the establishment of Malaysia, he was appointed as Senator in 1963, and was
awarded Panglima Setia Mahkota (P.S.M.), which carries the title "Tan Sri" by the Malaysian Government. He was appointed as the
second Yang di-Pertua Negeri (Governor of Sarawak) by the King of Malaysia upon the death of the fomer Governor, Tun Abang
Haji Openg. Upon the appointment, he was awarded Seri Maharaja Mangku Negara (S.M.N.) which carried the title "Tun". He would
serve as the governor for the second term in 1973 before his term ended in 1977. Little is known about his doing after his tenure as
the Governor of Sarawak ended in 1977. On November 28, 1986, he died peacefully in Kuching, where he was buried. Places named after him: Kolej Tun
Datuk Patinggi Tuanku Haji Bujang, Miri (Tuanku Haji Bujang College,Miri) - previously known as SMK Tanjung Lobang (Tanjong Lobang Secondary School)
and Padang Sukan Tun Datuk Patinggi Tuanku Haji Bujang in Bukit Lima Sports Complex,Sibu.
Abang Haji Muhammad Salahuddin bin Abang Barieng (born 1921) is the Yang di-Pertua Negeri (Governor) of Sarawak
from April 2, 1977 until April 2, 1981 and currently since December 4, 2000. He is the first person to serve as Governor twice. He is
also fondly known as Abang Louis, by his old friends and acquaintances, especially in his hometown of Sibu. Salahuddin, or Abang
Louis is the only son of the late Abang Barieng bin Abang Anyut, a Melanau community leader and a well-known figure in the Third
Division (present-day Sibu Division). After the Japanese occupation, he worked as Municipal Inspector until 1947 under the new British
colonial administration. He continued in the public service under the National Registration Department and the Public Works
Department. Abang Muhammad is married twice first with late Toh Puan Hajjah Dayang Umi Kalthum,and later Toh Puan Hajah
Norkiah, and they have 9 children, and 30 grand-children and great-grandchildren.One of his children,Datin Dayang Fatiyah, had been
appointed as the first female 'Penghulu' in Sibu. He was active in state politics, helping to form Barisan Pemuda Sarawak (BPS)
and Barisan Rakyat Jati Sarawak(BARJASA). Salahuddin acted as representative of the Melanau community to the Cobbold
Commission during the years preceding the formation of Malaysia. In 1963, he contested and won a seat in the state elections. However, he resigned in 1968 and
returned to public service. He eventually became Chairman of the State Public Service Commission. In 1977, he was installed as the third Governor of Sarawak
and served for a term of four years. In 2000, he became Acting Governor while the Governor Ahmad Zaidi Adruce was ill. Zaidi Adruce died in December
2000, and Salahuddin was reappointed permanently to the governorship in February 2001. He holds the usual Malay title of "Tun Datuk Patinggi" by combining
the highest title of Malaysia and the highest title of Sarawak. But in other parts of Malaysia, he holds other titles.
Haji Abdul Rahman bin Ya'kub (born January 3, 1928) was the Yang di-Pertua Negeri (Governor) of Sarawak from April 2,
1981 until April 2, 1985. He is a Malaysian politician of Melanau descent from Mukah. He was the third Chief Minister (Ketua Menteri)
of Sarawak from July 7, 1970 until March 26, 1981. He is also an uncle ofPehin Sri Abdul Taib Mahmud, the current Chief Minister of
Sarawak. Rahman's first wife, Toh Puan Normah died in 1984. Rahman's daughter, Khadijah, later married to Tun Abdul Razak's son,
Datuk Mohd Nizam. Datuk Norah Abdul Rahman, who is also her daughter, is a Malaysian Member of Parliament for the Tanjung
Manis constituency. He then later married Toh Puan Siti Maemunah. Rahman Ya'kub was very active in sports during his school days,
especially football (soccer). In the later years of his life he also enjoyed playing golf. Rahman is a very religious man and loves reading
religious books on Islam. He even conduct free-religious classes for the public after leaving active politics in 1985. Rahman Ya'kub was
born in the village of Kampung Jepak, Bintulu, Sarawak to a fisherman by the name of Tuan Wan Ya'kub bin Wan Yusuf and Siti Hajar
binti Haji Mohd. He first attended a Malay school and then the Sekolah Anchi in Miri. His father, who wished that Rahman Ya'kub be
given an Islamic education, attempted to send him to the Al-Juned Arabic School in 1939, a decision that was opposed by his mother
due to the outbreak of World War II. He then transferred to St. Joseph Miri, but his studies was cut short by the Japanese invasion. At a young age, he learnt the
Japanese martial art Aikido and was able to also meet Morihei Ueshiba, the founder of Aikido. He worked as an oil-tester for the Sarawak Shell Company and a
school teacher before being accepted as a Native Officer in the Sarawak Civil Service in 1948. He graduated from the University of Southampton in the United
Kingdom as a trained lawyer and worked as the Deputy Public Prosecutor in the Sarawak Legal Department from 1959 to 1963. He was the
first Bumiputera from Sarawak that graduated as a lawyer in 1958 from Lincoln's Inn. The first Prime Minister of Malaysia, Tunku Abdul Rahman brought
Rahman Ya'kub into politics while the second Prime Minister Tun Abdul Razak mentor him. Rahman was the deputy Lands and Mines Minister in the 1960s.
He was one of the people who proposed that Malaysia should create their own oil company, now known is Petronas. Rahman Ya'kub also founded the now
defunct Bank Utama Berhad in Malaysia. He was an education minister before he returned to Sarawak to become the chief minister in 1970. He made a bold
move by changing the medium of instruction for all the schools and higher learning institutions from English to the Malay language. He is also credited for the
creation of Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM) in 1970. He also did away with primary six common entrance examination, so that all the primary six students
will be able to continue with their secondary education. He won the Kuala Rajang state constituency during the resumption of 1969 state election in 1970,
representing Parti Bumiputera Sarawak (BUMIPUTERA), which was part of the Sarawak Alliance. After the election, there was not any party holding a clear
majority. However, he was able to convince SUPP to form a coalition government with him as the chief minister. He was called by Tun Abdul Razak to tackle the
communist insurgency in Sarawak. Peace was restored in Sarawak when Bong Kee Chok, the former leader of Parti Rakyat Kalimantan Utara, together with 482
communist guerillas surrendered their arms in 1974 after the Sri Aman Operation initiated by Rahman Ya'kub. Rahman Ya'kub set up the Sarawak foundation to
provide scholarships and educational loans for the needy students. He also established several statutory bodies including State Planning Unit in order to speed up
the development in Sarawak. Five administrative divisions in Sarawak has been increased to seven under his tenure of office. A bridge built in May 1975 which
connects the two administrative divisions, namely Dewan Bandaraya Kuching Utara (DBKU) and Majlis Bandaraya Kuching Selatan (MBKS) was named after
him. Rahman Ya'kub was known for controlling the logging industry in Sarawak. A case study in Belaga district revealed that the shares of the Lembahan Mewah
timber licence was 70% owned by his daughters while the remaining 30% of shares was owned by the wife of Datuk Tajang Laing, the state assemblyman for
Belaga district. Rahman quit as chief minister after undergoing heart surgery in London in 1981. In 1981, he resigned his post as the Chief Minister and became
the Governor of Sarawak. He left his chief minister post to his nephew, Abdul Taib Mahmud. However, Rahman Ya'kub retained his influence over the state's
principal levers of patronage such as land development permits, government contracts, and timber licenses. He later quit his post as the governor of Sarawak in
1985 due to health reasons. This political crisis already started brewing when Rahman Ya'kub was the governor of Sarawak. He criticised his nephew in a speech
at a ceremony of opening of Bintulu port in 1983. In 1985, Rahman Ya'kub was involved in a bitter dispute with his nephew, Abdul Taib Mahmud over
allocation rights. In 1987, Rahman Ya'kub formed a new party namedParti Persatuan Rakyat Malaysia Sarawak (PERMAS) in order to challenge Taib Mahmud
at the polls. He also formed an alliance with Sarawak Dayak People's Party (PBDS) in order to unseat Taib Mahmud. In March 1987, 27 of the 48 state
assemblymen suddenly directed their support to Rahman Ya'kub while calling Taib Mahmud to resign as a chief minister. Among the defectors were Taib's 4
cabinet ministers and 3 assistant ministers. A war of accusations on timber concessionaires then broke out between Rahman Ya'kub and Taib Mahmud. Taib
Mahmud revoked 30 timber licenses held by his defectors and Rahman's clients. Taib then accused Rahman for awarding 1.25 million hectares of logging
concessions worth RM 22.5 billion to Rahman himself and his relatives. Rahman Ya'kub, in return, revealed a list of timber concessions covering 1.6 million
hectares held by Taib's clients and family. Despite the unsuccessful attempt at the 1987 Sarawak state election, Rahman continued his struggle with his allies,
Sarawak Dayak People's Party against Taib's led Sarawak Barisan Nasional until 1991 Sarawak state election when Taib's coalition won an overwhelming majority
of 49 out of 56 seats in the state assembly. Rahman celebrated his 80th birthday in Hilton Hotel, Kuching in 2008. During the grand ceremony, he hugged his
nephew, Pehin Sri Abdul Taib Mahmud, marking the end of the 20-year-old strained relationship between an uncle and a nephew after the Ming Court Affair.
He said that he already stitch up his relationship with Taib because "blood is thicker than water". He is now active in religious activities as he conducts free
religious classes for the public at his residence, "Sri Bahagia", in Petra Jaya.

Ahmad Zaidi Adruce bin Muhammed Noor (March 29, 1924 December 4, 2000) was the fifth Yang di-Pertua
Negeri Sarawak (Governor of Sarawak), longest serving Governor of Sarawak (in consecutive terms from a single appointment),
from his inaugural on April 2, 1985, to his death on December 4, 2000. He was also remembered as the first Sarawakian
Bumiputera to receive a MA Degree from a British university (University of Edinburgh), a huge achievement for the people of
Sarawak, as it was under British rule at the time. Since his unique birth in a boat along the Rajang River, the longest river in
Malaysia and the pride of Sarawak, Ahmad Zaidi has traveled a long way. In very much the same course, the proverbial river of
his life has flowed into seas and oceans, bringing him to new lands and countries where he sought an education and a destiny
only few dared to dream of. Before being appointed as the Head-of-State of Sarawak in 1985, Ahmad Zaidi Adruce had a
turbulent political career. His involvement in politics began in earnest while he was studying at Buitenzorg College in Bogor,
then Japanese-occupied Netherlands East Indies(present-day Indonesia). Adopted and brought up by Sharifah Mai, the daughter of the renowned Sharif
Masahor who was glorified as the first nationalist of Sarawak, Ahmad Zaidi grew up knowing he was to have a great impact on the lives of those he loved and
served. At 5 years old, he was sent to two schools, Chung Hua and also Abang Ali in Sibu, where he developed interest in poetry, gymnastic and acting. At age 12
he passed his standard seven exam with exemplary marks which at the time was an achievement far beyond what was expected of a young man born and raised
in Sarawak. Ahmad Zaidi was an exceptionally bright student, who was always either first or second in class throughout his primary and secondary education.
After his standard seven exam, he moved to Kuching to further his studies and joined St. Thomas school in 1936, where he graduated with a Junior Cambridge
qualification in 1938. Out of 63 students, he was among the seven who passed and of the seven, Ahmad Zaidi was the only bumiputera. He joined an Anglo-
Chinese school in Singapore in 1938 and graduated in 1939 at 15 years old with a Cambridge School Certificate, and was at the time the only bumiputerato have
achieved such an honor. In November 1940, Ahmad Zaidi joined the Sultan Idris College in Tanjung Malim, Perak, where he studied devotedly until the
Japanese invasion in 1941, when he was forced to flee to Singapore. In 1942 he was sent to Java to study Veterinary Medicine at Buitenzorg College in Bogor. He
did not complete his veterinary training when the war ended in 1945 and was instead pulled into fighting against the Dutch in Indonesia, where he witnessed first-
hand the early days of the Indonesian National Revolution. In 1947, he returned to Sarawak where he was then appointed as a teacher at Batu Lintang Training
Center. During that year he also set up the first Sea Scout movement in Borneo and took his students sailing as far as Tanjung Datu on the western tip of Borneo
Island and as far north to the Saribas River, an enterprise that would later help him establish an intelligence and underground movement to assist the Republic of
Indonesia in their guerilla warfare against the Dutch. In 1949, the British awarded Ahmad Zaidi a four-year Colonial Development and Welfare scholarship to
further his studies at the Robert Gordons Technical College in Aberdeen before he was enrolled to the University of Edinburgh in the United Kingdom. On May
28, 1953, he was invited to represent Sarawakian students to attend the Coronation of Queen Elizabeth II where he also met with the famous Temenggong Jugah.
Ahmad Zaidi secured his MA degree in Political Economy in 1953 from the University of Edinburgh and later secured a Certificate in Education from
the University of London in 1955. Upon his return to Sarawak, he was promoted to the post of supervisor at a training college and later became the acting
president of the Barisan Pemuda Sarawak in 1956 which was an organization that united the bumiputeras to work towards the independence of Sarawak. He met
with Tan Sri Ghazali Shafie and later with Tunku Abdul Rahman to support the movement towards the formation of Malaysia. Ahmad Zaidi was opposed to
colonialist ideology, and the experiences of being discriminated while in the United Kingdom did little to endear his feelings towards the colonial government that
ruled over his people. It was a turbulent time period for the world over, and revolutionary sentiments were no less in Borneo, at the so-called fringes of the
changing world. The buildup for the movement towards independence had become so intense that there were even plots to either arrest or assassinate Ahmad
Zaidi for being a very public rebel to the colonial government. He knew that at that stage even if Sarawak was able to attain independence, the machineries for the
new Malaysian government will mostly be influenced by those Sarawakians who had worked for the colonial government. In the transition phase towards the
formation of a new government, he received insider information that some of the expatriates who worked under the colonial administration preferred that he be
eliminated for fear of revenge if Ahmad Zaidi became in control. He was dubbed a traitor by British authorities and supporters including many of the expatriates
in the Sarawak government because of his strong influence and involvement in Barisan Pemuda Sarawak and suspected connection with Indonesia during
the Indonesia-Malaysia Confrontation. He was then abducted from Sarawak by his sympathizers and later went into self-exile in Indonesia until he was given
amnesty by the Malaysian government in 1969, a move strongly supported by Tun Abdul Rahman Ya'kub (Sarawak's 3rd Chief Minister and 4th Yang di-Pertua
Negeri Sarawak), who was a Federal Minister at the time. Ahmad Zaidi was born in the midst of rushing waters on a boat in Rajang River on March 29, 1924, to
the marvel of his biological parents, Muhammad Noor and Siti Saadiah. He had been pledged to a close family friend, Sharifah Mai, who comes from the
illustrious family of the Arab Sharifs. Sharifah Mai was the daughter of Sharif Masahor (who is renowned as the first Sarawakian nationalist, opposing the White
Rajahs to protect Sarawak from being colonized). Ahmad Zaidi Adruce was married to Hjh Hamsiah Bte Hj Ismail and was blessed with eight children. During
his exile in Indonesia, he later married Toh Puan Datuk Patinggi Hajjah Rosmiati Kendati, and was blessed with four children. On April 2, 1985, Ahmad Zaidi
Adruce was appointed as the fifth Yang di-Pertua Negeri (Head-of-State) Sarawak, after Tun Datuk Patinggi Haji Abdul Rahman Ya'kub resigned due to health
reasons. He took the oath of office in front of then Yang di-Pertuan Agong, Tuanku Mahmud Iskandar Al-Haj. He held the office for 15 years, the longest
serving governor in any Malaysian state without a hereditary ruler (in consecutive terms from a single appointment). Ahmad Zaidi Adruce served three terms
before passing on peacefully on December 5, 2000, leaving behind a lasting legacy as a true nationalist and as his people's first scholar. He was given a state
funeral and was buried at Samariang Muslim Cemetery, Petra Jaya, Kuching.
List of Chief Ministers (title Ketua Menteri) of Sarawak
Stephen Kalong Ningkan (August 20, 1920 March 31, 1997) was the first Chief Minister (Ketua Menteri) of Sarawak
from July 22, 1963 until June 16, 1966 and from September 7 until September 23, 1966. As the executive of a newly independent
state which helped to form Malaysia, Ningkan faced many challenges from within the state and from Sarawak's neighbour,
Indonesia. Ningkan was born on 20, August 1920 in Betong, Sarawak which was then administered under the Second Division of
Simanggang. He was a student of St Augustines school. Kalong Ningkan was of mixed Iban and Chinese parentage and his
Chinese name was Mok Teck Boon. Ningkan grandfather, Mok Bak Seng was born in Namhoi, Kwangtung Province, China in
1870. At 6 years old, he took Ningkan to China for several years so that Ningkan could learn the culture and the way of life there.
However, his grandfather died on October 20, 1963, a few months after Ningkan took the office as chief minister. Ningkan's
mother, Kuni Karong, died of stomach complications on June 14, 1969. Ningkan learnt the Japanese language during the
Japanese Occupation in Sarawak. The Japanese song,Kuni No Hana (Flower Of The Nation) was one of his favourites. He was
also spotted for singing Terang Bulan in various government and family functions. Ningkan was a fan of P. Ramlee and 'Sgt
Hassan' was one of his favourite movies. After he completed his education, he worked as a Rubber Fund clerk from 1938 to
1939. He resigned his job to join the Sarawak Constabulary from 1940 to 1946. He was the Police Constable in the year 1942. In 1944, he joined Service
Reconnaissance Department, an underground movement based in Jesselton (now Kota Kinabalu). He became a teacher in his former school in Betong from
1947 to 1950. He then worked at a Shell Company hospital in Kuala Belait, Brunei for several years. He also took up law via correspondence from Regent
Institute and Metropolitan College at St Albans, London respectively. At the hospital, he was the chairman of the Shell Dayak Club. He became the Founder and
President of the Sarawak Dayak Association from 1958 to 1960. He returned to Betong and established the Sarawak National Party (SNAP) on April 10, 1961.
Although he initially did not accept Tunku Abdul Rahmans proposal on the formation of Malaysia, he eventually became a strong supporter of the
federation. Ningkan never completed his law degree because he had to focus on his political activities and his post as the first chief minister of Sarawak. He also
insisted that his party should be multiracial, given his background of having a Chinese grandfather and friends of various races. In the 1962 election, SNAP won
many seats, earning him the trust to become the first Sarawak Chief Minister. In October 1962, Ningkan played an important role in forming Sarawak chapter
of Alliance Party and served as its Secretary-General. Stephen Kalong Ningkan was appointed as the first chief minister of Sarawak on July 21, 1963 by the then
Governor, Sir Alexander Waddell. Ningkan had a strong anticommunist stand during his tenure as chief minister. He also opposed the National Language and
Education policy. Stephen Kalong Ningkan tried to initiate a land reform law that allowed the natives to acquire full title of Native Customary Land. However,
with the alleged backing of the federal government, the Sarawak state assemblymen started to pass a motion of no confidence against him. The then prime
minister of Malaysia, Tunku Abdul Rahman pushed for Ningkan resignation. On June 16, 1966, Ningkan was ousted when the state Governor showed him a
letter of no confidence issued by 21 out of 42 legislators and asked Ningkan to resign as Chief Minister. Ningkan refused, saying the letters were not tantamount
to a vote of no confidence in the Council Negri (now Sarawak State Legislative Assembly). He was sacked by the governor but eventually reinstated by the
Borneo High Court on September 7, 1966, which saw the necessity of a formal vote of no confidence.In his judgement, Justice Harley ruled that the Governor
can only dismiss the Chief Minister when both these conditions are satisfied: (a) The Chief Minister has lost the confidence of the House, and (b) The Chief
Minister has refused to resign and failed to advise a dissolution. Ningkan tried to initiate a dissolution of Council Negri upon his reinstatement of chief minister in
order to seek a fresh mandate from the voters; but the Malaysian government decided to impose a state of emergency in Sarawak, citing chaos in the state. The
Malaysian government also amended the Sarawak Constitution in order to give the power to the Sarawak governor to commence the Council Negri meeting. A
vote of non-confidence was passed on September 23, 1966, and this has resulted in the removal of Ningkan from the chief minister office for the second time.
Ningkan died peacefully aged 76 on March 31, 1997 in Normah Specialist Medical Centre, Kuching. His funeral was held at St Thomas Cathedral and was
buried at Anglican Cemetery at Jalan Batu Kitang. The lyrics of Terang Bulan was engraved at the back of his tombstone.
Tawi Sli (June 12, 1912 - 1987) was the Chief Minister (Ketua Menteri) of Sarawak from June 16 until September 7, 1966 and from
September 23, 1966 until July 7, 1970. Tawi Sli was born in Banting, Sarawak. He hailed from an Anglican family. He received his formal
education at St. Thomas school in Kuching. After school, Tawi Sli worked as a teacher in a mission school while undergoing a three-year
training programme to become a pastor. He served as a clerk with the government before he retired in 1961.

In 1963, Tawi Sli was appointed
as Penghulu and he started to become active in politics. He was the secretary of Sarawak National Party (SNAP) of the Simanggang branch. He
later resigned from SNAP and joined Parti Pesaka Sarawak in 1966. Tawi Sli was appointed as the chief minister of Sarawak by the then
Governor of Sarawak, Abang Haji Openg, during the 1966 Sarawak constitutional crisis. He was a the chief minister for 3 months from June 16,
1966 until September 7, 1966 before Stephen Kalong Ningkan was reinstated by the High Court as the legitimate chief minister. However, Tawi
Sli later sworn in as the chief minister for the second time on September 23, 1966 following the successful ouster of Ningkan from the chief
minister post. He retired from politics in 1974 and later involved in business until his death in 1987.
Haji Abdul Taib bin Mahmud (born May 21, 1936 in Miri, Sarawak) is the fourth and current Chief Minister (Ketua Menteri)
of Sarawak since March 26, 1981. He is also the state Financial Minister and Resource Planning and Environment Minister. Taib is the
President ofParti Pesaka Bumiputera Bersatu (PBB), which is part of the Barisan Nasional coalition. He is of ethnic Melanau descent.
Taib is informally known as Pak Uban, which translates into "white-haired uncle". Among Chinese speaking communities he is known
as Pek Moh () which means "white hair". Another informal name for him, in reference to the British Brooke family that ruled
Sarawak as White Rajahs in the 19th and early 20th century, is the "last white rajah" or "white-haired rajah". Holding the post of the Chief
Minister of Sarawak since 1981, he is the longest serving Chief Minister in Malaysia. He assumed the Chief Minister post at the age of
45. Being a member of the Malaysian Parliament for 38 years, Taib is also the second longest-serving parliamentarian in Malaysia
after Tengku Razaleigh Hamzah. Taib and his wider family are regularly accused of corruption and personally benefiting from Sarawak's
natural and economic resources. Taib wed 18-year-old Laila Taib, a Polish Muslim, at South Australia's Adelaide mosque on January
13, 1959. Taib's son Sulaiman Abdul Rahman is married to Anisa, who is the daughter of Deputy Chief Minister of Sarawak Datuk
Patinggi Tan Sri Dr George Chan Hong Nam. His daughter, Jamilah Taib and husband Sean Murray are involved in property development in Ottawa, Canada.
Taib's mother Hajah Hamidah Yakub died in Normah Specialist Medical Centre when Taib Mahmud was hospitalised in Singaporeand underwent surgery to
remove a suspected cancerous lump in his colon on January 11, 2006. On April 29, 2009, Taib's wife Laila died of cancer. She was buried at the Demak Jaya
cemetery in Kuching the following day. On June 3, 2009, Taib's four-year-old granddaughter Celestia Lulua Mahmud Abu Bekir died two days after slipping into
the swimming pool at her home at Duta Nusantara Condominium in Kuala Lumpur. Celestia was admitted to the intensive care unit of the Kuala Lumpur
Hospital after the accident. She was buried at the Bukit Kiara Muslim Cemetery. On December 18, 2010, he reportedly married for the second time to a Syrian
woman in her early 30s; however the wedding ceremony was held in private, attended only by his family members and 200 invited guests. On January 8, 2011, he
was seen together with his new wife Puan Sri Ragad Waleed Alkurdi attending a wedding reception of a former MP in Kuala Lumpur. Both held a wedding
reception sometime in the middle of January, and the reception were held at the New Sarawak State Legislative Building Complex. Born in impoverished
circumstances in 1936, Taib can nonetheless trace an aristocratic link to the Royal Court of Brunei. Taib's uncle, Abdul Rahman Ya'kub raised Taib since he was
a boy. Taib was four years old when the Second World war broke out. Taib's father, Mahmud Abang Yahaya, considering his family safety from Japanese
occupation, decided to move his family to Mukah. Taib undertook his early schooling at St Joseph's Primary School in Miri and later won a scholarship to study
at St. Joseph's Secondary School in Kuching. There, he met Tan Sri Dr George Chan Hong Nam who was the deputy chief minister of Sarawak and Tan Sri
Bujang bin Mohammed Nor, the former Sarawak state secretary. After school, Taib Mahmud planned to become a doctor but he was persuaded by Rahman
Ya'kub to take up law. In 1958, his excellent performance in the Higher School Certificate (HSC) examination earned him a Colombo Plan scholarship, allowing
Taib to further his studies at the University of Adelaide in South Australia. He graduated with Bachelor of Laws from the university in 1960. After the demise of
his father, Taib took up the responsibility to look after his siblings and to discipline his siblings in studies and in looking after the household. Taib Mahmud
pursued his postgraduate studies at Harvard International Summer Course in 1964. Since then, Taib Mahmud has written and published several Islamic books
and other works including "Muhammad and His Mission, Islam and Utility of Mankind", "Freedom of Thought of Islam", and "Appropriate Strategy for
Developing Countries in a Period of Resource Scarcity". Taib was also known for being a loyal fan to P. Ramlee. On returning to Sarawak, Taib worked in the
Crown Council from 1962 to 1963. He then joined the State Legislative Council of Sarawak on July 22, 1963, where he was appointed state minister for
Communication and Works from 1963 to 1966 and Minister of Development and Forestry in 1967. On several occasions, Taib Mahmud acted as Chief
Minister. He was the vice-chairman of Parti Berjasa Sarawak in 1964. Taib was appointed Federal Assistant Minister for Commerce and Industry from 1968 until
1970. He representedParti Bumiputera Sarawak (BUMIPUTERA), which was a component party of Sarawak Alliance, in Malaysian general election,
1969. During the 1970 parliamentary election forSarawak, he was elected as the member of Malaysian parliament for Kota Samarahan seat. He was later
appointed to numerous portfolios including Deputy Minister in the Prime Ministers Department (19701972) and Natural Resources Minister (19721974). In
1973, Taib was appointed deputy president of the newly formed PBB before subsequently becoming the president of the party. Abdul Rahman Ya'kub was
Taib's political mentor for 20 years. After winning the Sebandi (now Asajaya) by-election in 1981, Taib was appointed as Sarawak's Land and Mines Minister
before succeeding his uncle, Abdul Rahman Ya'kub, as the Chief Minister of Sarawak. He held the Sebandi seat until 1987, when he was elected as state
assemblyman for the Asajaya constituency. In 2001 state election, he decided to contest in Balingian. Taib served in many public and voluntary bodies and
represented the government at various international conferences. According to Malaysiakini, dissatisfaction with the Taib leadership arose when a group
of PBB politicians claimed that the interests of Bumiputeras were being neglected. The group claimed Taib Mahmud had exclusively favoured the Chinese
and Sarawak United Peoples' Party (SUPP). The Dayaks in the Sarawak Dayak People's Party (PBDS) were quite frustrated because the Chief Minister post has
not been in their hands for 17 years. However, the main factor for upheaval in PBDS was the suspicion of Chief Minister Taib towards Leo Moggie, the PBDS
president. According to a doctoral dissertation written by David Walter Brown, fissures between the factions controlled by Taib and his uncle,Tun Abdul
Rahman Ya'kub gradually developed after Rahman Ya'kub stepped down as Chief Minister. In 1985, Rahman Ya'kub was also removed from the office of
governor by Taib himself. This caused Rahman Ya'kub to launch a series of attacks against Taib in 1987, widely known as the Ming Court Affair. Rahman Ya'kub
headed a group of disappointed Sarawak politicians from Sarawak National Party (SNAP) and PBDS to gather in Ming Court Hotel in Kuala Lumpur in order to
move a motion of no confidence against Taib's leadership by signing letters collectively. Daniel Tajem, a former deputy chief minister and Leo Moggie were the
other main plotters of this affair. Seeing such a political crisis, Taib immediately called for a snap state election in 1987, which he narrowly won. His coalition won
28 out of 48 seats in the state assembly and later received another 8 defected assemblymen from PBDS, decreasing the original seats for PBDS from 15 to
7. PBDS remained in the opposition until it was readmitted into Sarawak BN in 1994. The internal bickering of SNAP and PBDS has benefited the rule of Taib
in the years to come. Eco-tourism forms a major part of the economy of Sarawak. Taib's administration with the help of the Malaysian federal government, has
made Sarawak's World Heritage more accessible through the construction of the Pan Borneo Highway. Manufacturing, industrial, and tourism sector are given
special attention. High technology industries aimed to play a role into the economic expansion and creation of jobs in the state. As a result of Taib Mahmud's
policy of development, Sarawak GDP growth exceeded national average in 1995. To balance the development between urban and rural areas, Taib Mahmud
also endorsed town planning, natural resources planning, large-scale plantations, and native customary land (NCR) development. However, cases of exploitation
of NCR lands for logging, mining, and plantation purposes have also been reported. Sarawak is the first state in Malaysia to fully implement the e-government
initiative while the Sarawak State Library is the first e-library in Malaysia. Sarawak Corridor of Renewable Energy (SCORE) which was introduced in 2008, is
aimed to diversify the future economy of Sarawak. Since 1981, the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) has grown from RM 6.5 billion to RM 19.7 billion in 1995
and increased further to an estimated of RM 29.9 billion in 1999. In 1995, 31.9% of the population was living in poverty and 10% in hard-core poverty. By 1997,
the incidence of poverty was down to 7.5% and hard-core poverty went down to 0.7%. In 1980, only 31.8% of people of Sarawak had water supply, but in 1995,
the figure has reached 85% of the population. But Sarawak's prosperity is not evenly shared across the socio-economic classes. Unlike the data above, academics
and non-governmental organisations (NGOs) that are independent of Taib's PBB party revealed that the large disparity between urban and rural poverty remains
a major challenge for Taib's three decades-old administration. During his tenure, Taib has been able to disciplined the cooperation of leaders from different
political parties to reach a common political consensus. Taib considered that his proudest achievements are in terms of economic development, social integration
and industrialization in Sarawak. The Sarawak government announced that they are stepping up their effort for wildlife conservation and protection. A
programme has been put in place by Sarawak government to save the flora and fauna affected by the construction of the Bakun Dam. Other programmes include
the Heart 2 Heart orangutan campaign which invites the public to get involved with orangutan conservation; orang-utan and turtle adoption; protection of
the dugong and the Irrawaddy dolphin, which are both endangered species; and the Reef Ball project that will rehabilitate Sarawaks ocean ecosystem by placing
artificial reef modules in the sea to form new habitats. In 1992, International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO) also financed the establishment of Lanjak
Entimau Wildlife Sanctuary which now houses about 4000 orang utan. This wildlife century also aimed to improve the livelihood of the rural population and to
reduce their dependence on forests. During the celebrations of Taib's 28th year in power as the chief minister of Sarawak, speaking at Dewan
Suarah Bintulu Taib said that his vision for Sarawak was for it to become the richest state in Malaysia by the year 2030. It is the intention of Taib and his
administration to develop more high-skilled jobs. To achieve this, the state is investing money in developing new higher education institutions. This policy is
intended to help move the economy away from industry which relies heavily on Sarawak's natural resources to a more skilled, serviced-based economy. Taib
announced his cabinet reshuffle on November 8, 2009. Six new state assemblymen were appointed as assistant ministers, while the portfolios of others were
changed. Five out of the six new appointees were sworn in on November 21, 2009 before the state governor, Tun Datuk Patinggi Abang Muhamad Salahuddin in
the state assembly. The remaining assistant minister, Abdul Wahab Aziz, was on a pilgrimage. The new cabinet line-up took effect on 1 December 2009. Taib,
who retained the Finance, and Planning and Resource Management Minister portfolios, said the reorganisation was meant to prepare Sarawak for new
development policies and approaches that could take place some time in the 10th Malaysia Plan (10MP) or after the next state election. He also said that with
the Sarawak Corridor of Renewable Energy (SCORE) coming up, he would reform Syarikat SESCO Berhad (SESCO) in the next one or two years. On
September 28, 2011, Taib again announced another cabinet reshuffle with the appointment of Senior Ministers in the cabinet and renaming some of the
ministry. Taib also created new ministries that will focused on the welfare, women and family development. Despite being the target of an onslaught of attacks by
the opposition Pakatan Rakyat coalition, Taib led PBB to a clean sweep of seats contested in the 2011 state election, winning an eighth consecutive term as chief
minister. However, the Barisan Nasional coalition suffered its worst performance ever in a Sarawak state election, with coalition partner Sarawak United People's
Party (SUPP) suffering badly due his poor standing among the Chinese community. Since the election, he has been under pressure from the BN national
leadership to step down to avoid hurting BN's prospects during the next general election. Despite this, Taib has remained vague about his retirement plans.
According to a series of leaked US embassy cables published by Wikileaks in August 2011, the United States was apparently aware of Taib's corruption. Taib
Mahmud was described as "highly corrupt" and Taib with his relatives "were widely thought to have extracted a percentage from most major commercial contracts
including those for logging awarded in the state (Sarawak)". The involvement of Taib and his family in logging industry is specifically mentioned in a report
published by Forests Monitor. According to the report, the chief minister reserves his right to revoke timber licenses while no legal challenge is possible against
the chief minister. This is to ensure that the anyone with logging interest is loyal to the chief minister. The report also notes that in general, mutually beneficial
relationship between political elites and logging companies often results in corruption, bribery, and transfer pricing, where the financial details of transnational
logging companies, including Malaysian ones, are difficult to track. Based on a book written by Michael Lewin Ross, the political insecurity of Taib Mahmud
from 1986 to 1991 has enabled him to accelerate the pace of logging in Sarawak. Taib is reported to have used timber concessions for personal and family
enrichment. In 2007, The Japan Times reported that nine Japanese shipping companies, which transported timber from Sarawak, had allegedly failed to report
some 1.1 billion yen in income over a period of up to seven years. The report claimed the money was paid to Sarawak officials via a Hong Kong agent linked to
Taib's family. Taib, however, denied totally the Japan Times allegations by presenting a 10-page clarification in the state assembly. He maintained that the
payments were legitimate expenses on the directive of the Sarawak government. Taib subsequently filed a defamation suit against Malaysiakini for carrying the
news. On January 4, 2012, Malaysiakini issued an apology to Taib after the death of one of its key witness and after the Tokyo Regional Taxation Bureau
reversed its decision on the alleged kickbacks.This had led to the withdrawal of libel suit by Taib Mahmud. In 2008, Indonesian newspaper Tribun
Pontianak revealed that around 30 shipments of illegal Indonesian logs was imported into Sarawak and re-exported to other countries every month. Chief
minister Taib Mahmud and the company Hardwood Sdn Bhd, a wholly owned unit of state agency Sarawak Timber Industry Development Corporation
(STIDC), was implicated in this timber scam. In 2009, the Malaysian 2008 annual auditor-general's report labelled the forest management in Sarawak by state
government as unsatisfactory. However, Sarawak's Second Minister of Planning and Resource Management, Datuk Amar Awang Tengah Ali Hassan questioned
the validity of the report as he claimed that the auditor-general's department did not have the expertise in forest management. The indigenous community
petitions and road blockades against logging in their ancestral lands has led to forceful dismantling of blockades, several deaths and violent coercion by
the police and logging industry enforcers. According to Mongabay, Sarawak has lost 90% of its forests cover based on satellite images. However, Taib Mahmud
denied the claim and said that there are still 70% of its forests remain intact and he also plans to invite independent investigations on Sarawak rainforest. As on
November 3, 2012, The Economist reinstated that Sarawak has lost more than 90% of its primary forests and has the fastest rate of deforestation in Asia which
maybe attributed to the Taib's control on logging industry. Taib's son, Dato Sri Mahmud Abu Bekir Taib, was appointed as Group Executive Director of Cahya
Mata Sarawak Berhad (CMSB) on January 23, 1995. He is currently the Deputy Group Chairman of CMSB. Abu Bekir Taib's siblings, Datuk Seri Sulaiman
Abdul Rahman Taib, Jamilah Hamidah Taib, Hanifah Hajar Taib and his late mother Laila Taib are substantial shareholders in the company. Sulaiman Abdul
Rahman Taib joined the board of CMSB when his brother Abu Bekir Taib, first became the Group Executive Director of CMSB. Sulaiman Abdul Rahman
Taib was the Group Chairman of CMSB from May 2002 until June 2006, the former Non-Executive Director of CMSB, and the former RHB Bankchairman. In
the 2008 general election, Taib's son Datuk Seri Sulaiman Abdul Rahman Taib won the Kota Samarahan seat in the Malaysian parliament previously held by his
father and became Deputy Tourism Minister in the new cabinet. Prior to this, he did not have any political experience. On December 14, 2009, he resigned his
deputy minister post due to personal reasons. Taib's brother, Mohd Tufail bin Mahmud is the co-owner of Sanyan Group, one of the Sarawak's biggest timber
companies. In 2001, the Sanyan Group completed its construction of the 28-storey Wisma Sanyan in Sibu where the state government took up 8 office floors.
Achi Jaya Shipping is owned by Onn Mahmud and his immediate family. Onn Mahmud is Taib Mahmud's brother. Achi Jaya Shipping continued to demand
payment from Japanese log carriers for transporting wood from Sarawak although the payments were alleged to be kickbacks as stated in 2007 timber kickback
scandal. Taib's brother, Mohamad Arip bin Mahmud was appointed as a director of Jaya Tiasa Holdings Berhad (controlled by Rimbunan Hijau Group) on
April 13, 1995. Taib's sister is also one of the Tiong's business partners. Taib's cousin, Abdul Hamed Sepawi is the chairman of Naim Holdings Berhad, Sarawak
Energy Berhad, and Ta Ann Holdings Berhad. He was also on the board of Sarawak Timber Industry Development Corp and Sarawak Plantation Berhad.
Taib's brother-in-law, Tan Sri Datuk Amar Haji Abdul Aziz Bin Dato Haji Husain, was appointed state secretary by Taib in 2000 and when he retired in 2006,
he was appointed as the group managing director of Sarawak Energy Berhad since 2007. He also holds directorships for Eksons Corporation Berhad, Mlabs
Systems Berhad, Syarikat SESCO Berhad and other companies. Taib Mahmud, denying any wrongdoings, told Malaysian National News Agency (Bernama) that
he did not ask anybody to do his sons a favour for the positions in CMSB and other companies. He also insisted that his family made money through their own
hard work. Cahya Mata Sarawak Berhad (CMSB), the company controlled by Taib's family, has been awarded various government contracts including the
maintenance of Sarawak's roads over the last 15 years. These contracts also include construction of roads, supplying roofing materials for low-cost housing units,
building hospitals, and upgrading airports. In 2001, the Malaysian federal government allowed the CMS Group's banking unit Bank Utama to acquire RHB
Bank to become one of Malaysia's 10 core banks. The company, PPES Works (Sarawak) Sdn Bhd, which is 51% owned by CMSB, recently completed the
construction of the New Sarawak State Legislative Assembly Building in 2009. CMSB is currently under the joint venture with leading aluminium producer, Rio
Tinto Alcan (RTA) to develop aluminium smelter in Similajau as part of the Sarawak Corridor of Renewable Energy (SCORE). A doctoral thesis written
by Universiti Malaysia Sarawak (UNIMAS) lecturer, Dr Neilson Mersat, alleged that Taib's family wealth comes mostly from Sarawak state government contracts
without tender, and profits were sent overseas to hide them. Another lecturer in the faculty of Social Sciences at UNIMAS, Andrew Aeria, wrote a thesis which
claimed that CMSB takeover of Bank Utama and other companies is an example where highly profitable business are only favoured between well-connected
individuals. The privatisation of state-owned companies deprived the state government of sources of income, thus raising the burden of taxpayers. In 2000, the
Sarawak cabinet had approved RM 551.02 million state contract to be awarded directly to Titanium Management Sdn. Bhd. Taib's son, Mahmud Abu Bekir
Taib is a major shareholder in the company. This contract allowed Titanium to repair or replace 384 old bridges in the state in 7 years. The Malaysian 2006
auditor general report stated that agreement in the contract was favouring the contractor. There was a cost overrun of 72% from the original cost. A survey
conducted by auditor-general department on 12 sites of the bridges discovered that the design of bridges over narrow rivers do not meet actual needs and were
not built economically. In 2008, the Sarawak government planned to build 12 dams in Sarawak in order to meet the future energy demand of industrialisation.
These dams are scheduled to be completed in 2020 although they need to be approved by environmental impact assessment. A memorandum of understanding
was already signed between the Sarawak Energy Berhad and China Three Gorges Project Corporation on Murum Dam project. A total of 51 dams may be
constructed by the year 2037. This controversial hydroelectric project is receiving fierce criticism because of catastrophic disasters that they may cause and the
possible displacements of native communities. The opponents of the plans cited this project as corruption and capital cronyism because CMSB is expected to be
benefited indirectly by supplying concrete material for the construction of dams and building of aluminium smelter that consume much of the generated
electricity. In March 2009, Al Jazeera's '101 East' English programme was aired where the Sarawak's 12 dams issue and economic domination by Taib's family
was discussed in great detail. Minister of Land Development, Dato Sri Dr. James Masing accepted the interview on this issue but the Chief Minister Pehin Sri
Taib Mahmud declined the interview invitation. James Masing, in an interview with Al Jazeera English, maintained that the contracts were awarded in a
transparent manner either in open or closed tenders. He said that the state government gave the contracts based on the previous good track record of the
companies, not because of the alleged political connections. In March 2013, Global Witness released a video named "Inside Malaysia's Shadow State" where
Taib's cousins Fatimah Abdul Rahman and Norlia Abdul Rahman (daughters ofAbdul Rahman Ya'kub), Alvin Chong (a lawyer that represents the Sarawak state
government and some of the Taib's key companies), and Huang Lung Ong (another lawyer and nephew of Hii Yii Peng, where the latter is the owner for
KingWood Hotel Group in Sarawak) were filmed unknowingly during a discussion on foreign business investment in Sarawak. This video alleged that Chief
Minister Taib is able to hand out licenses while seeking a 10% upfront payment (or "kickback") and also the Real Property Gains Taxevasion strategies employed
by Alvin Chong through the use of agreements made in Singapore. In response to the video, Taib accused those featured in the video (and in particular Rahman
Ya'kub's daughters) of trying to frame him for their own personal gain. This is because Rahman Ya'kub was the main plotter of Ming Court Affair back in
1987. Huang Lung Ong maintained that the conversations in the video were just "coffeshop talk". Alvin Chong's law firm responded stating that the tax evasion
strategies mentioned in the video were strictly hypothetical. In the mean time, Singapore monetary authorities also denied allegations that they have helped the
people mentioned in the video to evade taxes from Malaysian authorities. In response to Huang's reply, Global Witness uploaded a second video
on Youtube which indicated that Huang was actually serious in making a deal with the investigators who posed as foreign investors in Sarawak. Taib owns a
mansion in Demak Jaya which overlooks the Sarawak River. According to photos in the July to December 2006 newsletter of Naim Cendera Holdings Bhd,
Taib's living room is decorated with gilt-edged European-style sofa sets. Taib Mahmud is reported to wear double-breasted suits, driving around in Kuching in his
cream-coloured Rolls-Royce Silver Shadow. Laila Taib and her children are the majority shareholders of Sitehost Pty. Ltd., Australia, which owns Adelaide
Hilton Hotel, according to Aliran Monthly, the reformist Malaysian magazine. Taib was described as "flamboyant with expensive tastes" and had reportedly
purchased a piano once belonged to late American showmanLiberace for US$2 million. Taib is alleged to have established a real estate empire, Sakto
Corporation in Canada worth a few hundred million dollars, under the name of his son-in-law, Sean Murray. This company was founded by Taib's brother Onn
Mahmud, Taib's daughter Jamilah, and Sean Murray. Sean Murray and Taib's daughter has successfully won the trust of Canadian government departments to
move into the their office spaces after an open and competitive lease search. Sarawak Report, run by Clare Rewcastle Brown also alleged that Sakti International
Corporation in United States, managed by the Jamilah and Murray, owns Abraham Lincoln building which houses the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI)
facility, with Taib Mahmud as the ultimate owner of Sakti. Taib family is also alleged to own Ridgeford Properties in London. Taib Mahmud admitted that his
daughter owns properties in Canada and London but he denied that his daughter's properties are operated using illegal money. Bruno Manser Fonds has since
disclosed that Taib and his immediate family (his children, siblings and cousin Hamed Sepawi) have shares in more than 330 companies in Malaysia alone and
more than 400 companies in total around the globe worth several billion US dollars. In September 2012, Bruno Manser Fonds, in a report entitled "The Taib
Timber Mafia. Facts and Figures on Politically Exposed Persons from Sarawak, Malaysia", estimated that Taib Mahmud net worth is at least 15 billion US dollars.
In July 2010, Taib was presented with the "Lifetime achievement" by Asia HRD Congress in order to commemorate his contributions towards developing the
human capital in Sarawak especially for the establishment of University Malaysia Sarawak (UNIMAS). In December 2001, he was appointed an Honorary
Officer of the Order of Australia, "for service to Australian-Malaysian bilateral relations". Taib also holds honorary degrees from a number of universities
including, an Honorary Degree from the University of Adelaide, Australia, an Honorary Doctorate from the University of Putra, Malaysia, Honorary Doctor of
Technology Degree from Curtin University of Technology, Australia, and in 1998, Taib was made the Honorary Fellow of Islamic Academy of Sciences at the
Islamic Academy of Sciences, Amman, Jordan.


Sabah
Sabah is one of the 13 member states of Malaysia, and is its easternmost state. It is located on the northern portion of the island of Borneo. It is the second
largest state in the country after Sarawak, which it borders on its southwest. It also shares a border with the province of North Kalimantan of Indonesia in the
south. The capital of Sabah is Kota Kinabalu, formerly known as Jesselton. Sabah is often referred to as "The Land Below The Wind", a phrase used by seafarers
in the past to describe lands south of the typhoon belt.
List of Heads of State (title Yang di-Pertuan Negara; from 1976, Yang di-Pertua Negeri)
Haji Mustapha bin Datu Harun or Tun Mustapha (July 31, 1918 January 2, 1995) was the first Yang di-Pertuan Negara
(governor) of the Malaysian state of Sabah from September 16, 1963 until September 16, 1965. He was also the third Chief
Minister (Ketua Menteri) of the Sabah state from May 12, 1967 until November 1, 1975, and was the president for the political
party United Sabah National Organization (USNO). He is considered by some to be one of the founding leaders of Sabah and was an
important party in the negotiations leading to the formation of Malaysia on September 16, 1963. He also succeeded in converting a
significant number of non-Muslim indigenous people in Sabah into Muslim. The state government recently renamed the Sabah
Foundation Building to Tun Mustapha Tower, as a token of appreciation for his contributions to the state. Tun Mustapha is of
a Bajau-Suluk origin. Tun Mustapha was not born in anywhere in the Sulu Archipelago. But he is a distant relative of the Sultan of
Sulu. He was born in Kampung Limau-limauan, Kudat. He is Suluk-Bajau (Bajau Bannaran /Bajau Kudat and not Bajau Ubian).
During World War II, he was wanted by the Japanese forces because of the rebellions he led against them, mainly in Kudat. But
when they could not find him, they caught his younger brother and eventually killed him because his brother would not reveal where
he was hiding. He is known to some as the "father of Sabah's independence" and also the "father of Sabah's development". However, he is also considered by
many Sabahan opposition leaders who later formed the new party BERJAYA as a dictator and alleged to misappropriated huge sums of money from the state's
coffers (primarily through timber concessions) to support his lavish lifestyle. Mustapha founded the party United Sabah National Organization, better known by
the acronym USNO. He, together with Donald Stephens, are often credited as important figures in Sabah in bringing forth Sabah's independence and in the
formation of Malaysia in 1963. When Malaysia was formed on September 16, 1963, he became the first Yang di-Pertua Negeri (governor) of Sabah. In the 1967
state election, USNO won, and Mustapha became the third Chief Minister of Sabah. When he was Chief Minister, his relationship with the Malaysian central
government was not very good. Although the central government, represented by the Barisan Nasional (BN) coalition, was a partner of USNO, they were worried
about certain stances taken by Mustapha, in particular, his intention or threat to secede Sabah from Malaysia. Mustapha also refused to sign an oil agreement with
the federal government which stated that only 5% of Sabah's oil revenue will be given to the state. Mustapha demanded at least 30% for the development of Sabah
where it will be drilled. Following this, in 1975 USNO secretary-general Harris Salleh left the party to form BERJAYA. This party was backed up by the federal
government thru the oil lobby. In the 1976 state election, BERJAYA won and Mustapha was ousted from power. Mustapha remained active in politics, leading
USNO and contesting in four subsequent state elections (1981, 1985, 1986, and 1990). Although they never won again, they still managed to win several seats in
the state assembly. They also remained a partner of BN at the federal government level (as opposed to the state level). After the 1990 state election, he teamed up
with Harris Salleh again, after BERJAYA themselves were ousted by Parti Bersatu Sabah. This resulted in a merger of USNO and BERJAYA to create the Sabah
chapter of the peninsular-based United Malays National Organisation (UMNO). Mustapha became its first chief of UMNO Sabah. Aside from his involvement
in politics and religion (Islam), he also made contributions in the education of Sabah. He mooted the idea of forming Sabah Foundation (Yayasan Sabah) and
was responsible in setting up the first university, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM) Sabah Campus, and also the setting up of ITM (Institut Teknologi
Mara). He was also the Deputy Head of PERKIM, when the late Tunku was the President and also the time of Datuk Patinggi Taib. He was also the head of
United Sabah Islamic Association (USIA) and a member of RISEAP. Tun Mustapha is remembered by the Catholics of Sabah for imposing to the letter the
immigration laws by denying foreign priests who have not obtained permanent residency on the extension of their visas. All the priests who object to their
expulsion for doing religious works among the Catholics were arrested by using his powers as the Chairman of the State Security Operation Committee and CM
of Sabah State Government. Mustapha did this because he alleged the priests of involvement in politics. From their pulpits in the churches during the sermons
they used to tell the laity not to vote for Mustapha's party in the coming elections but to vote for other parties like BERJAYA and PBS. Mustapha had his police
informers sitting in the pews during the church services monitoring events to back up his allegations. And any decent honest churchgoer who was in the pews,
Catholics or non-Catholics alike can vouch that the priests indeed did this. So the church was not blameless in stirring up the resulting controversy. Furthermore
the Bishop of Sabah at the time, Peter Chung did nothing to draw his priests into line, further souring his relations with Tun Mustapha. Under his orders, on
December 2, 1972, the police decided to make a raid at the missions at Tambunan, Papar, Bundu Tuhan and Kuala Penyu. The raids at Tambunan and Papar
were successful, timed early in the morning with the church bell ropes cut to prevent it from being used to warned the people. The priests were at Kapayan long
before the parishioners were aware of it. The raid at Kuala Penyu was initially a fiasco with a reception committee of 600 Catholics. To avoid clashes, by 11 am
reinforcements were flown in to arrest one priest. On December 15, 1972 more priests were arrested at Keningau, Tenom and Limbahau. The rest of the priests
who only had temporary residence permits, on hearing this has no choice but to say goodbye to their parishioners and went home or were given new assignments
to nearby countries. As reported in local news such as Daily Express (p. 2, 11 Nov 2009), the Malaysian home ministry informed in parliament that a biography
of Tun Mustapha's political opponent who died in the double tenth plane crash, Datuk Peter Mojuntin, is banned. The reason was that the book "allegedly"
recorded that Datuk Peter exposed Tun Mustapha's attempt to stop Catholism in Sabah by deporting and arresting foreign missionary priests who were serving
their local parishes in the state. Datuk Peter's house was also surrounded by the police after all the priests were arrested because only he dared to voice his
opposition to the prosecution of the priests. He was not arrested because of his strong political support from the Kadazan people of Penampang. He died on
January 2, 1995 at Sabah Medical Center, Teluk Likas, Kota Kinabalu, at the age of 76. He was buried at the Muslim cemetery in Kampung Ulu/Ulu
Seberang Putatan which was formerly used as a fortress by the late Paduka Mat Salleh and the State Government has named the cemetery "Taman Memorial
Tun Datu Haji Mustapha". His memorial is not in Tambunan. The Tun Datu Mustapha Memorial in Tambunan is meant for the distant uncle, Paduka Mat
Salleh. During the 8th Convocation Ceremony of UMS (Universiti Malaysia Sabah) held on the September 2 3, 2006, he was conferred the Honorary Degree-
Doctor of Philosophy (Social Development). In December 2007, his 21 year old grandson, Datu Azlan Amir Kahar died of a heart attack. However, prior to his
death he had a fight with his fiance Rosinah Chai, in which he sustained multiple injuries to his body. There was some speculations that Chai was responsible for
Azlan's death, but post mortem results indicated that injuries inflicted upon Azlan did not cause his death.
Pangeran Ahmad Rafai (1908 - 1995) was the second Yang di-Pertuan Negara (governor) of the Malaysian state of Sabah from September 16, 1965 until
September 16, 1973.
Tun Mohammad Fuad Stephens, (born Donald Aloysius Marmaduke Stephens) (September 14, 1920 - June 6, 1976) was
the third Yang di-Pertuan Negara (governor) of the Malaysian state of Sabah from September 16, 1973 until July 28, 1975. He was also
the first Chief Minister (Ketua Menteri) of the state of Sabah from Septmber 16, 1963 until December 31 1964 and thee second time
from April 18 until his death on June 6, 1976. H e also was the first Huguan Siou or Paramount Leader of the Kadazandusun
community. He played a fundamental role in bringing the state of Sabah into the Federation of Malaysia in 1963. He held the chief
minister post until 1964, and again in 1976. During his second term as Chief Minister he died in a controversial accident on June 6,
1976, in Kota Kinabalu, the state capital of Sabah. He was a passenger in an Australian made Nomad aircraft which crashed and killed
everyone on board. His body was buried at the State Mausoleum near the Sabah State Mosque, Kota Kinabalu. Stephens was born on
September 14, 1920. His father, Jules Stephens Pavitt, was half Kadazan and half British, while his mother Edith Cope was
half Japanese and half British. Stephens had 5 siblings; 2 younger sisters and 3 younger brothers. Two of them, John and Martin died
in infancy. A third, Leo Benedict was born in 1926, later became the President of the Dewan Negara between 1985 and 1988.
Donald Stephens founded the political party United National Kadazan Organization (UNKO) in August 1961. He played a key role in negotiating the
independence of Sabah and the formation of Malaysia, together with Tun Mustapha of United Sabah National Organization (USNO), and Tunku Abdul
Rahman, the then Prime Minister of Malaya. The formation of Malaysia was finally achieved on 16 September 1963, which is today known as Malaysia Day. He
became Sabah's first Chief Minister. In 1964, Donald Stephens stepped down as Chief Minister in order to become the first Malaysian federal cabinet
member from Sabah. He was replaced by Peter Lo Sui Yin from the Sabah Chinese Association. Stephens became the minister in charge of Sabah affairs under
the Prime Minister's department. In 1973, Fuad Stephens was appointed as the governor of Sabah, known as the Yang di-Pertua Negara (the post was later known
as Yang di-Pertua Negeri). He held this position until 1975. Later that same year, Tun Fuad Stephens together with Harris Salleh formed the new political
party BERJAYA. They would win the 1976 state election, defeating Tun Mustapha's USNO, becoming the new government of Sabah. Tun Fuad Stephens
became Sabah's fifth Chief Minister. Forty-four days later, he died in a plane crash. It is an open secret in Sabah that Singapore chief minister Lee Kuan Yew told
Stephens that he (Lee) would be prime minister of Malaysia after Tunku and that Stephens would be made deputy prime minister. After Lee, Stephens would
then be Prime Minister. Stephens about-turn surprised the Dusun who, like the Chinese, were in the majority and opposed to Malaysia. His agreement,
however, sealed their fate. Patently, it was Tunku who prevailed upon Lee to persuade Stephens to drop his opposition to Malaysia. Stephens was then very
much influenced by Orang Kaya Kaya (OKK)Sedomon Gunsanad of Keningau who was strongly opposed to Malaysia. Stephens capitulation broke Sedomon
who died within three years of Malaysia. Stephens wanted a review of Sabahs participation in Malaysia after Singapores exit. His reasoning was that it was
because of Singapore that Sabah joined Malaysia and now that the island was out of the federation, there was no longer any reason for the Borneo state to
continue to be in the federation. Stephens was referring to the DPM idea, but in public it was pointed out that Sabah and Sarawak opted for Malaysia to facilitate
the merger of Chinese Singapore and multiracial Malaya. The Chinese population across both sides of the causeway was greater than the Malay numbers and this
was to be compensated by the Malay and other native numbers in Sabah and Sarawak through Malaysia. Tun Fuad Stephens and several cabinet members
boarded a flight from Labuan heading towards Kota Kinabalu. About 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) from Kota Kinabalu International Airport, the plane crashed killing
everyone on board. Immediately after the accident foul play was suspected. The site of the plane crash is marked by a memorial that was constructed not long
after the accident. The site is located in the Sembulan area near the Grace Garden housing complex in Kota Kinabalu across Jalan Coastal Highway from Sutera
Harbour resort. Stephens converted to Islam in January 1971, and he adopted the name Tun Muhammad Fuad, meaning soul or spirit in Arabic. Stephens was
also encouraged to renounce his surname at the time of his conversion, but he had refused to do so. For a number of years he held the post of High
Commissioner of Malaysia in Australia. Tun Fuad Stephens was posthumously granted the soubriquet Bapa Malaysia Dari Sabah (Father of Malaysia From
Sabah) and Hugon Siou. Several places were named after him, including: Taman Tun Fuad Stephens a public garden in Kota Kinabalu, Taman Tun Fuad a
townships at Kota Kinabalu, SMK Tun Fuad Stephens, a secondary schools at Kiulu and Tamparuli, SMK Taman Tun Fuad, a secondary schools at Kota
Kinabalu, Jalan Tun Fuad Stephens a major highway linking Kota Kinabalu, Sepanggar and Jalan Tun Mohd Fuad a road at Taman Tun Dr Ismail, Kuala
Lumpur.
Mohamad Hamdan Kari (born 1921) was the fourth Yang di-Pertuan Negara (governor) of the Malaysian state of Sabah from July 28, 1975 until October
12, 1977.
Ahmad Koroh (1925 June 25, 1978) was the fifth Yang di-Pertuan Negara (governor) of the Malaysian state of Sabah from Octobr 12, 1977 until his death
on June 25, 1978.
Mohamad Adnan Robert (1917 - 2003) was the sixth Yang di-Pertuan Negara (governor) of the Malaysian state of Sabah from June 27, 1978 until
December 31, 1986.
Mohamad Said Keruak (1926 - 1995) was the sevent Yang di-Pertuan Negara (governor) of the Malaysian state of Sabah from July 28, 1975 until October
12, 1977 and the fourth Chief Minister (Ketua Menteri) of Sabah from November 1, 1975 until April 18 1976.
Sakaran Dandai (born 1930) was the eighth Yang di-Pertuan Negara (governor) of the Malaysian state of Sabah from January 1, 1995 until December 31,
2002 and was the Chief Minister (Ketua Menteri) of Sabah from March 17 until December 27, 1994.
Ahmadshah bin Abdullah (born December 9, 1946) was the ninth Yang di-Pertuan Negara (governor) of the Malaysian state
of Sabah from January 1, 2003 until December 31, 2010. Ahmadshah began his education at Government Primary School Darau,
Menggatal in 1952 and ended his secondary school session on 1967 at La Salle Secondary School, Tanjung Aru, Kota Kinabalu. He
received a Diploma in Development Administration from South Devon College in the United Kingdom and Bachelor of Science (Political
Science) from Indiana State University in the United States. He started his career as Custom Officer at Royal Custom and Excise
Department, Kota Kinabalu on March 1, 1968. He was appointed as Work Officer (Rural) and was moved to Beaufort District Office as
Assistant District Officer (Rural) on November 10, 1969. He was loaned to the National Paddy and Rice Board as Chief Officer from
April 1979 until July 1983. He also worked as Secretary of State Public Service Commission (1983), Daawah Officer Islamic Council of
Sabah (October 1986 until January 1988), Secretary of Islamic Council of Sabah (January 1988 until June 1994), Secretary of Home
Affairs and Research (1994 to 1995) and Director in State Public Service Department (December 1995 to March 1998). He was served as
Deputy State Secretary (Administration) from March 21, 1998 until he retired on December 8, 2002.

On January 1, 2003, he was sworn in as the ninth Yang di-
Pertua Negeri of Sabah. He served two full terms and stepped down on December 31, 2010. He is married to Hajah Dayang Masuyah binti Awang Japar and
they have three sons and a daughter.
Haji Juhar bin Haji Mahiruddin (born November 5, 1953 in Sandakan, Sabah, Malaysia) is a Malaysian politician and the
current Yang di-Pertua Negeri (Governor) of Sabah since Jnuary 1, 2011. He was formerly a member of the Dewan Rakyat and served as
the Deputy Speaker from 1990 to 1999. Juhar is a founding member of the United Malays National Organisation's (UMNO) branch in
Sabah. Juhar Mahiruddin was born on Tambisan Island, off the coast of the Sandakan Division in Sabah in 1953 to a political
family. His father, Mahiruddin Husin was a member of the United Sabah National Organisation (USNO). He received his Bachelor of
Laws degree from Wolverhampton Polytechnic in 1977 and was called to the Bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1980. He served as a first-class
magistrate from 1981 to 1982 and went into private practice from 1982 to 1985. Juhar joined USNO, a Barisan Nasional (BN)
component at the time, and campaigned unsuccessfully for office twice, before being elected to Dewan Rakyat for Kinabatangan
in 1990. He was also appointed as the Deputy Speaker of upon taking his seat in parliament, and served throughout his term as Member
of Parliament. USNO had been experiencing a decline since 1976, when it lost the state government to the Sabah People's United
Front (BERJAYA), which later joined BN. It was disbanded in 1991, and Juhar was involved in negotiations that culminated in the entry
of UMNO into Sabah, and the absorption of USNO members into UMNO. He was not selected to contest the 1999 general election, but remained active in
politics. In 2002, he was appointed as the Speaker of the Sabah State Legislative Assembly. He continued to serve until December 2010, when he was appointed
the 10th Yang di-Pertua Negeri of Sabah by Yang di-Pertuan Agong Mizan Zainal Abidin. He was sworn in on January 1, 2011. Juhar is married to Norlidah
R.M. Jasni and has four children. During his installation as the Governor, Juhar was made the Grand Commander of the Order of Kinabalu (SPDK), carrying
the title of "Datuk Seri Panglima". Besides, Juhar was conferred the Seri Maharaja Mangku Negara (SMN), which carries the title "Tun" by King Tuanku Mizan
Zainal Abidin on April 19, 2011.
List of Chief Ministers (title Ketua Menteri) of Sabah
Peter Lo Su Yin (born 1923) was the second Chief Minister (Ketua Menteri) of Sabahfrom January 1, 1965 until May 12, 1967.
Harris Salleh (born November 4, 1930) was the Chief Minister (Ketua Menteri) of Sabah from June 6, 1976 until April 22, 1985. He
was also the president for Parti Berjaya. He held the Chief Minister's post from 1976 to 1985. During his tenure, he was known to have
controversially ceded the island of Labuan, which used to be part of Sabah, to the Federal Government, making it the second Federal
Territory in the country.


Joseph Pairin Kitingan (born August 17, 1940) is Malaysian politician and former Chief Minister (Ketua Menteri) of
Sabah from April 22, 1985 until March 17, 1994.. Currently, he is the Deputy Chief Minister and Minister of Infrastructure
Development of Sabah and has held the post since March 2004. He is the founder and President of Parti Bersatu
Sabah (Sabah United Party). Pairin was born in Papar. He attended La Salle Secondary School, an all-boys school, located
in Kota Kinabalu. He won a Colombo Plan scholarship and went on to read law at the University of Adelaide and upon
completing his study, he came back to Sabah to work as a State Counsel with the Sabah Legal Department and was later made
Deputy Public Prosecutor. Subsequently, he practised law with a local legal firm. Joseph Pairin Kitingan is a Catholic, married
to Genevieve Lee, a retired teacher. They have two sons, Alexander and Daniel, who are both trained lawyers. His
brother Jeffrey Gapari Kitingan is also a politician, a former vice-president of Parti Keadilan Rakyat (PKR) after being former
member of Parti Bersatu Sabah (PBS), Parti Bersatu Rakyat Sabah (PBRS), Parti Angkatan Keadilan Rakyat (AKAR Bersatu), andUnited Pasokmomogun
Kadazandusun Murut Organisation (UPKO) and finally Parti Keadilan Rakyat (PKR) after the rejection of his application to join United Malays National
Organisation (UMNO). Joseph Pairin began his active political career in 1975. He was elected a Member of the Sabah Legislative Assembly for the Tambunan
electorate in 1976 under the BERJAYAparty ticket, a party which was led by Harris Salleh (Chief Minister 1976-1985) and was appointed as a Minister in the
cabinet of the ruling party. Tambunan has become his stronghold ever since. Over time, Joseph Pairin became disillusioned with the party's leadership, and
opposed some of the party's policies. He felt that the party had deviated from its original struggle. He however, remained firm with the party and subsequently, he
was forced to leave the ruling party coalition in 1984. In December 1984, he challenged as an Independent candidate against the ruling party to defend his seat in
the Tambunan by-election. His leadership in a state within a federation which had the official religion of Islam, was also questioned because of his religion. The
ruling party, which was a component of the Barisan Nasional, Malaysia's ruling coalition, had no qualms in using the sensitive race card issues which is something
that is generally shunned in a multi-racial country. Joseph Pairin easily won and defended his seat with significant majority. In March 1985, Joseph Pairin Kitingan
formed Parti Bersatu Sabah (PBS) or United Sabah Party. Despite overwhelming odds, he succeeded in registering PBS as a political party in the eleventh hour;
thus paving the way for the party to contest against the incumbent state government in the Sabah state election, 1985 in April. Berjaya and the United Sabah
National Organization (USNO) joined forces to win the 1985 election, but after riots by BN followers, the newly formed coalition between Berjaya and USNO
was dissolved giving PBS the majority government. Pairin was sworn in as the seventh Chief Minister of the state of Sabah. He held the post of Sabah Chief
Minister from April 1985 to March 1994, during which he spearheaded his party's triumphant outings in four successive state elections (1985, 1986, 1990 and
1994). In the 1994 state election, PBS won the election, however shortly after being announced the winner, almost all PBS assemblymen defected to Barisan
Nasional. Pairin was not allowed to be sworn in as Chief Minister. Tun Sakaran Dandai of UMNO was then sworn to be the eighth Chief Minister of Sabah.
Pairin is also the Huguan Siou or Paramount Leader of the Kadazandusun community for being the President of the Kadazandusun Cultural
Association (KDCA), the community's principal cultural association.

Salleh Said Keruak (born July 9, 1957) was the Chief Minister (Ketua Menteri) of Sabah from December 27, 1994
until May 28, 1996 and the current Speaker of theSabah State Legislative Assembly since January 12, 2011 as well as the
current state assemblyman for the electoral district of Usukan. He is the son of Mohamad Said Keruak, who was the 4th
chief minister as well as the 7th Yang di-Pertua Negeri of Sabah. He was a Bachelor graduate from Simon Fraser
University in Political Science. He also got his Master of Science degree fromUniversiti Putra Malaysia in Governmental
and Political Studies. After he further his study, he was designated as Kota Belud District Officer. He also was hold some
positions in the Cabinet of Sabah. In many years, he was the Minister of State for Finance, Minister of State for Local
Government and Housing and Deputy Chief Minister of State. On December 28, 1994, Federal Prime Minister Dr.
Mahathir Mohamad appointed him as the Chief Minister of the State. His tenure as the State Chief Minister ended on
May 26, 1996 and succeeded by SAPP President, Yong Teck Lee. On January 4, 2010, Chief Minister of State, Musa Aman, appointed him as his Science and
Technology Adviser with ministerial rank. He replaced Tham Nyip Shen, former Deputy Chief Minister of State. On January 12, 2011, he was appointed as
the Speaker of the State Legislature. Before that, on the first day of 2011, he was appointed as the Chairman of National Film Development Corporation
Malaysia (FINAS) by the Federal Minister of Information, Communication and Culture, Dr. Rais Yatim. In UMNO, currently, he is the Sabah Liaison Deputy
Chairman. He also preside the Sabah United Bajau Organisation (USBO). After his appointment as the chief minister of Sabah, he received award of the Grand
Commander of the Order of Kinabalu (SPDK). He is married with Raya Erom and has two sons and two daughters.
Yong Teck Lee (born October 3, 1958) was the Chief Minister (Ketua Menteri) of Sabah from May 28, 1996 until May 28, 1998. He is
a Malaysian politician of Hakka Chinese descent. He is a former Chief Minister of Sabah and is currently the president of the Sabah
Progressive Party (SAPP). Yong became the Chief Minister for Sabah on May 28, 1996 to serve in a two year rotation arranged by
the Barisan Nasional coalition in the state. He had previously served as Deputy Chief Minister. In 1994 he resigned from the United Sabah
Party (PBS) citing dissatisfaction with its leadership, and established the SAPP, however the new party became members of the Barisan
Nasional coalition led in Sabah by the PBS. Lee led the SAPP in bolting from Barisan Nasional in 2008. Before entering politics, Yong was a
lawyer having studied in London.
Bernard Giluk Dompok (born 0ctober 7, 1949) was the Chief Minister (Ketua Menteri) of Sabah from May 28, 1999 until March
14, 1999. He is a Malaysian politician who has served in the government of Malaysia as Minister of Plantation Industries and
Commodities since 2009. He is the President of the United Pasokmomogun Kadazan Dusun Murut Organisation (UPKO), which is part
of the ruling Barisan Nasional coalition. He was born in Penampang, Sabah, and received his education in SM St. Michael,
Penampang and SM La Salle, Tanjung Aru. Later he obtained a Bachelor of Science degree from the University of East London. He is
also a Fellow of the Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors (RICS) and Fellow of the Royal Institution of Surveyors Malaysia (FRISM)
He started his career as a valuer at the Sabah Lands & Surveys Department in 1978. Then he left the public sector and worked as a
private valuer for about five years from 1980 until 1985. Thereafter he entered politics where his principal areas of interest were the
development of the indigenous communities of Malaysia with special focus on the Kadazandusuns and Muruts of his home state of
Sabah. He has been the President of the United Pasokmomogun Kadazan Dusun Murut Organisation (UPKO), which is part of the
ruling Barisan Nasional coalition, since 1994. He began taking part in the General Election in 1986 and won the Moyog state seat and the Penampang
Parliamentary seat, and was appointed as the Finance Minister of Sabah. In 1990, he defended these two seats. He has gained several victories in general elections
and had been elected Sabah minister of Agriculture & Fisheries, Tourism minister of Sabah, Deputy Chief Minister and Chief Minister of Sabah, in 1998. He
joined the Federal Cabinet as Minister in the Prime Minister's Department and since 2009 Minister of Plantation Industries and Commodities. He married Puan
Sri Diana Alip Dompok and the couple have five children. He likes playing golf and reading.
Osi Bin Haji Sukam (born 1949) was the 12th Chief Minister (Ketua Menteri) of Sabah from March 14, 1999 until March 27, 2001. He became the 12th
Chief Minister of the state in 1999 and took over the post from Bernard Dompok. Following the rotation system in place at that time, Osu, an ethnic Bajau, held
the post for two years representing the Muslim bumiputras of Sabah. In 2001, he was replaced by Chong Kah Kiat. Until July 14, 2005, he was a member of a
ruling United Malays National Organization party, which he resigned from due to gambling debts totalling at least USD$1.8 million he accumulated from Ritz
Hotel Casino in London and another casino. He bears a striking resemblance to Roland Gift, the lead singer of the pop group the Fine Young Cannibals. The
casino obtained a judgment in the High Court in England to recover debts owed by Osu. The casino sought to enforce the judgment in Malaysia by registering
the judgment in the High Court of Sabah and Sarawak in July, 2005. The High Court at Kota Kinabalu refused to register the judgment on grounds of public
policy. However in 2007, the Court of Appeal ruled in favor of the casino allowing the debt to be recovered.
Chong Kah Kiat (Chinese: , born June 2, 1948) was the 13th Chief Minister (Ketua Menteri) of Sabah, Malaysia from March
27, 2001 until March 27, 2003. He is also the former president of the Liberal Democratic Party (LDP). Born in Kudat, Chong was a
graduate of New Zealand's Victoria University of Wellington, earning a Masters law degree (LLM first class honours) in 1975. He
contested and won the Kudat seat on a Berjaya ticket in the March 1981 state election and was appointed assistant minister to thechief
minister the following year. He held the post until April 1985 when he lost the seat to Datuk Wong Phin Chung of Parti Bersatu
Sabah (PBS). In March 1987, he became a member of the Berjaya Supreme Council but later left the party when it became clear that it
was losing ground. Chong and several Chinese leaders founded the LDP in 1989 and was made its pro-tem secretary general. Then in
1991, he became the party's president. He did not contest in the 1994 state election but a year later was appointed as Senator in
the Dewan Negara, and subsequently included in the federal cabinet as a minister in the Prime Minister's Department. He quit the
federal ministerial post in March 1999 to contest in the state polls. This time, he won back his traditional stronghold of Kudat, and was appointed state minister
of Tourism Development, Environment, Science and Technology. Chong became the 13th Chief Minister of Sabah in 2001 representing the Chinese
community in a rotation system mooted by former Prime Minister Tun Dr Mahathir Mohamed in 1994. When Datuk Seri Musa Aman took over the helm of
the state government in 2003, Chong was appointed deputy chief minister as well as the person in charge of the tourism, culture and environment portfolio. It was
then the rotation system was scrapped and from then onwards, the Chief Minister post was held by the United Malays National Organisation. In April 2007,
Chong resigned from the Deputy Chief Minister post under Datuk Musa Aman's cabinet, citing matters of principle.
Haji Musa bin Haji Aman (born March 30, 1951), is the 14th and current Chief Minister (Ketua Menteri) of the state of Sabah in
Malaysia since 2003. He is also the Sabah finance minister, the chairman of United Malays National Organization (UMNO) for Sabah
and also the older brother of Dato' Seri Anifah Aman, Foreign Minister of Malaysia. Musa Aman is of Kadazan-Dusun descent. Musa
Aman received his primary education in St. Paul primary school, Beaufort, Sabah. He attended Sabah College in Kota Kinabaluand All
Saints secondary school for his secondary education. He pursue his tertiary education and received Masters of Business Administration
(MBA) from Edith Cowan University, Perth, Australia. He was interested in the world of business since his primary school days. In
1973, he pursue his business interests in Sandakan. He later put Syarikat Musman Holdings Sdn Bhd under his stewardship. He was the
chairman for City Finance Berhad from 1983 until 1995. He later became the chief executive of Innoprise Corporation in 1995 and also
the chairman for Sabah Softwood Berhad (under Innoprise Corporation) in the same year. Datuk Musa's political career started on
March 8, 1992, when he contested and won the Jambongan UMNO division chief's post (now known as Libaran division) and was
appointed as Sabah Barisan Nasional (BN) treasurer eight days later. On March 7, 1995, a year after BN came to power in Sabah, Musa
became the director of Sabah Foundation (Yayasan Sabah), a Sabah statutory body. In March 1999 he resigned as the Sabah Foundation Director to contest in
the state elections and defend the Sungai Sibuga State Legislative Assembly seat, defeating Ramli Noordin of Parti Bersatu Sabah (PBS) by 4034 majority votes,
the highest majority among the 24 seats contested by UMNO. He moved up further in his political career when he was appointed Minister in the Chief Minister's
Department under Datuk Osu Sukam in 1999. On March 27, 2001, he became the Finance Minister in Tan Sri Chong Kah Kiat's cabinet. On September 28,
2001, Musa replaced Osu Sukam as the Sabah UMNO Liaison Committee Chairman, which paved the way for him to be the Chief Minister. He took over the
post of chief minister from Chong Kah Kiat on March 27, 2003. His appointment as Chief Minister marks the end of the rotation system used in Sabah whereby
the Chief Minister post is rotated every two years among the three main racial groups in Sabah: Christian Bumiputras, Muslim Bumiputras, and the ethnic
Chinese. Soon after taking his oath of office as Chief Minister, Datuk Musa outlined his agenda for the state. He had set his priorities on agriculture, tourism and
manufacturing, putting them in what he calls the state's 'Halatuju' development framework, and supporting them by placing human resource development high on
his agenda. To support the first pillar of his 'Halatuju' campaign, tourism, a commitment of RM1.4 billion in federal funds was secured towards the building of a
new Kota Kinabalu airport terminal, which was completed in 2008, ahead of schedule. A part of the old Kota Kinabalu port with warehouse facilities dating back
to the early 1900s was transformed into Jesselton Point, a modern port with a high-class ferry terminal and other facilities. Under Datuk Musa tourism registered
significant growth; Tourist arrivals to Sabah grew from 1.25 million arrivals in 2003 to nearly 2.1 million arrivals in 2006. The growth justified a further capital
input into the tourism sector, with over RM1 billion made available via Special Tourism Fund of RM400 million for small projects and RM700 million for larger
projects. To support the second pillaragriculturethe state government broke new ground in combining agriculture and manufacturing sectors into one by
promoting bio-agriculture. The establishment of Palm Oil Industrial Clusters (POIC) is an example of bio-agriculture that promises to move the state's
agricultural products up the value chain in the commodity markets. To support the third pillar, manufacturing, in 2006 a total of 92 manufacturing projects were
granted approval in the state with a projected total investment value of RM4.9 billion. In April 2012, Musa Aman was linked to a timber corruption scandal as per
the leaked Malaysian Anti-Corruption Commission (MACC) documents published by the websiteSarawak Report. Musa was accused for having close
relationship with Sabah timber trader Michael Chia, where the latter was detained in Hong Kong in 2008 for trying to smuggleS$16 million (RM40 million) to
Musa. Sarawak Report further revealed that Michael Chia was responsible for Musa's sons expenses in Australia. Dato' Seri Anifah Aman, brother of Musa
Aman, was also accused for being a secret beneficiary of lucrative timber licenses. Abdul Gani Patail, the Malaysian Attorney-General who is close to Musa
family, was alleged to have blocked the MACC investigation into this case. However, Musa Aman denied his link with Michael Chia, while accusing Sarawak
Report for defaming him. On October 11, 2012, in a written reply to the Parliament, Minister in the Prime Ministers Department Datuk Seri Nazri Aziz said
Musa Aman has been cleared of the alleged RM40 million kickbacks for timber licences by the Attorney-General's Chambers as the funds were contributions to
the Sabah Umno liaison body and not for the personal use of the chief minister". He also said that the Hong Kong's Independent Commission Against
Corruption (ICAC) and Malaysian Attorney-General chamber has cleared Musa of corruption after the Malaysian MACC has provided information in this
case. The Malaysian Prime Minister, Najib Tun Razak, refused to disclose the source of the political donation but he insisted that the money was funded through
legitimate channels. In response to the reply by Najib, Sarawak Report released another set of documents on October 14, 2012 which pointed the donors
to Sabah and Sarawak timber tycoons. On October 22, 2012 Nazri said that Michael Chia was never arrested and the S$16 million was actually frozen in an
investment account in Hong Kong. This money was later cleared to be transferred to Swiss bank. As on October 25, 2012 Hong Kong's ICAC refused to disclose
any details regarding the probe which reportedly cleared Musa Aman from corruption charges. On November 1, 2012 PKR leaders and Sarawak Report revealed
that Nazri's son was given American Hummer H2 by Michael Chia back in March 2011. This revelation raises the possible questions of conflict of interest
between Nazri and Michael Chia. However, Nazri sees no problem with the ownership of the Hummer by his son. Nazri also said that he just merely read out
the statement from MACC that has cleared Musa from corruption and he insisted that he has not influenced MACC in handling the Musa Aman case. In April
2013, Reuters validated that the documents released by Sarawak Report are indeed genuine. Two of the timber firms confirmed with Reuters that the money was
transferred in order to secure the logging contracts. MACC officials also told Reuters that the documents are authentic and Musa Aman was the focus of the
investigation.

Perlis
Rajas
Tengku Sulaiman (born 1932) was regent of Perlis from September 1, 1960 until August 20, 1965.
Syed Faizuddin Putra (born 1967) was regent of Perlis from December 13, 2001 until December 12, 2006.
List of Chief Ministers (title Menteri Besar) of Perlis
Raja Ahmad bin Raja Endut was the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of Perlis from February 1948 until September 20, 1957.
Mohamed Razali bin Mohamed Ali Wasi was the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of Perlis from 1957 until 1959.
Sheikh Ahmad bin Mohamed Hashim was the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of the State of Perlis from May 1, 1959 until December 31, 1971.
Jaafar bin Hassan (born 1926) was the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of the State of Perlis from January 1, 1972 until October 22, 1981.
Ali bin Ahmad (born 1925) is a former Malaysian politician. He was the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of the State of Perlis from November 1, 1981 until
August 13, 1986.
Abdul Hamid Pawanteh (born July 27, 1944) is a former Malaysian politician. He was the President of theMalaysian Senate from July
7, 2003 until July 6, 2009, and was the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of the State of Perlis from August 14, 1986 until May 5, 1995. He is
married to Puan Sri Datin Seri Dato' Elham Hamid Abdullah (ne Elsie Sarstedt McCarthy. He received his higher education in Pakistan
(back then it was still in India). He received government scholarship after he got good grades in local examination. While studying in
Pakistan, he met his wife, Puan Sri Elham. They got married there. Abdul Hamid was elected to the Malaysian House of Representatives in
the 1982 election for the seat of Arau in Perlis. In 1986, he moved to the Perlis State Assembly and became the State's Menteri Besar. In
1995, he was replaced as Menteri Besar by fellow UMNO member Shahidan Kassim, and returned to the House of Repre sentatives in 1999
for the seat of Kangar in Perlis. In July 2003, Abdul Hamid stepped down as the MP for Kangar to be appointed as President of the
Senate, serving as President until 2009. Between 1995 and 1999 where he was relatively inactive in politics, he was very much immersed in building a business
empire. He was actively seeking government approval to build a power plant in Perlis. Despite the fact that there was a strong demand for electricity in Perlis due
to robust industrial growth in Perlis, the government does not want to help Tan Sri to acquire the necessary funding. This is so because Tan Sri refused to be
involved in Perlis political scene even though the high leadership of UMNO desperately wants him back. Currently, Dr. Hamid is supervising the building of a
resort in Timah Tasoh. He hopes that resort would be able to cater to various types of market. Abdul Hamid was born on 27 July 1944 in Penang.
Shahidan Kassim (born June 17, 1951) is a Malaysian politician. He is a minister in the federal Cabinet of Najib Tun
Razak and is a member of the Parliament of Malaysia for the seat of Arau, representing the United Malays National Organisation
(UMNO). He was the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of the State of Perlis from May 6, 1995 until March 13, 2008. Before
becoming Chief Minister of Perlis, Shahidan was a member of the Federal Parliament for Arau from 1986 to 1995. In 1992, he
received international coverage for his criticism of what he cited as the criminal acts of Sultan Iskandar of Johor and his son
Tunku Ibrahim Ismail. He was elected to the Perlis State Legislative Assembly for the newly created seat of Tambun Tulang in
the 1995 election. He immediately became Menteri Besar of Perlis, taking over from Hamid Pawanteh. His tenure as Menteri
Besar came to an end in March 2008, when Md Isa Sabu, a fellow member of Barisan Nasional, was appointed to the post by Sultan Sirajuddin of Perlis. Md Isa
was appointed after claiming the support of eight out of the 12 other Barisan Nasional members of the Perlis State Assembly to replace Shahidan. Shahidan left
the Perlis executive council, sitting in the state assembly as a backbencher and criticising Md Isa's leadership. In the 2013 election, Shahidan returned to federal
parliament in the seat of Arau, switching seats with his brother Ismail, who had held Arau since 2008. Shahidan defeated the senior Pan-Malaysian Islamic
Party leader Haron Din by 1,371 votes. Despite his return to federal politics, Shahidan had stated before the election that his preference would have been to
remain in the state assembly. After the election, he was appointed to the Cabinet of Najib Tun Razak as a minister in the Prime Minister's Department.
According to Joceline Tan, columnist for The Star, Shahidan has a "larger-than-life personality" and is known for his "warlord style of politics".
[5]
He has held
numerous positions in sports administration, including the presidencies of the Malaysia Athletic Federation, the Amateur Swimming Union of Malaysia and
the Perlis Football Association. In 2010, he called for Facebook to be banned in Malaysia, citing national security issues after a Facebook account holder was
found to have insulted Islam and the current as well as the former Prime Ministers of Malaysia. Shahidan was born in Tambun Tulang on June 17, 1951. He is
married to Shamsiah Mohd Yassin.
Md Isa Sabu was the seventh Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of the Malaysian state of Perlis, in office from March 17, 2008 until
May 7, 2013. He is a member of the United Malays National Organisation (UMNO). He held the state assembly seat of Bintong, in
the Perlis capital ofKangar, until his retirement from politics in 2013. Md Isa was sworn in as Chief Minister of Perlis on 17 March
2008 following the 2008 Malaysian election. The Raja of Perlis appointed Md Isa despite Perlis UMNO leader Shahidan
Kassim having a letter of appointment from Prime Minister Abdullah Ahmad Badawi. Md Isa claimed the support of eight of his
fellow UMNO assemblyman, satisfying the Raja that he could command the support of a majority of the 15-member Perlis state
assembly. He did not re-contest his seat in the 2013 election, citing his age (66). He was replaced as Chief Minister by Azlan Man. Md Isa is married with seven
children. He was member of the federal parliament for Kangar from 1995 to 1999.
Azlan Man (born 1958) is the current Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of Perlis since May 7, 2013. Before entering electoral
politics, Azlan was a Deputy Director of the Public Complaints Bureau.




Perak
Nazrin Shah ibni Sultan Azlan Muhibbuddin Shah (born November 27, 1956 in Penang, Malaysia) is the Raja Muda of
Perak, Regent of Perak from April 26, 1989 until April 25, 1994 and currently Regent of Perak since January 28, 2008. He is the
eldest son of the current Sultan of Perak, Sultan Azlan Muhibbudin Shah ibni Almarhum Sultan Yusuff Izzudin Shah Ghafarullahu-
lahu and the Raja Permaisuri of Perak Tuanku Bainun Binti Mohd. Ali. Raja Nazrin has an academic and intellectual background with
a bachelor's degree in Philosophy, Politics and Economics from Worcester College, Oxford. He was known affectionately as "Steven"
by his university classmates. He also holds a Masters in Public Administration from the Kennedy School of government, Harvard;
and Ph.D in Political Economy and Government from Harvard University. Raja Nazrins research interests are in the area of
economic and political development in South-East and North-East Asia, historical national income accounting and economic growth in
developing countries. The prince has also written articles and spoken on a wide range of issues including the role of the constitutional
monarchy in Malaysia, education, Islam, ethnic relations and economic development. He has assumed the role of Financial
Ambassador of the Malaysian International Islamic Financial Centre (MIFC), has been Pro-Chancellor of Universiti Malaya since
1989 and is the chairman of the Board of Governors of the Malay College Kuala Kangsar. He recently consented to becoming an
Eminent Fellow of the Institute of Strategic and International Studies (Isis) Malaysia effective May 1. He was proclaimed the Raja
Muda (Crown Prince) of Perak on April 15, 1984, taking over from his father, Sultan Azlan Shah, who just two weeks earlier became the Sultan of Perak. Raja
Nazrin's full name including official titles is as below: Duli Yang Teramat Mulia Raja Muda Perak Darul Ridzuan Raja Nazrin Shah Ibni Sultan Azlan
Muhibbuddin D.K., D.K.II (Selangor), D.K.S.A, S.P.C.M, S.P.T.S, S.P.M.P. (Perlis), Ph.D (Harvard).
[1]
He was appointed Regent of Perak when his father
became the ninth Yang di-Pertuan Agong from 1989 to 1994. The Raja Muda of Perak married Zara Salim Davidson at Istana Iskandariah, Bukit Chandan, on
May 17, 2007. This was announced by the Comptroller of the Perak royal household, Raja Datuk Seri Mansur Raja Razman. Raja Nazrin and Zara have known
each other for eight years. A day after the solemnisation of their vows, there was a special proclamation ceremony to bestow Zara with the official title of Raja
Puan Besar of Perak. Sultan Azlan Shah had consented to the proclamation of Raja Nazrins bride Zara Salim Davidson as the Raja Puan Besar of Perak and the
conferment of the Darjah Kerabat on her. The royal wedding reception took place on May 19, 2007. The first child of the couple, Raja Azlan Muzaffar Shah,
was born on 14 March 2008. The second child, a princess, Raja Nazira Safya Shah was born August 3, 2011
List of Chief Ministers (title Menteri Besar) of Perak
Abdul Wahab Toh Muda Abdul Aziz (1905 - 1959) was the first Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of the state of Perak, Malaysia from February 1, 1948
until August 1, 1957.
Mohamed Ghazali bin Jawi (born 1924) was the twice times Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of the state of Perak, Malaysia from August 1, 1957 until
April 16, 1960 and from September 4, 1974 until October 1, 1977.
Shaari bin Shafie (born 1912) was the 3h Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of the state of Perak, Malaysia from April 16, 1960 until May 7, 1964.
Ahmad Said (born 1919) was the 4th Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of the state of Perak, Malaysia from May 7, 1964 until March 18, 1970.
Kamaruddin bin Mohd Isa (born 1930) was the 5th Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of the state of Perak, Malaysia from March 18, 1970 until September
4, 1974.
Wan Mohamed bin Wan Teh (born 1929) was the 7th Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of the state of Perak, Malaysia from October 1, 1977 until March
1, 1983.

Ramli Ngah Talib (born March 16, 1941) is a Malaysian politician active in the United Malays National Organisation. He served as the
8th Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of Perak from March 1, 1983 until December 2, 1999 and was the Speaker of the Dewan Rakyat of
the Malaysian Parliament
[1]
from November 22, 2004 until February 13, 2008. He was born in Perak and received his early education at
the Malay College Kuala Kangsar before furthering his studies in law at Queen's University Belfast.

Mohammad Tajol Rosli bin Tan Sri Mohamed Ghazali (born November 6, 1944) was the 9th Chief Minister (Menteri Besar)
of the state of Perak, Malaysia from December 3, 1999 until March 16, 2008. Tajol gave up his position as chief of Perak Barisan Nasional
chief and state Umno liaison committee to then Deputy Prime MinisterDatuk Seri Najib Tun Razak on January 30, 2009. The then minister
in the Prime Minister's department, Datuk Seri Ahmad Zahid Hamidi will be his deputy. Tajol received the Panglima Setia Mahkota (PSN)
which carries the titles 'Tan Sri' from Yang di-Pertuan Agong Tuanku Mizan Zainal Abidin in conjunction with His Majesty's birthday on June
5, 2010.
Mohammad Nizar Jamaluddin (born March 17, 1957) is the former Minister Chief (Menteri Besar) of the Malaysian state of
Perak, a post equivalent to a Chief Minister and Member of Malaysian Parliament for Bukit Gantang from March 17, 2008 until May 12,
2009. Nizar is the secretary of thePerak's Branch Pan-Malaysian Islamic Party (PAS). Nizar was appointed as Menteri Besar on March
17, 2008 but was ousted in January 2009. Nizar heads the Pakatan Rakyat coalition in Perak which consists mainly of members mainly
from the Democratic Action Party (DAP), the Parti Keadilan Rakyat (PKR) and his own party, PAS. Nizar was the first MB from the
Pakatan Rakyat coalition. Appointed by the Crown Prince of Perak Raja Nazrin Shah over two other candidates, Datuk Ngeh Koo
Ham and Jamaluddin Mohd Radzi, his appointment was shrouded in controversy, particularly because his party was the smallest party in
Pakatan Rakyat and the state assembly. The controversy did not last, as very soon all the Pakatan Rakyat MLAs threw their support
behind Nizar enabling him to be sworn in on March 17, 2008, his 51st birthday. Nizar is an engineering graduate from Aston
University in Birmingham, United Kingdom. He took over the chief minister post fromDatuk Seri DiRaja Tajol Rosli Mohd.
Ghazali of Barisan Nasional. On March 8, 2008, the Pakatan Rakyat coalition in Perak won 31 seats of the 59 seat Perak State Assembly,
which enabled it to form a majority state government. The Democratic Action Party commanded the most seats out of the 31 seats held by Pakatan Rakyat and
were the claimants to the post of Menteri Besar. However, the Perak State Constitution stipulated that the Menteri Besar must be of Malay descent, and a non-
Malay could only be appointed by a royal waiver by the Perak Palace. To resolve this, all three parties sent their nominations for the MB post to the Regent of
Perak, Raja Nazrin Shah. Nizar was chosen over Dato' Seri Ngeh Koo Ham of the DAP and Jamaluddin Mohd Radzi of PKR on March 12, 2008 by Raja
Nazrin, and sworn in on March 17, 2008 at Istana Iskandariah, Kuala Kangsar. Nizar was the first person not part of the Barisan National coalition to hold such a
post in Perak. The appointment of Nizar created a minor stir within the opposition coalition after the DAP's central executive committee, under the advice
of Lim Kit Siang ordered Perak DAP state assemblymen to boycott the swearing-in ceremony to be held on March 13, 2008.Raja Nazrin then ordered a delay of
the swearing in ceremony and asked all 31 of Pakatan Rakyat's assemblymen to pledge their support of Nizar's appointment, since otherwise Nizar is shown as
not having majority support and therefore cannot be appointed as the Menteri Besar. Lim has since apologised and stated that he did not mean to disrespect the
decision of the sultan and the regent of Perak. Following the resolution of this matter, all the state assemblymen from PKR, PAS and DAP (including Lim Kit
Siang) attended the Menteri Besar swearing-in ceremony in support of Nizar. Nizar's administration granted freehold title to ethnic Chinese landholders in the
settlements called as New Villages (Kampung Baru) in Perak. The Malaysian Deputy Prime Minister, Dato' Seri Najib Tun Razak disputed the state government's
ability to grant the freehold titles, instead saying that the jurisdiction lied federally. Almost every act of his administration was criticised by the Malaysian
mainstream press, especially by Utusan Malaysia and Berita Harian, an UMNO-owned, Malay-nationalist newspaper. Nizar's administration was hounded by
constant accusations of being a proxy to the DAP which had the majority seats in the State Assembly. In particular he was accused of being a puppet DAPs
Datuk Ngeh Koo Ham and Nga Kor Ming, senior exco members in his cabinet. Ghazali claimed that the Pakatan Rakyat state government inPerak will fall on
August 31, 2008 - Malaysia's Independence day through defections to Barisan Nasional from the PR camp - a clear corruption of PR leader Datuk Seri Anwar
Ibrahim's 16 September 2008 plan to engineer mass defections of BN MPs from Sabah and Sarawak to form the new federal government. Nizar dismissed
Tajol's claims and remarked "Who is he (Tajol) to predict the future?". On January 25, 2009, BN's MLA from the Bota constituency, Datuk Nasarudin
Hashim announced his defection from UMNO, a BN component party, to PKR, the second largest party in Nizar's Perak PR coalition. Nasarudin said that his
decision was fully supported by his constituents and reaffirmed that no monetary award was offered to him by PR. Nizar and Anwar supported and welcomed
Nasarudin into the PR coalition and Anwar claimed more BN MLAs were going to defect to PR a few days later. Nizar then claimed that three more MLAs from
UMNO would defect to PR
[14]
After Nasarudin's resignation from UMNO, Perak UMNO chief and former MB Tajol Rosli resigned as Perak BN chairman and
Perak UMNO chief, taking responsibility for the defection of Nasarudin.
[15]
Soon after, UMNO Malaysia Deputy President, Datuk Seri Najib Tun Razak, who is
also theMalaysian Deputy Prime Minister took over as Perak UMNO Chairman and Perak BN Chairman from Tajol Rosli. Crossover of Nasarudin and three
other Perak assemblymen from PR, and effectively and controversially ended the PR majority government. The new Perak government, under Datuk Dr.
Zambry Abdul Kadir, swore in some executive councillors, but Nizar refused to bow down, and continued his daily routines. The speaker of the assembly, V.
Sivakumar then suspended all BN executive councillors for "contempt of assembly" after a complaint by one assemblyman. On May 11, 2009, the Kuala Lumpur
High Court ruled that the Sultan could not constitutionally remove Nizar from office, and that Nizar had always been the rightful Menteri Besar. Nizar
announced his intention to immediately meet with the Sultan to request dissolution of the state assembly, while Zambry Abdul Kadir, the intended Barisan
Menteri Besar, stated he would vacate the state secretariat as soon as possible. However, Nizar ultimately lost the legal proceedings when, in February 2010, the
Federal Court ruled Zambry to be the lawful Menteri Besar. Nizar is the son of a Malay father and a Chinese mother, who was raised in a Malay-
Muslim household from birth. Nizar is married to Datin Seri Fatimah Taat and they have eight children. Currently, he is residing in a rented home at Sungai
Rokam, Perak after being asked to vacate the official residence for the Menteri Besar at Jalan Raja DiHilir by the state secretary, Datuk Abdul Rahman Hashim.
Zambry Abdul Kadir is the current Minister Chief (Menteri Besar) of Perak since May 12, 2009 and a Malaysian
politician from the United Malays National Organisation (UMNO), the leading party in the ruling Barisan Nasional (BN)
coalition. Dato Seri Dr. Zambry Abdul Kadir was born on March 22nd 1962 in Pangkor Island in Perak and is married to
Datin Seri Saripah Zulkifli. They are parents of Husna, Huda, Syifa, Munir and Mukhlis. Dato Seri Dr. Zambry Abdul Kadir
obtained his early Primary and Secondary education on Pangkor island at Pangkor Primary and Secondary schools before
attending upper secondary education on the mainland of Perak at Sekolah Menengah Bukit Gantang, Parit Buntar, Perak.
After that he went on to acquire a B.Econs (Hons), International Islamic University Malaysia 1987, M.A. (Islamic Thoughts)
International Islamic University, 1991, M.A. (Political Philosophy and Comparative Religion) Temple University 1992,
United States and Ph.D from Temple University, United States 1995. Dato Seri Dr. Zambry Abdul Kadir became actively
involved in politics in 1995, soon after his return from the USA. Dato Seri Dr. Zambry Abdul Kadir became the UMNO (United Malay National Organisation)
Division Youth Wing Head, then the State of Perak UMNO Youth Head and later a member of the National Youth Executive Council. He stood in the 2004
General Election for the Perak state legislative assembly and returned again in 2008 General Election. On February 6, 2009, Dato Seri Dr. Zambry Abdul Kadir
was appointed as the 11th Menteri Besar of the state of Perak. A member of the Perak state legislative assembly, Zambry a key player in the 2009 Perak
constitutional crisis as the intended BNMenteri Besar. After three state assemblypersons from the Pakatan Rakyat coalition announced their intention to support
a BN candidate for Menteri Besar, and to lend their support to a vote of no confidence in the incumbent Pakatan Rakyat Menteri BesarMohammad Nizar
Jamaluddin, Sultan Azlan Shah of Perak requested Nizar's resignation and swore in Zambry as the new Menteri Besar on February 6, 2009. Zambry acted as
Menteri Besar for about three months. However, Nizar maintained that the Sultan was not permitted by the state constitution to dismiss him as the Menteri
Besar, and on May 11, 2009, the Kuala Lumpur High Court ruled that Nizar had always been the rightful Menteri Besar of Perak. To maintain administrative
continuity, Nizar tentatively endorsed most of Zambry's policies, subject to later review, but reinstated the 817 village development and security committees and
318 local government councillors whom Zambry had sacked. However, the following day, the Court of Appeal granted a stay of the High Court judgment, and
Zambry returned to work. His status as Menteri Besar is still in doubt; Zambry has refused to address the question, while Nizar's camp insists that the stay is not
an overruling and that Nizar is still the rightful Menteri Besar. The Malaysian Bar Council's interpretation of the ruling is that Zambry is only a caretaker Menteri
Besar. On May, 22, 2009 Court of Appeal in a unanimous decision, declared Datuk Seri Dr Zambry Abdul Kadir as the rightful menteri besar of Perak. The
court held that the order made by the High Court on May 11, 2009 in declaring Datuk Seri Mohammad Nizar Jamaluddin as the legitimate menteri besar, was
wrong and set aside that decision. Justice Md Raus, in his oral judgement, also held that the Sultan of Perak, Sultan Azlan Shah, was right in appointing Zambry
as the new menteri besar, under Article 16(2) of the Perak Constitution, after being satisfied that Zambry had the command of the majority of the state legislative
assembly.

Penang
List of Chief Ministers (title Ketua Menteri) of Penang
Tan Sri Wong Pow Nee (c.1913 August 31, 2002) was a Malaysian politician and diplomat. He was Penangs first Chief Minister
(Ketua Menteri) serving from August 31, 1957 until June 12, 1969 and Malaysia's first Ambassador to Rome. He was born in Bukit
Mertajam, Penang, the son of Cecilia Foo and Wong Ee Chin, a hardworking Hakka timber merchant and building developer of the
Catholic faith. Young Wong Pow Nee was educated first at the Chinese Jit Sin Primary School then the Anglo-Chinese School and after
that at St. Xavier's Institution from which he graduated in 1933. Instead of pursuing further studies abroad, Wong Pow Nee went to work
as a clerk at the Bukit Mertajam Catholic Benevolent Society. In 1935, he took up a clerical position with the Sin Ban Guan Bus
Company, but the company folded not long after and Wong Pow Nee embarked on a very different career. Between 1937 and 1941 he
taught English at St. Mary's Mission School at Permatang Tinggi. In 1945 he taught English at Kim Sen Primary School in Bukit
Mertajam. At the same time he enrolled in a Teachers Training Course from which he graduated in 1947. In 1954 he stood for elections
in the first Bukit Mertajam Town Council elections, having reluctantly accepted the nomination of villagers who insisted on being
represented by him. He won a seat on the Council under Dr. Lim Chong Eu's Radical Party, formed earlier in 1951. In 1955, together
with Dr. Lim Chong Eu, he joined the Malayan Chinese Association following the bad defeat of the Penang Radical Party which was defeated by the newly
formed Alliance, and was re-elected to the Council under the Alliance party, after having successfully campaigned against independent candidate Dr. M. P. L.
Yegappan. In 1957 he was appointed Chief Minister of Penang and delivered, before the large crowd gathered there, the Proclamation of Independence at
Esplanade on 31 August, after Tengku Abdul Rahman had done the same in Kuala Lumpur. He was a member of the Cobbold Commission formed in 1962
that ascertained the views of residents in Sabah (then North Borneo) and Sarawak about joining the Federation of Malaysia preparing the framework for the
eventual incorporation of Sabah and Sarawak in 1963. Lord Cobbold headed the Commission. Other members of the Commission assisting him, together with
Wong Pow Nee, were Tan Sri Ghazali Shafiee, Sir Anthony Abell and Sir D.C. Watherston. The result of their work was the Cobbold Commission Report
1962. Proudly he read out the proclamation of the formation of Malaysia at the Esplanade, at George Town in 1963. In 1969 he failed in his bid to retain the
Bukit Mertajam seat and was defeated by Gerakan candidate Dato Oo Chooi Cheng. He suffered a heart attack in December that year but recovered well enough
to continue his service to King and country. In May 1970 he officially handed over the reins of leadership of the Penang Coalition to Tengku Abdul Rahman.
After relinquishing the position of Chief Minister of Penang Wong Pow Nee served as Malaysian Ambassador to Italy between 1970 and 1975. Tan Sri Wong
Pow Nee passed away from old age - he was 91 years of age when he died - on Merdeka Day August 31, 2002 at 6.30a.m. It was the morning of the 45th year of
independence. He left behind his wife, Law Siew Kim, seven sons and three daughters and the whole of the population of his beloved Penang to mourn his loss.
He was accorded a state funeral of the highest honour. Among those who came to pay their last respects were Governor of Penang Tun Abdul Rahman Abbas,
Chief Minister Tan Sri Dr. Koh Tsu Koon, Deputy Chief Minister Datuk Hilmi Yahaya and members of Penang's State Executive Committee. On Merdeka
Day, August 31, 2007, Hakka Connextion was opened to the public - this was a gallery cum restaurant located at Lot No 1 and 3, Jalan Bawasah - filled with over
200 photos from Wong Pow Nee's personal collection. The Tan Sri Wong Pow Nee Memorial Hall, a 74sq m photo exhibition memorialising the struggles and
achievements of Tan Sri Wong Pow Nee was completed, at a cost of RM60,000 - borne by the Federation of Hakka Associations of Malaysia and the Penang
Hakka Association - and opened to the public at 11a.m. on September 15, 2012, housed on the third floor of the Penang Hakka Association building in Burmah
Road, George Town.
Lim Chong Eu (simplified Chinese: ; traditional Chinese: ; May 28, 1919 November 24, 2010) was a Malaysian
politician who served as the second Chief Minister (Ketua Menteri) of Penang for a record 21 years from May 12, 1969 until )ctober
25, 1990. He was also the founding president of Parti Gerakan Rakyat Malaysia, a member of the ruling coalition Barisan Nasional. He
was termed the "Architect of Modern Penang". Lim was born in 1919 in Penang. He attended school at the Penang Free School, where
he was the King's Scholar in 1937. He later obtained a degree in medicine and surgery from the University of Edinburgh, Scotland in
1944. In 1951, he was appointed to the Penang Local Council and in 1955, was appointed a member of the Federal Legislature. In the
March 1958 party elections, he challenged Tun Tan Cheng Lock and won the presidency with a majority of 22 votes. After the victory,
he called an extraordinary general meeting to amend the Constitution to consolidate the power of the Central Committee. This was met
with strong resistance by Tun Tan Siew Sin and his supporters. Although the proposal was passed with a single-vote majority, the move
left the Party split. At the same time, the MCA under Lim also had severe political differences with the then Prime Minister Tunku
Abdul Rahman. The crisis worsened especially on the eve of the 1959 general elections when Lim demanded 40 parliamentary seats
and also wanted to make Chinese an official language. The Tunku increased the seats allocated to MCA from 28 to 31 but this was rejected and their relationship
worsened. During the one-year period when the MCA was under Lim, the party was under tremendous pressure from within and outside. In December 1960,
Lim left the MCA and in 1962, he formed the United Democratic Party. Dr Cheah Toon Lock became the Acting President with the resignation of Lim. He was
one of the founding members of the Opposition Party Gerakan before the 1969 General Election. The formation the of Gerakan party threw the Chinese
Malaysian aggregate into a dilemma, weakened their political strength and above all, eroded the political representation of the MCA as the only party for the
Chinese community. Gerakan joined the ruling Barisan Nasional after winning the Penang State Government in 1969. Lim served as Chief Minister of
Penang from 1969 to 1990. The iconic projects that emerged during Lims rule included the 66-storeyKOMTAR administrative tower and commercial complex,
and the 13.5 km Penang Bridge. When it was topped-off, KOMTAR was for some time the tallest building in Asia, and the Penang Bridge one of the longest in
the world. Lim is best known for overseeing the emergence of Penangs Free Trade Zone (FTZ) later renamed Free Industrial Zone which evolved into one
of Asias most powerful electronics hubs. In the Malaysian General Elections of October 1990, a crisis occurred when Lim, serving as the chief minister, lost his
state seat and Parti Gerakan Rakyat Malaysia (Gerakan) had less seats than UMNO in the Penang State Assembly. A crisis was averted when Tun Dr Lim Keng
Yaik, the then president of Gerakan, was able to convince the then Prime Minister Tun Dr Mahathir Mohammad to allow an ethnic Chinese to continue on in
the role of the Chief Minister. Lim had retired from politics and was concentrating on business. He was at the time chairman and advisor for several large
corporations. In 2007, Lim was named founding chancellor of Wawasan Open University.
[2]
In late October 2010, he was admitted to the Penang Hospital after
suffering a stroke. He later died on Wednesday, November 24, 2010 at his home in Hillside, Tanjung Bungah at about 9 pm. On Thursday, November 25,
2010, he was given a state funeral. ThePenang state flag was flown at half-mast from 25 to 28 November for 4 days as a mark of respect. His body was cremated
at Batu Gantung Crematorium on Sunday, November 28, 2010. The 17.84 km Tun Dr Lim Chong Eu Expressway comprising Jelutong Expressway and Bayan
Lepas Expressway was renamed after him on December 7, 2010.
Koh Tsu Koon (born August 26, 1949 in Penang; simplified Chinese: ; traditional Chinese: ; pinyin: X Zgn;Peh-e-
j: Kh Ch-kun) is a Malaysian politician. He was the Chief Minister (Ketua Menteri) of Penang from October 25, 1990 until March 11,
2008 and is currently a member of the Dewan Negara, the upper house of the Malaysian Parliament. In April 2009, Koh was appointed
Minister in the Prime Minister's Department by Prime Minister Najib Tun Razak. He was famously known for contributing in "Sungai
Pinang" campaign where he took almost 10 years to complete it. He is currently president of Parti Gerakan Rakyat Malaysia (Gerakan), a
member of the ruling Barisan Nasional coalition, and also the first President of Gerakan not named a candidate in the Malaysian General
Election. Koh Tsu Koon was born in Penang in 1949 and attended Phor Tay Primary School and Chung Ling High School. He graduated fromPrinceton
University in 1970 with a degree in physics, and obtained his Ph.D from the University of Chicago in 1977 in economics and sociology of education. He was
a Fulbright scholar at Stanford University from 1980 to 1981. Koh taught at Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang from 1975 and rose to become Deputy Dean of
Education in 1978. Koh joined Gerakan in 1982. He won a parliamentary seat during the 1982 general election but lost it to Lim Kit Siang in the following
election. The following year, he was elected Gerakan Youth chairman. Koh was the protg of then Penang Chief Minister Lim Chong Eu, serving as Lim's
political secretary and chief aide from 1986 to 1990. Koh became a vice president of Gerakan in 1991 and later deputy president in 2005. On April 8, 2007,
following the retirement of long-serving president Lim Keng Yaik, he took over the presidency in an acting capacity. He was formally elected president in 2008.
In the 1990 general election, Chief Minister Lim Chong Eu lost his state seat. Koh, who was a first-term state assemblyman fromTanjung Bungah, was selected to
lead the Barisan Nasional government in Penang, and became the state's third Chief Minister. Koh served four terms as Chief Minister for a total of 18 years. In
the 1995 general election, he was challenged in his state seat by Lim Kit Siang, who unseated the previous Chief Minister Lim Chong Eu in 1990. Koh beat Kit
Siang with over 70% of the votes. He stepped down in 2008 to contest the Batu Kawan parliamentary seat during the general election. Koh was said to be
pressured into leaving his position as Chief Minister to join federal politics. He eventually lost the parliamentary contest, while the opposition pact led by
the Democratic Action Party (DAP) won the state of Penang. Koh remained visible in the political scene after the election, and even participated in a televised
public debate with his successor as Chief Minister, Lim Guan Eng. He remained as Gerakan president, winning the post permanently in October 2008. Koh
returned to public office in April 2009, when he was appointed as a Senator in the Dewan Negara. This paved the way for prime minister Najib Tun Razak to
name Koh in his inaugural Cabinet. He was appointed Minister in the Prime Minister's Department, in charge of unity and performance management. Koh was
put in charge of Najib's Government Transformation Programme (GTP), which includes monitoring the performance of ministries and six national key result
areas (NKRAs) through Key Performance Indicators (KPIs). In August 2011, The Malaysian Insider reported that the central government of Putrajaya felt that
Koh should step down as BN leader in Penang for the coalition to win back the state government in the 13th general elections. It was further said that voters
viewed Koh as indecisive and a symbol of the BN leadership which was rejected by voters in 2008. Gerakan leaders reportedly encouraged Koh to leave Penang
to contest the Simpang Renggam parliamentary seat, a Gerakan safe seat in Johor. On May 16, 2013, The Star (Malaysia) reported that Koh officially resigned as
the President of Parti Gerakan Rakyat Malaysia. His deputy, Chang Ko Youn, would take over as acting president until the party elections on 26th October 2013.
Koh's resignation followed Gerakan Secretary-General Teng Chang Yeow's earlier resignation as Penang Barisan Nasional chairman and Gerakan Secretary-
General.
Lim Guan Eng (born December 8, 1960) is the fourth Chief Minister (Ketua Menteri) of the State of Penang since March 11,
2008 and the current Secretary-General of the Malaysian Democratic Action Party (DAP). He is the son of Lim Kit Siang, Leader of
the Opposition in the Dewan Rakyat from 1973 to 1999 and 2004 to 2008. He is married to Betty Chew Gek Cheng, a member of
the DAP and a state assemblyman in Malacca. Lim Guan Eng attended La Salle Primary English School in Petaling Jaya, and later
the Batu Pahat Montfort Primary English School. For his secondary education, he attended Batu Pahat High School and Malacca
High School. He graduated from Monash University,Australia with a Bachelor's of Economics and was a qualified professional
accountant by 1983. He also served as the president of MUISS (Monash University International Student Society) during his
university years. Prior to his political career, Lim was a senior executive at a bank. He was first elected as a Member of Parliament for
Kota Melaka in 1986, after defeating Soh Chin Aun with a majority of 17,606 votes. He was re-elected in the subsequent 1990 and
1995 general elections, albeit with reduced majority votes. He thus became the first person to be elected for three consecutive terms
in Kota Melaka. He was also the first Malacca High School alumnus to achieve this. In October 1987, he was detained under
the Internal Security Act in Operation Lalang, along with another 106 politicians and activists. He was released after 12 months on April 1989. He was the first to
be detained and last to be released on this Operation Lalang. After joining the DAP, he was appointed as the DAP Socialist Youth Chairman in 1989 and was
formally elected to that post in 1992. In 1995, he was elected as the DAP Deputy Secretary-General. He was later elected as the party Secretary-General in 2004,
and has held that position since. Lim was arrested by the Malaysian police in 1994, following his criticism of the government's failure to bring then-Chief Minister
ofMelaka, Tan Sri Abdul Rahim Thamby Chik's statutory rape case to trial when the Attorney General had decided not to press charges. Lim was charged under
Section 4(1) (b) of the Sedition Act 1948 for causing 'disaffection with the administration of justice in Malaysia'. He was also charged under Section 8A (1) of
the Printing Presses and Publications Act 1984 for 'maliciously printing' a pamphlet containing allegedly 'false information' which supposedly described the
alleged rape victim as an 'imprisoned victim' because she was initially detained by Malaysian police without parental consent for 10 days. During the judicial
procedure, Lim was quoted as saying:
If I fail and have to go to jail, I have no regrets. I have no regrets of going down fighting for the principles of truth and justice and pursuit of human rights,
especially women's rights. There can be no women's rights if female rape victims are considered equally responsible, and even detained, whilst the accused
remain free. Lim Guan Eng
After a series of appeals, Lim was sentenced to 18 months imprisonment. He was, however, released after 12 months on August 25, 1999. Due to his
incarceration, he was disallowed from standing for election to public office for a period of 5 years, and he was therefore ineligible to contest in the 2004
Malaysian General Election. In 2005, Lim suffered a surprise defeat in his campaign for re-election to the Melaka DAP committee when he and his wife came in
last and second-last (respectively). However, as Lim remained Secretary-General of the party, he was automatically included among the committee under the
party constitution. His wife on the other hand, was not included in the committee even though she remained the chief of the state's DAP women's wing. Teresa
Kok, a DAP Member of Parliament, suggested there was a conspiracy behind the entire event.
[1]
Nevertheless, Lim garnered the second highest number of votes
(620) at the party's 15th National Congress on August 23, 2008. In the 2008 Malaysian general election, the coalition of DAP-PKR-PAS later known as
the Pakatan Rakyat won 29 out of 40 state seats contested in Penang, in which DAP was the largest winning component party with 19 seats, PKR 9 seats, and PAS
1, thus defeating the former ruling coalition Barisan Nasional for the authority to rule Penang for the next five years. Even though Lim is not a Penangite, he was
nominated to be the next Chief Minister (CM) of Penang, replacing the former Chief Minister Tan Sri Dr. Koh Tsu Koon of Gerakan. Other senior DAP
leaders of Penang such as Lim Hock Seng, Phee Boon Poh, and Chow Kon Yeow were bypassed and were instead appointed as excos. As the new Penang Chief
Minister, Lim Guan Eng announced an amnesty on all summonses issued by the Penang Municipal Council and Seberang Perai Municipal Council involving
vendors' licences and parking offences issued before March 2008. On March 14, a mob composed mostly of Umno members and supporters took to the streets
illegally after Friday prayers to protest his statements on the NEP. No arrests were made but two men were taken in for questioning. Various BN-backed groups
and NGOs continued to protest and lodge police reports as a form of continued harassment. On March 19, 2008, Chief Minister Lim Guan Eng announced that
the state exco had approved an open tender system for projects exceeding RM 50,000. For projects betweenRM20,000 and RM50,000, a balloting system will be
introduced and a two-week objection period would be given for both the open tender and balloting systems. During Lim's tenure as Chief Minister, Penang was
ranked top among the list of investments in Malaysia, attracting RM12.2 billion worth of total capital investments as of 2010, which accounts for 25% of total
investments in Malaysia. This is also a 465% increase compared to the total investment of RM2.17 billion as of 2009. Consequently in 2011,Penang was the top
in manufacturing investments in Malaysia for the second consecutive year, with RM9.1 billion in total. In a new indicator of total investment however, which
comprises manufacturing, services and private sectors, Penang ranked second in Malaysia after Sarawak in total investments, with the total amount of RM14.038
billion. This was due to not having much primary sector investments. Consequently, the public debt in Penang has decreased by 95% from RM630 million in
2008 to RM30 million at the end of 2011. On April 28, 2011, Lim signed a memorandum of understanding (MOU) with China, witnessed by the Chinese
premier Wen Jiabao and Malaysian Prime Minister Najib Tun Razakon the proposal of the construction of three road and tunnel projects in Penang island,
including a 6.5 km undersea tunnel, a third link between the island and Butterworth on the mainland. According to Lim, this would ease traffic congestion in the
area and to improve the links between the island and the mainland. The Penang state government, led by Chief Minister Lim Guan Eng, has launched the
concept of Competency, Accountability and Transparency (CAT) in governance. The slogan propelled the state government to achieve efficient, responsible and
clean governance. Another emphasis of the slogan aims to allow people in Penang to share the state government's prosperity when the slogan's goals are
achieved. It also aims to turn Penang into a cleaner, greener and safer state. CAT also includes positive work ethics and team spirit based on performance. The
slogan was eventually achieved when the state government enjoyed record budget surpluses by successfully attracting up to RM 12.2 billion of total capital
investments and through the practice of an open tender system. According to the international weekly newsmagazine The Economist, the reform of the
government with its new policies has ended the cronyism and corruption that that led to major deficits under the previous regime. As a result, the Penang state
government has received praise from the Auditor-General as the best financially managed state in Malaysia consecutively from 2008 to 2010. According to the
AG report, the consolidated fund has increased by 2.7%, from RM1,101.89mil in 2009 to RM1,131.17mil in 2010. Likewise, the consolidated revenue fund has
surged by 6.2% from RM538.95mil in 2009 to RM572.49mil in 2010. Aside from that, Penang has also won accolades from Transparency International for
implementing open tenders in awarding contracts. These record budget surpluses were directed towards social benefits such as financial aid to the hardcore
poor, cash handouts to the elderly as an anti-corruption dividend, the upgrade of public housing, free Wi-Fi internet services at selected hot spots and free bus
services within the city and between Penang island and Seberang Perai for workers. Social welfare aid of RM100 is awarded annually to senior citizens, single
mothers, disabled individuals, new-born babies and school-going pupils in Primary 1 to 4 as well as Form 1 to 4. On March 1, Lim launched the Bridge Express
Shuttle Transit (BEST), which is a free-of-charge park and ride shuttle bus service which ferries commuters across the Penang Bridge from Seberang
Jaya to Bayan Lepas Free Industrial Zone. This bus service aims to increase usage of public transport, which in turn will reduce traffic congestion during peak
hours on the Penang Bridge and therefore ease the financial burden of factory workers. SMART Centre Penang is an initiative set up by the Penang state
government and think-tank investPenang during the Penang Outlook Forum in June 2009 chaired by Lim. SMART Centre intends to provide market
intelligence, business advice, information, resources and training services to small and medium enterprises (SMEs) in Penang. It focuses on the promotion of
local sourcing, investments and networking by providing various programmes such as business matching, seminars and talks. Under Pakatan Rakyat's Agenda
Economic Sosial (AES) or Social Economic Agenda, The Penang state government is aiming to be the first state in Malaysia to eradicate poverty by ensuring
every household in Penang has an income of at least RM770 per month. The poverty line is RM763 per month for every household/family in Peninsular
Malaysia. Those families with less than RM770 monthly income will have the difference topped up by the state government every month. In other words, a family
with RM600 monthly income will receive RM170 monthly under this programme. Cleaner, Greener Penang is an initiative by the Penang state
government launched in 2010 as part of an effort to transform Penang into the most environmentally friendly and livable city in Malaysia through education,
enforcement and appreciation. This is to restore the current living environment into a cleaner and more sustainable city, which in turn will improve the quality of
living. The Penang state government, led by Lim, enforced the ban on free plastic bags throughout the state on January 1, 2010, despite an initial lukewarm
response from retail outlets. Lim said the move would reduce the state's garbage production and carbon footprint. Retail stores, food outlets and hawker stalls
state-wide are required to adhere to the rulings in order to ensure renewal of business licences. The proceedings from the sale of plastic bags went to the "Partners
Against Poverty" Special Fund to assist the state's hardcore poor. This initiative was the first of its kind in Malaysia. On December 11, 2011, Lim initiated the Car
Free Day which would be held every Sunday at particular stretches of roads in the interior city of George Town, Penang. All motor vehicles are prohibited from
entering these areas on that day, which are part of Lim's efforts to transform Penang into a sustainable city and fight climate change. In addition, the state
government is also considering a proposal to set up bicycle lanes around Penang island, mainly along coastal areas and Seberang Perai, scheduled to be
completed by 2020. The dedicated bicycle lanes in Penang island will cover a coastal route between Penang Second Bridge to Batu Maung and Teluk Bahang.
In Seberang Perai, it will cover a 140 km stretch including state and town roads and is subjected to feedback from the public. Lim wanted to promote Penang as
the first state to promote cycling as a healthy activity and reduce dependency on motor vehicles. On November 6, 2011, the Penang state government under
Lim's leadership managed to strengthen ties and forge friendship with the state of Victoria, Australia when the Governor of Victoria Alex Chernov made an
official day-long visit to Penang with the invitation of the state government. On November 15, 2011 Penang had hosted an official visit by the Governor General
of Canada the Right Honourable David Johnston and the ex-Speaker of the Kanagawa Prefectureof Japan for 2 days. Penang had managed to forge foreign
relations with Canada and Japan, which consequently strengthened trade ties to lure foreign investors to Penang. Johnston's first visit to the state was welcomed by
Lim and the Yang di-Pertua Negeri of Penang Abdul Rahman Abbas. They walked around the Penang Heritage Trail together with his delegation. Other foreign
delegations who visited Penang include the South Australian Minister of Police and Governor of Bangkok Sukhumbhand Paribatra. Several investment and
business delegations have been led by Lim on state visits to Tokyo, Bangkok, Singapore, Melbourne, Adelaide, Abu Dhabi and Dubai. Lim's official visit
to Bangkok also witnessed the signing of a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) between Penang and Bangkok, which enabled Penang to be a fast-growing
world-class and international city. Prior to this state visit, Penang was looking to develop its tourism by seeking cooperation with Bangkok. Lim said that the state
aspires to be achieve global city status by becoming a major economic hub, a top choice for investors, a desirable place for tourists and a habitat of choice for
people who want to earn a sustainable living. On September 20, 2011, Lim Guan Eng participated in an interview conducted by Australia Broadcasting
Corporation where he was reported by the Malaysian news agency, Bernama, to have disparaged the security of the state of Johor. Lim Guan Eng insisted he
never mentioned Johor, and demanded that Bernama retract their story and issue a formal apology, or face a lawsuit. However, a recording was later revealed by
government-controlled television channel, TV3, showing clear evidence of Lim Guan Eng proclaiming that Singaporeans who are in Johor are "likely to be
kidnapped". The recording of Lim Guan Eng's remark was made in Singapore. This led Lim Guan Eng to issue a formal apology to the Sultan of Johor. On
December 14, 2011, Lim won a defamation suit against Malay daily Utusan Malaysia, which was ordered by the Penang High Court to pay a total of RM200,000
worth of damages and a cost of RM25,000 to him. Utusan Malaysia had allegedly published a false, malicious and defamatory news article about Lim. Judge
Varghese George Varughese found seven paragraphs in Utusan Malaysia's article entitled "Kebiadapan Guan Eng" (Guan Eng's Arrogance) which had defamed
his political career, and subsequently pictured him and DAP as anti-Malay and anti-Muslim. Lim was represented by Jagdeep Singh Deo, his lawyer. On January
2011 Lim filed the suit at the Penang High Court. The article which was published on December 2010 accused DAP as a tool for foreign governments to
undermine the Malaysian federal government and urged for DAP to be banned. The Malay daily also claimed that Lim was a racist and anti-Malay after the
Pakatan Rakyat 2010 Convention. However, judge G.V Varughese said that the article was mere rhetoric and not backed by facts. He added that there was also
no verification of information in the article as the writer of the article had said that there was a boycott of Utusan Malaysia and therefore, could not verify the
facts. Earlier in 2012 Penang state UMNO Youth Chief accused the Penang state government for breaking the law in selling the Bayan Mutiara land to developer
Ivory Property Group Berhad without subdividing the land. He also claimed that the state government sold the land without open tender and made no provision
for mosques. However, Lim Guan Eng showed evidence that it has been sold via open tender and thus explained that the developer would only do the
subdividing when it submits development plans for the 41.5-ha real estate project to the Penang Municipal Council. The developer had clarified that land for the
mosque and school has been allocated and adhered to the town planning regulation after the new plans and subdivision of title has been submitted. On June 22,
2011 Lim won a second defamation suit against Utusan Malaysia, which was ordered by the Penang High Court to pay a total of RM 200,000 worth of damages
and RM20,000 in costs to the former. The Malay daily had been found guilty by the court of defaming Lim in a published news article headlined "Tiada Lagi
DEB" (No More NEP), which said that Lim would abolish the New Economic Policy. Lim claimed that the article was false and inaccurate. Lim is married
to Betty Chew Gek Cheng (), who is also the State Assemblywoman for Kota Laksamana in Melaka. She is the first serving assemblywoman to be married
to a Chief Minister. They have four children.


Inas
Inas was former state in present Indonesia.
List of Rulers (title Undang Luak Inas) of Inas
Embun Serin was a ruler of Inas in the second half 18th century.
Bayan was a ruler of Inas in late 18th century.
Datuk Rambutan Jantan (died 1810) was a ruler of Inas from ? until his death in 1810.
Datuk Nuri was a ruler of Inas from 1810 until ?.
Mantik was a ruler of Inas in late 18th century.
Cenderong was a ruler of Inas in late 18th century.
Sohat was a ruler of Inas in the second half 18th century.
Biong was a ruler of Inas in the second half 18th century.
Omar was a ruler of Inas in late 18th century.
Sulung (died 1915) was a ruler of Inas from ? until his death in 1915.
Ujang bin Cepus was a ruler of Inas from 1915 until 1930.
Abdul Ghani bin Layar was a ruler of Inas from 1931 until ?
Bacik bin Abdul Rahman (died 1957) was a ruler of Inas from ? until his death in 1957.
Rentah bin Takin was a ruler of Inas from 1957 until 1966.


Jelebu
Jelebu was the state in present Malaysi. Jelebu has an infamous recorded history of British and Japanese colonization as compared to other parts of Negeri
Sembilan. Numerous priceless colonial artifacts were discovered in the small semi-agricultural town of Sungai Muntoh, which was a once-booming mining town a
century ago. These artifacts are now displayed in the state museum. Titi and neighbouring Sungai Muntoh were the most developed towns of all mining sites in
Jelebu. The booming tin industry was one of the main reasons of the massacre in Titi, where more than 1,500 people (mainly Chinese) were killed. Altogether,
there were about 5,000 people killed under the Japanese-led army during World War II.
List of Sultans and rulers (title Undang Luak Jelebu) of Jelebu
Datuk Moyang Saleh was a ruler of Jelebu from 1757 until ?.
Datuk Bukor was a ruler of Jelebu in the second half 18th century.
Datuk Bakul was a ruler of Jelebu in the second half 18th century.
Datuk Yunus was a ruler of Jelebu in the second half 18th century.
Datuk Lob was a ruler of Jelebu from late18th century until early 19th century.
Datuk Durama (died 1820) was a ruler of Jelebu from early 19th century until his death in 1820.
Datuk Penghulu Rangga Ali Tua Tuk Gila "Durongga" was a ruler of Jelebu from 1820 until ?
Datuk Pandak was a ruler of Jelebu around middle 19th century.
Datuk Mahmud (Kulup Tunggal) was a ruler of Jelebu in the second half 19th century.
Datuk Ibrahim was a ruler of Jelebu from second half 19th century until 1883.
Datuk Saiyid Ali (died 1902) was a ruler of Jelebu from 1883 until his death in 1902.
Datuk Abdullah ibni Panglima Muda (1870 - 1945) was a ruler of Jelebu from 1902 until his death in 1945.
Datuk Shamaruddin ibni Abdul Rahman (died 1962) was a ruler of Jelebu from 1945 until his death in 1962.
Datuk Othman ibni Baginda (born 1911) was acting ruler of Jelebu from 1962 until 1966.
Datuk Abu Bakar (died1979) was a ceremonial ruler of Jelebu from 1966 until his death in 1979.
Datuk Musa bin Wahab (born 1937) is ceremonial ruler of Jelebu since 1980.
List of Rulers (title Yang di-Pertuan Muda Jelebu) of Jelebu
Tengku Ahmad Shah bin Singkul was a ruler (Yang di-Pertuan Muda Jelebu) of Jelebu from 1820 until ?
Tengku Jaya bin Sabun (died 1872) was a ruler (Yang di-Pertuan Muda Jelebu) of Jelebu from middle 19th century until his death in 1872.
Tengku Etet bin Jaya (died 1875) was a ruler (Yang di-Pertuan Muda Jelebu) of Jelebu from 1872 until his death in 1875.
Tengku Abdullah bin Radin (died 1884) was a ruler (Yang di-Pertuan Muda Jelebu) of Jelebu from 1875 until his death in 1884.
Tengku Nambul bin Abdullah was a ruler (Yang di-Pertuan Muda Jelebu) of Jelebu from 1884 until 1886.

Jempol
Jempol was the state in present Malaysia. Around 1750 Luak Jempol founded, under suzerainty of Jelebu.
List of Rulers (title Datuk Penghulu) of Jempol
Daim was a ruler of Jempol around 1750.
Cap was a ruler of Jempol in the second half 18th century.
Rial was a ruler of Jempol in early 19th century.
Matik was a ruler of Jempol in the first half 19th century.
Hasan was a ruler of Jempol from 1839 until ?.
Johan was a ruler of Jempol in the second half 19th century.
Shukul was a ruler of Jempol from ? until 1916.
Abdul Wahab was a ruler of Jempol from 1916 until ?.
Sulaiman bin Abdullah was a ruler of Jempol around 1966.


Johol
Johol is a tradicional state in present Malaysia.
List of Rulers (title Undang Luak Johol) of Johol
Datuk Putri Setiawan I was a ruler of Johol from 1723 until 1747.
Datuk Rambut Panjang (died around 1760) was a ruler of Johol from 1747 until her death around 1760.
Datuk Putri Setiawan II (died around 1790) was a ruler of Johol from around 1760 until her death around 1790.
Datuk Rambutan Jantan was a ruler of Johol from 1790 until 1810.
Datuk Nuri was a ruler of Johol from around 1810 until around 1820.
Datuk Abubakar Buncit (Gubah) was a ruler of Johol from around 1820 until around 1840.
Datuk Saeto (1810 - 1900) was a ruler of Johol from around 1840 until his death in 1900.
Datuk Wan Omar bin Wan Hasan (died February 1918) was a ruler of Johol from 1901 until his death in February 1918.
Datuk Kamat bin Sulaiman (1880 August 14, 1947) was a ruler of Johol from March 1918 until his death on August 14, 1947.
Datuk Abdul Manap bin Tolok (1907 0ctober 10, 1973) was a ceremonial ruler of Johol from 0ctober 1947 until his death on October 10, 1973.
Datuk Abdul Majid bin Abdul Wahid (1902 April 4, 1985) was a ceremonial ruler of Johol from October 10, 1973 until his death on April 4, 1985.
Datuk Abdul Rahman bin Mat Som (1909 September 29, 1988) was a ceremonial ruler of Johol from April 4, 1985 until his death on September 29,
1988.
Datuk Abdul bin Ali (1923 - March 13, 2007) was a ceremonial ruler of Johol from 1988 until his death on March 13, 2007.
Datuk Muhammad bin Abdul Ghani (born 1940) is a ceremonial ruler of Johol since March 13, 2007.


Ulu Muar
Ulu Muar was a state in present Malaysia. Around 1750 Luak Ulu Muar founded, under suzerainty of Johol.
List of Rulers (title Datuk Penghulu Luak Ulu Muar) of Ulu Muar
Datuk Naam bin Khatib Akhir was a ruler of Ulu Muar from around 1750 until 1770s.
Datuk Mindek was a ruler of Ulu Muar from 1770s until ?.
Datuk Mopeng was a ruler of Ulu Muar in the second half 18th century.
Datuk Ajong was a ruler of Ulu Muar in late 18th century.
Datuk Jaalam was a ruler of Ulu Muar early 19th century.
Datuk Talun was a ruler of Ulu Muar in the first half 19th century.
Datuk Bongkok Abdul Malik was a ruler of Ulu Muar from 1824 until 1839.
Datuk Sidin was a ruler of Ulu Muar in second half 19th century.
Datuk Hashim was a ruler of Ulu Muar from 1910 until ?.
Datuk Jailani was a ruler of Ulu Muar around 1966.

Rembau
Rembau is tradicional state in present Malaysia.
List of Rulers (title Undang Luak Rembau) of Rembau
Datuk Sedia Raja Kurup was a ruler of Rembau from around 1690 until around 1725.
Datuk Sedia Raja Sabat was a ruler of Rembau from around 1725 until around 1750.
Datuk Lela Maharaja Lulinsoh was a ruler of Rembau from around 1750 until around 1790.
Datuk Sedia Raja Pekak was a ruler of Rembau from around 1790 until around 1795.
Datuk Lela Maharaja Kusil bin Uban was a ruler of Rembau from around 1795 until 1812.
Datuk Sedia Raja Bogok (died 1819) was a ruler of Rembau from 1812 until his death in 1819.
Datuk Lela Maharaja Nganit was a ruler of Rembau from 1819 until 1843.
Datuk Sedia Raja Akhir was a ruler of Rembau from 1843 until 1872.
Datuk Lela Maharaja Sahil was a ruler of Rembau from 1872 until 1883.
Datuk Sedia Raja Serun bin Saidin (died 1905) was a ruler of Rembau from 1883 until his death in 1905.
Datuk Lela Maharaja Sulung bin Miah (died 1922) was a ruler of Rembau from 1905 until his death in 1922.
Datuk Sedia Raja Abdullah bin Dahan (died 1938) was a ruler of Rembau from 1922 until his death in 1938.
Datuk Lela Maharaja Ipap bin Abdullah (died 1962) was a ruler of Rembau from around 1938 until his death in December 1962.
Datuk Sedia Raja Adnan bin Maah (1931 September 21, 1998) was a ceremonial ruler of Rembau from 1963 until his death on September 21, 1998.
Datuk Lela Maharaja Muhammad bin Sharif Othman (born 1941) is ceremonial ruler of Rembau since November 21, 1998.
List of Rulers (Yang di-Pertuan Muda Rembau) of Rembau
Raja Asil (later named Sultan Muhammad Shah) (died before 1824) was a ruler of Rembau (Yang di-Pertuan Muda Rembau) from 1798 until 1813.
Raja Ali bin Daeng Alampaki (died 1850) was a ruler of Rembau (Yang di-Pertuan Muda Rembau) from 1813 until 1832.
Saiyid Shaaban ibn Saiyid Ibrahim al-Qadri (diec 1872) was a ruler of Rembau (Yang di-Pertuan Muda Rembau) from 1832 until 1836.


Gunung Pasir
Gunung Pasir was a tradicional state in Malaysia.
List of Rulers (title Penghulu Luak Gunung Pasir) of Gunung Pasir
Meshit was a ruler of Gunung Pasir.
Tuakal was a ruler of Gunung Pasir.
Mantik was a ruler of Gunung Pasir.
Budin was a ruler of Gunung Pasir.
Malik was a ruler of Gunung Pasir.
Uteh was a ruler of Gunung Pasir.
Alam was a ruler of Gunung Pasir.
Kandak was a ruler of Gunung Pasir.
Pacoh (Mentadoh) was a ruler of Gunung Pasir.
Lahu was a ruler of Gunung Pasir.
Muhammad Amin was a ruler of Gunung Pasir.
Basir was a ruler of Gunung Pasir around 1920.
Shamsuddin bin Bahali was a ruler of Gunung Pasir around 1966.

Sungai Ujong
Sungai Ujong was the state in present Malaysia. Sungai Ujong came into existence with the discovery of tin ore in the 1870s like most major towns in Peninsular
Malaysia. The discovery of tin in a nearby area called Rasah, saw an influx of Arab, Malay and Chinese immigrants to work on the mines and trade there. Most of
the local Malays were farmers. Renamed to Seremban, the town flourished not only as a mining area but also a business centre. The Linggi River served as the
sole outlet to ferry tin and supplies in and out of the town. Revenue came not only from tin trade but also from the large amount of taxes collected, much to the
displeasure of the traders and the British colonialists at the neighbouring port of Malacca. The local chieftains, namely the Dato Kelana and the Dato
Shahbandar of Sungai Ujong were at odds with each other on the rights to collect taxes and ownership and control of the mines. The rivalry to assert influence
and authority opened the door for British intervention in Negeri Sembilan. The British sided with the Dato Kelana upon invitation and defeated the forces of
the Dato Bandar who was later sent into exile to Singapore. In a show of gratitude to the British for helping him win the war, the Dato Kelana had no choice but
to accept a British Resident whose job was to advise him on matters other than religion and Malay customs.
List of Rulers (title Penghulu Mentri, from 1760 title Undang Luak Sungai Ujong) of Sungai Ujong
Datuk Penghulu Kadim was a ruler of Sungai Ujong in the first half 18th century.
Datuk Penghulu Pandak was a ruler of Sungai Ujong in the first half 18th century.
Datuk Penghulu Chantak (Rumah Gadong) was a ruler of Sungai Ujong from ? until 1760.
Datuk Bador was a ruler of Sungai Ujong from 1760 until 1780.
Datuk Leha was a ruler of Sungai Ujong from 1780 until 1800.
Datuk Bahi was a ruler of Sungai Ujong from 1800 until 1824.
Datuk Kawal (died 1850) was a ruler of Sungai Ujong from 1824 until his death in 1850. Dato Kelana and the Dato Shahbandar of Sungai Ujong were at
odds with each other on the rights to collect taxes and ownership and control of the mines. The rivalry to assert influence and authority opened the door for
British intervention in Negeri Sembilan. The British sided with the Dato Kelana upon invitation and defeated the forces of the Dato Bandar who was later sent
into exile to Singapore. In a show of gratitude to the British for helping him win the war, the Dato Kelana had no choice but to accept a British Resident whose
job was to advise him on matters other than religion and Malay customs.
Datuk Sendeng (died 1873) was a ruler of Sungai Ujong from 1850 until his death in 1873.
Datuk Saiyid Abdul Rahman bin Ahmad al-Qadri (died 1881) was a ruler of Sungai Ujong from 1873 until his death in 1881.
Datuk Lela Setia Muhammad Yusof bin Hashim was a ruler of Sungai Ujong from 1881 until 1889.
Datuk Maamor bin Kasim (1880 December 15, 1945) was a ruler of Sungai Ujong from 1889 until his death in December 15, 1945.
Datuk Muhammad Kasim ibni Datuk Andika Abdul Rahim (1904 October 23, 1983) was a ceremonial ruler of Sungai Ujong 1946 until his
death on October 23, 1983.
Datuk Mubarak bin Thahak (born 1961) is ceremonial ruler of Sungai Ujong since 1984.


Teraci
Teraci was the state in present Malaysia.
List of Rulers (title Penghulu Luak Teraci) of Teraci
Ahmad bin Mantris Maharaja was a ruler of Teraci.
Tengkis was a ruler of Teraci.
Tuk "Pecat" was a ruler of Teraci.
Dato was a ruler of Teraci in the first half 19th century.
Linsoh was a ruler of Teraci in the first half 19th century.
Sulung was a ruler of Teraci around 1839.
Said was a ruler of Teraci in the second half 19th century.
Adil was a ruler of Teraci in the second half 19th century.
Jaal was a ruler of Teraci from ? until 1919.
Sohor was a ruler of Teraci from 1919 until ?.
Arifin was a ruler of Teraci in the first half 20th century.
Ujang bin Yahya was a ruler of Teraci around middle 20th century.
Lebai Hussin was a ruler of Teraci around 1966.


Tampin
Tampin is tradicional state in Malaysia. Tampin was originally governed by the Rembau administration. After the Naning War in 1832 Raja Ali declared himself
the ruler of Seri Menanti and his son-in-law, Syed Shaaban, as the ruler of Rembau. This enraged other rulers of Negeri Sembilan as they had no right to the
posts. In 1834 a civil war ensued, which resulted in Raja Ali and Syed Shaaban retreating to Tampin and the area from Mount Tampin to Putus Hill being
removed from Rembau.
[1]
This area consisting of the provinces Repah, Keru, Tebong and Tampin Tengah formed the district known as Tampin. Syed Shaaban
became the first ruler of Tampin and proclaimed himself the title Tunku Besar Tampin. The district is one of the original nine states collectively known as
Negeri Sembilan, which means "Nine States" in Malay. On March 11, 1889, the Governor of the Straits Settlements, Sir Cecil Smith, held a meeting with the
rulers of Jelebu, Sungai Ujong, Rembau, Seri Menanti and Tampin. The purpose of this meeting was to combine the districts to better manage them under
British rule. Tampin, Rembau and Seri Menanti agreed to the proposal and were united as the Seri Menanti Confederation. The newly formed confederation
accepted Martin Lister as its first British Resident. After the independence of Malaya in 1957, Negeri Sembilan and its districts started forming local
administrative councils. Formerly known as the Tampin Town Board, the Tampin District Council was established on July 1, 1980 as a result from a restructure
of the state via the Local Government Act of 1976.
List of Rulers (title from 1883 Tunku Besar Tampin) of Tampin
Raja Ali bin Daeng Alampaki (c.1784 - 1856) was a ruler of Tampin from September 13, 1832 until his death in 1856.
Saiyid Shaaban ibni Saiyid Ibrahim al-Qadri (died 1872) was a ruler of Tampin from 1856 until his death in 1872.
Saiyid Abdul Hamid ibni Saiyid Shaaban al-Qadri (died 1894) was a ruler of Tampin from 1872 until his death in 1894.
Saiyid Dewa ibni Saiyid Abdul Hamid al-Qadri was a ruler of Tampin from 1894 until early 20th century.
Saiyid Akil ibni Saiyid Dewa al-Qadri (died before 1920) was a ruler of Tampin in early 20th century.
Saiyid Muhammad ibni Saiyid Dewa al-Qadri (died May 1929) was a ruler of Tampin from ? until his death in May 1929.
Sharifah Leng bint Saiyid Abdul Hamid was regent of Tampin from ? until May 1929 and from May 1929 until December 21, 1945.
Saiyid Idris ibni Saiyid Muhammad al-Qadri (1927 December 26, 2005) was a ruler of Tampin from May 1929 until his death on December 26,
2005.
Saiyid Razman ibni Saiyid Idris al - Qadri (born 1962) is ceremonial ruler of Tampin since December 26, 2005.


Pahang
List of Chief Ministers (title Menteri Besar) of Pahang
Mahmud bin Mat was the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of Pahang from February 1, 1948 until February 1, 1951.
Tengku Panglima Perang Tengku Mohamad ibni al-Marhum Sultan Ahmad was the Chief Minister (Menteri Beesar) of Pahang from
February 1, 1951 until February 1, 1955 and from June 15, 1955 until Januray 8, 1957.
Kurnia Paduka Raja Abdullah bin Tok Muda Ibrahim was the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of Pahang from January 9, 1957 until July 18, 1959.
Wan Abdul Aziz bin Ungku Abdullah was the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of Pahang from July 18, 1959 until May 5, 1964.
Yahaya bin Mohd Seh (died 2011) was the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of Pahang from May 5, 1964 until September 1, 1972.
Abdul Aziz Ahmad was the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of Pahang from September 1, 1972 until August 31, 1974.
Seri Mohamad bin Jusoh was the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of Pahang from September 1, 1974 until July 18, 1978.
Abdul Rahim bin Bakar (1943 - 2009) was the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of Pahang from July 19, 1978 until November 7, 1981.
Abdul Rashid bin Abdul Rahman (born 1938) was the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of Pahang from November 11, 1981 until May 4, 1982.
Adnan bin Haji Yaakob (born 1950) is the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of Pahang since May 20, 1999. He is a
member of the United Malays National Organisation (UMNO). Born (in 1950) and raised in Bentong, Pahang, Adnan
Yaakob graduated from secondary school and became a teacher in 1969. He then attended the University of Malaya from
1972 and graduated in 1975. He studied for his Diploma of Education until 1977 before enrolling at the International
Islamic University Malaysia to study law. Adnan never completed his law studies, having dropped out to join full-time
politics. He contested and won the Pahang State Legislative Assembly seat in Pelangai during the 1986 general election. He
was elected UMNO division chief in Bentong in 1987. In 1999, Adnan was appointed Menteri Besar of Pahang,
succeeding Mohd Khalil Yaakob. Adnan is married to Junaini Kassim and the couple have four children.


Naning
Naning is the tradicional state in Malaysia. Naning is an area in modern-day Malacca, Malaysia and was founded in 1641. Naning was previously part of Negeri
Sembilan but it was later annexed by the British into Malacca in 1832 via the Naning War. Malacca at that time was a British holding. The Naning War started in
1831 and lasted around two years until 1833. The Penghulu of Naning then, Dol Said was enraged over British claim over Naning as part of Malacca. The British
demanded that Naning pay 10% of its produce as tribute to Malacca. Dol Said, of course, refused resulting in a British attack upon Naning in 1831. Dol Said
managed to fend off the attack with help from his allies. Towards the end of 1832, the British attacked Naning once again with a much larger force. Dol Said did
not have the help of his allies this time. His army was defeated and he surrendered. He was offered a pension and a house in Malacca.Besides, British also deficit
100,000 pound sterling.
List of Rulers (title Orang Kaya Seri Raja Merah) of Naning
Dato' Megat Alam Melintang was a ruler of Naning in the second half 17th century.
Dato' Megat Junjungan Limau was a ruler of Naning from second half 17th century until early 18th century.
Dato' Juara Megat was a ruler of Naning from 1703 until ?.
Dato' Kokah (Zohri) was a ruler of Naning from 1724 until ?.
Dato' Gahang Berbulu was a ruler of Naning around middle 17th century.
Dato' Janggut (Selamat Idris) was a ruler of Naning in the second half 17th century.
Dato' Timbo was a ruler of Naning from ? until 1786.
Dato' Anjak was a ruler of Naning from 1786 until 1801.
Datuk Abdul Said bin Omar (Dol Said) was a ruler of Naning from 1801 until 1849.
Dato' Idas bin Kasim was a ruler of Naning from 1849 until 1870.
Dato' Mohd Salleh bin Rahim (Aghap) was a ruler of Naning from 1870 until 1900.
Dato' Ranting bin Hajji Tahir was a ruler of Naning in 1900.
Dato' Hassan bin Sulong was a ruler of Naning from 1900 until 1918.
Dato' Omar bin Abu Hassan was a ruler of Naning from 1918 until 1932.
Dato' Arshad was a ruler of Naning from 1923 until 1932.
Dato' Othman bin Kering was a ruler of Naning from 1932 until 1942.
Dato' Che Lah bin Mat Sah was a ruler of Naning from 1946 until 1949.
Dato' Mohd Shah bin Mohd Said was a ceremonial ruler of Naning from from 1950 until 2004.
Dato' Abdul Latif bin Hajji Hashim is ceremonial ruler of Naning since 2004.


Negeri Sembilan
Raja Kerjan (died 1844) was regent of Negeri Sembilan from 1824 until 1826.
List of Chief Ministers (title Menteri Besar) of Negeri Sembilan
Abdul Malek bin Yusuf was the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of Negeri Sembilan from February 1, 1948 until August 11, 1950 , from January 1, 1951
until April 15, 1952 and from October 1, 1952 until October 1, 1953.
Mohamad Salleh bin Sulaiman was the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of Negeri Sembilan from August 11, 1950 until January 1, 1951.
Abdul Aziz bin Abdul Majid (1908 - 1975) was the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of Negeri Sembilan from April 15 until October 1, 1952.
Shamsuddin bin Nain was the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of Negeri Sembilan from October 1, 1953 until January 31, 1959.
Mohamad Shariff bin Abdul Samad was the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of Negeri Sembilan from April 1 until June 23, 1951.
Mohamad Said bin Mohamad (died 1996) was the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of Negeri Sembilan from June 23, 1959 until May 10, 1969.
Mansor bin Othman (1923 - 1999) was the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of Negeri Sembilan from May 10, 1969 until July 12, 1978.
Rais Yatim (born April 15, 1942 in Jelebu, Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia) is a Malaysian politician and former Chief Minister
(Menteri Besar) of Negeri Sembilan from July 12, 1978 until April 29, 1982. He was also twice times Minister for Foreign
Affairs of Malaysia from 1986 until 1987 and from March 19, 2008 until April 9, 2009. He is a Member of Parliament (MP)
representing the Jelebu constituency in the state of Negeri Sembilan. He is affiliated with the United Malays National
Organization (UMNO) which is the leading party in the ruling Barisan Nasional coalition government. He is also the current
President of International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM). He appointment to the presidency of IIUM effective on June
2, 2013. He was the longest serving member of the cabinet of the federal government of Malaysia having held several
positions in five governments since 1974. Rais was born to a Minangkabau family. A lawyer by profession, he graduated from
Language Institute (also known as Language Teaching College), Kuala Lumpur in 1964. In 1968, he taught Bahasa Malaysia to the American Peace Corps in the
United States. He obtained his honors degree from National University of Singapore. In 1994, he obtained a PhD from King's College London. His doctoral
dissertation was eventually published in 1995 as Freedom Under Executive Power in Malaysia: A Study of Executive Supremacy.
[3]
Rais has held various positions
in the national cabinet and other state government positions. He had been appointed a Minister in the Prime Minister's Department, Menteri Besar of Negeri
Sembilan (1978-1982), Minister of Land and Regional Development (1982-1984), Minister of Information (1984-1986), Foreign Minister (1986-1987, 2008 -
2009), Minister for Culture, Arts and Heritage (2004 2008) and Minister for Information, Communication and Culture (2009 2013). When he fell out of
favour of the UMNO leadership in April 1987, he resumed his law career. Rais worked with a firm called Ram, Rais & Partner (1987-1999) before being
reappointed as cabinet minister in 1999. In June 2007, Rais was nominated as a candidate for the post of the next Commonwealth Secretary-General after Don
McKinnon's term in office ended in March 2008. However, he pulled out on July 26, citing the lateness of campaigning, and his duties and commitments as the
Main Committee of the upcoming 50th Merdeka celebrations, which limited him from traveling out of the country to lobby for his candidacy.
[4]
Rais served
another term as Foreign Minister from March 19, 2008 until April 9, 2009. On the following day, he had been the Information, Communications & Culture
Minister until he end his service in the Cabinet after 13th General Election. He is succeeded by Ahmad Shabery Cheek (as the Minister of Communication and
Multimedia) and Mohamed Nazri Abdul Aziz (as the Minister of Tourism and Culture). He is married to Masnah Rais and has four children. His hobbies are
photography and travelling. He is also a writer on the subjects oflaw, politics, and Malay society.
Mohamed Isa Abdul Samad (born 1949) was the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of Negeri Sembilan from April 29, 1982 until March 25, 2004.
Mohamad Hasan (born 1956) is the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of Negeri Sembilan since March 25, 2004. He was born
on May 2, 1956 in Rembau, Negeri Sembilan. He received his primary education at SK Datuk Akhir Zaman at Rantau and
furthered his studies at SMK Rantau and SMK Tuanku Ampuan Durah at Seremban. He studied in Universiti Malaya.



Malacca
List of Yang di-Pertua Negeri of Malacca
Leong Yew Koh (August 22, 1888 January 12, 1963) was the first Yang di-Pertua Negeri (Governor) of Malacca since independence
from August 31, 1957 until August 30, 1959. Born in Salak Utara, Sungai Siput, Perak on 22 August 1888, Leong was the son of Leong
Yew Teen, who responsible in developing Salak Utara, Peak. He went to Canton, China for his earliest education. In the years of 13, he
came back to Malaya from China and studying in Anglo-Chinese School Ipoh and St Xavier's Institution Pulau Pinang. 1906, he
joined Tongmenghui Singapore when he is only 18 years old. Then he went to the University of London in 1908 studying economy,
sociology, political science and law. He graduated in 1912 with an LLB. He was called to the Bar in 1920 and served as an advocate and
solicitor in the Federated Malay States (FMS) and was also a member of the FMS Bar Committee. On February 27, 1949, Tun Tan Cheng
Lock founded the Malayan Chinese Association(MCA) alongside with Tun Leong Yew Koh and Colonel H. S. Lee, he was the first
Secretary-General of MCA. He was appointed as the Yang Dipertua Negeri of Melaka on August 31, 1957 until August 30, 1959. In 1958, A federal title of Tun
bestowed by DYMM Seri Paduka Baginda Yang DiPertuan Agung of Malaya was awarded to him. In 1959, he was appointed as Justice Minister of Malaya. He
died on January 12, 1963. He was the first Chinese to be appointed as the Yang Dipertua Negeri in any of Malaysian States.
Abdul Malek Yusuf was the second Yang di-Pertua Negeri (Governor) of Malacca from August 31, 1963 until August 30, 1971.
Abdul Aziz Abdul Majid was the third Yang di-Pertua Negeri (Governor) of Malacca from August 31, 1971 until May 9, 1975.
Syed Zahiruddin Syed Hassan was the fourth Yang di-Pertua Negeri (Governor) of Malacca from August 31, 1971 until May 9, 1975.
Syed Ahmad Al-Haj bin Syed Mahmud Shahabuddin (May 4, 1925 July 7, 2008) was a Malaysian politician. He was the Menteri Besar of Kedah
from December 14, 1967 until July 13, 1978 and the fifth Yang di-Pertua Negeri (Governor) of Melaka state from December 4, 1984 until June 3, 2004. Syed
Ahmad was born on May 4, 1925 in Kulim, Kedah, Malaysia. He is the third son of five brothers and sisters. Syed Ahmad received his early education at Sekolah
Melayu Kulim (Kulim Malay School) in 1932 till 1935 and continued his education at the Sultan Abdul Hamid College, Alor Star till he passed his Senior
Cambridge Examination in 1947. Syed Ahmad had wide experience and actively engaged in politics. He was the Kedah UMNO Assistant Secretary (19511954),
Secretary Kedah UMNO (19541967), Chairman, UMNO State Liaison Committee and Kedah National Front (19671978), UMNO Supreme Council
Member (19681978), and Deputy Chairman, UMNO State Liaison Committee and Kedah National Front (19781984). Syed Ahmad was appointed as
Menteri Besar of Kedah (19671978) and Deputy Minister, Ministry of Home Affairs (19781982 and Malaysia's High Commissioner to Singapore (1982
1984). In 1984, He was appointed as the fifth Yang di-Pertua Negeri (Governor) of Melaka state. Syed Ahmad married Toh Puan Sharifah Haniffah binti Syed
Alwi in 1950 and they are blessed with six children. Toh Puan died on 5 July 1993 in Kuala Lumpur. In 1960, H.E. Tun married Toh Puan Datuk Seri Datin
Seri Utama Marfuza bte Sheikh Mohd Osman and they are blessed with 4 children. Syed Ahmad died on July 7, 2008 at his house in Taman Tun Dr
Ismail, Kuala Lumpur. He was 83 years old. His body was buried at Melaka's State Heroes Mausoleum (Makam Pahlawan Negeri) near Al Azim
Mosque in Malacca Town, Melaka. He was the first state leader to be buried there. The Sekolah Kebangsaan Tun Syed Ahmad Shahabuddin at Hang Tuah
Jaya, Ayer Keroh was named after him. He has been awarded: He held the title of "Tun Datuk Seri Utama" by combination of his highest Federal Malaysian title
"Tun" (SMN) and his highest Malaccan title "Datuk Seri Utama" (DUNM) In other states of Malaysia, a similar combination between his highest Federal
Malaysian title "Tun" (SMN) and his local highest title may be used. Example: Tun Datuk Seri Panglima in Sabah.
Mohd Khalil bin Yaakob (born 1937) is the Yang di-Pertua Negeri (Governor) of the Malaysian state of Melaka since June 4,
2004. He was also the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of Pahang from August 14, 1986 until May 20, 1999. Khalil is a United Malays
National Organisation (UMNO) politician from Pahang, and served as the state's Menteri Besar for more than 10 years. He was
appointed as Governor in 2004 by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong. Born in Kuantan, Khalil attended Malay College Kuala Kangsar and
later graduated with a Bachelor of Arts from the University of Malaya. He was a career diplomat and served in Italy,
Morocco, Singapore and Indonesia. Khalil is a member of UMNO and served on its supreme council from 1984. He became party
secretary-general in 1999 until his appointment as governor. His was first elected to the Bukit Ibam state seat in the Pahang State
Assembly during the 1978 general elections. In 1982, he won the Maran parliamentary seat and was appointed Deputy Minister of
Education. He joined the Cabinet in 1984, serving as Minister in the Prime Minister's Department. Khalil won the Bukit Tajau state
seat in the 1986 general elections, and became Menteri Besar of Pahang. He served for three terms, until 1999. In the 1999 general
elections, he rejoined federal politics and was elected as Member of Parliament for Kuantan. He was appointed Minister of Information but did not contest the
next election, held in 2004. In April 2001, a police report was lodged by Pahang state assemblyman Fauzi Abdul Rahman alleging that Mohd Khalil
misappropriated state resources as Pahang Menteri Besar. On June 4, 2004, Khalil was appointed Yang di-Pertua Negeri of Melaka by Yang di-Pertuan
Agong Tuanku Syed Sirajuddin. Mohd Khalil is fan of Indian actor M. G. Ramachandran and Tamil cinema in general. In August 2011, he reenacted MGR's
role in the film Vettaikaaran in a 45-minute performance at the State Culture and Art Auditorium.

The Tun Mohd Khalil Yaakob Mosque at Tanjung Minyak is
named after him. He has been awarded :He holds currently the title of "Tun Datuk Seri Utama" by combination of his highest Federal Malaysian title "Tun"
(SMN) and his highest Malaccan title "Datuk Seri Utama" (DUNM). In other states of Malaysia, a similar combination between his highest Federal Malaysian title
"Tun" (SMN) and his local highest title may be used. Example: Tun Datuk Seri Panglima in Sabah.
List of Chief Ministers (title Ketua Menteri) of Malacca
Kurnia Jasa Othman bin Talib was the Chief Minister (Ketua Menteri) of Malacca .
Abdul Ghafar Baba (February 18, 1925 April 23, 2006) was the Chief Minister (Ketua Menteri) of Malacca from June 1, 1959
until October 6, 1967. He was a Malaysian politician from Melaka and a former Deputy Prime Minister of Mlaysia from 1986 until
December 1, 1993. He was born on February 18, 1925 in Kuala Pilah, Negeri Sembilan, the son of an impoverished villager. Ghafar
Baba became a teacher and later became a member of the United Malays National Organisation (UMNO) political party, which is part
of the Barisan Nasional coalition. In 1942, he married Toh Puan Asmah Binti Alang and fathered twelve children, five of whom have
died. In the early 1990s, he married his second wife Heryati Abdul Rahim, and had one child with her. In 1986, he was appointed as
Deputy Prime Minister by then Malaysian Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad. Previously, Musa Hitamheld the deputy premiership
but he resigned, citing irreconcilable differences with Mahathir.
[1]
On October 15, 1993 during UMNO election, he was challenged
by Anwar Ibrahim. Ghafar Baba was defeated by Anwar Ibrahim and subsequently lost the deputy premiership. On April 23, 2006, he
died at Gleneagles Intan Medical Centre in Kuala Lumpur due to poor heart and lung condition. He had been in critical condition for several months prior to his
death. He was buried in an official state funeral at Makam Pahlawan near Masjid Negara, Kuala Lumpur on the same day alongside the graves of former Prime
Ministers Tun Abdul Razak and Tun Hussein Onn and former Deputy Prime Minister Tun Dr Ismail before nightfall.
Talib bin Karim was the Chief Minister (Ketua Menteri) of Malacca from October 6, 1967 until August 1, 1972.
Setia Abdul Ghani Ali (1923 - 2004) was the Chief Minister (Ketua Menteri) of Malacca from August 1, 1972 until July 11, 1978.
Mohd Adib Adam (born 1941) was the Chief Minister (Ketua Menteri) of Malacca from July 11, 1978 until April 26, 1982.
Rahim Thamby Chik (April 10, 1950 in Pengkalan Balak, Masjid Tanah, Malacca) was the Chief Minister (Ketua Menteri)
of Malacca from April 22, 1982 until July 17, 1994. He is the current Chairman of the Rubber Industry Smallholders
Development Authority (RISDA), and is a former vice-president of the United Malays National Organization. He was aligned with
Dr. Mahathir during the 1987 UMNO General Assembly. He was the chief minister of Malacca from 1982 to 1994. In 1994
Rahim was charged with statutory rape of a minor, however, the public prosecutor later withdrew the charge citing lack of evidence.
Opposition politician Lim Guan Engwas later charged with sedition for printing and distributing pamphlets containing details of the
allegation against Rahim. On March 2011, PKR had alleged that he and a prominent businessman, Shazryl Eskay Abdullah, was
behind the screening of a video purportedly depicting PKR leader Anwar Ibrahim with an unidentified woman.
Mohd Zin Abdul Ghani (1941 May 14, 1997) was the Chief Minister (Ketua Menteri) of Malacca from October 14, 1994 until his death on May 14,
1997 (acting until December 2, 1994).
Abu Zahar Isnin (1939 June 12, 2013) was the Chief Minister (Ketua Menteri) of Malacca from May 22, 1997 until December 2, 1999.
He had also been Malacca State Legislative Assembly Speaker. Ithnin died of complications of a kidney disease on July 12, 2013 at the age of
74.


Haji Mohd Ali bin Mohd Rustam (born August 24, 1949) is a Malaysian politician. He is a member of the United Malays
National Organisation (UMNO) and is the ninth Chief Minister (Ketua Menteri) of the state of Malacca December 2, 1999 until May 7,
2013. He was born in Kampung Bukit Katil Melaka,Melaka on August 24, 1949. He was education at Sekolah Kebangsaan Bukit Katil
and Sekolah Kebangsaan Semabok. He continued his secondary education at Melaka High School. He got his tertiary education with
Bachelor of Degree of Social Science at USM (University Sains Malaysia). Mohd Ali joined UMNO in 1968 and has been an elected
representative since 1986. He became Chief Minister of Malacca in December 1999. He also served as a vice president of UMNO from
2004 to 2009. In the 2009 UMNO elections, he ran for deputy president but was disqualified after being found guilty of money politics.
[4]

In 2010, he approved an animal testing lab in Malacca. His defence of animal testing generated international attention, and was criticized
by the Malaysian chapter of the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals. On September 30, 2012, Rustam's eldest son Ridhwan
Ali celebrated his marriage in front of 130,000 guests in a sports centre. The event lasted eight hours and the food allegedly cost $200,000,
causing opposition politicians to question how Rustam could have afforded it on his government salary. Rustam denied allegations of corruption, saying it was his
"own family arrangement and has nothing to do with the state government." Datuk Mohd Shukri Abdul, from the country's anti-corruption commission,
announced that an investigation had been instigated: "We are going item by item, to see how much money was spent and who paid for it".
Idris Haron (born May 13, 1966

at Asahan, Melaka) is a Malaysian politician and is the current Chief Minister (Ketua Menteri) of
Melaka since May 7, 2013. He is a member of the United Malay National Organisation (UMNO) party in the governing Barisan Nasional
coalition. Idris is married with two children. For his primary education, he went to four different schools, Sekolah Rendah Kebangsaan
(SRK) Simpang Bekoh, SRK Belading, SRK Asahan from 1973 to 1977 and SRK Kubu from 1977 till 1978. He received his secondary
education at Sekolah Menengah Sains Muzaffar Syah (MOZAC), Melaka from 1979 till 1983. At MOZAC, he became the school's best
student. He later pursued his tertiary education at University of Texas at El Paso and received a Bachelor of Science in Electrical
Engineering. His ambition was actually to become a pilot but he changed his mind to become an electrical engineer instead during
interviews. He was the Chairman of the Malaysian Student Conference until he graduated in 1989. In 1993 he participated in an intensive
Japanese language training at ITM before pursuing further studies in a technical field at the Kensyu Centre in Tokyo, Japan. He has trained
by the Kandenko Corporation Ltd for six months in Tokyo, Japan, in the field of electrical distribution systems. Before his election to Parliament, Idris was
chairman of the Alor Gajah district council. Idris was elected to federal Parliament in the 2004 election for the newly created seat of Tangga Batu. In his first year
in Parliament, Idris made international news for complaining that the outfits worn by stewardesses on Malaysia Airlines would result in male passengers sexually
harassing the stewardesses. After the 2008 election, Idris was appointed a Deputy Minister for Higher Education in the government of Abdullah Ahmad
Badawi. In the 2013 election, he contested in Sungai Udang state's seat and became Malacca's 10th Chief Minister.

Kelantan
Muhammad V (previously known as Tuanku Muhammad Faris Petra; born October 6, 1969), is the Sultan of the Malaysian state of Kelantan since
September 13, 2010. He was also Regent of Kelnatan from May 24, 2009 until September 13, 2010. He was proclaimed Ruler in September 2010, succeeding
his father, Sultan Ismail Petra, who is considered incapacitated by illness. Born Tengku Muhammad Faris Petra ibni Sultan Ismail Petra in Kota Bharu, he was
made Crown Prince (Tengku Mahkota) in October 1985. In May 2009, his father, Sultan Ismail Petra suffered a major stroke. Sultan Ismail Petra was admitted
to Mount Elizabeth Hospital in Singapore and Faris was appointed Regent on 25 May in the Sultan's absence. On September 16, 2010, Faris dismissed his
younger brother, the Tengku Temenggong of Kelantan, Tengku Muhammad Fakhry Petra from the Succession Council, which has the power to determine
succession to the throne should the Sultan be permanently incapacitated. Fakhry filed an application at the High Court challenging his dismissal in
December, and issued a letter to the state secretary purportedly from the Sultan reversing all actions and decisions made by the Regent, Faris. In January 2010,
the High Court rejected Fakhry's application. In another twist, Sultan Ismail Petra's private secretary "declared" Succession Council chairman Tengku Abdul Aziz
Tengku Mohd Hamzah as Regent. The appointment was challenged by Faris in court. On September 13, 2010, Muhammad Faris Petra was proclaimed the 29th
Sultan of Kelantan, in accordance with the State Constitution. He took the regnal name Muhammad V. However, his father, Sultan Ismail Petra has petitioned
the Federal Court to declare his appointment unconstitutional. Sultan Ismail Petra is still recovering from the stroke he suffered in 2009. Muhammad V attended
the 222nd meeting of the Conference of Rulers for the first time as a full member in October 2010. This marked the recognition of his accession as Sultan by
other rulers. He was elected Deputy Yang di-Pertuan Agong in October 2011, and will begin his term on December 13, 2011. He married Kangsadal
Pipitpakdee (Tengku Zubaidah Tengku Norudin), a member of the Pattani Royal Family and the daughter of a former Thai member of parliament from the
province of Pattani, in November 2004. Kangsadal graduated from Mahidol University before working in an insurance company in Bangkok. The wedding was
attended by theQueen of Thailand, Prime Minister of Malaysia. Kangsadal was known as Tengku Zubaidah Tengku Norudin after the marriage, which ended in
divorce. They did not have any children.
List of Chief Ministers (title Menteri Besar) of Kelantan
Engku Sri Maharaja Perdana Mentri Long Abdul Ghafar was the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of Kelantan from 1775 until 1794.
Wan Mahmud bin Ibrahim was the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of Kelantan from 1800 until 1835.
Tuan Besar bin Tuan Ismail was the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of Kelantan from 1835 until 1839.
Engku Sri bin Long Abdul Ghafar was the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of Kelantan from 1839 until 1851.
Nik Abdul Majid bin Nik Yusoff was the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of Kelantan from 1851 until 1885.
Nik Yusoff bin Nik Abdul Majid was the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of Kelantan from 1886 until 1890 and from 1894 until 1900.
Said bin Ngah was the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of Kelantan from 1890 until 1894.
Hassan bin Mohamed Salleh was the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of Kelantan from 1900 until 1920.
Nik Mahmud bin Ismail was the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of Kelantan from 1921 until 1944.
Nik Ahmad Kamil bin Nik Mahmud (July 7, 1909 December 20, 1977) was a Malaysian politician who played an active role
during the country's road to independence and the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of Kelantan from 1944 until 1953. A prominent
member of the United Malays National Organisation (UMNO) in the state ofKelantan, he served as the fourth Speaker of the Dewan
Rakyat, the lower house of the Malaysian Parliament. Nik Ahmad Kamil was a lawyer and a member of the Bar. His daughter, Nik
Mariah was also a lawyer and member of the Bar. Nik Ahmad Kamil was born in Kota Bharu in 1909.
[2]
His father, Nik Mahmud Nik
Ismail was the Menteri Besar of Kelantan. He was educated at Madrasah Muhammadiah, Kota Bharu and Malay College Kuala Kangsar.
After studying Arts at the University of Bristol, he obtained his Bachelor of Laws from Lincoln's Inn in 1930. He was called to the Bar
that year. He joined the Kelantan civil service under the British colonial administration in 1930 and served as State Secretary from 1934
to 1938, succeeding his uncle. In 1938, he was appointed Deputy Menteri Besar under his father. He succeeded his father as Menteri
Besar in 1942 and held the post throughout the Japanese occupation. From 1946 to 1948, during the Malayan Union period, Nik Ahmed
served as Chief Commissioner of hotdogs in Kelantan under the new system of government. However, he became a staunch opponent of the Malayan Union and
led the Persatuan Melayu Kelantan (Kelantan Malay Association, PKM) in protesting the new system, which he felt infringed upon the rights of the Malays and
their rulers. He represented PKM at the first Pan-Malayan Malay Congress in Johor Bahru in 1946 which saw the founding of the United Malays National
Organisation (UMNO). He was an active member of UMNO, serving on its executive committee. When the Malayan Union was finally dissolved in 1948, Nik
Ahmad Kamil continued as Menteri Besar of Kelantan under the new Federation of Malaya until 1953. Nik Ahmad Kamil was a close supporter of UMNO
founder Onn Jaafar. He was selected by Onn to join a working committee in charge of drafting a charter for the newly formed UMNO. He followed Onn's exit
from UMNO in 1951 and joined the Independence of Malaya Party and Parti Negara, two parties formed by Onn in opposition to UMNO and theAlliance
Party. He was chosen to serve under the Member System from 1953 to 1956, and held the Lands, Mines and Communications portfolio and later the Local
Government, Housing and Town Development portfolio. In the first ever federal elections in 1955, Nik Ahmad Kamil contested a seat as a Parti Negara
candidate. He lost, and Parti Negara was swept aside by the Alliance Party led byTunku Abdul Rahman. Realizing that Parti Negara had failed to gain relevance
among the people of Malaya, he left to rejoin UMNO. He served under the new Alliance government as Commissioner of Trade to Australia from 1956 to 1957.
Nik Ahmad Kamil joined the 1956 Merdeka Delegation led by the Tunku to London as one of four representatives of the Malay rulers. Following the
independence of Malaya on August 31, 1957, he was appointed the first High Commissioner to the United Kingdom and served until 1958. He remained in the
diplomatic circles and served as both Permanent Representative to the United Nations as well as Ambassador to the United States from 1959 to 1962. Nik
Ahmad Kamil returned to contest the 1964 general election and won the Kota Bharu Hilir parliamentary seat in Kelantan. However, UMNO still lost out to
the Pan-Malaysian Islamic Party (PAS) in Kelantan. In the next election in 1969, he won the Ulu Kelantan seat as PAS retained control of the state. He served as
a member of the UMNO supreme council and later became its permanent chairman. In 1971, he was elected Deputy Speaker of the Dewan Rakyat. In 1974, he
succeeded C.M. Yusuf as Speaker of the Dewan Rakyat, as position he held until his death. Nik Ahmed Kamil suffered a heart attack while carrying out his
duties in the Parliament building on December 19, 1977. He died the following morning.
Mohamed Hamzahbin Zainal Abidin was the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of Kelantan from 1953 until 1959.
Ishak bin Lotfi Omar was the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of Kelantan from 1959 until 1964.
Mohamad Asri Muda (October 10, 1923 August 28, 1992) was a Malaysian politician who served as the President of the Pan-
Malaysian Islamic Party (PAS) from 1969 until 1982, and as the Menteri Besar (Chief Minister) of Kelantan from 1964 until 1974.
Asri was born on October 11, 1923 in Kota Bharu, the capital of Kelantan. He was a school teacher and journalist before entering
politics. He was elected to the Kelantan State Assembly and the federal House of Representatives in the 1959 election. Asri became
the Menteri Besar of Kelantan in 1964, replacing Ishak Lotfi Omar. He served as Menteri Besar until 1974, when he resigned to
become a Minister in the federal government. Under Asri's leadership, PAS became a member of the governing Barisan
Nasional (BN) coalition for the first and only time, from 1973 to 1978. Asri became the Minister for Land and Rural Development in
the BN government. Asri's leadership was also notable for the shifting of PAS's outlook towards Malay nationalism. Both joining the
BN coalition and moving away from religious-based policy platforms caused the party to lose support. In 1982, Asri was ousted as PAS
leader by the religious ulama faction of the party, to be replaced by Yusof Rawa.
[6]
After Asri's tenure, PAS shifted to a more radical
religious platform. Following his loss of the PAS presidency, Asri founded the Parti Hizbul Muslimin Malaysia (Hamim) but failed to achieve any electoral
success. In 1988, he joined PAS's rivals, the United Malays National Organisation (UMNO), claiming that PAS had "deviated" and had been "infiltrated by
extremist foreign elements".
Mohamad Nasir (1916 - 1997) was the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of Kelantan from 1974 until March 1978.
Nik Abdul Aziz bin Nik Mat (born January 10, 1931 in Pulau Melaka, Kelantan) is a Malaysian politician, a Muslim ulama and a
former Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of the state of Kelantan of Kelantan from October 22, 1990 until May 6, 2013.. He is
the Mursyidul Am or spiritual leader of the Pan-Malaysian Islamic Party (PAS). Nik Abdul Aziz was born in 1931 to a single father (Tok
Kura) who was an aspiring blacksmith in his hometown of Pulau Melaka, being the second eldest of five siblings. His Islamic studies
began in pondok schools in Kelantan and Terengganu. He went on to study at Darul Uloom Deoband in Uttar Pradesh, India for five
years. He obtained his Bachelor of Arts in Arabic Studies andMaster of Arts in Islamic jurisprudence from Al-Azhar University, Egypt.
During his university studies, he was one of the witnesses and a civilian to have lived in the heat of the Arab-Israeli Conflict. Having
returned from Egypt, Nik Aziz began as a teacher at various religious schools in Kelantan, hence his popular nickname "Tok Guru." He
is able to converse in Arabic, English, Tamil and Urdu in addition to his native Malay language. Nik Aziz joined PAS in 1967. He
contested and won the Kelantan Hilir parliamentary seat by-election in that same year, and held the seat (later renamed Pengkalan
Chepa) until 1986. In 1982, he was part of a movement by young members to bring change to the party leadership. PAS had lost the
Kelantan state elections in 1978 and, as PAS state commissioner, Nik Aziz began to question president Asri Muda's leadership. Finally, in the
PAS Muktamar (General Assembly) that year, Asri was forced to resign. After stepping aside from federal politics, Nik Aziz won a seat in the Kelantan State
Assembly in the 1986 general elections. In1990, PAS managed to wrest control of Kelantan back from Barisan Nasional. In his capacity as party leader in the
state, Nik Aziz became Menteri Besar of Kelantan. He succeeded Yusof Rawa as spiritual leader of PAS in 1991. His administration in Kelantan frequently
clashed on the role of Islam in Malaysia with the former Prime Minister Tun Dr. Mahathir. In contrast with the racially-exclusive ruling party UMNO, he openly
rejects communal politics. Nik Aziz has been known to command support from non-Muslims in Malaysia and has played a leading role during PAS' increase in
popularity among non-Muslims. Nik Aziz has drawn some criticisms for his hardline Islamic views. His advocacy of Islamic shariah law to all Malay Muslims
drew criticism, as did his suggestion that women would be at a lower risk of being raped if they abandoned using their lipstick and perfume, and for a 15-year ban
on the game ofsnooker. He was also recorded once stating that fashionable and sexy-dressing women deserved to be raped during a ceramah. In 2012, there was
an issue of Catholics in Malaysia using the Arabic term for "God"; "Allah" in their Christian Bible. Initially, Nik Aziz stated that the word "Allah" can be used by
non- Muslims as the origin of the word itself is evidently pre-Islamic. The issue caused a stir in the Muslim community. The PAS party was almost divided into
two blocs; One that supported the use of the word, and one that didn't. After stipulating the consequences and in order to restore unity in PAS, Nik Aziz took
back his words and disapprove that the word Allah can be used by non-Muslims. His son Nik Adli was held under the Malaysian Internal Security Act in 2001
for alleged terrorist activities including planning jihad, possession of weapons, and membership in the Kumpulan Mujahidin Malaysia (KMM),
an Islamist extremist group. After 5 years in detention without trial, he was released. Nik Aziz was asked to disclose land deals that his PAS-led Kelantan
government had done with a company that has been alleged to have shares owned by DAP members, Datuk Ngeh Koo Ham and his cousin Ngo Kar Ming. The
land deals were alleged to involve 1000ha of a Malay reserved land. The company's exact ownership is not known, whether it is a majority Bumuputra-owned
company or not. The Kelantan Peoples Action Council (MTRK) and the state opposition party, UMNO, have asked for a royal inquiry commission to be
establish to investigate the case.
Ahmad Yakob (born February 1, 1950) is the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of Kelantan since May 6, 2013. Ahmad was born at
Berangan Village, Tumpat, Kelantan, on February 1, 1950. His father, Yakob Ishak, is an Islamic figure and an activist of Pan-Malaysian
Islamic Party (PAS) at his village. His mother, Cik Zainab Cik Hussin, is also a PAS activist.Ahmad married with a teacher, Siti Zubaidah
Abdul Hamid, in 1980 and blessed with 11 children. Ahmad got his elementary education at Berangan Primary School and Bustanul
Ariffin Islamic School, Tumpat, before he further his secondary education at Islamic Studies College in Kota Bahru. He then studied at
Islamic Higher Education Centre of Kelantan, Kota Bahru; before he further his study outside Malaysia. He got his Bachelor graduate
from Al-Azhar University in Sharia in 1970s. In 1979, he got Diploma of Education (Arabic Language) from Ain Shams University. He
started his educational service as a teacher in Dato' Bentara Dalam Secondary School, Segamat, Johor, in 1980. He then taught
at Dabong Secondary School, Gua Musang (1986), Pasir Mas Girls' Secondary School (1986) and Rantau Panjang Secondary School
(1987). He resigned from being a teacher in 1995 to allow him to contest in Malaysian general election, 1995. As an Islamic teacher, he
deliver his talk actively. His father is a PAS figure in Tumpat and detained under Internal Security Act (ISA) 1960 with another PAS
figure, Nik Abdullah Arshad. Ahmad registered as a PAS Member in 1986. Starting from 1986, he was appointed to some political post in PAS, Tumpat
Chapter. In 1995, he was offered to contest in 9th Malaysian General Election for Pasir Pekan assembly seat. He won against BN candidate, Saupi Daud, with
the majority of 2,734 votes. On May 17, 1997, Menteri Besar Nik Abdul Aziz Nik Mat appointed him as a State Executive Councillor (EXCO) in charge of
Industry, Trade, Entrepreneurial Development and Human Resources, replacing Rozali Isohak for joining United Malays National Organization (UMNO).
After 10th Malaysian General Election, he was appointed once again as a State EXCO in charge of Housing, Local Government, Science, Technology and
Environment. In 11th Malaysian General Election, he defeated BN candidate, Mohamad Noor Yaakob at the same assembly seat with the majority of 2,271
votes. Ahmad was chosen as the Deputy Menteri Besar of Kelantan on March 23, 2004, replacing Abdul Halim Abdul Rahman. He then was appointed
replacing Nik Abdul Aziz Nik Mat as the Menteri Besar of Kelantan on May 2013.

Kedah
Regents for incapacitated Abdul Hamid
Tunku Ibrahim (1885 April 30, 1934) was regent of Kedah Sultanate from 1915 until on April 30, 1934.
Tunku Muhammad (1890 March 7, 1935) was regent of Kedah Sultanate from 1934 until his death on March 7, 1935.
Tunku Mahmud (1876 November 5, 1937) was regent of Kedah Sultanate from 1915 until his death on April 30, 1934.
Tunku Badli Shah (1894 - 1958) was regent of Kedah Sultanate from December 5, 1937 until May 13, 1943.
Tunku Abdul Malik ibni Sultan Badlishah (born September 24, 1929) is the heir presumptive

to the throne of Kedah and twice
regent of Kedah Sultanate from September 21, 1970 until Septmber 20, 1975 and currently since December 13, 2011. He is the son
of Sultan Badlishah and the brother of the current ruler, Sultan Abdul Halim. Tunku Abdul Malik served as Regent of Kedah from 1970 to
1975. Tunku Abdul Malik was born on September 24, 1929 at Istana Anak Bukit, Anak Bukit, as the second son of Tunku Badlishah and
Tunku Sofiah Tunku Mahmud to survive infancy. Tunku Badlishah was the seventh son of Sultan Abdul Hamid Halim (also the father
of Tunku Abdul Rahman, first Prime Minister of Malaysia). His father was appointed Raja Muda (Crown Prince) of Kedah in 1935 and
became sultan in 1943. He was educated at Titi Gajah Malay School and Sultan Abdul Hamid College, and attended Wadham College,
Oxford. His elder brother, Tunku Abdul Halim succeeded the throne in 1958 upon the death of their father. Tunku Abdul Malik became
Regent of Kedah from 1970 to 1975 during Sultan Abdul Halim's first reign as Yang di-Pertuan Agong. Because Sultan Abdul Halim has no
sons, Tunku Abdul Malik was designated as heir in 1981, and was invested as Raja Muda. Tunku Abdul Malik married Tengku Raudzah
Sultan Hisamuddin (born September 29, 1929), the daughter of Sultan Hisamuddin Alam Shah of Selangor, on July 16, 1956 at Istana Bukit Kota, Alor
Setar. After his appointment as Raja Muda in 1981, Tengku Raudzah became the Raja Puan Muda.
List of Chief Ministers (title Menteri Besar) of Kedah
Mohamad Sheriff bin Osman (August 5, 1890 September 27, 1962) was the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of Kedah from
February 1, 1948 until January 1954. As the Menteri Besar of Kedah, he was the head of the executive branch of the government in the
Malaysian state of Kedah. He was born in Cross River, Alor Star, and received his education in Penang Free School, a school of English. At
the beginning of his involvement in administration, the Sheriff was appointed to key positions in the Kedah state government, including: in
1907: English Translation of the Advisory Office of Alor Setar, in 1901: Assistant Secretary of State of Kedah, in 1912: Head of Employment
Land, in 1915: Assistant State Secretary, in 1931 - 1948: State Secretary of Kedah. He died on 27 September 1962 at the age of 72 and was
buried in the cemetery Alor Akar missile or Islamic Cemetery Al-Ghufran.
Tunku Ismail bin Tunku Yahya was the acting Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of Kedah from January 1954 until May 24, 1959 (acting from 1949 until
1951).
Syed Omar Shahabuddin (1902 December 7, 1967) was the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of Kedah from May 24, 1959 until his death on December
7, 1967.
Syed Nahar Shahabuddin (1934 - 1998) was the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of Kedah from July 13, 1978 until January 28, 1985.
Sanusi Junid (born 1943) was the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of Kedah from June 16, 1996 until December 11, 1999.
Syed Razak Syed Zain (born 1944) was the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of Kedah from December 11, 1999 until December 22, 2005.
Mahdzir Khalid (born Deember 15, 1960) was the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of Kedah from July 17, 2005 until March 9, 2005
(acting from December 22 until December 28, 2005). He is the member of the Parliament of Malaysia for the seat of Padang Terap,
Kedah, having been elected in the 2013 general election. He was the ninth Menteri Besar (Chief Minister) of the State of Kedah, from 2005
to 2008, and represented the seat of Pedu in the Kedah State Legislative Assembly from 2004 to 2013. He is a member of the United
Malays National Organisation (UMNO) party in Malaysia's ruling Barisan Nasional coalition. Mahdzir started his political career as a staffer
and in 1999 became the political secretary to then Deputy Prime Minister Abdullah Ahmad Badawi. In 2004 he was elected to the Kedah
State Legislative Assembly for the rural seat of Pedu. In December of the following year he became the state's Chief Minister after his
predecessor, Datuk Seri Syed Razak bin Syed Zain Barakhbah, resigned because of ill health. Mahdzir had been acting in the position since
July. Mahdzir's tenure as Menteri Besar came to an end after his Barisan Nasional government was defeated in the 2008 election by an
opposition coalition led by the Pan-Malaysian Islamic Party (PAS). Mahdzir became Barisan Nasional's opposition leader in the state assembly, before moving to
federal parliament in the 2013 election, winning the seat of Padang Terap from PAS.
Azizan Abdul Razak (October 25, 1944 September 26, 2013) was the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of Kedah from March 9,
2008 until May 6, 2013. His Parti Islam Se-Malaysia (PAS) led a coalition government of Kedah with PKR and the DAP after their
victory in the 2008 Malaysian election. Ustaz Azizan was the first menteri besar of Kedah from a political party other than UMNO.
He held the Kedah state assembly seat of Sungai Limau, was the PAS commissioner for Kedah and member of the PAS Central
Committee. During his lifetime, Azizan held the position as the Menteri besar of Kedah. On July 16, 2008, Ustaz Azizan was
conferred the Darjah Seri Paduka Mahkota Kedah (SPMK) which carried the "Datuk Seri" title. The award was presented by Sultan
Abdul Halim Muadzam Shah at Istana Anak Bukit in conjunction with the sultan's Golden Jubilee celebration. Azizan had 14
children from two marriages. He is a graduate of Al-Azhar University and the University of Kent, and a former head of the sharia
law department of the National University of Malaysia. He conversed fluently in Bahasa Melayu (Malay language), English and Arabic. Dato Seri Azizan Abdul
Razak died on September 26, 2013 at the Sultanah Bahiyah Hospital's intensive care unit due to weakening health.
Mukhriz Tun Mahathir (born November 1964) is the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of Kedah since May 6, 2013.
Previously he served in the government of Malaysia as Deputy Minister of International Trade and Industry from 2009 to
2013. He is a son of Mahathir Mohamad, who was Prime Minister of Malaysia from 1981 to 2003. Mukhriz has held various
posts in several business firms, which include Opcom Holdings, Kosmo Tech as well as the Malaysian Franchise
Association. He is also the executive director of Perdana Peace Global Organisation. Mukhriz was noted for his continuous
efforts in speaking for his father in the events of the rift between Prime Minister Tun Abdullah Ahmad Badawi and his
father. In 2006, Mukhriz won the election of UMNO's Kubang Pasu division, coming in fifth. Mukhriz defended his father,
who had lost in the same election he took part, by saying that there is a plan to topple him. Mukhriz drew flak from sections
of UMNO after he commented on Prime Minister Abdullah's speech that he was a "little bit" disappointed and that it offered nothing new. He later apologised
for his remarks. Mukhriz is married to Datin Paduka Norzieta Zakaria, and has four children. He is currently serving as Chairman of the Board of Directors of
Malaysian cancer vaccine company, Bioven. In 2004, he won the election of the United Malays National Organisation (UMNO) Youth Exco by garnering the
highest number of votes and was subsequently appointed to the post. He was also seen as a potential candidate for being the deputy chief of UMNO Youth's
wing, but he later withdrew. Mukhriz's older brother, Mokhzani, had also played an active role in UMNO's politics. In the 2008 Malaysian general election,
Mukhriz won the Jerlun Parliament Seat (P005) with the sum of the DUN differing markedly from Parlimen. Before this, he offered himself to contest
in Langkawi Parliament Seat but was rejected by 85 out of 91 UMNO branches in Langkawi. However, many Langkawi leaders backed him later.
The Jerlun UMNO division welcomed Mukhriz to contest in their Parliament seat and promised to give him full support in the election. In 2009, Mukhriz
contested as a candidate for the new UMNO Youth Chief after the wing's predecessor, Datuk Seri Hishamuddin Hussein released his position. He was rivalled
by Khairy Jamaluddin and Khir Toyo. Nominations for the posts coincided with division meetings which took place between October and November 2008.
Mukhriz was initially seen as leading in nominations compared to Khairy but eventually lost in the final vote count. However, a controversy was sparked when
Khairy was allowed to contest for the post even though he was found guilty for being involved with money politics by the UMNO Disciplinary Board, while
others who were found guilty for the same offence, such asMohd Ali Rustam who was supposed to contest for the UMNO Vice President post, were not allowed
to contest for their respective posts. However, Khairy denied the allegation, as stated in his blog. In the 2013 election, Mukhriz gave up his seat in federal
parliament to contest the Kedah State Assembly seat of Ayer Hitam. The move was taken with a view to becoming the Chief Minister of Kedah if the Barisan
Nasional coalition could defeat the Pakatan Rakyatstate government led by Azizan Abdul Razak. Mukhriz won Ayer Hitam (defeating the Pan-Malaysian Islamic
Party (PAS) incumbent), Barisan Nasional reclaimed the state government, and Mukhriz was sworn in as Chief Minister on 6 May, the day after the election, in
the presence of his father. On June 21, 2013 Mukhriz attempted to charge Penang for the use of water from a river located in Penang state, this is due to the
water supply origination in Kedah. In return the Chief Misister for Penang Lim Guan Eng requested the Kedah government to pay rent for the land at which the
river occupies in the Penang state.


Johor (Johore)
List of Chief Ministers (title Menteri Besar) of Johor
Jaafar Bin Haji Muhammad (1838 - 1919) was the first and longest serving Dato' Menteri Besar (Chief Minister) of Johor, an office he
held from 1886 until his death in 1919. Jaafar took office when Temenggung Abu Bakar made himself Sultan and formulated a new
constitution and administrative framework for Johor in 1885. His residence for most of the latter part of his life was Istana Bukit
Senyum which was built in 1883 and a high school behind the palace, Sekolah Dato Jaafar is named after him. Jaafar was married five times,
and three of his sons were also Menteri Besar after him, including the father of modern Malay nationalism, Dato Onn Jaafar.


Mohamed bin Mahbob (1852 - 1926) was the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of Johor from July 1920 until 1922.
Abdullah bin Jaafar (1875 - 1934) was the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of Johor from September 23, 1923 until 1928.
Mustapha bin Jaafar was the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of Johor from September 16, 1928 until November 23, 1931.
Abdul Hamid bin Yusof (1876 December 28, 1934) was the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of Johor from November 23, 1931 until his death on
December 28, 1934.
Ungku Abdul Aziz bin Abdul Majid (1887 - 1951) was the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of Johor from April 1935 until June 1, 1947.
Onn Jaafar (1895 January 19, 1962) was the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of Johor from June 1, 1947 until May 18, 1950. He was
the founder of United Malays National Organization (UMNO) and was also responsible for the social economic welfare of the Malays by
setting up the Rural Industrial Development Authority (RIDA). His son was Tun Hussein Onn, the third Prime Minister of Malaysia and
his grandson is Hishammuddin Hussein, currently the Minister of Defence and also the acting Minister of Transportation in
the Malaysian Cabinet. Early Malay nationalism took root in Johor during the 1920s as Onn Jaafar, whom Sultan Ibrahim had treated as
an adopted son, became a journalist and wrote articles on the welfare of the Malays. Some of Onn's articles were critical of Sultan
Ibrahim's policies, which led to strained personal relations with the Sultan. In particular, Sultan Ibrahimexpelled Onn from Johor after
he published an article in the Sunday Mirror, a Singapore-based English tabloid, which criticised the Sultan's poor treatment of the Johor
Military Forces personnel and the welfare of the Orang Asli. Onn became very popular after he continued to cover issues on Malay
grievances, and Sultan Ibrahim invited Onn to return to Johor in 1936.
[1]
Along with his companions, Haji Anwar bin Abdul Malik, Haji
Syed Alwi bin Syed Sheikh al-Hadi and Mohamad Noah Omar, they founded the United Malays National Organization (UMNO) as a means to rally the Malays
against the Malayan Union, which was perceived as threatening Malay privileges and the position of the Malay rulers. Onn took up the role of UMNO's president
on May 1, 1946. The Malayan Union proposal provided that United Kingdom had full administrative powers over the Malay states except in areas pertaining to
Islamic customs. The Malays strongly protested against the treaties, as the treaties had the effect of circumscribing the spiritual and moral authority of the Malay
rulers, which the Malays held high esteem over it. Communal tensions between the Malays and Chinese were high, and the prospect of granting citizenship to
non-Malays was deemed unacceptable to the Malays. In particular, politicians in Johor were extremely unhappy with the willingness of Sultan Ibrahim to sign the
treaties with Harold MacMichael, and voiced out that the Sultan had violated the terms in the Johor state constitution which explicitly forbade any foreign powers
to assume legitimate control over the state. In early February 1946, seven political dissidents led by Awang bin Hassan organised a rally to protest against the
Sultan's decision for signing the treaties, and Onn Jaafar, who was then serving as a district officer in Batu Pahat, was invited to attend the rally. The rally was held
on 1 February 1946 at the Sultan Abu Bakar State Mosque, and protesters shouted nationalistic slogans and called for the dethronement of Sultan Ibrahim.
Malay nationalistic slogans were raised during the rally, many of whom were directed against the Sultan himself, whom they accused him for committing treason
against the Malay race by signing the treaties. News of the rally reached the Sultan Ibrahim on February 22, 1946, who was then residing at Grosvenor House in
London. Sultan Ibrahim approached the colonial office and expressed his withdrawal of support for the proposal scheme, but this did not appease the political
dissidents and Onn continued to organise more rallies in the other Malay states to muster further support for his calls against the Malayan Union, and
formed United Malays National Organisation (UMNO) in May. To appease the Malays and the UMNO leaders, including Onn himself, Sultan Ibrahim
personally donated a lump sum of $5,000 to UMNO and Onn was appointed the Menteri Besar of Johor in 1946. The establishment of the Federation of
Malaya did not go down well with the ethnic Chinese, whereby favourable conditions for obtaining citizenship for the Chinese and other non-Malays were
withdrawn. The Malaysian Chinese Association (MCA) was formed in 1949 under the leadership of a Straits Chinese businessman, Tan Cheng Lock who
frequently raised grievances over the citizenship terms that were set when the Federation was established. As a result, communal tensions between the Malays and
Chinese surfaced, and Onn kept his distance from Tan. Tan encountered initial difficulties with meeting Sultan Ibrahim, who was not accustomed to working
with Chinese businessmen. Sultan Ibrahim also became increasingly disappointed in Onn's work commitment, whom he saw as neglecting state affairs as a result
of his commitments towards UMNO. In early 1950, Sultan Ibrahim approached Onn, who was asked to choose between committing his efforts for UMNO and
the state. Onn chose to the former, and resigned as the Menteri Besar of Johor in May. In later years, Onn became increasingly disgusted with what he
considered to be UMNO's race based communalist policies, and called for party membership to be opened to all Malayans, and for UMNO to be renamed as
the United Malayans National Organisation. When his recommendations went unheeded, he left the party on August 26, 1951, to form the Independence of
Malaya Party (IMP). However, the IMP failed to receive sufficient backing from Malayans, and eventually Onn left it to form the Parti Negara, which placed
membership restrictions on non-Malays in an attempt to woo the Malays. He finally won a seat in the Malayan parliament in the 1959 elections under his new
party. Neither party gained popular support against Tunku Abdul Rahman's new Alliance coalition and he was eventually eclipsed from Malayan political life.
Onn's character has been portrayed in a 2007 Malaysian movie 1957: Hati Malaya which is directed by a popular Malaysian film director, Shuhaimi Baba. His
role is played byZaefrul Nadzarine Nordin.
Syed Abdul Kadir bin Mohamed was the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of Johor from February 20, 1952 until June 5, 1955.
Wan Idris bin Ibrahim (1888 - 1973) was the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of Johor from July October 1, 1955 until June 16, 1959.
Hassan Yunos (1907 - 1968) was the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of Johor from June 27, 1959 until January 31, 1967.
Othman Saat (April 4, 1927 October 27, 2007) was the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of Johor from February 1967 until April 1982.
Born in Muar, he had been actively involved in politics since 1946.



Abdul Ajib bin Ahmad (September 13, 1947 February 3, 2011) was the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of Johor from April 29, 1882
until August 12, 1986. He was later a minister in the federal government of Mahathir Mohamad. He was a member of the United Malays
National Organisation (UMNO). An economics graduate, Ajib worked as an adviser to Musa Hitam before becoming Chief Minister of Johor
in 1982. He served as Chief Minister until 1986, when he moved to federal politics, winning the seat of Mersing. He became a minister in the
government of Mahathir Mohamad, but was dismissed in 1987 for supporting rebel UMNO leaders Rais Yatim and Razaleigh
Hamzah against Mahathir in a party leadership dispute. Ahmad died of a heart attack at the age of 63 on February 3, 2011.

Muhyiddin bin Yassin (born May 15, 1947) is a Malaysian politician and the current Deputy Prime Minister and the
Minister of Education since April 10, 2009. He is also the Deputy President of the United Malays National Organisation
(UMNO), the main component party of the ruling Barisan Nasional coalition. He was the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of Johor
from August 13, 1986 until May 6, 1995. Muhyiddin grew up in the state of Johor and joined the state public service after
graduating from university. He later took up management positions at various state-owned companies. He joined politics in the
1970s and was elected as Member of Parliamentfor Pagoh in 1978. During his term as MP, he was appointed Deputy Federal
Territories and later Deputy Trade and Industry Minister. As Johor UMNO chief, he became Menteri Besar of Johor from 1986
to 1995. He returned to federal politics in 1995 and was appointed to the Cabinet as Minister of Youth and Sports. He was
appointed Minister of Domestic Trade and Consumer Affairs after the 1999 general election and became a vice president of
UMNO in 2000. Under the premiership of Abdullah Ahmad Badawi, Muhyiddin became Minister of Agriculture (20042008)
and then Minister of International Trade and Industry (20082009). In 2008, he contested and won the UMNO deputy presidency and was appointed Deputy
Prime Minister and Minister of Education by Prime Minister Najib Razak in 2009. As Education Minister, Muhyiddin ended the use of English as the medium
of instruction for science and mathematics in public schools. He also attracted controversy after describing himself as "Malay first" when challenged by the
opposition to pronounce himself as "Malaysian first." In 2013, Muhyiddin retain his parliamentary seat of Pagoh, Johor, Malaysia. He also retain his position as
the Minister of Education and also the Deputy Prime Minister of Malaysia. Muhyiddin was born in Muar, Johor, Malaysia. His father, Muhammad Yassin bin
Mohammad, was of Buginese descent. Muhammad Yassin was an Islamic theologian and cleric based in Bandar Maharani, Muar, Johor, while his mother,
Hajjah Khadijah Kassim, wasJavanese. Muhyiddin received his primary education at Sekolah Kebangsaan Maharani, Muar, Johor and Sekolah Kebangsaan
Ismail, Muar, Johor. After that, he received his secondary education at Muar High School, Johor. Subsequently, he attended Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur
and received his honour bachelor's degree in Economics and Malay Studies in 1971. After completion of his studies, Muhyiddin joined the Johor state public
service as the Assistant Secretary of Training and Scholarship. In 1974, he was appointed as Assistant District Officer (ADO) of Muar, but later decided to joined
the corporate sector in the Johor State Economic Development Corporation (PKENJ) in managing its subsidiary companies like Sergam Bhd as Managing
Director (19741977), Equity Mal (Johore) Sdn Bhd as Director (19741978), Sri Saujana Bhd as Managing Director (19741978) and SGS Ates (M) Sdn Bhd
as Human Resource Manager (1974). Muhyiddin involvement in UMNO began as ordinary member at the Pagoh division in 1971. His leadership was imminent
when he was elected as UMNO youth chief in the Pagoh division and the secretary in 1976 and subsequently the youth chief of Johor state UMNO Youth until
1987. In addition, Muhyiddin also occupied the seats of Exco in the national Malaysia UMNO Youth. In 1984, Muhyiddin was elected the UMNO Division
Chief of Pagoh replacing Tan Sri Osman Saat. Muhyiddin rose up the ranks and file of Johor UMNO quickly. From a state executive council member, he rose
to become Johor UMNO's head and later became Menteri Besar of Johor. Muhyiddin contested and was elected Member of Parliament for
the Pagoh constituency in the 1978 general election and kept the seat until 1982. Muhyiddin was appointed Parliamentary Secretary in the Ministry for Foreign
Affairs, subsequently promoted to Deputy Minister in the Ministry of Federal Territories and later the Ministry of Trade and Industry. In 1986 general election,
Muhyiddin switched to contest and won the Johor State Legislative constituency seat of Bukit Serampang to open the path for him to become the fourth Menteri
Besar of Johor after independencs on 13 August 1986. His tenure as Menteri Besar lasted from August 13, 1986 until May 6, 1995. Muhyiddin switched back to
contest the Pagoh parliament seat in 1995 general election and served in several different federal government cabinet as Minister of Youth and Sports (1995
1999), Minister of Domestic Trade and Consumer Affairs (19992004), Minister of Agriculture (20042008) and Minister of International Trade and Industry
(20082009) before becoming deputy prime minister. He was made the Deputy Prime Minister by the new sixth Prime Minister, Datuk Seri Najib Tun Razak, in
2009. He is also holding the post of Education Minister. Muhyiddin's luck of his political pursue at the national level in UMNO has a different story. In 1984,
Muhyiddin contest UMNO Supreme Council seat but lost. Muhyiddin was later appointed as the Umno Johor State Liaison Chairman and next appointed as
Supreme Council member. In November 1990 he offered himself to contest the UMNO Vice-President, but lost again. Muhyiddin attempted again in the
November 1993 UMNO party election, successfully this time. But he lost the 1996 election when defending Vice President post. Eventually in the election in
2000 he again won the post of vice president of UMNO until October 2008 party election when Muhyiddin contested the higher post of Deputy President which
was left vacant as the incummbent, Dato' Seri Mohd Najib who was acting party president after the retirement of Tun Abdullah Ahmad Badawi, announced to
run for President; and won. Muhyiddin attacked Tun Abdullah Ahmad Badawi's original transition plan as "too long", and some people say that to one point
Muhyiddin was about to ask and force Abdullah to quit, though he never did so directly. Muhyiddin during the 2008 general election, managed to keep his seat,
and remained as an UMNO leader. Shocked by the election results, he has called for reforms. Muhyiddin served as one of the Vice-presidents of UMNO too.
During the 2009 UMNO General Assembly and party election, Muhyiddin offered his candidacy and nominated for the Deputy President post which was
vacated by the incoming Prime Minister Datuk Seri Najib Tun Razak. He was challenged by Datuk Seri Mohd Ali Rustam, Malacca Chief Minister and Tan Sri
Muhammad Muhammad Taib, Rural and Regional Development Minister. Muhyiddin, seen being the supporter of Tun Dr Mahathir was seen to be the front-
runner for the race, garnering many nominations by the UMNO divisions. But the competition went tough, as Taib and Rustam gained more ground especially
from the Tun Abdullah Badawi camp. The race was tipped by political analysts to be very tight. However, UMNO supreme council decided to disqualify Ali
Rustam candidacy from the Deputy President elections after his assistants were caught involved with corruption after investigation. The election resulted
Muhyiddin's election to the post with 1,575 votes to Muhammad Taib's 916. Subsequently, Muhyiddin was appointed as the new Deputy Prime Minister for
Malaysia on April 9, 2009 when Najib took over from Tun Abdullah Ahmad Badawi and unveiled his first Cabinet after assuming the premiership on April 3,
2009. During Muhyiddin's tenure as the Deputy Prime Minister for Malaysia, he announced several controversial actions. He announced the decision to revert
the teaching and learning of Mathematics and Science in English in all Malaysian government primary and secondary school made during Tun Dr. Mahathir
Mohamad's administration. Muhyiddin waded into controversy in March 2010, by stating he was "Malay" first rather than "Malaysian first". He has also said that
there is nothing wrong for other races to do the same i.e. the Chinese could claim themselves to be "Chinese first, Malaysian second" and same for the Indians.
On July 13, 2010 he said that anyone was free to form an association, including Chinese or Indian versions of the Malay rights group, Perkasa. Prime
Minister Najib Tun Razak came to Muyyiddin's defence despite the 1Malaysia campaign promoting "a nation where, it is hoped, every Malaysian perceives
himself or herself as Malaysian first, and by race, religion, geographical region or socio-economic background second...".
Abdul Ghani Bin Othman (born 1946) is the Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of Johor from May 6, 1995 until May 14, 2013.
Born in Sungai Mati, Ledang, Muar, Johor, Malaysia. He is a member of the United Malays National Organisation (UMNO). He holds
the political party position of Ledang Division Chairman, Johor State Liaison Chairman and national Supreme Council member
in UMNO. He received his primary education at Tangkak Boys School (Sekolah Laki-Laki Tangkak) before entering Muar High School
(Sekolah Tinggi Muar). Qualifying for a Colombo Plan scholarship, Abdul Ghani furthered his studies at Latrobe University in
Melbourne, Australia. He graduated with a bachelor's degree in Economics (Hons). Prior to returning to Malaysia, Abdul Ghani
completed a Masters in Economics at the University of Queensland. Upon returning to his homeland, he joined the Economics Faculty
at University Malaya (19741980) and within several years, was promoted to be the Dean of the School (19801984). In addition to that,
he also served as Master of First College (Residential) for University of Malaya (1979 1984). Abdul Ghani's political career began when
he was first appointed to be a Senator (December 1984 - July 1986). This was followed by his appointment to the Federal Parliament in August 1986. From May
1987 to November 1990, Abdul Ghani held the post of Deputy Minister for Energy, Telecommunication and Post. Subsequently, he was then given the portfolio
of Deputy Minister of Finance from 1990 to 1993. In December 1993, Abdul Ghani was promoted to become the Minister of Youth and Sports (1 December
1993 - March 1995). He immediately initiated a national youth program called 'Rakan Muda' (Young Friend), which helped mobilize Malaysian youths through
healthy activities such as sports and cultural events. In March 1995, Abdul Ghani was appointed to become the Menteri Besar of Johor and has held that position
for the past 17 years. During the Malaysian general election, 2013 however, he was defeated by Democratic Action Party's advisor Lim Kit Siang in Gelang
Patah,Johor and was replaced by Mohamed Khaled Nordin as Menteri Besar for Johor. The Sultan of Johor awarded Abdul Ghani the Order of the Crown of
Johor; Seri Mahkota Johor (SMJ) medal and the Darjah Kebesaran Seri Paduka Mahkota Johor (SPMJ) in 1989, which brought with it the title of Dato'. Abdul
Ghani was then conferred in 1996 the rank of "The Most Esteemed Family Order of Johor" (Darjah Kerabat Mahkota Johor Yang Amat Dihormati) (D.K. II)
On April 9, 2009, Sultan Iskandar bestowed upon Abdul Ghani the highest award in the State of Johor, DK (I). It is very rare for a commoner to receive such an
award, which is normally given to royals. Ghani did not agree with the Bangsa Malaysia concept and alleging that Bangsa Malaysia was a "nebulous concept" which
overstepped the bounds of the Constitution. "Even if the term Bangsa Malaysia is to be used, it must only be applied in the context of all the peoples
of Malaysia with the Malays as the pivotal race," he said. Ghani insisted that those advocating Bangsa Malaysia were echoing Lee Kuan Yew's call for a Malaysian
Malaysia made during the early 1960s when Singapore was a state in Malaysia, even though the campaign had been repudiated by the government. After the
2006 UMNO Annual General Assembly, Ghani elaborated that his opposition to Bangsa Malaysia and Malaysian Malaysia was because: It is about everything
being equal and this does not capture the hearts of Malaysians. Therefore, regardless of whatever name is given, the concept is similar and this is against idea
kenegaraan (the idea of nationhood) which we have inherited. Ghani defined his idea kenegaraan as "the idea that has united the Malays, and also the same idea
that has given privileges to other races to be citizens, live together and share power and prosperity."
Mohamed Khaled Nordin (born November 30, 1958) is a Malaysian politician who is the current Chief Minister (Menteri Besar) of
Johor since May 14, 2013. He was the Minister of Higher Education in the Cabinet of Malaysia from 2008 to 2013. He formerly held the
post of Minister of Entrepreneur & Cooperative Development from 2004 until the 2008 general election. He is a political member of
UMNO and is a Member of Parliament for the constituency of Pasir Gudang, Johor. In August 2010 he announced the controversial
banning of students in Malaysia from Political Parties. He studied law at Malaya University in Kuala Lumpur. In 1990, he was elected as a
Member of Parliament from Johor Bahru; he was re-elected from Johor Bahru in 1995 and 1999. In the 2004 general election, he was
elected as a Member of Parliament from Pasir Gudang.


Aundh
Prime Minister of Aundh
Parshuram Rao Pant (1912 - 1992) was the Prime Minister of the princely state of Aundh from 1944 until 1948.

Baroda
List of Chief Ministers (Dewans) of Baroda
Diwanji Takapir was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Baroda jointly with Mahadaji Govind Kakirde from 1743 until ?
Mahadaji Govind Kakirde was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Baroda with Diwanji Takapir from 1743 until ?.
Madhav Nimbaji Vanikar was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Baroda in the second half 18th century.
Ramchandra Basvant was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Baroda in the second half 18th century.
Balaji Yamaji was the acting Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Baroda in the second half 18th century.
Gopal Naik Tambekar was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Baroda in the second half 18th century.
Antaji Ganesh was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Baroda around 1777.
Govind Pandit was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Baroda from around 1777 until 1780.
Hiramand was the acting Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Baroda during 1780s.
Baloba was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Baroda during 1780s.
Gumaji Patel was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Baroda during 1780s.
Ramchandra Bhaskar was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Baroda around 1787.
Raoji Appaji was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Baroda from December 1793 until September 20, 1800 and from January 27, 1801 until
July 18, 1803.
Vithalrao Devaji was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Baroda from 1800 until 1820.
Shrimant Sardar Khanjirao Maharaja Sahib Gaekwar was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Baroda from September 20, 1800
until January 27, 1801.
Sitaram Raoji was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Baroda from 1803 until 1807.
Babaji Rao was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Baroda from 1807 until 1810.
Vithalrao Bhau (Vithal Rao Bhau) was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Baroda from 1810 until 1812 and jointly with Vithalrao Devaji
from 1820 until 1828.
Gangadhar Shastri (died July 14, 1815) was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Baroda from 1812 until his death on July 14, 1815.
Bhimashankar was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Baroda from July 1815 until October 1819.
Dhakji Dadaji was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Baroda from October 12, 1819 until January 1820.
Vithalrao Devaji was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Baroda jointly with Vithalrao Bhau (Vithal Rao Bhau) from 1820 until 1828.
Veniram Aditram was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Baroda jointly with Prabhaka Dikshit from 1828 until 1829 and from 1833 until
1839.
Prabhaka Dikshit was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Baroda jointly with Veniram Aditram from 1828 until 1829.
Gopal Atmaram Devadar was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Baroda from 1829 until 1833.
Balasaheb Dhaibar was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Baroda from 1848 until 1849.
Bhau Tambekar was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Baroda from 1849 until 1854.
Govindrav Pandurang Rode was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Baroda from 1854 until 1867 (jointly with Ganesh Sadashiv Ojhe
from 1854 until March 1861).
Ganesh Sadashiv Ojhe was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Baroda jointly with Govindrav Pandurang Rode from 1854 until March
1861).
Bhau Shinde was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Baroda from November 17, 1867 until November 24, 1869.
Nimbaji Rao Dhole (or Davale) was the acting Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Baroda from November 25, 1869 until November 1870.
Hariba Gaikvad was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Baroda from November 1870 until March 1871.
Gopal Rav Mairal (died 1872) was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Baroda from March 22, 1871 until his death in 1872.
Balvantrav Khanvelkar (Balwant Rao) was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Baroda from November 1872 until March 1873.
Shahabuddin Kazi (1832 - 1900) was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Baroda from 1873 until 1874.
Dadabhai Naoroji (1825 1917) was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Baroda from August 4, 1874 until January 1875.
Madhava Rao (1828 - 1891) was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Baroda from May 10, 1875 until 1882.
Khan Bahadur Kazi Shahabuddin was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Baroda from September 29, 1882 until July 31, 1886.
Bahadur Lakshman Jagannath Vaidya was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Baroda from August 1, 1886 until May 30, 1890.
Manibhai Jasbhai was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Baroda from May 31, 1890 until November 21, 1895.
S. Srinivasa Raghava Iyengar (died 1903) was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Baroda from July 15, 1896 until October 2, 1901.
R.V. Dhamnaskar was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Baroda from October 3, 1901 until June 30, 1904..
Kersaspji Rustamji Dadachanji was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Baroda from July 1, 1904 until February 28, 1909.
Shri Romesh Chunder Dutt was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Baroda from June 1, 1909 until November 30, 1909.
V.P. Madhava Rao (1850 - 1930) was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Baroda from December 1, 1909 until January 3, 1912.
Bihari Lal Gupta (1849 March 16, 1916) was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Baroda from December 1, 1912 until his death on March
16, 1914.
Vishwanath Patankar Madhava Rao (1850 - 1934) was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Baroda from March 17, 1914 until May 7,
1916.
Manubhai Nandshankar Mehta (1868 - 1946) was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Baroda from May 9, 1916 until 1927.
Vangal Thiruvenkatachari Krishnamachari (1881 - 1946) was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Baroda from 1927 until 1945.
Brojendra Lal Mitter (1875 - 1950) was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Baroda from January 1945 until 1947.
Jivraj N. Mehta (1887 - 1977) was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Baroda in 1947.

Bastar
List of Chief Ministers (Diwans) of Bastar
Lal Dalganjan Singh (died 1863) was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Bastar from 1842 until 1862.
Moti Singh was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Bastar from 1862 until 1867.
Gopinath Kapardas was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Bastar from 1867 until 1881.
Kalendra Singh was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Bastar from 1881 until 1886.
Krishna Rao was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Bastar from 1886 until 1888.
Ganpat Rao Gokle was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Bastar from 1888 until 1890.
Gopinath Guru (died 1891) was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Bastar from 1890 until his death in 1891.

Bharatpur
List of Chief Ministers (Dewans) of Bharatpur
K.P.S. Menon was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Bharatpur from 1940 until February 1943.
A.V. Ramanathan was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Bharatpur from February 1943 until around 1944.

Bhavnagar
List of Chief Ministers (Dewans) of Bhavnagar
Anantrai Prabhashankar Pattani was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Bhavnagar from 1937 until January 1948.

Bikanir
List of Chief Ministers (Dewans) of Bikanir
Anand Ram Khawas (died February 26, 1733) was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Bikanir from ? until his death on February 26, 1733.
Mohata Bakhtawar Singh (1707 - 1779) was the four times Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Bikanir from 1735 until February 1751, from
1752 until 1756, from 1757 until 1762 and from September 1765 until his death in 1779.
Amar Singh Chaturbhujani was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Bikanir from February 1751 until 1752.
Mohata Prithvi Singh was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Bikanir from 1756 until December 1757.
Shah Mool Chand Bardiya was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Bikanir from 1762 until September 1765.
Mehta Swaroop Singh was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Bikanir from 1779 until early 1780s.
Mehta Thakursi was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Bikanir from early 1780s until 1787.
Mohata Madho Rai was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Bikanir from 1787 until 1791.
Pratap Mal Baid was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Bikanir from 1791 until 1794.
Mohata Rao Sahib Singh Gun Roop was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Bikanir from 1794 until 1805.
Amar Chand Surana was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Bikanir from April 1805 until Aprl 1815.
Mohata Bhomji was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Bikanir from April 1815 until February 1815.
Abhai Singh Mohata was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Bikanir from February 1816 until 1828.
Hindu Mal Baid was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Bikanir from 1828 until around 1840.
Sri Narayan Singh Bhati was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Bikanir around 1841.
Sarana Shri Lakshmichand was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Bikanir from 1844 until 1852.
Guman Singh Baid was the three times Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Bikanir from 1852 until 1853 and from 1854 until 1856 and from
1864 until 1865.
Leeladhar Mohata was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Bikanir in 1853.
Jalam Chand Kochar was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Bikanir in 1853.
Lachhi Ram Rakhecha was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Bikanir from 1853 until 1854.
Pandit Dojainant was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Bikanir in 1856.
Ram Lal Dwarkani was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Bikanir from 1856 until 1863 and from 1865 until 1866.
Man Mal Rakhecha was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Bikanir in 1866.
Sheo Lal Nahata was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Bikanir in 1866.
Fateh Chand Surana was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Bikanir in 1867.
Ganga Ram Purohit was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Bikanir in 1867.
Shah Mal Kochar was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Bikanir in 1867.
Man Mal Rakhecha was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Bikanir in 1868.
Sheo Lal Mohata was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Bikanir in 1868.
Lakshmi Chand Nahata was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Bikanir in 1868.
Visayat Hussain was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Bikanir from June 1868 until August 1869.
Pandit Manphool was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Bikanir from August 1869 until December 1873.
Maharaj Lal Singh was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Bikanir from December 1873 until early 1880s.
Maharao Hira Singh Baid was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Bikanir from early 1880s until 1884.
Amin Muhammad was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Bikanir from 1884 until ctober 1888.
Sodhi Hukam Singh was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Bikanir from December 1888 until 1896.
Raghubar Singh Chauhan was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Bikanir from 1896 until 1898.
Hamidu Zafar Khan was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Bikanir from 1898 until 1903.
Shri Bhairon Singh was the Chief Minister of the princely state of Bikanir from 1916 until ?.
Manubhai Nandshankar Mehta (1868 - 1946) was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Bikanir from 1927 until 1934.
Ram Prasad Dube was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Bikanir from October 3, 1932 until October 31, 1934.
Maharaj Shri Bhairun Singh was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Bikanir from November 1, 1934 until January 1936.
Thakur Sadul Singh was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Bikanir from January until December 1936.
V.N. Mehta was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Bikanir from December 1936 until 1938.
Kailash Narain Haksar (1878 - 1954) was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Bikanir from December 1938 until July 1939.
Sire Mal Bapna (1882 - 1964) was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Bikanir from July 1939 until 1944.
Kavalam Madhava Panikkar (1895 - 1963) was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Bikanir from 1944 until March 13, 1948.
Kanwar Jaswant Singh was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Bikanir from March 14, until October 1948.
Cadambi Sheshachar Venkatachar (1899 - 1999) was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Bikanir from October 1948 until March 30,
1949.





Haydarabad
List of Chief Ministers (Dewans) of Haydarabad
Muhammad Iwaz Khan was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Haydarabad from 1724 until 1730.
Anwarullah Khan was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Haydarabad from 1730 until 1742.
Khuda Banda Khan was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Haydarabad from 1742 until 1748.
Shah Nawaz Khan was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Haydarabad from 1748 until 1750 and from 1755 until 1758.
Raja Ragunath Dass was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Haydarabad from 1750 until 1752.
Syed Lashkar Khan was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Haydarabad from 1752 until 1755.
Basalat Jung was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Haydarabad from 1758 until 1761.
Vithal Sundur was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Haydarabad from 1761 until 1765.
Musa Khan Nawab Rukn ud-Daula was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Haydarabad from 1765 until 1775.
Viqar-ud-Daula was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Haydarabad from 1775 until 1781 (jointly with Shams-ul-Mulk from 1775 until 1778).
Shams-ul-Mulk was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Haydarabad jointly with Viqarud-Daula from 1775 until 1778.
Ghulam Sayyed Khan Aristu Jah was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Haydarabad from 1781 until 1804.
Mir Alam (died December 1808) was the acting Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Haydarabad from 1795 until 1797 and from 1804 until his
death in December 1808.
Raja Rajindra was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Haydarabad in 1804.
Munir ul-Mulk was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Haydarabad joinyly with Chandu Lai from 1808 until 1832.
Chandu Lal was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Haydarabad from 1808 until 1843 (jointly with MunirulMulk from 1808 until 1832).
Ram Baksh was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Haydarabad from 1843 until 1846 and from Sepptember 1849 until April 1851.
Siraj ul-Mulk (died May 1853) was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Haydarabad from 1846 until 1848 and from 1851 until his death in
May 1853.
Amjad ul-Mulk was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Haydarabad from November until December 1848.
Shams ul-Umara was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Haydarabad from December 1848 until May 1849.
Ganesh Rao was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Haydarabad from April until June 1851.
Bashir-ud-Daula Asman Jah was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Haydarabad from 1887 until 1893.
Vikar-ul-Umra (died 1902) was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Haydarabad from 1893 until his death in 1902.
List of Prime Ministers (Presidents of the Executive Council) of Haydarabad
Maharaja Kishen Pershad (1862 - 1940) was the Prime Minister (President of the Executive Council) of the princely state Haydarabad from 1901 until
July 11, 1912 and from November 25, 1926 until March 18, 1937.
Yusuf Ali Khan Salar Jung III (1889 - 1949) was the Prime Minister (President of the Executive Council) of the princely state Haydarabad from July
1912 until 1914.
Sayyid Ali Imam (1869 - 1932) was the Prime Minister (President of the Executive Council) of the princely state Haydarabad from August 1919 until
September 5, 1922.
Faridoon-ul-Mulk Bahadur (died 1928) was the Prime Minister (President of the Executive Council) of the princely state Haydarabad from September 5,
1922 until April 1, 1924.
Wali-ud-Daula Bahadur was the Prime Minister (President of the Executive Council) of the princely state Haydarabad from April 1, 1924 until November
25, 1926.
Akbar Hydari (1869 September 1941) was the Prime Minister (President of the Executive Council) of the princely state Haydarabad from March 18, 1937
until hs death in September 1941.
Muhammad Ahmad Said Khan Chhatari (1889 - 1983) was the Prime Minister (President of the Executive Council) of the princely state Haydarabad
from Seotember 1941 until 1946 and in 1947.
Mirza Muhammad Ismail (1883 1959) was the Prime Minister (President of the Executive Council) of the princely state Haydarabad from August 1946
until May 1947.
Mehdi Yar Jung was the acting Prime Minister (President of the Executive Council) of the princely state Haydarabad from JNovember 1 until November 28,
1947.
Mir Laik Ali (died 1971) was the provisional Prime Minister (President of the Executive Council) of the princely state Haydarabad from November 29, 1947
until September 19, 1948.

Indore
List of Chief Minister (Diwan) of Indore
Bala Ram Seth was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Indore from around 1808 until 1811.
Ganpal Rao was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Indore from 1811 until December 1817.
Tantia Jogh (Tatya Joga) (died April 1826) was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Indore from 1818 until his death in April 1826.
Raoji Trimbak was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Indore from April 1826 until 1827.
Daji Bakhshi was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Indore in 1827.
Appa Rao Krishna was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Indore from 1827 until 1829.
Madhav Rao Phadnis was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Indore from 1829 until 1834.
Sardar Revaji Rao Phanse was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Indore from April 1834 until November 1836.
Abbaji Ballal (or Bhawani Bin) was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Indore from 1836 until 1839.
Bhao Rao Phanse was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Indore from 1838 until 1840 and from 1842 until 1848.
Narayan Rao Palshikar was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Indore from 1840 until 1841.
Ram Rao Palshikar was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Indore from 1848 until 1849.
Madhava Rao (1828 - 1891) was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Indore from 1873 until 1875.
Ragunath Rao (1831 - 1912) was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Indore from 1875 until 1881 and from 1886 until 1888.
Shahamat Ali was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Indore from 1881 until 1884.
Nana Moroji Trilokekar was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Indore from 1884 until 1886.
Balkrishna Atmaram Gupte was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Indore during 1890s.
Munshi Nanak Chand Agarwal was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Indore from 1890s until 1913.
Narayan Ganesh Chandravarkar was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Indore from April 4, 1913 until 1914.
Ram Prasad Dube was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Indore from 1916 until ? and from 1923 until 1926.
Chettur Sankaran Nair (1857 - 1934) was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Indore from November 1921 until 1923.
List of Prime Ministers of Indore
Siremal Bapna was the Prime Minister of the princely state of Indore from February 1926 until 1939.
Sardar Dina Nath was the Prime Minister of the princely state of Indore from 1939 until 1942.
Raja Gyannath Madan was the Prime Minister of the princely state of Indore from 1942 until 1947.
R.G. Horton was the Prime Minister of the princely state of Indore in 1947.
E.P. Menon was the Prime Minister of the princely state of Indore from September 1. 1947 until January 3, 1948.
N.C. Mehta was the Prime Minister of the princely state of Indore in January 1948.
M.V. Bhide was the Prime Minister of the princely state of Indore from January 26 until March 1948.

Jaipur
List of Chief Ministers (Dewans) of Jaipur
Kishore Das Laxmi Das was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Jaipur from 1705 until 1706.
Bihari Das was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Jaipur jointly with Fateh Chand from 1709 until 1713.
Fateh Chand was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Jaipur jointly with Bihari Das from 1709 until 1713.
Rai Narain Das Kirpa Ram was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Jaipur in 1716 and from 1725 until 1731.
Kishore Das was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Jaipur jointly with Tara Chand from 1717 until 1719.
Tara Chand was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Jaipur jointly with Kishore Das from 1717 until 1719.
Rai Narain Das Vidyadhar was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Jaipur from 1737 until 1741 and in 1745 (jointly with Fateh Ram from
1739 until 1741 and in 1745).
Fateh Ram was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Jaipur jointly with Rai Narain Das Vidyadhar from 1739 until 1741 and in 1745.
Raja Ayamal Khatri was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Jaipur from 1745 until February 1747.
Keshavdas Khatri was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Jaipur from February 1747 until August 1750.
Hargovind Natani was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Jaipur from August 1750 until around 1754.
Jago Pandit was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Jaipur around 1755.
Kaniram Nandlal was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Jaipur around 1757.
Shamram Trivedi was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Jaipur around 1761.
Surat Ram Mehta was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Jaipur from 1764 until 1771.
Khushhali Ram Bohra was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Jaipur from 1771 until July 1781.
Daulat Ram Haldia was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Jaipur from July 1781 until April 1786.
Khushhali Ram Bohra was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Jaipur from April 1786 until January 1787.
Roda Ram Khawas was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Jaipur from 1787 until August 1791.
Daulat Ram Haldia (died 1794) was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Jaipur from August 1791 until his death in 1794.
Khushhali Ram Bohra was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Jaipur from 1794 until 1798.
Dinaram Bohra was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Jaipur from 1798 until 1800.
Rai Chand was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Jaipur from 1800 until 1808.
Rao Chaturbhuj Haldia was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Jaipur from 1808 until 1810.
Megh Singh was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Jaipur from 1810 until 1811.
Kushhali Ram Bohra (died 1812) was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Jaipur from July 1811 until his death in 1812.
Misra Sheo Narayan was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Jaipur from 1812 until 1815.
Purohit Manji Das was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Jaipur from 1815 until 1818.
Nazir Mohan Ram was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Jaipur from 1818 until 1819.
Rawal Bairisal was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Jaipur from 1819 until 1824.
Hukm Chand Saraogi was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Jaipur jointly with Megh Singh from 1824 until 1826.
Megh Singh was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Jaipur jointly with Hukm Chand Saraogi from 1824 until 1826.
Rao Chand Singh was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Jaipur from 1826 until 1838.
Jhota Ram Saraogi was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Jaipur from 1828 until 1835.
Rawal Bairi Sal was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Jaipur from 1835 until 1838.
Sheo Singh Nathawat was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Jaipur from 1838 until 1854.
Lachman Singh was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Jaipur from 1854 until 1860.
Pandit Sheodin was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Jaipur from 1860 until 1863.
Bishin Berdin was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Jaipur from 1863 until around middle 1860s.
Hari Mohan Sen was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Jaipur from around middle 1860s until around 1869.
Faiz Ali Khan was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Jaipur from around 1869 until 1873.
Thakur Fateh Singh Champawat was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Jaipur from 1873 until 1881.
Shri Kanti Chandra Mukherjee was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Jaipur from 1881 until 1901.
Mohammad Fayaz Ali Khan was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Jaipur from 1901 until 1906.
Shri Sansar Chandra was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Jaipur from 1906 until 1909.
Avinash Chandra Sen was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Jaipur from 1909 until ?
Amar Nath Atal (1892 - 1957) was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Jaipur from 1916 until 1922.
Charles Cleveland was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Jaipur from 1922 until 1923.
S.B.A. Patterson was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Jaipur in 1923.
B.J. Glancy was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Jaipur from May 1923 until April 1924 and from 1930 until 1932.
L.W. Reynolds was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Jaipur from April 1924 until 1925 and from October 1925 until March 1927.
G.D. Ogilvie was the acting Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Jaipur in 1925.
H.R. Lawrence was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Jaipur from March 1927 until March 1929.
A.S. Meek was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Jaipur from March 1928 until September 1930.
Arthur Lothian was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Jaipur from September 1929 until 1930.
Beauchamp St. John (1874 - 1954) was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Jaipur from 1933 until 1939.
Raja Gyan Nath was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Jaipur from October 1939 until 1942.
Mirza Muhammad Ismail (1883 1959) was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Jaipur from 1812 until 1815.
Vangal Thiruvenkatachari Krishnamachari (1881 - 1964) was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Jaipur from August 1946 until April
1949.

Jaisalmer
List of Chief Minister (Diwans) of Jaisalmer
Mohata Nathmal was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Jaisalmer from around 1885 until 1891.
Mehta Jagjiwan was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Jaisalmer from around 1890 until 1903.
Thakur Kushal Singh was the acting Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Jaisalmer from around 1890s until 1900.
Rawatmal was the acting Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Jaisalmer in 1900.
Lakshmi Das Sapat was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Jaisalmer around 1909.
Mohammed Niyaz Ali Kazi Hapiri was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Jaisalmer from 1911 until June 1912.
Murarji Rooji Sapat (Moraji Rao) was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Jaisalmer from June 1912 until March 1930.
M.L. Khosala was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Jaisalmer during early 1930s.
Pandit Jamana Lal was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Jaisalmer during early 1930s.
Munshi Nand Kishore was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Jaisalmer during early 1930s.
Lala Rakhpat Raj was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Jaisalmer the first half 1930s.
P.K. Shurugula was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Jaisalmer during the first half 1930s.
Brij Mohan Nath Zutshi was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Jaisalmer during middle 1930s.
Anand Swaroop was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Jaisalmer during the second half 1930s.
Onkar Singh was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Jaisalmer during late 1930s.
Lakhpat Rai Sikund was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Jaisalmer from 1940 until 1942.

Jodhpur
List of Chief Ministers (Diwan) of Jodhpur
Udai Singh Champawat was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Jodhpur from 1690s until 1705.
Vithaldas Bhandari was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Jodhpur from 1705 until 1709.
Bhagwan Das Champawat was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Jodhpur from November 1709 until 1715/1716.
Kheemsi Bhandari was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Jodhpur from 1709 until 1713.
Maidas Bhandari was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Jodhpur in 1712 and from 1724 until 1725.
Raghunath Bhandari was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Jodhpur from 1712 until 1724.
Raghunath Singh Bhandari was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Jodhpur from 1725 until 1728.
Amar Singh Bhandari was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Jodhpur from 1728 until 1744.
Girdhari Das Bhandari was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Jodhpur from 1744 until 1747.
Manroop Bhandari was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Jodhpur from 1747 until 1749.
Daulatram Bhandari was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Jodhpur jointly with Suratram Bhandari from 1749 until 1750.
Suratram Bhandari was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Jodhpurjointly with Daulatram Bhandari from 1749 until 1750.
Sawairam Bhandari was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Jodhpur from 1750 until 1751.
Mohnot Rao Suratram was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Jodhpur from 1763/1765 until 1766.
Narsingh Das Bhandari was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Jodhpur from 1766 until 1767.
Bhawani Bhandari was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Jodhpur from 1790 until 1794.
Shivchand Bhandari was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Jodhpur from 1794 until 1797 and from 1798 until 1799.
Gangaram Bhandari was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Jodhpur jointly with Sawai Singh from 1803 until ?.
Sawai Singh was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Jodhpur jointly with Gangaram Bhandari from 1803 until ?.
Inderraj Singhvi was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Jodhpur from 1806 until 1815.
Banda Mehta Shri Akhechand (died 1819) was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Jodhpur from 1816 until his death in 1819.
Mehta Lakhshmichand (1793 - 1850) was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Jodhpur in 1817 and from 1840s until his death in 1850.
Budhmalji Mehta was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Jodhpur around 1821.
Lakhshmi Bhandari was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Jodhpur from 1834 until 1835.
Shivchand Bhandari was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Jodhpur from 1845 until 1846.
Mohnot Rai Bahadur Vijaysingh was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Jodhpur in 1851.
Lodha Raoraja Rajmal (1816 - 1857) was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Jodhpur from 1851 until his death in 1857.
Vijaysingh Mehta was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Jodhpur around 1853.
Mehta Shri Pratapmal was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Jodhpur from 1866 until 1869.
Bagrecha Mehta Sambhumal (died 1872) was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Jodhpur around 1870.
Mohnot Rai Bahadur Vijaysingh was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Jodhpur from 1872 until 1878.
Sukhdeo Prasad Kak (1864 - 1936) was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Jodhpur from 1902 until 1910 and from 1922 until 1924/1925.
Pratap Singh was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Jodhpur from 1910 until 1916 and from 1918 until 1922.
Zalim Singh (1865 April 22, 1929) was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Jodhpur from 1920s until his death on April 22, 1929.
Bhagat Sankar Mehta was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Jodhpur from 1929 until 1931.
Kunwar Sir Maharaj Singh was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Jodhpur from 1931 until 1932.
Donald Mayle Field was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Jodhpur from 1935 until 1946.
Cadambi Sheshachar Venkatachar (1899 - 1999) was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Jodhpur from 1946 until February 1948.
Jai Narayan Vyas was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Jodhpur from March 3, 1948 until April 7, 1949.




Junagadh
List of Chief Ministesr (Dewans) of Junagadh
Dalpatram was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Junagadh from 1747 until 1750/1751.
Jaganatha Jhala was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Junagadh from 1751 until 1757.
Somji Jikar was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Junagadh from 1757 until late 1750s and in 1760s.
Dayal "the Vania" was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Junagadh during 1760s.
Mevalal Jagjivandas Sadanand was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Junagadh during 1760s.
Popat Parikh was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Junagadh during 1760s.
Jhavarchand was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Junagadh during 1760s.
Mulchand Parikh was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Junagadh during 1760s.
Amarji Kunvarji was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Junagadh from 1764 until March 1784.
Raghunathji Amarji (died 1820) was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Junagadh from 1784 until 1785, from 1786 until 1787, from 1790
until 1793, from 1802 until 1806, from 1811 until 1812 and from 1816 until 1818.
Ranchodji Amarji was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Junagadh from 1785 until 1786 and in 1787.
Govindji was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Junagadh from late 1780s until 1790.
Kalian Seth was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Junagadh from 1793 until 1802.
Mehta Rewashankar Trikamdas was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Junagadh from 1806 until 1810.
Jamadar Omar Makhsam was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Junagadh from 1812 until 1816.
Sundarji Shivji (died 1823) was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Junagadh from 1818 until his death in 1823.
Hansraj Jetha Khatri was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Junagadh from 1823 until 1825.
Mehta Govindji Jhala was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Junagadh from 1825 until early 1830s.
Sadashiva Rao was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Junagadh from 1833.1834 until 1835.
Amratll Amarchand was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Junagadh from 1835 until 1840.
Anantji Amarchand Vasadava was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Junagadh from 1840 until 1860.
Syed Ahmed Edroos was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Junagadh from 1859 until 1860.
Dungarshi Devshi was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Junagadh from 1860 until 1861.
Gokalji Sampatram (Sampattiram) (died 1878) was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Junagadh from 1861 until his death in 1878.
Muhammad Saleh Hindi was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Junagadh from 1878 until 1888.
Dewan Haridas Viharidas was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Junagadh from 1888 until 1893.
Shri Chunilal Sarabhai Hazrat was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Junagadh from 1893 until 1895.
Shyamji Krishna Varma was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Junagadh in 1895.
Sardar Bechardas Viharidas Desai was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Junagadh from 1895 until 1899.
Shri Chunilal Sarabhai Hazrat was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Junagadh from 1899 until 1903.
Sardar Bechardas Viharidas Desai was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Junagadh from 1903 until 1906.
Abbas Ali Baig (1859 - 1933) was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Junagadh from 1910 until 1913.
Kureshi was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Junagadh from 1910 until 1911.
H.D. Rendall was the regent of the princely state of Junagadh from January 1911 until March 1920.
Lucas L. Robertson was acting the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Junagadh from December 1911 until 1913.
Sardar Muhammad Khansahib was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Junagadh from 1939 until 1941.
Khan Bahadur Abdulqader Muhammad Hussain Sahib was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Junagadh from 1941 until May
1947.
Shah Nawaz Bhutto (1888 - 1957) was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Junagadh from May until November 8, 1947.


Koch Bihar
List of Chiefs Ministers (Diwans) of Koch Bihar
Satya Narayan was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Koch Bihar from 1693 until 1714.
Kumar Dina Narayan was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Koch Bihar from 1714 until ?.
Kharga Narayan was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Koch Bihar around 1738.
Ram Narayan was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Koch Bihar from 1765 until 1770.
Hareswar Karjee was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Koch Bihar around 1770.
Surendra Narayan was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Koch Bihar from 1770 until ?.
Kamar Surendra Narayan was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Koch Bihar from ? until 1785.
Kashi Kanta Lahiri was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Koch Bihar around 1789.
Joy Gopal Singh (died 1806) was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Koch Bihar from 1791 until 1793 and from 1804 until his death in 1806.
Shyam Chandra Chatterjee was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Koch Bihar from 1796 until 1797.
Padma Mochun was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Koch Bihar jointly with Kasinath Lahiri from 1797 until 1802.
Kasinath Lahiri (died 1802) was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Koch Bihar from jointly with Padma Mochun from 1797 until his death in
1802.
Guru Prasad Rai was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Koch Bihar from 1802 until 1803 and from 1811 until 1816.
Radha Krishna Lahiri was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Koch Bihar from 1803 until 1804, from 1808 until 1811 and from 1816 until
1825.
Choa Lal Sarkar (died 1808) was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Koch Bihar from 1806 until his death in 1808.
Kalichandra Lahiri was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Koch Bihar from 1825 until 1829 and from 1842 until 1844.
Ramchandra Lahiri was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Koch Bihar from 1829 until 1842.
Kali Krishna Lahiri was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Koch Bihar from 1844 until 1847.
Babu Nil Kamal Sanyal (died December 1868) was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Koch Bihar from 1864 until his death in December
1868.
Kalika Das Datta (Dutt) was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Koch Bihar from 1791 until 1793.


Kochin
List of Chief Ministers (Dewans) of Kochin
Kunhikrishna Menon was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Kochin from 1809 until 1812.
John Munro (died 1858) was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Kochin from 1812 until 1815.
Seshagiri Raya was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Kochin from 1815 until 1830.
Edamana Shankara Menon was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Kochin from 1830 until 0ctober 1834.
Venkata Subbaraya was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Kochin from October 1834 until 1840.
Thottakattu Sankara Warrier (died October 23, 1856) was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Kochin from 1840 until his death on
October 23, 1856.
Venkata Rayar (Rao) was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Kochin from 1856 until 1860.
Thottakattu Sankunni Menon was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Kochin from 1860 until 1879.
Thottakattu Govindan Menon was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Kochin from 1879 until 1880.
C. Thiruvenkatacharya (died 1893) was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Kochin from 1890 until his death in 1893.
Subramnya Pilla was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Kochin from 1893 until December 1896.
Perungavur Rajagopalachari (1862 - 1927) was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Kochin from December 1899 until August 1901.
L. Loka was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Kochin from 1901 until 1902.
Nemali Pattabhirama Rao was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Kochin from 1902 until 1907.
A.R. Banerjee was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Kochin from 1907 until 1914.
J.W. Bhore was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Kochin from 1914 until 1919.
Thiruvalayangudi Vijayaraghavacharya (1875 - 1935) was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Kochin from 1919 until 1922.
P. Narayana Menon was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Kochin from 1922 until 1925.
T.S. Narayana Iyer was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Kochin from 1925 until 1930.
C.G. Herbert was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Kochin from 1930 until 1935.
R.K. Shanmugham Chetty (1892 - 1953) was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Kochin from 1935 until 1941.
A.F.W. Dickinson was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Kochin from 1941 until 1943.
George Townsend Boag (1884 - 1969) was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Kochin from 1943 until 1944.
C.P. Karunakara Menon (1891 - 1976) was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Kochin from 1944 until 1947.


Kolhapur
List of Chiefs Ministers (Dewans) of Kolhapur
Yashvantrav Shinde was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Kolhapur from 1772 until 1782.
Ratnakar Pant Appa was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Kolhapur from 1782 until ?.
Bhau Maharaj was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Kolhapur from 1813 until 1821.
Daji Krishna Rao was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Kolhapur from 1843 until ?.
Madhavrao Barve was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Kolhapur from June 9, 1871 until 1885.
Taraporewalla was the acting Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Kolhapur from 1883 until 1884.
Meherjibhoy Kuverji Taraporewalla was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Kolhapur from 1895 until 1898.
Raghunath Vyankaji Sabnis (1857 - 1948) was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Kolhapur from 1898 until 1925.
Anna Babaji Latthe was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Kolhapur from 1925 until 1929.
Dadasaheb Appasaheb Surve was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Kolhapur from 1929 until 1940 (acting until 1931) and from June 1
until August 15, 1947.
E.W. Perry was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Kolhapur from 1940 until 1946.
Thomas Austin (1887 - 1976) was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Kolhapur from 1946 until 1947.


Mysore
List of Chiefs Ministers (Dewans) of Mysore
Bargir Bakshi Balaji Rao was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Mysore from April 1811 until January 1812.
Savar Bakshi Rama Rao was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Mysore from February 1812 until October 1817.
Babu Rao (died April 19, 1834) was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Mysore from November 1817 until April 1818, from March 1820 until
August 1821, from December 1822 until November 1825 and from May 1832 until his death on April 19, 1834.
Siddharaj Urs was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Mysore from May 1818 until February 1820.
Lingaraj Urs was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Mysore from November 1821 until November 1822.
Venkata Urs was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Mysore from May 1827 until October 1831.
Venkataramanaiya was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Mysore from October 1831 until May 14, 1832.
Kollam Venkata Rao was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Mysore from 1834 until 1838.
Surappaya (died 1840) was the Chief Minister (Huzur Head Sherestedar) of the princely state of Mysore from 1838 until his death in 1840.
C.V. Rangacharlu (1831 January 20, 1883) was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Mysore from March 25, 1881 until his death on January
20, 1883.
K. Seshadri Iyer was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Mysore from January 21, 1883 until March 18, 1901 (acting until February 11,
1883).
T.R.A. Thambuchetty (Thumboo Chetty or Chettiar) was the acting Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Mysore from August 11, 1900 until
March 18, 1901.
P.N. Krishnamurthi (1849 - 1911) was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Mysore from March 18, 1901 until June 30, 1906.
V.P. Madhava Rao (1850 - 1930) was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Mysore from June 30, 1906 until March 31, 1909.
T. Ananda Rao (1852 - 1919) was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Mysore from April 1, 1909 until 1912.
Mokshagundam Visvesvaraya (1861 -1962) was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Mysore from November 10, 1912 until 1918.
M. Kantaraj Urs (1870 - 1922) was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Mysore from 1918 until 1922.
Albion R. Banerjee (1871 - 1950) was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Mysore from 1922 until 1926.
Mirza Muhammad Ismail (1883 1959) was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Mysore from May 1, 1926 until 1841.
N. Madhava Rao (1887 - 1972) was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Mysore from 1941 until 1946.
Arcot Ramaswamy Mudaliar (1887 - 1976) was the Chief Minister of the princely state of Mysore from 1946 until August 15, 1947.


Manipur
List of Chief Ministers (Dewans, representing the governors of Assam) of Manipur
Francis Fenwick Pearson (1911 - 1991) was the Chief Minister (President of the interim council) of the princely state of Manipur from July 15 until August
14, 1947.
Maharaj Kumar Priyobrata Singh (1911 - 2005) was the Chief Minister of the princely state of Manipur from August 14, 1947 until October 15, 1949.
Rawal Amar Singh was the Dewan of the princely state of Manipur from April 16 until October 15, 1949.

Patiala
List of Prime Ministers of Patiala
Bhai Gurbakhsh Singh (died 1764) was the Prime Minister of the princely state of Patiala from ? until his death in 1764.
Sardar Seda Singh was the Prime Minister of the princely state of Patiala around 1765.
Nanumal or Nannu Mal (died November 21, 1791) was the Prime Minister of the princely state of Patiala from 1774 until his death on November 21, 1791.
Mir Ilahi Bakhsh (died 1793) was the Prime Minister of the princely state of Patiala from 1792 until his death in 1793.
Sahib Kaur (1771 - 1801) was the Prime Minister of the princely state of Patiala from 1793 until her death in 1801.
Sardar Chain (Chen Singh) was the Prime Minister of the princely state of Patiala around 1808.
Khalifa Muhammad Hassan (died 1895) was the Prime Minister of the princely state of Patiala in the second half 19th century.
Raja Gurdit Singh was the Prime Minister of the princely state of Patiala from 1890s until 1910.
Zulfikar Ali Khan was the Prime Minister of the princely state of Patiala from 1910 until 1913.
Gurnam Singh was the Prime Minister of the princely state of Patiala from 1913 until 1916.
Daya Kishen Kaul was the Prime Minister of the princely state of Patiala from 1916 until 1924.
Maulana Ahmad Ali was the Prime Minister of the princely state of Patiala from 1924 until 1930.
Liaquat Hayat Khan (1887 - 1948) was the Prime Minister of the princely state of Patiala from 1930 until 1941.
Sardar Joginder Singh was the Prime Minister of the princely state of Patiala from 1941 until 1944.
Hardit Singh Malik (1892 - 1985) was the Prime Minister of the princely state of Patiala from 1944 until 1946.
Gian Singh Rarewala was the Prime Minister of the princely state of Patiala from 1946 until 1947.
Gurdial Singh Narika (Harika) was the Prime Minister of the princely state of Patiala in 1947.

Pudukkottai
List of Chief Ministers (Diwans) of Pudukkottai
Amaravati Seshayya Sastri (1828 - 1903) was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Pudukkottai from August 1878 until 1843.
R. Vedantacharlu was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Pudukkottai from November 1894 until February 1899.
S. Venkataramadas Nayudu was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Pudukkottai from February 1899 until 1909.
Raghunatha Pallavarayar was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Pudukkottai from 1909 until February 1929.
G. Ganapati Sastriar was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Pudukkottai from February 28, 1929 until March 4, 1931.

Rampur
Prime Minister of Rampur
Bashir Husain Zaidi (1898 - 1992) was the Prime Minister of the princely state of Rampur from 1937 until August 15, 1947.

Travancore
List of Chiefs Ministers (Dalawa, Diwan from 1811) of Travancore
Arumukham Pillai was the Chief Minister (Dalawa) of the princely state of Travancore from 1729 until 1736.
Thanu Pillai was the Chief Minister (Dalawa) of the princely state of Travancore from 1736 until 1737.
Rama Iyen was the Chief Minister (Dalawa) of the princely state of Travancore from 1737 until 1756.
Martanda Pillai (Tampi Chempakaraman Ayyappan Martandan, died 1763) was the Chief Minister (Dalawa) of the princely state of Travancore from 1756
until his death in 1763.
Warkala Subbayyan (Varkalay Subba Iyen) was the Chief Minister (Dalawa) of the princely state of Travancore from 1763 until 1768.
Krishna Gopalayyan was the Chief Minister (Dalawa) of the princely state of Travancore from 1768 until 1776.
Vadiswaran Subbrahmanya Iyer was the Chief Minister (Dalawa) of the princely state of Travancore from 1776 until 1780.
Mullen Chempakaraman Pillai was the Chief Minister (Dalawa) of the princely state of Travancore from 1780 until 1782.
Nagercoil Rama Iyen (Ramayyan) was the Chief Minister (Dalawa) of the princely state of Travancore from 1782 until 1788.
Krishnan Chempakaraman was the Chief Minister (Dalawa) of the princely state of Travancore from 1788 until 1789.
Kesava Das was the Chief Minister (Dalawa) of the princely state of Travancore from 1789 until April 1799.
Jayantha Sankaran Namboodiri (Namburi) was the Chief Minister (Dalawa) of the princely state of Travancore from April until June 1799.
Ayyappan Chembaka Rama Pillai was the Chief Minister (Dalawa) of the princely state of Travancore from June 1799 until August 22, 1800.
Parasala Padmanabhan Tampi Chempakaraman was the Chief Minister (Dalawa) of the princely state of Travancore from August 23, 1800 until
April 23, 1801.
Velu Thampi (died 1809) was the Chief Minister (Dalawa) of the princely state of Travancore from 1801 until his death in 1809.
Ummini Thampi was the Chief Minister (Dalawa) of the princely state of Travancore from 1809 until 1811.
John Munro (died 1858) was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Travancore from 1811 until 1814.
Padmanabhan was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Travancore from 1814 until 1815.
Subbien (Subha Iyer) Sankaranarayana Iyen was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Travancore from 1815 until 1816.
Raman Menon was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Travancore from 1816 until September 1817.
Reddy Rao was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Travancore from 1817 until 1821 and from 1943 until 1845.
Venkata Rao (died 1843) was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Travancore from 1821 until 1830 and from 1838 until 1839.
Thanjavur Subha Rao was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Travancore from 1830 until 1837 and from 1839 until June 1842.
R. Ranga Rao was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Travancore from 1837 until 1838.
Krishna Rao (died 1857) was the acting Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Travancore from 1842 until 1843 and from December 1846 untl
December 1857 (acting until March 1847).
Srinivasa Rao was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Travancore from 1845 until December 1846.
Madhava Rao (1828 - 1891) was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Travancore from 1858 until 1872.
Amaravati Seshayya Sastri (1828 - 1903) was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Travancore from 1872 until 1877.
Neyyoor Nanoo Pillai (1827 1886) was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Travancore from 1877 until 1886.
Vembaukum Ramiyengar (1826 - 1887) was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Travancore from 1880 until his death in 1887.
T. Rama Rao (c.1831 - 1895) was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Travancore from 1887 until 1892.
S. Shungrasoobyer (1836 - 1904) was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Travancore from 1892 until 1898.
Kanchi Krishnaswamy Rao (1845 - 1923) was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Travancore from 1898 until 1904.
V.P. Madhava Rao (1850 - 1934) was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Travancore from 1904 until 1906.
S. Gopalacharyar was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Travancore from 1906 until 1909.
Perungavur Rajagopalachari (1862 - 1927) was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Travancore from 1909 until 1914.
Mannath Krishnan Nair (1870 1938) was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Travancore from 1914 until 1920.
T. Raghaviah was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Travancore from 1920 until 1925.
Maurice Emygdius Watts (1878 - 1933) was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Travancore from 1925 until 1929.
V. Subramania Iyer Subramanya Iyer was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Travancore from 1929 until 1932.
Thomas Austin (1887 - 1976) was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Travancore from 1932 until 1934.
Mohamad Habibulla (1869 - 1948) was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Travancore from 1934 until 1936.
Chetpat P. Ramaswami Aiyer (1879 - 1966) was the Chief Minister (Diwan) of the princely state of Travancore from 1936 until August 19, 1947.

Tripura
List of Chiefs Ministers (Dewans) of Tripura
Balaram Hazari was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Tripura from 1850 until 1857.
Braja Mohan Thakur was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Tripura during 1850s and 1860s.
Dinabandhu Thakur was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Tripura from 1860s until 1873.
Nilmoni Das was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Tripura from 1873 until 1877.
Sambhu Chandra Mukherjee was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Tripura from 1877 until 1880.
Radakishore was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Tripura in 1883.
Dhanajaya Thakur was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Tripura from 1883 until 1886.
Babu Dinanath Sen was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Tripura in 1886.
Rai Bahadur Mohini Mohan Bardhan was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Tripura from 1886 until 1888.
Rai Umakanta Das Bahadur was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Tripura from 1890 until 1892, from 1901 until 1905 and from
February 1907 until December 1908.
Dinabandhu Thakur was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Tripura from 1892 until 1901.
Shri Ramani Mohan Chattopadhyaya was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Tripura from November 1905 until February 1907.
Jukta Babu Annada Charan Gupta was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Tripura from December 1908 until November 1909.
Nabadwip Chandra Deb Barman (1854 - 1931) was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Tripura from November 1909 until 1914.
Shri Brojendra Kishore Deb Barman was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Tripura from 1914 until 1915.
Srijut Babu Prasanna Kumar Das Gupta was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Tripura from 1915 until 1923.
Jyotis Chandra Sen was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Tripura from 1927 until 1929 and from November 20, 1932 until 1939/1940.
B.K. Sen was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Tripura from 1931 until August 28, 1932.
Manyabara Rana Bodhjung Bahadur (1894 - 1946) was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Tripura from August 27 until November 20,
1932.
Manyabara Rana Bodhjung Bahadur was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Tripura from 1839/1840 until November 1946.
Shri Brojendra Kishore Deb Barman was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Tripura from November 1946 until 1947.
S.V. Mukherjee was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Tripura in 1947.
Abani Bushan Chatterjee was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Tripura from December 20, 1947 until October 15, 1949.


Udaipur Mewar
List of Chief Ministers (Dewans) of Udaipur Mewar
Pancholi Biharidas was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Udaipur Mewar from 1708 until 1740.
Moji Ram Mehta was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Udaipur Mewar during 1740s.
Amar Chand Barva was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Udaipur Mewar from 1751 until 1768/1778.
Som Chand Gandhi was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Udaipur Mewar from 1782/1788 until October 1789.
Satidas Gandhi was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Udaipur Mewar jointly with Shivdas Ghandi from 1789 until 1794.
Shivdas Gandhi was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Udaipur Mewar jointly with Satidas Gandhi from 1789 until 1794.
Mehta Agar Chand (died December 31, 1799) was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Udaipur Mewar from 1794 until his death on
December 31, 1799.
Mehta Devi Chand was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Udaipur Mewar from 1800 until 1815.
Shah Sheo Lal Gilundiya was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Udaipur Mewar from 1815 until February 1923.
Mehta Ram Singh was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Udaipur Mewar from 1818 until early 1820s , from 1824 until 1831 and from
1838 until July 1844.
Mehta Sher Singh was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Udaipur Mewar from 1823 until 1824, from 1831 until 1838 and from July 1844
until 1850s.
Kothari Kesari Singh was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Udaipur Mewar from 1850a until December 1861, from April 1862 until 1863
and from December 1867 until July 1870.
William Frederick Eden was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Udaipur Mewar from August 1863 until November 1865.
Zalim Singh was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Udaipur Mewar from 1865 until 1867.
Mehta Gokul Chand was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Udaipur Mewar from 1870 until 1877.
Kaviraj Shymaldas was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Udaipur Mewar from 1877 untuil 1878.
Mehta Rai Pannalal (1843 - 1919) was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Udaipur Mewar from 1878 until 1894.
Kothari Balwant Singh was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Udaipur Mewar jointly with Sahiwala Arjun Singh from 1894 until 1895,
from 1895 until 1905 and jointly with Skhdev Prasad Kak from 1911 until August 1914.
Sahiwala Arjun Singh was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Udaipur Mewar jointly with Kothari Balwant Singh from 1894 until 1895 and
from 1895 until 1905.
Shyamji Krishnavarman was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Udaipur Mewar from July until August 1895.
Mehta Bhopal Singh was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Udaipur Mewar jointly with Mahasani Heeralal from 1905 until 1911.
Mahasani Heeralal was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Udaipur Mewar jointly with Mehta Bhopal Singh from 1905 until 1911.
Sukhdev Prasad Kak (1864 - 1936) was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Udaipur Mewar from 1911 until 1918, from 1918 until 1919 and
from 1930 until 1935 (jointly with Kothari Balawant Singh from June 1911 until August 1914 and with Mehta Jagannath Singh from 1918 until 1919).
Mehta Jagannath Singh was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Udaipur Mewar jointly with Sukhdev Prasad Kak from 1918 until 1919.
Dharamnarayan Kak (1898 - 1971) was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Udaipur Mewar from 1935 until 1939.
T. Vijayaraghavacharya (1875 - 1953) was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Udaipur Mewar from December 1939 until 1947.
Tribhuvan Nath Pande was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Udaipur Mewar from September until December 1947.
S.V. Ramamurthy (1880 - 1964) was the Chief Minister (Dewan) of the princely state of Udaipur Mewar from 1947 until 1948.













Xianbei state
The Xianbei state or Xianbei confederation was a nomadic empire which existed in Mongolia, Southern Mongolia,Xinjiang, Gansu, Buryatia, Zabaykalsky
Krai, Irkutsk Oblast, Tuva, Altay Republic, Altai Krai and eastern Kazakhstan from 93 to 234 AD. They descended from the Donghu and spoke a Mongolic
language. After the downfall of the Xiongnu, the Xianbei established domination in Mongolia starting from 93 AD. They consisted ofMongolic peoples and
reached their height under the rule of Tanshihuai Khan (141181). Tanshihuai was born in 141. According to the Hou Hanshu his father Touluhou had been
serving in the Southern Xiongnu army for three years. Returning from his military duties Touluhou was furious to discover that his wife had become pregnant
and given birth to a son. He ordered the child put to death. His wife replied: When I was walking through the open steppe a huge storm developed with much
lightning and thunder. As I looked upward a piece of hail fell into my mouth, which I unknowingly swallowed. I soon found out I had gotten pregnant. After 10
months this son was born. This must be a child of wonder. It is better to wait and see what happens. Touluhou did not heed her words, so Tanshihuai was
brought up secretly in the ger (yurt) of relatives. When Tanshihuai was around 14 or 15 years old he had become brave and sturdy with talent and ability. Once
people from another tribe robbed his maternal grandparents herds. Tanshihuai pursued them alone, fought the robbers and managed to retrieve all the lost
herds. His fame spread rapidly among the Xianbei tribes and many came to respect and trust him. He then put some laws and regulations in force and decided
between litigants. Nobody dared to violate those laws and regulations. Because of this, he was elected supreme leader of the Xianbei tribes at the age of 15 and
established his ordo (palace) at Mount Darkhan. He defeated the Dingling to the north (around Lake Baikal), Buyeo to the east (north of Korea) and
the Wusun to the west (Xinjiang and Ili River). His empire stretched 7000 km and included all the lands of the former Xiongnu.
List of Rulers of Xianbei state
Bianhe was a ruler of Xianbei state around AD 49.
Yuchoupen was a ruler of Xianbei state from AD 49 until AD 54.
Cizhiqian was a ruler of Xianbei state from AD 121 until AD 132.
Tanshihuai (AD 141 AD 181) was a ruler of Xianbei state from AD 156 until his death in AD 181. He was born in AD 141. According to the Hou
Hanshu his father Touluhou had been serving in the Southern Xiongnu army for three years. Returning from his military duties Touluhou was furious to
discover that his wife had become pregnant and given birth to a son. He ordered the child put to death. His wife replied: When I was walking through the open
steppe a huge storm developed with much lightning and thunder. As I looked upward a piece of hail fell into my mouth, which I unknowingly swallowed. I soon
found out I had gotten pregnant. After 10 months this son was born. This must be a child of wonder. It is better to wait and see what happens. Touluhou did
not heed her words, so Tanshihuai was brought up secretly in the ger (yurt) of relatives. When Tanshihuai was around 14 or 15 years old he had become brave
and sturdy with talent and ability. Once people from another tribe robbed his maternal grandparents herds. Tanshihuai pursued them alone, fought the robbers
and managed to retrieve all the lost herds. His fame spread rapidly among the Xianbei tribes and many came to respect and trust him. He then put some laws
and regulations in force and decided between litigants. Nobody dared to violate those laws and regulations. Because of this, he was elected supreme leader of the
Xianbei tribes at the age of 15 and established his ordo (palace) at Mount Darkhan. He defeated the Dingling to the north (around Lake Baikal), Buyeo to the
east (north of Korea) and the Wusun to the west (Xinjiang and Ili River). His empire stretched 7000 km and included all the lands of the former Xiongnu.
The Sanguo Zhi records: Tanshihuai of the Xianbei divided his territory into three sections: the eastern, the middle and the western. From the You Beiping to
the Liao River, connecting the Fuyu and Mo to the east, it was the eastern section. There were more than twenty counties. The darens (chiefs) (of this section)
were called Mijia, Queji, Suli and Huaitou. From the You Beiping to Shanggu to the west, it was the middle section. There were more than ten counties. The
darens of this section were called Kezui, Queju, Murong, et al. From Shanggu to Dunhuang, connecting the Wusun to the west, it was the western section. There
were more than twenty counties. The darens (of this section) were called Zhijian Luoluo, Ril Tuiyan, Yanliyou, et al. These chiefs were all subordinate to
Tanshihuai.
[4]
Uneasiness at the Han court about this development of a new power on the steppes finally ushered in a campaign on the northern border to
annihilate the confederacy once and for all. In 177 AD, 30,000 Han cavalry attacked the confederacy, commanded by Xia Yu (), Tian Yan () and Zang
Min (), each of whom was the commander of units sent respectively against the Wuhuan, the Qiang, and the Southern Xiongnu before the campaign. Each
military officer commanded 10,000 cavalrymen and advanced north on three different routes, aiming at each of the three federations. Cavalry units commanded
by chieftains of each of the three federations almost annihilated the invading forces. Eighty percent of the troops were killed and the three officers, who only
brought tens of men safely back, were relieved from their posts. The Hou Hanshu records a memorial submitted in AD 177: Ever since the [northern] Xiongnu
ran away, the Xianbei have become powerful and populous, taking all the lands previously held by the Xiong-nu and claiming to have 100,000 warriors.
Refined metals and wrought iron have come into the possession of the [Xianbei] rebels. Han deserters also seek refuge [in the lands of the Xianbei] and serve as
their advisers. Their weapons are sharper and their horses are faster than those of the Xiong-nu. Another memorial submitted in 185 AD is recorded by the Hou
Hanshu: The Xianbei people invade our frontiers so frequently that hardly a year goes by in peace, and it is only when the trading season arrives that they
come forward in submission. But in so doing they are only bent on gaining precious Chinese goods; it is not because they respect Chinese power or are grateful
for Chinese generosity. As soon as they obtain all they possibly can [from trade], they turn in their tracks to start wreaking damage. Tanshihuai died in AD 181 at
the age of 40. The Xianbei state of Tanshihuai fragmented following the fall of Budugen (reigned 187234), who was the younger brother of Kuitoi (reigned AD
185 AD 187). Kuitou was the nephew of Tanshihuai's incapable son and successor Helian (reigned 181185).
Helian was a ruler of Xianbei state from AD 181 until AD 185.
Kuitoi was a ruler of Xianbei state from AD 185 until AD 187.
Budugen (died AD 233) was the territorial chief of the Xianbei tribe during the late Han Dynasty and Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history from AD
187 until his death in AD 233. He retained his independence by sending tribute to the state of Cao Wei during the reign of Cao Pi. Following the reign of Cao
Rui, Budugen allied with Kebineng to start a revolt against Cao Wei. The revolt was suppressed and Budugen was slain by Kebineng.





Wuhuan
The Wuhuan (simplified Chinese: ; traditional Chinese: ; pinyin: Whun, Old Chinese: Ohuan, Mongol romanization:Uhuan) were a proto-
Mongolic nomadic people who inhabited northern China, in what is now the provinces of Hebei, Liaoning, Shanxi, the municipality of Beijing and the
autonomous region of Inner Mongolia. They were descended from the Donghu, who were defeated by the Xiongnu. After the Donghu were defeated by Modu
Chanyu around 209 BC the Xianbei and Wuhuan survived as the main remnants of the confederation. The Hou Hanshu says that the language and culture of
the Xianbei are the same as the Wuhuan. Tadun of the Wuhuan (died 207 AD) was the ancestor of the proto-Mongolic Kumo Xi (aka Tatabi).
List of Rulers of Wuhuan tribe
Qiuliju was a leader of the Wuhuan tribe during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. He was the father of Louban. In AD 187, Qiuliju
joined Zhang Chun in his rebellion along the northern frontiers of China. They raised all the Wuhuan tribes to raid northern China, but in AD 188 they were
defeated by the warlord Gongsun Zan. Qiuliju managed to reorganize his forces and dealt a blow to Gongsun's forces, and continued to harass the frontier
regions until AD 190, when Liu Yu convinced him to surrender. Qiuliju died soon afterwards.
Louban (died AD 207) was a ruler of the Wuhuan tribe during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. Louban was the son ofQiuliju, a Wuhuan
leader. Louban later ended up supporting Tadun. Louban followed in becoming allies with both Yuan Xi and Yuan Shang to fight against Cao Cao. However,
Louban was ultimately defeated. Following Louban's defeat he fled to Liaodong, where he was then killed by Gongsun Kang.
Tadun (died AD 207) was a leader of the Wuhuan tribe during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. Tadun was the nephew of Qiuliju, and rose to
power after his uncle's death, because his uncle's son was too young to rule. After gaining authority over Wuhuan chieftains Nanlou, Supuyan and Wuyan, Tadun
aligned himself with the warlord Yuan Shao and had the Wuhuan help Yuan in the war against rival warlord Gongsun Zan. For this deed, the Wuhuan chieftains,
including Tadun, received imperial seals and ribbons from Yuan. When Qiuliju's son came of age, the many chieftains of the Wuhuan decided to appoint him as
another powerful chief and have Tadun become leader of the Wuhuan domains in Liaoxi, while the rest of the tribal chiefs kept their semi-autonomous authority
in Beiping and other regions. Following Tadun's ascension to become leader, relations between Yuan Shao and the Wuhuan became very close. Yuan would
have the daughters of several of his vassals become the wives of Wuhuan chieftains, and the Wuhuan essentially worked as horsemen mercenaries for Yuan. The
Wuhuan horsemen were called the "greatest cavalry under heaven" later on, and under Yuan's guidance they were frequently sent to raid and pillage other
territories in the Han Dynasty. They kidnapped many people and were at the height of their power when Yuan Shao was still alive. When Yuan died, the
Wuhuan continued their alliance with his son Yuan Shang. Yuan Shang was defeated many times by rival warlord Cao Cao. When Yuan Shang fled to the
territories of Tadun, Tadun attempted to win back territory for Yuan but to no avail. Cao Cao was advised by his strategist Guo Jia to wage war against the
Wuhuan barbarians. Tadun and other chieftains such as Supuyan and Louban (son of Qiuliju) realized that Cao was going to attack them a little bit late, but the
Wuhuan still managed to muster up thousands of cavalry to oppose Cao at the Battle of White Wolf Mountain. There, in pitched battle, Cao's general Zhang
Liao led the vanguard army and defeated Tadun by exploiting a weak point in the Wuhuan formation. Tadun was slain in the battle along with many of his men.


Murong
Murong (Chinese: ; pinyin: Mrng; Mongol romanization:Muyun) or Muren refers to an ethnic Xianbei tribe who are a Mongolic people attested from the
time of Tanshihuai (reigned 156-181). Different strands of evidence exist linking the Murong to the language family of Mongols. Murong is also a Chinese
surname. The Former Yan (337-370), Western Yan (384-394), Later Yan (384-409) dynasties as well as the Tuyuhun Kingdom (285-670) were all founded by the
Murong.
List of Chiefs of Xianbei tribe Murong
Chieftain Murong was the Chief of Xianbei tribe Murong around AD 181.
Murong Mohuba was the Chief of Xianbei tribe Murong around AD 238.
Murong Muyan was the Chief of Xianbei tribe Murong around AD 246.
Murong Shegui (died AD 283) was the Chief of Xianbei tribe Murong from AD 246 until his death in AD 283.
Murong Shan (died AD 285) was the Chief of Xianbei tribe Murong from AD 283 until his death in AD 285.
Murong Hui was the Chief of Xianbei tribe Murong from AD 285 until AD 333.

Tuyuhun Kingdom
Tuyuhun (Chinese: ), also known as Henanguo (), or 'A-zha or Togon in Tibetan,
[1]
was a powerful Mongolickingdom established by nomadic
tribes related to the Xianbei in the Qilian Mountains and upper Yellow River valley. After the disintegration of the Xianbei state, nomadic groups were led by
their Khan, Tuyuhun, to the rich pasture lands around Lake Koko Nur about the middle of the 3rd century CE. Murong Tuyuhun () was the older
brother of the Former Yan's ancestor Murong Hui and elder son of the ChanyuMurong Shegui () of the Murong Xianbei who took his people from
their original settlements on the Liaodong Peninsulato the region of the Yin Mountains, crossing the Yellow River between AD 307 and AD 313, and into the
eastern region of modernQinghai. The Tuyuhun Empire was established in 284 by subjugating the native peoples referred to as the Qiang, including more than
100 different and loosely coordinated tribes that did not submit to each other or any authority. After Tuyuhun died in Linxia, Gansu in AD 317, his sixty sons
further expanded the empire by defeating the Western Qin (AD 385 AD 430) and Xia (AD 407- AD 431) kingdoms. The Qinghai Xianbei, Tufa Xianbei,
Qifu Xianbei and Haolian Xianbei joined them. They moved their capital 6 km west of Koko Nur. After the Jin elevated their status by conferring on their ruler
the old Xiongnu title of chanyu, in AD 281, they were ruled, from AD 285, by Murong Hui for five decades. These Xianbei groups formed the core of the
Tuyuhun Empire and numbered about 3.3 million at their peak. They carried out extensive military expeditions westward, reaching as far
as Hetian inXinjiang and the borders of Kashmir and Afghanistan, and established a vast empire that encompassed Qinghai, Gansu, Ningxia, northern Sichuan,
eastern Shaanxi, southernXinjiang, and most of Tibet, stretching 1,500 kilometers from east to west and 1,000 kilometers from north to south. They unified parts
of Inner Asia for the first time in history, developed the southern route of the Silk Road, and promoted cultural exchange between the eastern and western
territories, dominating the northwest for more than three and half centuries until the Empire was destroyed by the Tibetans. The Tuyuhun Empire existed as an
independent Kingdom outside of China and was not included as part of Chinese historiography.
List of Rulers of Tuyuhun Kingdom
Mrng Tyhn (died AD 317) was the founder and first ruler of Tuyuhun Kingdom from AD 284 until his death in AD 317. After the disintegration of
the Xianbei state, nomadic groups were led by their Khan, Tuyuhun, to the rich pasture lands around Lake Koko Nur about the middle of the 3rd century CE.
Murong Tuyuhun () was the older brother of the Former Yan's ancestor Murong Hui and elder son of the ChanyuMurong Shegui () of
the Murong Xianbei who took his people from their original settlements on the Liaodong Peninsulato the region of the Yin Mountains, crossing the Yellow
River between AD 307 and AD 313, and into the eastern region of modernQinghai. The Tuyuhun Empire was established in AD 284 by subjugating the native
peoples referred to as the Qiang, including more than 100 different and loosely coordinated tribes that did not submit to each other or any authority. After
Tuyuhun died in Linxia, Gansu in AD 317, his sixty sons further expanded the empire by defeating the Western Qin (AD 385 AD 430) and Xia (AD 407 AD
431) kingdoms. The Qinghai Xianbei, Tufa Xianbei, Qifu Xianbei and Haolian Xianbei joined them. They moved their capital 6 km west of Koko Nur. After
the Jin elevated their status by conferring on their ruler the old Xiongnu title of chanyu, in 281, they were ruled, from 285, by Murong Hui for five decades.
These Xianbei groups formed the core of the Tuyuhun Empire and numbered about 3.3 million at their peak. They carried out extensive military expeditions
westward, reaching as far as Hetian inXinjiang and the borders of Kashmir and Afghanistan, and established a vast empire that encompassed Qinghai, Gansu,
Ningxia, northern Sichuan, eastern Shaanxi, southernXinjiang, and most of Tibet, stretching 1,500 kilometers from east to west and 1,000 kilometers from north
to south. They unified parts of Inner Asia for the first time in history, developed the southern route of the Silk Road, and promoted cultural exchange between
the eastern and western territories, dominating the northwest for more than three and half centuries until the Empire was destroyed by the Tibetans. The
Tuyuhun Empire existed as an independent Kingdom outside of China and was not included as part of Chinese historiography.
Mrng Tyn was the ruler of Tuyuhun Kingdom from AD 317 until AD 329.
Mrng Yyn was the ruler of Tuyuhun Kingdom from AD 329 until AD 351.
Mrng Sux was the ruler of Tuyuhun Kingdom from AD 351 until AD 371.
Mrng Shlin was the ruler of Tuyuhun Kingdom from AD 371 until AD 390.
Mrng Shp was the ruler of Tuyuhun Kingdom from AD 390 until AD 400.
Mrng Wgt was the ruler of Tuyuhun Kingdom from AD 400 until AD 405.
Mrng Shlugn was the ruler of Tuyuhun Kingdom from AD 405 until AD 417.
Mrng chi was the ruler of Tuyuhun Kingdom from AD 417 until AD 424.
Mrng Mgu was the ruler of Tuyuhun Kingdom from AD 424 until AD 436.
Mrng Mlyn was the ruler of Tuyuhun Kingdom from AD 436 until AD 452.
Mrng Shyn was the ruler of Tuyuhun Kingdom from AD 452 until AD 481.
Mrng Dyhu was the ruler of Tuyuhun Kingdom from AD 481 until AD 490.
Mrng Flinchu was the ruler of Tuyuhun Kingdom from AD 490 until AD 540.
Mrng Kul was the ruler of Tuyuhun Kingdom from AD 540 until AD 591.
Mrng Shf was the ruler of Tuyuhun Kingdom from AD 591 until AD 597.
Murong Fuyun () (died AD 635), formal title Busabo Khan (), was a ruler of the Xianbei state Tuyuhun from AD 597 until his death
in AD 635. He first became ruler when his brother Murong Shifu was assassinated in AD 597, and became one of the longest-ruling monarchs
in Tuyuhun history. During his reign, he had major conflicts with China's Sui Dynasty and Tang Dynasty, and in AD 635, during a Tang invasion, he was
assassinated due to the people's resentment of his hostile attitude toward Emperor Taizong of Tang that led to the invasion. Murong Fuyun's father Murong
Kual's reign (r. AD 540 AD 591) as khan had been a turbulent one, particularly late in his reign, when even his crown princes were said to have been fearful
for their deaths. As for his relations with China, then divided between Sui Dynasty (under the reign of Emperor Wen) and Chen Dynasty (under the reign
of Chen Shubao), he was constantly attacking the provinces of Sui that were on the border of Tuyuhun, although after Sui destroyed Chen in 589, Murong Kual
was fearful and vacated the border region. He died in AD 591 and was succeeded by Murong Fuyun's older brother Murong Shifu, who offered to submit to
Emperor Wen and further to offer a daughter to serve as Emperor Wen'sconcubine -- which Emperor Wen (who had very few, if any, concubines, due to his
love for his wife Empress Dugu Qieluo) declined. However, after that, there was a time of peace between Tuyuhun and Sui. Indeed, in 596, Emperor Wen
created the daughter of a clansman Princess Guanghua and married her to Murong Shifu. For reasons lost to history, there was a major disturbance in Tuyuhun
in AD 597, and Murong Shifu was assassinated. The people supported Murong Fuyun as khan. He sent emissaries to Sui to explain the situation and to ask for
permission to, pursuant to Tuyuhun customs, marry Princess Guanghua as well. Emperor Wen agreed. (He and Princess Guanghua thereafter had at least one
son, Murong Shun.) Emperor Wen died in AD 604 and was succeeded by his son Yang Guang (as Emperor Yang), and initially, the relationship between
Tuyuhun and Sui remained peaceful, with Murong Fuyun sending emissaries to submit tributes to Emperor Yang in AD 607, along with emissaries
from Gaochang and the khan of Eastern Tujue himself, the Qimin Khan Ashina Ran'gan. However, later that year, the Sui official Pei Ju returned from a tour of
the Xiyu states, and knowing that Emperor Yang was looking for targets to conquer, suggested to him that Xiyu states had a lot of treasures and that Tuyuhun was
easy to conquer. Emperor Yang started considering attacking Tuyuhun, as a result. At one point, when Murong Fuyun sent Murong Shun as an emissary to Sui,
Emperor Yang detained him. In AD 608, Pei persuaded the Tiele tribes to attack Tuyuhun, and Tiele forces defeated Tuyuhun forces. Murong Fuyun took his
people east, entering Sui's Xiping Commandery (, roughly modern Xining, Qinghai) to ask for refuge and aid against the Tiele. Emperor Yang sent his
cousin Yang Xiong () the Prince of Ande and Yuwen Shu the Duke of Xu to escort Murong Fuyun. As Yuwen's forces approached, however, Murong
Fuyun became apprehensive of the strength of his forces and decided to flee. Yuwen attacked him, and was said to have killed 3,000 Tuyuhun soldiers, and
captured some 200 Tuyuhun nobles and 4,000 households. Murong Fuyun fled southwest into the mountains. Sui took over former Tuyuhun lands and divided
it into four commanderies, settling minor criminals in those lands. By AD 609, however, Murong Fuyun appeared to have exited the mountains and taken the
land back, and Emperor Yang, this time commanding the army himself, again attacked Tuyuhun. Emperor Yang's forces, while suffering some minor setbacks,
were again able to send Murong Fuyun fleeing, reaffirming Sui's control over the Tuyuhun lands. With Murong Shun in his hands, he created Murong Shun as
khan and had him, assisted by Ni Luozhou () the Prince of Dabao, trying to head toward the Tuyuhun people to take over control. On the way, however,
Ni was assassinated, and Murong Shun retreated back to Sui. In AD 613, Pei again persuaded the tribes submitting to Western Tujue's Heshana Khan to attack
Tuyuhun. Little is known about Tuyuhun's status under Murong Fuyun the next several years, but at the time, Sui itself was collapsing, engulfed in agrarian
rebellions throughout its territory. By AD 619, Emperor Yang was dead, killed at Jiangdu (, in modern Yangzhou, Jiangsu), and Murong Shun, who had
been with Emperor Yang at Jiangdu, had returned to the Sui capital Chang'an, then taken over by one of the generals who had rebelled against Emperor Yang, Li
Yuan, who had also since then taken the throne and established a new state ofTang as its Emperor Gaozu, still fighting for supremacy of China with many other
rebel rulers. Emperor Gaozu negotiated with Murong Fuyun, who had by now recovered the Tuyuhun lands, to attack one of his rivals, Li Gui the Emperor of
Liang. Murong Fuyun agreed, and requested that Murong Shun be released. Emperor Gaozu agreed, and Murong Shun was able to return to Tuyuhun.
(However, by this time, Murong Fuyun had already created another son to be his crown prince, and it was said that Murong Shun was depressed thereafter.)
Starting AD 622, Murong Fuyun, apparently under the advice of his strategist the Prince of Tianzhu, began frequent pillaging attacks on Tang's prefectures
bordering Tuyuhun, making several attacks per year. The attacks continued throughout the rest of Emperor Gaozu's reign, up to AD 626 (when he was forced to
abdicate in favor of his son Li Shimin (as Emperor Taizong)). The Tuyuhun attacks appeared to decrease in frequency once Emperor Taizong took the throne,
but did continue. Sometime before 634, Murong Fuyun appeared to make an overture toward peaceby sending an emissary to offer tributes to Emperor
Taizongbut even before the emissary left, Tuyuhun forces attacked and pillaged Shan Prefecture (, in modern Haidong Prefecture, Qinghai). When
Emperor Taizong sent emissaries to rebuke Murong Fuyun and summoned Murong Fuyun to Chang'an to meet him, Murong Fuyun refused, but responded by
requesting that a Tang princess be given to his son, the Prince of Zun, in marriage. Emperor Taizong agreed, but ordered that the Prince of Zun personally arrive
in Chang'an to marry the princess. When the Prince of Zun failed to do so, Emperor Taizong cancelled the marriage. Meanwhile, Murong Fuyun also attacked
Lan and Kuo (, also in modern Haidong) Prefectures and detained the Tang emissary Zhao Dekai (). Emperor Taizong sent a number of emissaries
to Tuyuhun to discuss the matter and also summoned Tuyuhun emissaries and personally had discussions with them. Murong Fuyun still did not relent. In fall
AD 634, Emperor Taizong sent the generals Duan Zhixuan () and Fan Xing () to attack Tuyuhun with Tang forces, supplemented by soldiers from
the Qibi () andDangxiang tribes. When Duan began the attack, however, after minor successes, Tuyuhun forces simply began to elude him and refuse to
engage him. Apparently immediately after he withdrew, Tuyuhun forces again attacked Liang Prefecture (, roughly modern Wuwei, Gansu). Around the
New Year AD 635, Emperor Taizong sent Li Jing to attack Tuyuhun again. In summer AD 635, Tang forces began engaging Tuyuhun forces, and after some
minor victories by Li Jing's subordinate Li Daozong, Murong Fuyun, apparently following the same strategies he used against Duan, burned the grasses and fled.
Most of Li Jing's subordinates believed that it was dangerous to venture further without adequate grazing supplies and advised withdrawal, but Hou Junji opposed
the idea, pointing out that this was the opportunity to destroy Tuyuhun. Li Jing agreed, and divided his forces into two brancheswith Li Jing himself and Xue
Wanjun () and Li Daliang () heading northwest, and Hou and Li Daozong heading southwest. Both prongs continued to be successful. Eventually,
Li Jing received news of Murong Fuyun's location and surprised Murong Fuyun, defeating his remaining forces. Murong Fuyun himself managed to flee, but the
nobles, led by Murong Shun, killed the Prince of Tianzhu and surrendered. Murong Fuyun, in flight, was killed by his subordinates.
[1]
Emperor Taizong created
Murong Shun the dual titles of Prince of Xiping and Zhugulwugandou Khan (or Gandou Khan in short), to succeed Murong Fuyun.
Murong Shun () (died AD 635), regal title Zhugulwugandou Khan () or, in short, Gandou Khan (), Tang
Dynasty noble title Prince of Xiping (), was briefly a khan of the Xianbei state Tuyuhun in AD 635. He would have been expected to be the crown
prince of his father, the Busabo Khan Murong Fuyun, as the oldest son of his wife Princess Guanghua of Sui Dynasty, but was bypassed, and in AD 635, with
Tuyuhun under attack by Tang, he headed a group of nobles who surrendered to Tang and was subsequently created khan to succeed his father (who was killed
in flight). However, he did not receive support from his people and was assassinated later that year. He was succeeded by his son Murong Nuohebo (Ledou
Khan). It is not known when Murong Shun was born, but it was known that he was the oldest son of the Busabo Khan Murong Fuyun and Sui Dynasty's Princess
Guanghua, who had first married Murong Shun's uncle Murong Shifu in AD 596 when Murong Shifu was khan. In AD 597, after Murong Shifu was assassinated,
Murong Fuyun became khan, and pursuant to Tuyuhun customs, married Princess Guanghua as his wife. In AD 604, Emperor Wen of Sui, who had initially
married Princess Guanghua to Murong Shifu and who had later approved her marriage to Murong Fuyun, died, and was succeeded by his son Yang Guang (as
Emperor Yang). In 607, Emperor Yang started considering conquering Tuyuhun, after his official Pei Ju convinced him that it would be easy to do so. When, on
one occasion, Murong Fuyun sent Murong Shun as an emissary to Sui, Emperor Yang detained him as a hostage. In AD 608 and AD 609, Emperor Yang
launched major attacks on Tuyuhun, taking over its lands and forcing Murong Fuyun to flee. Emperor Yang instead created Murong Shun as khan and had a
Tuyuhun prince, Ni Luozhou () the Prince of Dabao, serve as Murong Shun's assistant, hoping that Murong Shun can take over Tuyuhun. However, on
the way back to Tuyuhun lands, Ni was assassinated, and Murong Shun returned to Sui, which, in later years, began collapsing as it was engulfed by agrarian
rebellions. In 618, Murong Shun was accompanying Emperor Yang at Jiangdu (, in modern Yangzhou, Jiangsu), when Emperor Yang was killed in a coup
led by the general Yuwen Huaji. Murong Shun subsequently returned to the Sui capital Chang'an, which was then under the control of the rebel general Li
Yuan the Prince of Tang, who had declared Emperor Yang's grandson Yang You the Prince of Dai as emperor (as Emperor Gong). Later in 618, Li Yuan had
Emperor Gong yield the throne to him, establishing Tang Dynasty as its Emperor Gaozu. As he was fighting over the supremacy of China with many other rebel
rulers, he made overtures to Murong Fuyun, who had by that point taken back the Sui-seized Tuyuhun lands, asking Murong Fuyun to attack one of his rivals, Li
Gui the Emperor of Liang. Murong Fuyun agreed, and requested that Murong Shun be released to him. Emperor Gaozu agreed, and in 619 Murong Shun
returned to Tuyuhun. However, the return was not a happy one for Murong Shun, who, as Princess Guanghua's oldest son, expected to be crown prince, but in
Murong Shun's long absence, Murong Fuyun had already created another son crown prince. He only created Murong Shun the Prince of Daning, and Murong
Shun was not pleased. Despite this initial alliance between Tang and Tuyuhun, peace did not last even before, and did not last after, Tang's reunification of
China, which by 623 was largely complete, as Murong Fuyun, under the advice of his strategist the Prince of Tianzhu, was making several pillaging attacks on
Tang every year for the rest of Emperor Gaozu's reign, which ended in AD 626 as he was forced to abdicate to his son Li Shimin (as Emperor Taizong). The
attacks were less frequent thereafter, but were still ongoing. In AD 635, under the general Li Jing, Tang forces made a major crippling attack on Tuyuhun, forcing
Murong Fuyun to flee. The Tuyuhun nobles were resentful of the Prince of Tianzhu, and Murong Shun led them in killing the Prince of Tianzhu and then
surrendering. As Murong Fuyun was killed by his subordinates during flight, Emperor Taizong created Murong Shun the dual titles of Prince of Xiping and
Zhugulwugandou Khan (or Gandou Khan in short), to succeed Murong Fuyun. However, Murong Shun's reign was short and turbulent, as it was said that the
people did not respect him due to his having served as a hostage for a long time in China, and the turbulence did not subside even though, for a time, Tang
forces commanded by the general Li Daliang () were in Tuyuhun, assisting him. Late in AD 635, he was assassinated. His son Murong Nuohebo the
Prince of Yan succeeded him, and managed to survive the crisis with aid from the Tang general Hou Junji.
Murong Nuohebo () (died AD 688), regal title Wudiyebaledou Khan () or, in short, Ledou Khan (), Tang
Dynasty noble title Prince of Qinghai (), was the last khan of the Xianbei state Tuyuhun from AD 635 until AD 672. He had become khan in AD 635
after his grandrfather, the Busabo Khan Murong Fuyun and his father, the Gandou Khan Murong Shun, had both been killed in the same year: Murong Fuyun
during a Tang invasion and Murong Shun assassinated by his own people in the aftermaths of the Tang conquest. Murong Nuohebo's control over his people was
initially tenuous and required Tang military affirmation on at least two occasions, but once his control was firmer, he faced the threat of Tufan to the south-west.
In 663, unable to stand Tufan pressure, he took his people and requested refuge in Tang territory, and by 672, Tufan had taken over all of former Tuyuhun
territory. The Tuyuhun people were settled within Tang territory, and Murong Nuohebo was made a Tang prefect. While he continued to carry the title of khan
until his death in 688, typically, Tuyuhun was considered destroyed by either AD 663 or AD 672. It is not known when Murong Nuohebo was born. In 635, his
grandfather, the Busabo Khan Murong Fuyun, who had been aggravatingChina's Tang Dynasty for years with border raids, drew a Tang reprisal attack,
commanded by the general Li Jing, and was killed in flight. Murong Nuohebo's father Murong Shun surrendered and was created the Gandou Khan to succeed
Murong Fuyun, but as Murong Shun had spent years in China during Sui Dynasty and his mother was Sui's Princess Guanghua, he was considered
too sinicized and not supported by the people. Late in AD 635, he was assassinated. Murong Nuohebo, who was said to be young (although his age by that point
is unknown), and who carried the title of Prince of Yan, became khan. Emperor Taizong of Tang sent the general Hou Junjiwith Tang troops to help Murong
Nuohebo pacify the Tuyuhun people. In spring AD 636, Murong Nuohebo sent emissaries to Tang, offering to submit as a vassal and sent a younger brother or
brothers to serve as hostage. Emperor Taizong created him the dual titles of Prince of Heyuan and Wudiyebaledou Khan (or Ledou Khan in short). By AD 638,
however, Tuyuhun was under constant attack by Tufan, whose ruler Songtsn Gampo had become hostile toward Tuyuhun because he thought Murong
Nuohebo had interfered with his attempt to seek a Tang princess in marriage, and his attacks captured much of Tuyuhun's people and forced the rest north of
the Qinghai Lake. Tufan forces then attacked Tang as well, but were repelled by the Tang general Niu Jinda (), and, after receiving agreement from
Emperor Taizong that a princess would be given to Songtsn Gampo in marriage, withdrew (that princess, Wencheng, would eventually marry Songtsn Gampo
in AD 641). In AD 639, Murong Nuohebo visited the Tang capital Chang'an. Emperor Taizong created the daughter of a clansman as Princess Honghua and
gave her to Murong Nuohebo in marriage. In or before 641, Murong Nuohebo's prime minister, the Prince of Xuan, had taken control of the government, and
he planned to attack Princess Honghua and then seize her and Murong Nuohebo and surrender to Tufan. When Murong Nuohebo heard of this plot, he fled to
his general the Prince of Weixin, then stationed at Shanshan. The Tang officer Xi Junmai () took this opportunity to ambush the Prince of Xuan and
killed him and two of his brothers. Tuyuhun, however, was said to be thrown into a state of confusion, and Emperor Taizong sent the official Tang Jian () to
help Murong Nuohebo pacify the people. In AD 652, Murong Nuohebo and Princess Guanghua both visited Chang'an, and Emperor Taizong's son and
successor Emperor Gaozong created the daughter of a clansman the Lady of Jincheng and married her to Murong Nuohebo's oldest son Murong Sudumomo
(). (At a later point, after Murong Sudumomo died, Emperor Gaozong created another daughter of a clansman the Lady of Jinming and married
her to Murong Nuohebo's second son Murong Talumomo ().) Meanwhile, the relationship between Tuyuhun and Tufan appeared to be largely
peaceful for years, but in 660, the Tufan prime minister Lu Dongzan () had his son Qizheng () resume attacks against Tuyuhun, on account of
Tuyuhun's submission to Tang. Both Tufan and Tuyuhun sent emissaries to Tang accusing each other and asking for Tang assistance. Emperor Gaozong
declined both requests. However, Tuyuhun was weakening in light of Tufan attacks, and in 663, the situation was exacerbated when the Tuyuhun official Suhe
Gui (), accused of crimes, fled to Tufan and revealed many secrets about Tuyuhun. Tufan forces thereafter attacked Tuyuhun and defeated Tuyuhun
forces. Murong Nuohebo and Princess Honghua abandoned Tuyuhun's territory and took the people to Tang's Liang Prefecture (, roughly modern Wuwei,
Gansu), requesting to settle within Tang territory. Emperor Gaozong sent the general Su Dingfang to command Tang forces to the west, to help protect Tuyuhun
remnants, but carried out no actual military attacks against Tufan, although he sent emissaries to rebuke Lu Dongzan when Lu Dongzan subsequently sent
emissaries to again make accusations against Tuyuhun and request another marriage with Tang. In AD 665, when Tufan made a peace overture, requesting a
marriage treaty with Tuyuhun and also permission to graze in the Chishui (, probably the headwaters area of the Yellow River) area, Emperor Gaozong
rejected the proposal. Around AD 666, Emperor Gaozong created Murong Nuohebo the Prince of Qinghai -- a greater title than the title of Prince of Heyuan --
perhaps to try to show Tufan that he still intended to restore Tuyuhun. In AD 669, Emperor Gaozong decreed that the Tuyuhun people be settled in the Qilian
Mountains, but many officials opined that this would expose them to Tufan attacks and that an attack against Tufan would be necessary first. The
Tangchancellor Yan Liben opposed on account that much of Tang had suffered through a crop failure in AD 668 and could not afford a major military
campaign, and thereafter, the Tuyuhun people were not settled in the Qilian. In AD 670, Tufan launched a major attack on Tang's Xiyu garrisons, capturing 18
prefectures from Tang. In response, Emperor Gaozong sent the general Xue Rengui, assisted by the generals Ashina Daozhen () and Guo Daifeng
() with the stated missions of recapturing the Tuyuhun lands to permit the Tuyuhun people to return to their territory. However, the campaign was
plagued by disagreements between Xue and Guo, and Tang forces eventually suffered a major defeat by Lu Dongzan's son and successor Lun Qinling (),
ending hopes of allowing the Tuyuhun people to return. In 672, Emperor Gaozong, apparently giving up on the idea, settled the Tuyuhun people at Shan
Prefecture (, in modern Haidong Prefecture, Qinghai), but even Shan Prefecture was considered too exposed to Tufan attacks, and so soon the Tuyuhun
people were settled in Ling Prefecture (, roughly modern Yinchuan, Ningxia), but establishing a separate prefecture for them -- Anle Prefecture ().
Murong Nuohebo was made its prefect. (There is thus a split among historians between treating AD 663 or AD 672 as the end of Tuyuhun's existence as a state.)
Murong Nuohebo died in AD 688. His son Murong Zhong () inherited his titles, and the titles were passed on for at least four more generations before
the line died out and the titles were abolished, even though there was no longer any realistic chance for Tuyuhun's restoration.

Khitan people
The Khitan people (Chinese: ; pinyin: Qdn; Persian: , Khitan), or Khitai, Kitan, or Kidan, were a nomadic Mongolic people, originally
from Mongolia and Manchuria (the northeastern region of modern-day China) from the 4th century. As the Liao Dynasty they dominated a vast area north of,
and including parts of, China; but have left few relics that have survived until today. After the fall of Liao in 1125, many Khitans moved further west and
established the state of Kara Khitai, which was finally destroyed by the Mongol Empire in 1218. There is no consensus on the etymology of the name of Khitan.
There are basically three speculations. Feng Jiasheng argues that it comes from the Yuwen chieftains' names. Zhao Zhenji thinks that the term originated
from Xianbei and means "a place where Xianbei had resided". Japanese scholar Otagi Matsuo considers Khitan's original name is "Xidan", which means "the
people who are similar to the Xi people" or "the people who inhabit among the Xi people". Various forms of the word "Khitan" survive in the many languages as
the name of China. Examples: Bulgarian and Russian word for China (, Kitay) as well as in the Slovene language (Kitajska) and in archaic English
(Cathay), Italian (Catai), Portuguese (Catai), and Spanish (Catay) appellations of the country. It is used in such Turkic languages asUyghur, though is considered
pejorative and disapproved of by the Chinese.
The period of the Ancient Eight Tribes of the Khitan Xianbei (AD 470 AD 585)
List of Khitan Chefatin (Mofuhe)
Hechen () was a Khitan Chieftain (Mofuhe) () around AD 470.
Mer-gan (Hanzi : pinyin : Wuyu) was a Khitan Chieftain (Mofuhe) () around AD 479.
Duomi Khagan () was a Khitan Chieftain (Mofuhe) () around AD 585.
The Dahe Tribal Confederation of the Khitan (AD 618 AD 730) ()
List of Khans of the Dahe Tribal Confederation of the Khitan
Duoluo was a khan of the Dahe Tribal Confederation of the Khitan from AD 618/622 until AD 627.
Mohui was a khan of the Dahe Tribal Confederation of the Khitan from AD 627 until AD 644.
(Li) Kuge was a khan of the Dahe Tribal Confederation of the Khitan from AD 644 until AD 653/658.
Abugu was a khan of the Dahe Tribal Confederation of the Khitan from AD 653/658 until AD 660.
Li Jinzhong () (died September 23, AD 696), titled Wushang Khan (, literally "the khan that had no superior") was a khan of the Dahe Tribal
Confederation of the Khitan from AD 675 until his death on September 23, AD 696. He was a khan of the Khitan who, along with his brother-in-law Sun
Wanrong, rose against Chinese hegemony in 696 and further invaded Chinese territory then under the rule of Wu Zetian's Zhou Dynasty. He died late in AD
696 and was succeeded by Sun.
Sun Wanrong () (died AD 697) was a khan of the Dahe Tribal Confederation of the Khitan from AD 696 until AD 697. He was a khan of
the Khitan people who, along with his brother-in-law Li Jinzhong, rose against Chinese hegemony in AD 696, with Li Jinzhong as khan, and they further invaded
Chinese territory then under the rule of Wu Zetian's Zhou Dynasty. After Li Jinzhong's death later in AD 696, Sun succeeded him and continued to be
successful against the forces sent against him by Wu Zetian, but in AD 697, after the Eastern Tujue khan Ashina Mochuo successfully launched a surprise attack
against Sun's headquarters, Sun's forces collapsed, and he was killed, ending the Khitan rebellion.
(Li) Shihuo was a khan of the Dahe Tribal Confederation of the Khitan from AD 697 until AD 717.
(Li) Suogu was a khan of the Dahe Tribal Confederation of the Khitan from AD 718 until AD 720.
(Li) (Yugan)/Yuyu was a khan of the Dahe Tribal Confederation of the Khitan from AD 720 until AD 722/724.
(Li) (Tugan)/Tuyu was a khan of the Dahe Tribal Confederation of the Khitan from AD 722/724 until AD 725.
(Li) Shaogu was a khan of the Dahe Tribal Confederation of the Khitan AD 725 until AD 730.
List of Chieftains of Khitan prefecture of Xuanzhou ()
(Li) Qul (()) was a Khan of Chieftain of Khitan prefecture of Xuanzhou () during AD 630s and AD 640s.
Juqu /Quju (/) was a Chieftain of Khitan prefecture of Xuanzhou () from AD 646 and AD 648.
Other Khitan Chieftains ()
Tanmozhe () was a Chieftain of Khitan tribe around AD 630.
The Yaonian Tribal Confederation (AD 730 AD 906) ()
List of Supreme Chieftain of the Khitan (khagans)
Jul (Qulie), Wa khaghan () was the Supreme Chieftain (Khagan) of the Khitan Yaonian Tribal Confederation from AD 730 until AD 734.
(Li) Guozhe (/), Prince of Beiping () was the Supreme Chieftain (Khagan) of the Khitan Yaonian Tribal Confederation in AD 735.
Dinian Zuli, Li Huaixiu/Li Huaijie (//) (), Zuwu Khagan () was the Supreme Chieftain (Khagan) of the Khitan
Yaonian Tribal Confederation from AD 735 until AD 745.
Kailuo (/), Hula khaghan () was the Supreme Chieftain (Khagan) of the Khitan Yaonian Tribal Confederation from AD 746 until AD 748.
Su khaghan (/) was the Supreme Chieftain (Khagan) of the Khitan Yaonian Tribal Confederation from AD 778 until AD 800.
Bala khaghan () was the Supreme Chieftain (Khagan) of the Khitan Yaonian Tribal Confederation from AD 800 until AD 820.
Zhaogu khaghan () was the Supreme Chieftain (Khagan) of the Khitan Yaonian Tribal Confederation from AD 820 until AD 842.
Qushu (), Yelan khaghan () was the Supreme Chieftain (Khagan) of the Khitan Yaonian Tribal Confederation from AD 842 until AD 860.
Xi'er /Xi'erzhi (), Xianzhi khaghan () was the Supreme Chieftain (Khagan) of the Khitan Yaonian Tribal Confederation from AD 860 until AD
882.
Qinde (/), Hendeji khaghan () was the Supreme Chieftain (Khagan) of the Khitan Yaonian Tribal Confederation from AD 882 until AD
906.

Kereid
The Kereid (Mongolian: /Khereid) was the most dominant tribe of the five major tribal confederations (khanlig) in theMongolian plateau during the 12th
century. As allies of Genghis Khan, the Khereid were influential in the rise of the Mongol Empire. In the 11th century, they converted to Nestorian
Christianity and were a key example of prominent Christians among the Mongols. The Kereid were located between the mountain ranges of Khangai and
Khentii and were centered on the site of the present day city of Ulaanbaatar and in the willow groves of the Tuul River, to the west of the Khamag Mongol and to
the east of the Naiman. The last ruler, Toghrul, gained fame as far away as Europe for his battles with Muslims, and several women from the Kereit clan became
influential women in the Mongol court. Sorghaghtani Bekhi, the younger daughter of Toghrul's brother Jakha Khambu, married a son of Genghis Khan, and
their four sons, including Great Khans Kublai Khan and Mngke Khan, became prominent leaders of the Empire. At the height of its power, the Khereid nation
was organized along the same lines as the Naimans and other powerful steppe tribes of the day. The nation was divided into a "central" faction and an "outer"
faction. The central faction served as the Khan's personal army and was composed of warriors from many different tribes with no loyalties to anyone but the
Khan. This made the central faction more of a quasi-feudal state than a genuine tribe. The "outer" faction was composed of tribes that pledged obedience to the
Khan, but lived on their own tribal pastures and functioned semi-autonomously. The "capital" of the Khereid Khanate was a place called Orta Balagasun, which
was probably located in an old Uighur or Khitan fortress. The Khereid Khans, like many steppe rulers of that day, practiced a sort of apprenticeship program in
which young male relatives of lesser chieftains (euphemistically known as "hostages") would serve in the Khan's court. Temujin, the future Genghis Khan, was
himself a "hostage" of the Khereid Khan Toghrul, who owed Temujin's father an old debt. Much of what Temujin knew about war and governing was
undoubtedly learned in the Khereid court.
List of Kereid Khans
Markus Buyruk Khan (died 1100) was a Kerait Khan who also led the Zubu confederacy in late 11th century. In 1100, he was killed by the Liao Dynasty.
Kurchakus Buyruk Khan was a Kerait Khan in the first half 12th century. He was a son and successor of Bayruk Markus, among whose wives was
Toreqaimish Khatun, daughter of Korchi Buiruk Khan of the Naiman. Kurchakus's younger brother was Gur Khan. Kurchakus Buyruk Khan had many sons.
He had sons Toghrul, Yula-Mangus, Tai-Timur, Bukha-Timur.
Eljidai was a Kerait regent in the 12th century. After Kurchakus Buyruk Khan died, Ilma's servant Eljidai from Tatar became the de facto regent. This
upset Toghrul who had his younger brothers killed and then claimed the throne. After this, Gur Khan raided Toghrul. Yesugei Baghatur helped Toghrul.
Wang Khan, (Mongolian: , ; Chinese: ; pinyin: Wng Hn, died 1203) also Ong Khan,
was the title given to the Kerai truler Toghrul by the Jurchen Jin Dynasty of China was a Kerait Khan in the second
half 12th century.Like the rest of his tribe he may have been a Nestorian Christian. Wang Khan was the anda (blood
brother) of Temjin's (later Genghis Khan) father Yeskhei, and acted as a patron and early ally for Temjin. When
Temjin attacked Jamukha for the title of Khan, Toghrul, fearing Temjin's growing power, plotted with Jamukha to
have Temjin assassinated. Toghrul was killed in 1203 by Naiman soldiers who failed to recognize him as the former
was fleeing from a defeat by Genghis Khan. Genghis married his son Tolui to one of Toghrul's nieces, the Nestorian
Christian Sorghaghtani Bekhi. Tolui and Sorghaghtani Bekhi became the parents of Mngke Khan and Kublai Khan.
During the 13th century, Wang Khan was one of several Asian or African leaders who was identified with the legend
of Prester John.


Merkit Khanate
The Merkit (Mongolian: Mergid, Cyrillic: , lit. "skillful/wise ones") was one of the five major tribal confederations(khanlig) in the Mongolian plateau in the
12th century. The Merkits lived in the basins of the Selenge River and lower Orkhon River (Southern Buryatia and Mongolian Selenge Province).
[1]
After a
struggle that took over two decades, they were defeated in 1200 and incorporated into the Mongol Empireformed by Genghis Khan. The word Merged ()
is a plural form derived from the Mongolian word mergen (), the latter of which means both "wise" as in smart and "skillful marksperson" as in adept in the
use of bow and arrow. The word is also used in many phrases in which it connotes magic, oracles, divination, augury, or religious power. Note that the Mongolian
language does not make a clear morphological or grammatical distinction between nouns and adjectives, so mergen may mean "a sage, a wise one" just as much as
"wise" or "skillful, adept" just as much as "a master, a skillful marksperson." Merged becomes people as in "wise ones" or "skillful markspeople." But in the general
sense, mergen usually denotes someone who is skillful and wise in their affairs.
List known Chieftains of Merkit Khanate
Jehe Chiledu was the Chieftain of Merkit Khanate around 1150. Genghis Khan (Temjin's) mother Hoelun, originally from the Olkhunut tribe, had been
engaged to the Merkit chief Yehe Chiledu by 1153. She was abducted by Temjin's father Yesugei, while being escorted home by Yehe Chiledu.
Magnagt was the Chieftain of Merkit Khanate in late 12th and early 13th century. He and his troops barred the way to Genghis Khan's (Temjin) detachments.

Naiman
The Naiman, (Khalkha-Mongolian: /Naiman) is a Southern Mongolian ethnic group in Naiman Banner, Inner Mongolia. According to Russian
Turkologist Nikolai Aristov's view, Naiman Khanate's western border reached Irtysh River and eastern border reached Mongolian Tamir River. Altai
Mountains and southern Altai Republic were part of the Naiman Khanate. They had diplomatic relations with the Kara-Khitan, and were subservient to them
until 1177 (the name Naimans is what the Mongols used to refer to them). The Naimans are most often classified as a Turkic people from Sekiz Oghuz (means
"Eight Oghuz" in Turkic). Like the Khitans and the Uyghurs, many of them were Nestorian Christians or Buddhists. When last Tayang Khan (a type of Khan)
was killed after a battle with Genghis Khan in 1203, his son Kuchlug with his remaining Naiman troops fled to the Kara-Khitan Khanate. Kuchlug was well
received there and the Khitan Khan gave him his daughter in marriage. Kuchlug soon began plotting against his new father-in-law, and after he usurped the
throne, he began to persecute Muslims in the Hami Oases. But his action was opposed by local people and he was later defeated by the Mongols under Jebe.
Although the Naiman Khanlig was crushed by the Mongols, they were seen in every part of the Mongol Empire. Ogedei's great khatun ("queen") Tregene might
have been from this tribe. Hulegu had a Naiman general, Ketbuqa, who died in the battle of Ain Jalut in 1260.
List of Rulers of Naiman
Taibuqa (died 1203) was a ruler of the Naiman tribe of western Mongolia in late 12th century until his death in 1203 when he was killed after a battle with
Genghis Khan, his son Kuchlug with his remaining Naiman troops fled to the Kara-Khitan Khanate.
Kuchlug (also spelled Kchlg, Klg, Glg, died 1218) was a ruler of the Naiman tribe of western Mongolia from 1210 until his death in 1218. He was
defeated by Genghis Khan and fled westward to the Kara-Khitan Khanate, where he became an advisor. In 1210, he took control of the khanate. He was killed
by the Mongols when they conquered the region in 1218. Kuchlug was the son of Taibuqa, the Tayang Khan (leader) of the Naimans, a Mongol-speaking tribe.
In 1204, Jamuqa, the chief Mongol rival of Temjin (later known as Genghis Khan), fled to the Naimans. Temjin followed and launched an assault upon the
tribe. Taibuqa at first hesitated, considering it better to fall back to the Altai Mountains and attack the Mongols from there. Kuchlug, however, favored a direct
assault on the Mongols on open ground. He went so far as to dismiss his father's plan as cowardly. Taibuqa relented and allowed Kuchlug to carry out his attack.
The battle was a disaster for the Naiman. Jamuqa abandoned them and fled. Taibuqa was mortally injured, and his main commander was killed. The rest of the
tribe surrendered to Temjin and were absorbed into his ranks. Kuchlug managed to escape and with a few Naiman soldiers fled westward towards the Kara
Irtish. Afterwards Genghis Khan was wary of the threat Kuchlug still posed. In 1208, they again met in battle, and Kuchlug was pushed further west
into Semirechye. Reeling from a second defeat at the hands of the Mongols, Kuchlug turned to the Kara Khitai in Balasaghun for protection. Kuchlug was
welcomed by Zhilugu, the Gur-khan (meaning Universal Khan), ruler of the Kara-Khitans. Once he was accepted into the Kara-Khitan Empire, Kuchlug quickly
gained a strong foothold. He found service as an advisor for Gur-khan, and was allowed to marry one of the Gur-khan's daughters, Qng. He was later given the
title of Khan, and was allowed to reorganized his fellow Naimans into a military unit under his command. Around that time, the Kara-Khitans were dealing with
rebellions in the east, as well as engaging in a struggle against Muhammad II of the Khwarezmian Empire in the west. The Khwarezm-Shah took Bukhara in
1207, but was defeated by the Kara-Khitans at Samarkand. Kuchlug, however, apparently had formed an alliance with the Khwarezm-Shah. In 1210, while the
Gur-khan was dealing with a revolt by the Karakhanids at Samarkand, Kuchlug took the chance to rebel against his father-in-law, seizing the Kara-Khitan's
treasury at Uzgen. The Gur-khan left Samarkand to deal with Kuchlug, but the Khwarezm-Shah Muhammad used the opportunity to seize Samarkand, then
defeated the Kara-Khitans nearTalas and gained control of Transoxiana. The Gur-khan pulled back to his capital of Balasagun, and defeated Kuchlug who
retreated eastward to his Naiman realm. However, in 1211, while the Gur-khan was out hunting, he was ambushed and captured by Kuchlug. The Khwarezm-
Shah then joined Kuchlug in capturing the Kara-Khitan Empire. The Gur-khan was allowed to remain ruler of the Kara-Khitais, at least in name, but Kuchlug
retained the real power. When the Gur-khan died in 1213, Kuchlug took direct control of the khanate. While Kuchlug likely only intended to usurp the throne
of the Kara-Khitans, many historians considered the death of the Gur-khan the end of the Kara-Khitan Empire. Once Kuchlug had established himself as ruler,
Muhammad demanded the Kara-Khiatai Gur-khan to be handed over and a princess as a reward for his previous support. Kuchlug tried to stall, but eventually
Muhammad became more aggressive. However, when Kuchlug threatened to resolve the rivalry by direct combat, Muhammad chose to evacuate the region of
upper Jaxartes (Syr-Darya), demolished the settlements there in an attempt to form a buffer zone between his empire and Kuchlug's, and the Syr-Darya eventually
came to be the de facto border between the two rulers. Kuchlug was from the Naiman tribe, which were Nestorians. His wife, daughter of the Gur-khan, was a
Buddhist, and convinced him to adopt Buddhism. However, in contrast to the policy of religious tolerance of the previous Kara-Khitan Gur-khans, once Kuchlug
assumed power, he was reported to have instituted anti-Muslim policies. According to Persian historian Ata-Malik Juvayni, he would demand that a towns
Muslim population make a choice between either converting to Nestorianism or Buddhism, or donning Khitan garment, of which the population would choose
to wear Khitan clothing. He was also reported to have crucified the imam of Hotan onto the door of his madrassa. His anti-Muslim policies and struggle against
Muhammad may have served to inspire the legend of another incarnation of the Christian king of the Far East Prester John. Kuchlug attacked the city of Almaliq,
and the Karlugs there appealed to Genghis Khan for help. In 1216, Genghis Khan dispatched his general Jebe to pursue Kuchlug. The Mongol first went to
Almaliq, then proceed on to the capital city of Balasaghun near which they defeated a Kara-Khitan force of 30,000 men. Kuchlug fled southwards to Kashgar,
however, his previous acts of pillaging and burning harvests in Kashgar when he first captured the town, his anti-Muslim policies, as well as the billeting of his
troops on local households, had antagonized the people of Kashgar. When the Mongols approached Kashgar, Kuchlug, unable to find support in Kashgar, fled
again. According to Ata-Malik Juvayni, the people of Kashgar, then killed his soldiers. He continued south across the Pamirs, eventually reaching the border
between Badakhshan and Wakhan in 1218. There, a group of hunters caught him and handed him over to the Mongols. Kuchlug was beheaded, and according
to the Chinese historical work Yuan Shi, his head was displayed across his former realm. In Age of Empires II: Age of Kings, Kuchlug appears (under the name
Kushluk) in the second level of the Genghis Khan campaign, leading the Kara-Khitai against Genghis.

Four Oirad
The Four Oirats (Dorben Oirad) or the Alliance of the Four Oirat tribes (Oirads; Mongolian: ; in the past, also Eleuths) was the confederation of
the Oirat tribes, which marked the rise of the Western Mongols in Mongolian history. Despite the universal currency of the term Four Oirats among Eastern
Mongols and Oirats and numerous explanations byhistorians, no consensus has been reached on the identity of the original four tribes. While it is believed that
the term Four Oirats refers Choros, Torghud, Dorbed and Khoid, there is a theory that the Oirats were not consangineal units but political-ethnic units,
composed of many patrilineages.
List of Leaders of Four Oirads
Mnkhtmr (Mngke-Temr) was the Oirat leader from around 1368 until 1390s.
Khuuhai Dayuu was the leader of Alliance of the Four Oirat tribes, the confederation of the Oirat tribes during 1390s.
Batula (Bahamu, Mahamud) was the leader of Alliance of the Four Oirat tribes, the confederation of the Oirat tribes from 1399 until 1408.
Togoon (Toghan) was the leader of Alliance of the Four Oirat tribes, the confederation of the Oirat tribes from 1408 until 1438.
Amasanj was the leader of Alliance of the Four Oirat tribes, the confederation of the Oirat tribes from 1454 until 1455.
Ishtmr, Ush-Temr (Ish-Temr) was the leader of Alliance of the Four Oirat tribes, the confederation of the Oirat tribes from 1455 until 1469.
Khishig was the leader of Alliance of the Four Oirat tribes, the confederation of the Oirat tribes in the second half 15th century.
Arkhan was the leader of Alliance of the Four Oirat tribes, the confederation of the Oirat tribes in the second half 15th century.
Bvei was the leader of Alliance of the Four Oirat tribes, the confederation of the Oirat tribes in the second half 15th century.
Khongor; Khan Khongor was the leader of Alliance of the Four Oirat tribes, the confederation of the Oirat tribes in late 15th century.
Bulai (or Abuda Ablai Tayishi) was the leader of Alliance of the Four Oirat tribes, the confederation of the Oirat tribes in late 15th century until 1600.
Kharkhul (English name:Khara Khula; died 1634) was a Choros-Oirat prince and tayishi of the Choros tribe in the first half 16th century. He is best known for
forming and leading a coalition of the Four Oiratsin battle against Ubasi Khun Tayishi, the Khalkha prince who ruled the Altan Khanate in present-day
northwest Mongolia. At the beginning of the 17th century, the Oirat tribes were roaming the pastureland between the Irtysh and the Ili rivers. They were
pressured to migrate west to that area from their home in the Altai Mountains by Ubasi Khun Tayishi who was expanding his state by robbing the Oirats of their
valuable pastures. During this era, the Oirat tribes were fragmented along traditional tribal divisions, viz., Choros, Drbet, Torghut, Khoshut, Khoit, etc. Each
tribe had its own hereditary ruler. The tribes constantly competed against each other, profiting at the others' expense, while seeking to maintain their
independence. This disunity had plagued the Oirats for 150 years, since the dissolution of the Drben Oirat state after the murder of Esen Tayishi in 1454, and
made them an easy opponent for Ubasi Khun Tayishi. Around 1600, Kharkhul succeeded his father, Bulai (or Abuda Ablai Tayishi) as tayishi of the Choros
tribe. Although his birth name was "Khutugaitu," his father nicknamed him Khara Khula - the name historians use to identufy him. The name describes a lion-
like, dark-colored animal from the Altai Mountains that Khutugaitu supposedly killed. As tayishi of the dominant Oirat tribe, Khara Khula emerged from his
base in the upper Irtysh river and Tarbagatai Mountains region to take up the cause of the unorganized and confused Oirat tribes in their war against Ubasi Khun
Tayishi. In so doing, Kharkhul's objective was to establish the political and military unity that his ancestor Esen Tayishi once demanded from the Oirat princes
and, in the process, forge a new state. Early in his reign in 1606, Kharkhul unified and prepared the Oirat tribes for battle. In 1608, the Oirat forces defeated
the Kazakhs to their west. By 1609, Khara Khula won a decisive victory against Ubasi Khun Tayishi, forcing the Altan Khanate to withdraw from Oirat territory in
the Kobdo region of present-day northwest Mongolia. But the unity would soon dissolve after the victory, as some Oirat princes, no longer fearing the Ubasi
Khun Tayishi, resumed their traditional nomadic ways, favoring independence over centralization. The string of victories emboldened Khara Khula to take
control of the salt mines near the Russian outpost at Tara in 1610 and demand a fee in exchange for the salt from the neighboring Cossacks and Siberian
nomads. The Cossacks chose instead to retaliate, attacking the Oirats. The clashes continued until 1613, when Russian settlers discovered an alternative source of
salt at Lake Yamysh. But this lake was located in Dzungar terrority and would be the source of clashes between the Cossacks and the Oirats over the next 20
years. The Oirats also contended with natural disaster when the severe winter of 1614 killed off livestock, further weakening their position. Then, Ubasi Khun
Tayishi, who had sufficiently recovered from his earlier defeat, undertook a second assault, reversing the Oirat victories and, in 1615, winning a major victory
against the Oirats. The loss caused a number of Oirat princes to submit themselves as vassals to the Altan Khanate. Other Oirat princes fled north into
southern Siberia seeking the protection of Russia, while still others sought refuge with the Kazakhs. Through the mid-1620s, Ubashi Khun Tayishi continued to
annex Oirat land while handed the forces of Khara Khula defeat after defeat, including several major losses. The situation didn't reverse itself until Khara Khula
solidified his base support and began launching counter-attacks, culminating in the death of Ubasi Khun Tayishi around 1627. From that point forward, Khara
Khula managed to regain the Oirat lands that Ubashi Khun Tayishi had taken for the Altan Khanate. Ubasi's son and successor, Badma Erdeni Khun Tayishi,
was not able to duplicate his father's success and therefore did not pose a threat to the Oirats. As Kharkhuls power and prestige grew from his victories over the
Altan Khanate, the Oirat princes felt his dominance over them, particularly the Torghut tribe whose leaders wished to maintain the freedoms they once enjoyed
without a central political figure. To that end, the Torghuts migrated from their encampments in southern Siberia to the pasture lands off the Volga river in
southeastern Russia. The move eased the population and livestock pressures on the pastures of southern Siberia and further enabled Khara Khula's son, Erdeni
Batur, to forge the remaining Oirat tribes into a new Oirat state, called the Dzungar Khanate, shortly after his father's death in 1634.

Tmed
The Tmed (Tumad, "The many or ten thousands" derived from Tumen) are a Mongol subgroup. Most engage in sedentary agriculture, living in mixed
communities in the suburbs of Huhhot. Part of them live along Hulun Buir, Inner Mongolia. There are the Tumeds in the soums of Mandal-Ovoo, Bulgan,
Tsogt-Ovoo, Tsogttsetsii, Manlai, Khurmen, Bayandalai and Sevrei of Umnugovi Aimag, Mongolia. At the beginning of the 9th 13th Centuries, the Khori-
Tumed lived near the western side of Lake Baikal. They ruled southern Irkutsk Oblast, some part of Tuva and southwestern Buryatia. In 1207, Genghis Khan,
after conquering the Khori-Tumed, decided to move some of these groups south and these people eventually settled in the southern parts of the Great Gobi. But
it seems that the Tumed people had no strong connection with those forest people in Siberia. The Tumeds first appeared as the tribe of the
Mongolian warlord Dogolon taishi in the mid-15th century. In Mongolian chronicles, they were called seven Tumeds or twelve Tumeds. Because
the Kharchin and other Mongol clans joined their league, they were probably called 12 Tumeds later. Under Dayan Khan (1464-1517/1543) and his successors,
the Tumeds formed right wing of the eastern Mongols. The Tumeds reached their peak under the rule of Altan Khan (15071582) in the mid-16th century.
They raided the Ming Dynasty and looted the Four Oirats. The Tumeds under Altan Khan recaptured Karakorum from the hands of the Oirats but the outcome
of the war was not decisive in the 16th century. They are also famous for being the first of the Mongol tribes converted toBuddhism.
Warlord of Tmed tribe
Dogolon was the Warlord of Tmed Mongol subgroup around middle 15th century. The Tumeds first appeared as the tribe of the Mongolian warlord
Dogolon taishi in the mid-15th century.

Drbet
The Drbet (Mongolian: , , lit. "the Fours"; Chinese: ; pinyin: D'rbt B) is the second largest subgroup of the Mongol people in
modern Mongolia and was one of the major tribes of the Four Oirat confederation in the 15th-18th centuries. In early times, the Drbet and the Zunghars were
ruled by collateral branches of the Choros. The Drbets are distributed among the western provinces of Mongolia, Kalmykia, and in a small portion
in Heilongjiang, China. In Mongolia, the Drbets are centered in Uvs Province. A Drben clan of Duwa Sohor's four sons existed within the Khamag
Mongol confederation in the 12th century; but their relation with the Drbets is unclear. However, the Drbets appeared in the early 15th century as part of
the Four Oirats.The name probably means "drv"; "four" (Middle Mongolian: drbe). In the 17th century, the leader of Drbets was Dalai Taishi (d.1637). In
order to unite the Oirats, Dalai Taishi used the method of marriage of convenience; Dalai Taishi and Khoshut leader Gshi Khan married the Torghut and Kho
Orluksisters. During the Dalai Taishi period (circa 1625), the Oirat tribes lived in harmony. In 1616, Dalai Taishi established diplomatic relations with
the Tsardom of Russia. The next year Dalai Taishi's son Solom Tseren joined the Kalmyks on the Volga with 4,000 households. In 1699 a body of the Drbets
joined the Don Cossacks, eventually becoming the Buzava Kalmyks. Trapped west of the Volga, the Do'rbets could not join the 1771 flight of the Torguds, and
hence dominated the remaining Kalmyks. In the early 19th century, they had split into the Lesser Drbets, living in northern Kalmykia and the Greater Drbets,
living around Lake Manych-Gudilo. Meanwhile, the Drbets in the Oirat homeland remained major tribe of the Zunghars. In 1753 three chiefs of them
submitted to the Qing Dynasty. They were resettled first in Bayankhongor Province, and then in Uvs Province in 1759. They formed into 16 banners of the Sain
Zayaatu Leagues. The Drbets nobility's 15,000 subjects included Bayids and a small number of Khotongs. From the 1880s, the Khalkha influenced Drbets
socio-economic trends. The Kalmyk Dambijantsan headed the anti-communist disturbances; and separatist feeling had remained strong until 1930's.
List of Leaders of Drbet tribe
Dalai Taishi (died1637) was the leader of Drbet tribe, subgroup of the Mongol people in the first half 17th century until his death in 1637. In order to unite
the Oirats, Dalai Taishi used the method of marriage of convenience; Dalai Taishi and Khoshut leader Gshi Khan married the Torghut and Kho
Orluksisters. During the Dalai Taishi period (circa 1625), the Oirat tribes lived in harmony. In 1616, Dalai Taishi established diplomatic relations with
the Tsardom of Russia. The next year Dalai Taishi's son Solom Tseren joined the Kalmyks on the Volga with 4,000 households.
Solom Tseren was the leader of Drbet tribe, subgroup of the Mongol people in the first half 17th century. He was son of Dalai Taishi important leader of
Drbets. In 1638 he was joined the Kalmyks on the Volga with 4,000 households.


Tatar Confederation
Tatar (Cyrillic: ) was one of the five major tribal confederations (khanlig) in the Mongolian plateau in the 12th century. The name "Tatar" was first recorded
on the Kul Tigin monument as Otuz Tatar Bodun ('Thirty Tatar' tribe) CE. 732. According to "Book of Song" (section Joujan), "Joujan's
(Rouran Khaganate) another name is "Tatar" or "Tartar", and they wereXiongnu's tribe". The Tatars inhabited the north-eastern Gobi in the 5th century and the
Tatars became subjects of Khitan Liao Dynasty in the 10th century. After the fall of the Liao Dynasty, the Tatars experienced pressure from the Jin Dynasty and
were urged to fight against the other Mongol tribes. The Tatars lived on the fertile pastures around the lakes Hulun and Buir and occupied a trade route
to China in the 12th century. After the establishment of the Mongol Empire, the Tatars were subjugated by the Mongol Empire under Genghis Khan. Under the
leadership of his grandson Batu Khan, they moved westwards, driving with them many of the Turkic peoples toward the plains of Russia. Their name was used
by Russians and Europeans to denote Mongols as well as Turkic peoples under Mongol rule (especially in the Golden Horde). Later, it was used for any Turkic
or even Mongolic speaking people encountered by Russians. Eventually however, the name stuck onto the Turkic Muslims of Ukraine and Russia, namely, the
descendants of Muslim Volga Bulgars,Kipchaks, and Cumans, and Turkicized Mongols or Turko-Mongols (Nogais), as well as other Turkic speaking peoples
(Siberian Tatars, Qasim Tatars, Mishar Tatars).
List of rulers of Tatar Confederation
Temujin-Uge was a ruler of Tatar Confederation.
Megujin was a ruler of Tatar Confederation.
Jalibukha was a ruler of Tatar Confederation.


Qara Del
Qara Del was a Mongol kingdom that existed in Hami in present-day Xinjiang. It was founded by the Yuan prince Gunashiri, a descendant of Chagatai Khan, in
the late 14th century (c.1389), and ruled by the Chagatayids thereafter until 1463. It was destroyed as results of the wars between Ming China and Oirat Mongols
and dynastic succession struggles in 1513. Qara Del means Black chest in Mongolian language. After the demise of the Northern Yuan emperor Tgs
Temr, Kublai Khan's (r. 1260-1294) descendant, the throne of Mongolia passed into the hands of Jorightu Khan Yesder, an Arib-Bokid prince, in 1388. With
the anarchy after the Mongol Emperor's death, Chagatai Khan's descendant, Gunashiri, who followed the Yuan court's retreat into Mongolia, attempted to break
away from the new Khan's rule. By 1390, Gunashiri, himself Buddhist, successfully established himself in Hami where the Uighurs lived. The Qara Del accepted
the Ming supremacy to save its existence in 1404, and came under Ming control as Hami Prefecture. The Qara Del ruler Enke-temur was granted the
title Zhongshunwang (meaning the obedient prince) by the Ming court. However, they were threatened by Mongolian Emperors, particularly during the reign
of Yesder, from the north. The Oirats from Western Mongolia pressured into the kingdom from 1400s on. Their leader and Yuan taishi, Esen, (future
Emperor of the Mongols) forced the Qara Del khan to submit in 1430s. The kingdom was one of two Chagatyid Ulus (realms) conquered by Esen, other one
being Moghulistan (c. 1432). He extensively supported the rivalry between successor of Gunashiri and intervened in their dynastic struggles. The Ming Dynasty
was trying to place their puppet on the throne to secure their claim at the time. In 1463 the khan was overthrown by a pro-Mongol faction and a serious
succession crisis started. From 1467 Ming Emperors reinstalled members of Gunashiri's house but the failure was evident. Hami was conquered by Mansur, the
khan from another branch of the Chagatayids in Central Asia, putting an end to the dynasty in 1513. Mansur forcefully converted all people living in East
Turkestan to Islam.
List of Kings of Qara Del
Wunashli, Gunashiri (died 1392) was the founder and the first King of Qara Del Kingdom from 1380 until his death in 1392. He was descendant of Chagatai
Khan
Anketiemuer (died 1405) was the King of Qara Del Kingdom from 1392 until his death in 1405.
Tuotuo (died 1411) was the King of Qara Del Kingdom from 1405 until his death in 1410.
Tultiemuer (died 1425) was the King of Qara Del Kingdom from 1411 until his death in 1425.
Bodashli (died 1437) was the King of Qara Del Kingdom from 1428 until his death in 1437.
Tuotuotamuer (died 1439) was the King of Qara Del Kingdom from 1437 until his death in 1439.
Daowadashli (died 1457) was the King of Qara Del Kingdom from 1439 until his death in 1457.
Boliege (died 1460) was the King of Qara Del Kingdom from 1457 until his death in 1460.
Nuwendashili (died 1467) was the King of Qara Del Kingdom from 1460 until his death in 1467.
Batamuer (died 1472) was the King of Qara Del Kingdom from 1466 until his death in 1472.
Hanshen (died 1488) was the King of Qara Del Kingdom from 1472 until his death in 1488.
Shanba (died 1505) was the King of Qara Del Kingdom from 1488 until his death in 1505.
Baiyaj (died 1513) was the King of Qara Del Kingdom from 1505 until his death in 1513.

Khotogoid
Khotogoid (Mongolian: /Hotgoid) is a subgroup of Mongol people in northwestern Mongolia. The Khotogoid people live roughly between Uvs Lake to
the west and the Delgermrn river to the east. The Khotogoids belong to north western Khalkha and were one of the major groups that make up Khalkha. The
most famous ruler of Khotogoids probably was Ubashi Huang Taizi also known as Altan Khan of Khotogoid (not to be confused with Altan Khan of Tumed)
who was successful in subjecting Yenissei Kyrgyz and pushing Oirats out of their domains in western Mongolia. The northern border of the Khotgoid Khanate
reached modern Russian Krasnoyarsk city and the southern border reached eastern Altay Mountains of Mongolia in the 17th century. In mid 17th century,
because of the conflicts with neighboring Zasagtu Khan, Khotogoids were disintegrated and ceased to exist as a separate political unit. As a result, Khotogoids
were frequently invaded by both other Khalkhas and Oirats. The Khotogoids moved into the area in the 16th century. In 1694, they were organized into the
Zasaghtu Khan aimag's Erdeni Degregchi Wang khoshuu. After Chingnjav's rebellion, this khoshuu was split up into five smaller entities: Erdeni Degregchi
Wang khoshuu, Akhai Beise khoshuu, Mergen Gongkhoshuu, Dalai Gong khoshuu, and Tsogtoo Wang khoshuu. Chingnjav (mentioned above) is probably
another famous Khotogoid besides Ubasji Huang Taizi.
List of Althan Khans of Khalkha of Khotogoids
Ubasi Khong Tayiji (died 1623) was a Mongolian prince and the first Altan Khan of Khalkha who ruled Khotgoids in northwestern Khalkha from 1609 until
his death in 1623. About 1609 he occupied the former Oirat heartland around Kobdo and Lake Ubsa Nor. He drove the Oirats west into Dzungaria in 1620 and
1623. Ubasi was killed by the Oirats in 1623 and was succeeded by his son Badma Erdeni Khong Tayiji.
Badma Erdeni Khong Tayiji was a prince of the Altyn Khan dynasty of Khotogoid from 1623 until 1652. He was son of Ubasi Khong Tayiji, the
first Altan Khan of Khalkha. In 1652, he abdicated the throne and his son Erinchin Lobsang Tayiji succeeded.
Erinchin Lobsang Tayiji was a prince of the Khalkha federation in western Mongolia from 1652 until 1691. In 1662 he attacked, captured and put to death
his eastern neighbor, the Dzasagtu Khan. This led the senior Tushetu Khan (Chaghun Dorji) to form a league and drive out the Altan-khan. In 1667 he was
captured by Sengge, the Dzungar chief and was handed over to the (next) Dzasagtu Khan. With the help of the Dzunghars and Peking (divide and conquer), he
was able to reinstate himself, but in 1682 he was captured by the Dzasagtu Khan. In 1691 he, and his khanate, disappear from the records.

Setsen Khanate
Setsen Khanate was a Khanate located in the eastern third of modern-day Mongolia.
List of Khans (Wise Khans) of Setsen Khanate
Gersenz Jalair Khuntaij was a ruler in the eastern third of modern-day Mongolia from 1513 until 1549. He was youngest son of Dayan Khan through
Queen Samar Ghailu (also called Jimsgene Khatan).
Amindural was a ruler in the eastern third of modern-day Mongolia around 1550. He was the fourth son of Gersenz, ruled northern Kerulen river area.
Morbuim Taij was a ruler in the eastern third of modern-day Mongolia in the second half 16th century. He was son of Amindural.
Khar Zagal was a ruler in the eastern third of modern-day Mongolia from seconda half 16th century until 1627. He was son of Morbuim.
Sholoi (15771655) was the first Khan (Wise Khan) of Setsen Khanate from 1627 until 1652, who was a direct descendant of Genghis Khan
through Batumongke Dayan Khan (14641543). He was son of Morbuim, succeeded his brother Khar Zagal in 1627.
Babu (died 1683) was the Khan (Wise Khan) of Setsen Khanate from 1652 until his death in 1683. He was the fifth son of Sholoi.
Norov (died 1701) was the Khan (Wise Khan) of Setsen Khanate from 1683 until his death in 1701. He was the third son of Babu.
Ravdan was the Khan (Wise Khan) of Setsen Khanate around 1688.
Omokhei, Sonomdorji was the Khan (Wise Khan) of Setsen Khanate from 1701 until 1709. He was only 10 years old in 1701, so was brought up under the
tutelage of Namjil Erdene Taij, a grandson of Sholoi.
Gunchin was the Khan (Wise Khan) of Setsen Khanate from 1709 until 1728. He was eldest son of Omokhei.
Tsevdenbainjuur was the Khan (Wise Khan) of Setsen Khanate from 1728 until 1722. He was eldest son of Gunchin.
Choijav was the Khan (Wise Khan) of Setsen Khanate from 1733 until 1735. He was grandson of Norov.
Damiran (died 1751) was the Khan (Wise Khan) of Setsen Khanate from 1735 until his death in 1751. He was the second son of Gunchin.
Manibadar (died 1767) was the Khan (Wise Khan) of Setsen Khanate from 1751 until his death in 1767. He was eldest son of Damiran.
Tsevdenjav (died 1788) was the Khan (Wise Khan) of Setsen Khanate from 1767 until his death in 1788. He was the second son of Damiran.
Tseveendorj (died 1795) was the Khan (Wise Khan) of Setsen Khanate from 1788 until his death in 1795. He was eldest son of Tsevdenjav.
Puntsagdorj was the Khan (Wise Khan) of Setsen Khanate in 1795. He was only son of Tseveendorj.
Sanzaidorj (died 1800) was the Khan (Wise Khan) of Setsen Khanate from 1796 until his death in 1800. He was the second generation grandson of Choijav.
Mahashiri (died 1897) was the Khan (Wise Khan) of Setsen Khanate from 1800 until his death in 1807. He was paternal uncle of Puntsagdorj.
Enkhtor (died 1816) was the Khan (Wise Khan) of Setsen Khanate from 1807 until his death in 1816. He was son of Mahashiri.
Artased (died 1874) was the Khan (Wise Khan) of Setsen Khanate from 1817 until his death in 1874. He was son of Enkhtor.
Tserendorj (died 1874) was the Khan (Wise Khan) of Setsen Khanate from 1874 until his death in 1893. He was son of Artased.
Demchigdorj (died 1909) was the Khan (Wise Khan) of Setsen Khanate from 1893 until his death in 1909. He was eldest son of Tserendorj.
Navaanneren (18771937) was the 20th Khan of the hereditary Setsen Khanate located in the eastern third of modern-
day Mongolia from 1910 until 1922. His full title was "Mahasamadi Dalai Setsen Khan". The first Setsen Khan (Wise Khan) was
Sholoi (15771655) of the Khalkha, who was a direct descendant of Genghis Khan through Batumongke Dayan Khan (14641543).
Navaanneren was born in 1877 as the eldest son of Tserendondov, a grandson of Setsen Khan Artased (reigned 18171874).
Tserendondov had struggled for the Setsen Khan throne but lost to Demchigdorj. Tserendondov died leaving Navaanneren an
orphan to be raised by his uncle. When he was young he studied to become a monk and mastered the Manchu and Chinese
languages. He became Setsen Khan in 1910 because the previous Khan Demchigdorj died without a son and he was the next in line
(there was an unsuccessful attempt on Navaanneren's life). In this way Navaanneren was thrown into state affairs and left the monastic
state. He was described by many as an approachable, kind-hearted man. In 1910 Mongolia was still part of the Manchu Qing
dynasty (16441911). The Setsen Khan had submitted to the Manchus in 1691 at Dolonnor. While the Manchus recognized the
Setsen Khan and left his large territory in Eastern Mongolia intact they were aware that this was a pre-Manchu Khanate and so
established numerous banners (khoshuu) inside the Setsen Khan Aimag, giving a great deal of power to the governors (zasag) of the
banners while appeasing the Setsen Khans with regular lavish presents and high salary. After 1911 when Mongolia was freed from Manchu rule and the Bogd
Khaganate (19111919) was established Navaanneren was given the title "Mahasamadi Dalai Setsen Khan", made Minister of Justice (Shiguhu Yaman-u Sayid),
elevated 31 grades, given 20 decorations, a three-eyed peacock feather otgo, green-colored hereditary Royal Coach, yellow vestment and orange reins. He also
continued as Setsen Khan for two years under the Constitutional Monarchy period (19211924). His queen did not give birth to a son. He divorced his queen
and became a monk again in 1922 taking the monastic name Yundenbazar. He was later appointed Minister of the Interior in line with the Mongolian People's
Republic's policy of using 'old intellectuals'. He died during the mass Stalinist purges of 1937.

Barlas
The Barlas (Chagatay/Persian: Barls; also Berlas; Mongolian: Barlas) were a Mongol nomadic confederation in Central Asia, later Turkified as Turko-
Mongols. Its most famous representatives were the Timurids, a dynasty founded by the conquerorTimur (Tamerlane) in the 14th century, who ruled over
modern-day Iran, Afghanistan, much of Central Asia, as well as parts of contemporary Pakistan, India, Mesopotamia, Anatolia and the Caucasus. According to
the Secret History of the Mongols, written during the reign of gedei Khan [r. 1229-1241], the Barlas shared ancestry with the Borjigin, the imperial clan
of Genghis Khan and his successors, and other Mongol clans. The leading clan of the Barlas traced its origin to Qarchar Barlas, head of one
of Chagatai's regiments. Qarchar Barlas was a descendant of the legendary Mongol warlord Bodonchir (Bodon Achir; Bodon'ar Mungqaq), who was also
considered a direct ancestor of Genghis Khan. Due to extensive contacts with the native population of Central Asia, the tribe had adopted the religion
of Islam, and the Chagatai language, a Turkic language of the Qarluq branch, which was heavily influenced by Arabic and Persian.
Warlord of Barlas Mongols
Bodonchar Munkhag (born c. 850 to 900) was a renowned Mongol warlord and a direct ancestor of Genghis Khan as well as of the Barlas Mongols, the
tribe of the Central Asian warlord Tamerlane. According to the Secret History of the Mongols, he was the 12th generation nominal (non-biological) descendant
of Borte Chino. Genghis Khan was the 9th generation biological descendant of Bodonchar Munkhag (sometimes written Butanchar the Simple). Bodonchar
Munkhag is the founder of the House of Borjigin. Chagatai tradition dates 'Buzanjar Munqaq' to the rebellion of Abu Muslim or 747. The name Borjigin does
not come from Bodonchar but from Bodonchar's nominal great-grandfather Borjigidai the Wise (Borjigidai Mergen). The date 747 corresponds better with
Borjigidai Mergen. A confusion with Bayanchur Khan could also account for this date discrepancy. Bodonchar Munkhag means "little misbegotten simpleton".
Bodonchar or more accurately Butunchar (Mongolian back vowel ) is a diminutive form of "butuchi" (illegitimate child, misbegotten, bastard) using the
diminutive suffix "-nchar" while Munkhag means fool or simpleton. The meaning of the name contrasts with his elevated stature among the Mongol tribes. The
Mongol tribes of Genghis Khan's time had a very good knowledge of their genealogy, second only to the Arabs according to Rashid Al-Din Hamadani. In the
Secret History of the Mongols (Paragraph 121) Old-man Khorchi Usun of the Baarin tribe leaves Jamukha and joins Genghis Khan. He tells Genghis Khan: "We
(the Baarin) were born from the captured wife of Butunchar Bogd (Butunchar the Divine Ancestor). Therefore we are one womb, one blood with Jamukha. We
would never leave the side of Jamukha. But Zaarin (a message bearing spirit) came and showed me a vision." He goes on to say that the vision predicted the
future rise of Genghis Khan. Butunchar Munkhag was a commonly known figure even among distant tribes such as the Baarin who were descended from the first
wife of Butunchar, a captured pregnant woman who described herself as "Jarchuud Adankhan Uriankhajin" ("-jin" is a feminine suffix) meaning "female of the
Jarchuud Adankhan clan of the Uriankhai tribe". Although the Secret History of the Mongols includes some mythical elements such as visions and so forth, the
individuals and tribes are seen as historical. At the time Butunchar Munkhag was born (around 900CE) the Mongol tribes were located around Mount Burkhan
Khaldun at the source of the Onon River. The Mongols were the Menggu Shiwei () of the larger Shiwei () confederation, a Mongolic-speaking
group closely related to the Khitan people. The paternal (non-biological) great-grandmother of Butunchar was called Mongoljin Gua meaning "beautiful
Mongoless" or "fair woman of the Mongol tribe". The Mongol tribe had lived around Mount Burkhan Khaldun since at least the time of Borte Chino, 12
generations before Bodonchar Munkhag or around 600. They shared the area with the ancient Uriankhai tribe, a prominent Shiwei tribe named Wuluohu
() in the Chinese histories. There they lived a pastoral life supplemented by hunting the abundant game of the surrounding forested mountains. To the
north was located the Bargut tribe (around Lake Baikal) and the Khori Tumed tribe (also around Lake Baikal). To the east was located the Tatar tribes (Airigud
Tatar, Buirigud Tatar etc.) who also belonged to the Shiwei group. Slightly to the west of the Mongols were the ancient Bayid tribe. These are the pre-Butunchar
early tribes mentioned in the Secret History that had marriage relations with the early Mongols. Many of the other tribes in the Secret History were later
descendants of Butunchar, such as the Jadaran, Baarin, Jegureid, Noyokhon, Barlas, Budagad, Adarkin, Urugud, Mangud, Besud, Oronar, Khonkhotan,
Arulad, Sunid, Khabturkhas, Geniges, Taichud and Jurkin. All these core Borjigin tribes were clustered around Mount Burkhan Khaldun and were still known as
Mongols. In the Secret History (Paragraph 52) it says after listing all the tribes born from Butunchar Munkhag: "Khabul Khan was in charge of all Mongols
(Khamag Mongol). After Khabul Khan, although Khabul Khan had seven sons, Ambaghai Khan the son of Sengum Bilge took charge of all the Mongols." The
Secret History of Mongols gives the following account of the immediate ancestry of Butunchar Munkhag: Kharchu's son was Borjigidai Mergen. His (Borjigidai's)
wife was Mongoljin Gua. Borjigidai Mergen's son was Torgoljin Bayan (Torgoljin the Rich). His wife was Borogchin Gua. He had a servant called Boroldai
Suyalbi and two famous horses, one black, one brown. Torgoljin's sons were Duva Sokhor (Duva the Blind) and Dobun Mergen. Duva the Blind could see with
only one eye, a very long distance. One day Duva the Blind ascended Burkhan Khaldun with his younger brother Dobun Mergen. Duva the Blind looked out
and saw a group of people moving towards Tunkhelig Stream. He said "Among that moving camp of people there is a beautiful girl sitting in the exposed seat of a
covered carriage. If she hasn't been given to anybody, let me beg her for you, my younger brother Dobun Mergen." And he sent Dobun Mergen to go take a
look. Dobun Mergen reached those people and saw that she was indeed an exceptionally beautiful girl, named Alan Gua, of great renown and not given in
marriage to anybody. As concerns that group of migrants, Bargujin Gua, the daughter of Bargudai Mergen the ezen (owner lord) of Khol Bargujin Tukhum (Khol
Bargujin Forested Valley), had been given in marriage to Khorilardai Mergen the noyon (ruling lord) of the Khori Tumed tribe. That girl named Alan Gua was
born in the territory of the Khori Tumed at a place called Arig Us (Pure Water). Khorilardai Mergen had had disputes over hunting ground at his native land of
the Khori Tumed. He was fenced out. So he left saying "Burkhan Khaldun is a good hunting ground, rich in game" and became the Khorilar clan. That was why
he came to Burkhan Khaldun, to the local ezenShinchi Bayan (Shinchi the Rich) of the Uriankhai who had erected a burkhan (Buddha statue) on the mountain.
This was how Dobun Mergen begged and received in marriage Alan Gua the daughter of Khorilardai Mergen of the Khori Tumed, born at Arig Us. Alan
Gua came to Dobun Mergen and bore him two sons. Their names were Belgunudei and Bugunudei. Dobun's elder brother Duva the Blind had four sons.
Suddenly one day his elder brother Duva the Blind was no more. After Duva the Blind died, his four sons looked down on their uncle Dobun, excluded him
from the clan, left him and moved away, becoming the Dorben clan. After that, one day Dobun Mergen went up on Mount Togotsog Ondor to hunt. In the
woods he saw an Uriankhai man roasting the ribs of a recently killed three year old deer. Dobun Mergen said: "Friend, let me have a share of the roast." The man
said "I will give" and gave him all of the meat except the skin and upper torso with the neck, lungs and heart which he kept for himself. While Dobun was carrying
the deer meat back he encountered a poor man leading his son by the hand. Dobun Mergen asked "What manner of man are you?" The man replied "I am
Maalig Bayagudai (of the Bayid tribe). I have hit hard times. I'm poor and tired. Give me some of your game meat and I will give you my son in return." At those
words Dobun Mergen cut off one of the deer's thighs and gave it to him. He took the man's son, brought him home and made him do chores in the house (ger).
Suddenly one day Dobun Mergen was no more. After Dobun Mergen was gone Alan Gua gave birth to three more sons, although she didn't have a husband.
Their names were Bukhu Khatagi, Bukhatu Salji and Butunchar Munkhag. The Secret History continues with the following account of Bodonchar's life:
Belgunudei and Bugunudei, the two sons previously born from Dobun Mergen, spoke secretly from their mother Alan Gua: "This mother, although she is
without a man, has given birth to these three sons. In the house there is only that Maalig Bayagudai person. These three sons must be his." Their mother Alan
Gua figured out they were speaking these things in secret. So on one spring day she boiled mutton and had her five sons Belgunudei, Bugunudei, Bukhu Khatagi,
Bukhatu Salji and Butunchar Munkhag sit next to each other facing her. She gave each of them a single arrow and said "Break it". They snapped the single arrows
easily. Then she gave them five arrows in a bundle and said "Break it". Each of the five tried breaking that bundle of five arrows, taking turns and trying from
different angles, but couldn't manage to break it at all. Then their mother Alan Gua said: "You, my two sons Belgunudei and Bugunudei, say I have given birth to
these three sons and you are now suspicious and question whose sons they are and where on earth they came from. Your are right in being suspicious. Every
night a radiant yellow person used to come in through the opening in the roof of the ger (yurt) or through the space above the ger entrance and caress my belly,
his light getting absorbed into my belly. When he left, he left like a yellow dog rising and twisting away along the dividing line of the sun and the moon (at the
meeting line of dawn and night). Why do you lightly speak such futile words? If we interpret this sign, it is clear they are sons of Heaven (Tengri). Why do you
speak of them as if they were black-headed commoners? When they become Kings of All (Khamag-un Khagad), then will black commoners see who they really
are!" And then Alan Gua told them a word of wisdom: "You, my five sons, were born from my one womb. If you become separate like those single arrows, you
will be easily broken in half by anybody who passes. If you become one union like that bundle of arrows, how will anybody be able to break you easily?" And
then suddenly one day their mother Alan Gua was no more.
[2]
After their mother Alan Gua died, the brothers divided their property. Four of them, Belgunudei,
Bugunudei, Bukhu Khatagi and Bukhatu Salji took shares. They excluded Butunchar from the clan, saying he was stupid and didn't give him any share.
Butunchar, seeing he was not counted as urag (blood relation, member of the clan) said "What's the point of me being here!" and galloped off down the Onon
River on his black-speckled white horse with a stripe down its back and a scanty tail saying "If I die, so be it! If I live, so be it!" He rode downstream till he reached
Baljun Aral (Baljun Island) where he made a grass tent for himself and settled there. While he was staying there he saw a female brown hawk catch and eat a
black pheasant. He plucked some hairs from the tail of his horse, made a snare, caught the hawk and reared it. When he had nothing to eat he shot and killed
wild game penned in against a cliff by a pack of wolves or went and collected the scraps left by the wolves, fed his stomach as well as his hawk's and survived the
winter that year. Spring came. Wild geese and ducks began to arrive and Butunchar after starving his hawk for a while released it, and it caught for him so many
geese and ducks that he could not eat them all and hung some of them on a withered tree, where they stayed till they stank. A group of people came to Tunkhelig
Stream from the forests on the northern side of Mount Duiren. Butunchar would leave his hawk, go to those people, drink fermented mare's milk during the day
and go back to spend the night in his grass tent. Those people asked for his hawk but Butunchar refused to give it to them. Those people never asked Butunchar
"Whose son are you? Where are you from?" nor did Butunchar ask them "What people are you?" They simply continued living close to each other. Bukhu
Khatagi came searching for his younger brother Butunchar Munkhag saying "this one has disappeared down the Onon River". When he asked the people
camped at Tunkhelig Stream "Have you seen a person looking like this and this? With a horse like this and this?" they replied "The man and horse are both
exactly as you say. He has a hawk. Every day he comes to us to drink fermented mare's milk and goes back. No one knows where he spends the night! Whenever
the wind blows from the north-west the feathers of the wild geese and ducks caught by his hawk come whirling down like a snow-storm. He must be close by.
Now is almost the time for him to come. Wait just a little bit!" After a short while, a man came up towards Tunkhelig Stream. When he came closer, it was
indeed Butunchar. Bukhu Khatagi saw and recognized him and led him back, galloping up the Onon River. Butunchar was trotting behind his elder brother
Bukhu Khatagi. He said as he was trotting: "Elder brother! Elder brother! It is good for a body to have a head, for a coat to have a collar." He repeated the same
words but his elder brother didn't make anything of it and didn't reply. Butunchar rode on and said the same words again. At this his elder brother said "What are
these words you have been muttering all this while?" Butunchar said "Those people camped at the Tunkhelig stream, they have no great and small, no good and
bad, no head and feet. They are equal one to the other. An easy people. Let us conquer them." His elder brother then said: "Alright, if that is the case, when we
come home let us hold a meeting of brothers and having agreed, let us conquer those people." They came home, a discussion among brothers was held and they
rode off to conquer. They sent Butunchar ahead to reconnoitre as forward scout. Butunchar went as forward scout and caught a woman midway through her
pregnancy. He asked "What manner of person are you?" The woman replied "I am a woman of the Jarchuud Adankhan clan of the Uriankhai tribe". The
brothers, all five of them, conquered those people and came to enjoy an easier life with a good number of beasts, bread and bondservants (fixed phrase meaning
greater prosperity). The account goes on to say that the captured pregnant woman gave birth to her son who became the ancestor of the Jadaran tribe. She also
bore a child from Butunchar who was called Baaridai who became ancestor of the Baarin tribe. Butunchar got another wife who came with a proper dowry. The
dowry included a female servant who became Butunchar's third wife. Genghis Khan was descended from Khabu Baatar the son of Butunchar's second wife.
Jeguredei was the son of the third wife and was later excluded from the tribal sacrifices.

Akatziroi
The Akatziroi were one of the nations in the Hunnish tribal confederacy. The Maeotian Akatziroi were ruled by a king called Karadach or Karidachus, and
appear in the account of Priscus who suggested that the name refers to the Thraco-Dacian tribe of the Agathyrsi. While there may be some basis to this, any
parallels with the Kazarigs/Kotrags/Kutrigurs on the other hand is purely coincidental. Dengizich ruled them after Karadach. The 1897 and 1911 editions of
Encyclopdia Britannica speculated that the Akatziroi were in fact a component in the early make up of the Khazars, hypothesizing that their name derives from
the Turkic "Ak-Khazar", or "White Khazar", the name of the group of tribes composing the warrior aristocracy of the Khazar nation.
Warlord of the Akatziroi
Karadach (Karidachos) was a warlord of the Akatziroi (who some have linked to the later Khazar Khaganate) during the reign of Attila. A vassal of the Hunnish
king, Karadach was courted by Roman diplomats as a potential ally against the Huns, but to no avail. He was succeeded by Dengizich.


Dughlat clan
The Dughlat clan (Dulat and in Kazakh language) was a Mongol (Dolood/sevens, Doloo/seven; Middle Mongolian: Doluga, Dolugad) (later Turko-
Mongol) clan that served the Chagatai khans as hereditary vassal rulers of the several cities of the western Tarim Basin from the 14th century until the 16th
century. The most famous member of the clan,Mirza Muhammad Haidar, was a military adventurer, historian, and the ruler of Kashmir (15411551). His
historical work, the Tarikh-i Rashidi, provides much of the information known about the family. The Dughlat tribe is mentioned as having supported Genghis
Khan during his creation of the Mongol Empire in the early 13th century. Rashid al-Din Hamadani identifies the Dughlad (Dughlat) as a minor tribe of the
Mongols. At an early date the entire tribe moved out of Mongolia and eventually settled in the area comprising the ulus of Chagatai Khan. In the mid-14th
century the authority of the Chagatai khans underwent a sudden decline. In the western part of the khanate (specifically Transoxiana and the bordering
provinces), the khans had become rulers in name only, with real power in the hands of the local Turko-Mongol amirs after 1346. In the eastern provinces (spec.
the Tarim Basin and the area that was to become Moghulistan) the authority of the khans in Transoxiana was virtually nonexistent. As a result power there was in
the hands of the local lords and tribal chiefs.
[1]
By this time the Dughlats had become one of the most eminent clans in the eastern regions. Chief among their
holdings were the towns Aksu, Kashgar, Yarkand, and Khotan
[2]
Their influence allowed them to select a Genghisid khan of their own choosing. In 1347,
according to the Tarikh-i Rashidi, the Dughlat Amir Bulaji raised a certain Tughlugh Timur to the khanship and recognized his authority. The new khan, despite
owing his throne to the Dughlats, was a man of strong character and maintained effective control of Moghulistan. He also converted to Islam, an act that was
copied by the Dughlats (one of whom, Amir Tulik, had been secretly converted even before the khan's adoption of the faith).
List of amirs of the Dughlat clan
Amir Bulaji was the ruler in eastern Central Asia, an amir of the Dughlat tribe around middle 14th century. In1347, according to the Tarikh-i Rashidi, the
Dughlat Amir Bulaji raised a certain Tughlugh Timur khan of Mogulistan to the khanship and recognized his authority. The new khan, despite owing his throne
to the Dughlats, was a man of strong character and maintained effective control of Moghulistan. He also converted to Islam, an act that was copied by the
Dughlats (one of whom, Amir Tulik, had been secretly converted even before the khan's adoption of the faith).
Amir Tulik was the ruler in eastern Central Asia, an amir of the Dughlat tribe in the second half 14th century.
Khudaidad was the ruler in eastern Central Asia, an amir of the Dughlat tribe in late 14th century and 15th century. Qamar ud-Din's disappearance had left
his nephew Khudaidad the senior member of the Dughlat family. According to the Tarikh-i Rashidi, Khudaidad had been an early supporter of Khizr Khoja and
had hid him from Qamar ud-Din during the latter's purge of members of the house of Chagatai. Khudaidad's power rapidly increased and he became a king-
maker in the years after Khizr Khoja's death. He also divided Aksu, Khotan, and Kashgar and Yarkand amongst his family members; this division of territory
lasted until the time ofMirza Aba Bakr. Khudaidad eventually left the service of the Moghul khans; this did not preclude the other Dughlats from maintaining
good relations with them. During the 15th century, Kashgar was recovered after it was temporarily seized by Timur's grandson Ulugh Beg; on the other hand,
Aksu was given over to the Moghul khans.
Mirza Abu Bakr Dughlat (died after 1514) was a ruler in eastern Central Asia, an amir of the Dughlat tribe from 1465 until his death around 1514. In the
middle of the fifteenth century, in 1465, he founded in Western Kashgaria a kingdom based at Yarkand, a fragment of Moghulistan. It
included Khotan and Kashgar; he took Kashgar in 1480. He was the son of Saniz Mirza, son of Mir Sayyid Ali, the latter was amir in Kashgar who regained
control of the city by Dughlat dynasty, having expelled Timurid local ruler in 1435. He successfully resisted the attacks of Yunus Khan, against whom he had
rebelled in 1479-80. Ahmad Alaq, son of Yunus Khan, took Kashgar from him in 1499, but could not hold it. Sultan Said Khan took Kashgar from him, in 1514;
in danger of losing Yarkand and Khotan as well, he gave the government to his eldest son Jahangir Mirza, and fled toLadakh. His deeds are recorded in
the Tarikh-i-Rashidi, which was written by his nephew, Mirza Muhammad Haidar.
Mirza Muhammad Haidar Dughlat Beg (1499 or 15001551) was a Chagatai Turko-Mogol military general, ruler of Kashmir in the first half 16th
century, and a historical writer. He was a Turkic speaking Dughlat prince who wrote in Persian
[1]
and Chagatai languages. Prince Haider was a first cousin of
Prince Zahir (later Emperor Babur). He first campaigned in Kashmir in 1533, on behalf of Sultan Said Khan, of Kashgar. He drove out Kamran, second son
ofBabur. However, he did not stay long in Kashmir, leaving after making a treaty with the local sultan and striking coins in the name of Said Khan. His short stay
may have had something to do with the fact that Said Khan died in that year. He returned in 1540, fighting for the Mughal Emperor Humayun, first son
of Babur, this time for a military takeover at the invitation of one of the two rival factions that continually vied for power in Kashmir. This was shortly after
Humayun's 1540 defeat at the battle of Kanauj, where Dughlat was also on the losing side. He had also attacked Tibet through Ladakh but had failed. Arriving in
Kashmir, Haidar installed as sultan the head of the Sayyid faction, Nazuk. In 1546, after Humayun recovered Kabul, Haidar removed Nazuk Shah and struck
coins in the name of the Mughal emperor. He died in 1550. He lies buried in the Gorstan e Shahi in Srinagar, Kashmir, India. His historical work Tarikh-i-
Rashidi ( History of Rashid ) is a personal memoir combined with a Central Asian history. Mirza Muhammad Haidar devoted this extensive work, written in
Kashmir from 1541 to 1546 in two volumes, to contemporary ruler of Kashgaria Abdurashid Khan, son of Sultan Said Khan (descendant of first Moghul
Khan Tughluk Timur Khan, grandson of Duwa Khan, great great grandson of Chagatai Khan, second son of Chengiz Khan), founder of Saidiya state in
Kashgaria in 1514 with active and decisive support of author's uncle Sayyid Muhammad Mirza. It was translated into English in 1895 by Ney Elias and Edward
Denison Ross. Among other events, the Tarikh-i-Rashidi describes the founding of the Kazakh Khanate in 1465 and Muhammad Haidar Dughlat's personal
encounter with one of the early Kazakh rulers, namely Kasym Khan. He belonged to the family of hereditary rulers of Kashgaria - dughlat Amirs. His father was
Muhammad Hussain Mirza Kurkan (he was married to Khub Nigar Khanim, daughter ofYunus Khan), son of Muhammad Haidar Mirza Kurkan (he was
married to Daulat Nigar Khanim, daughter of Esen Buqa Khan), son of Amir Sayyid Ali Kurkan (he was married to Uzun Sultan Khanim, sister of Vais Khan),
son of Amir Sayyid Ahmad, son of Amir Hudaidad, who is said to have raised to khanship six of the Moghul Khans (Khizir Khoja (13891399), Shama-i-Jahan
(13991408), Muhammad (14081416), Nakhsh-i- Jahan (14161418), Shir Muhammad (14181425), Vais (14181428)), son of Amir Pulaji, who raised to the
khanship a young, 18- years old, Tughluk Timur Khan ( first Moghul Khan ), in 1347, having brought him from Ili to Aksu and declared him to have been the
grandson of Duwa Khan. Amir Pulaji was a descendant of Dughlat Tarkhan Babdaghan, who was granted the country Mangalai Suyah (Faced to Sun) or
Kashgaria by Chagatai Khan, second son of Chengiz Khan, in 1219 or 1220. His mother was Khub Nigar Khanim, third daughter of Yunus Khan by Isan Daulat
Begum, and a younger sister of Kutluk Nigar Khanim, mother of Babur. Mirza Muhammad Haidar governed Kashmir from 1540 to 1551,
[6]
when he was killed
in battle. Muhammad Haidar Mirza (I) Dughlat was his grandfather. In 2007, Kazakhfilm Studio released the documentary Muhammad Haidar
Dughlat ( ), directed by Kalila Umarov.






Xueyantuo
The Xueyantuo () (Seyanto, Se-yanto, Se-Yanto) or Syr-Tardush were an ancient Tiele people and khanate in central/northern Asia who were at one
point vassals of theGokturks, later aligning with China's Tang Dynasty against the Eastern Gokturks. Xueyantuo started from Selenga River/Xueyanhe
River (/), so tribe name is Seyanto/Xueyantuo (), Chinese Han character undergo considerable revision by rise and fall of Chinese
Dynasty, so have many name as Xueyantuo, Xueyanhe, Xienianhe, Seyanto, Selenga, Selyanha, etc. [NOTE: Loriano Belluomini claims that the correspondence
Xueyantuo = Syr Tardush was rejected by modern historians. It seems also ingenuous to link the name Xue-yantuo (according to Tongdian two different tribal
names) with the Selenge river name].
List of Khans of Xueyantuo
Yiedie Khan (), personal name Yishibo (), was a seventh-century Asian political leader of the Xueyantuo, the first to have taken the title
of khan from AD 600s until AD 610s. At the time of Yishibo's rule over the Xueyantuo, the Xueyantuo were a part of the Chile confederation, made of 15 tribes,
which at the time submitted to Western Tujue's Heshana Khan Ashina Daman (r. 603-611). Ashina Daman was said to be collecting excessive taxes from the
Chile, leading to resentment among the Chile. Ashina Daman thus suspected the Chile chieftains and, on one occasion, gathered some 100 Chile chieftains and
slaughtered them. The Chile thereafter rebelled and supported Geleng (), the chieftain of the Qibi (), as the Yiwuzhenmohe Khan ().
They also supported Yishibo as Yiedie Khan, as a subordinate khan under Geleng. Later, after Western Tujue's Shekui Khan (r. AD 611 AD 619) came to
power, it was said that the Chile again submitted to Western Tujue rule and that both Geleng and Yishibo renounced their khan titles as part of the submission.
The Xueyantuo would not have another khan until Yishibo's grandson Yi'nan, then a vassal of the Eastern Tujue, rebelled against Eastern Tujue and was created
the Zhenzhu Khan by Emperor Taizong of Tang.
Zhenzhu Khan (in qaan, ) (died October 21, AD 645), personal name Yi'nan (), full regal title Zhenzhupiqie Khan (), was
a Khan of Xueyantuo from AD 628 until his death on October 21, AD 645, under whom Xueyantuo rose from being a vassal of Eastern Tujue to a mighty
khanate ruling over northern/central Asia. During his reign, Xueyantuo largely aligned with China'sTang Dynasty, even though the two states were at odds at
times, with the most serious dispute involving Tang's attempt to reestablish Eastern Tujue as a vassal state under theQilibi Khan Ashina Simoan attempt that
eventually failed due to frequent incursions by Yi'nan's army against Ashina Simo. Throughout Yi'nan's reign, Xueyantuo remained powerful despite Tang
attempts to curb its power, but after Yi'nan's death, a succession dispute between his sons, Bazhuo and Yemang (), led to Bazhuo's killing of Yemang and
subsequent internal unrest. Further, Bazhuo attacked Tang, resulting in a major Tang retaliation campaign that, along with a revolt by the Huige, led to
Xueyantuo's destruction in AD 646. It is not known when Yi'nan was born, but it is known that he was the grandson of the Yiedie Khan Yishibo, who was the first
ruler of the Xueyantuo, then a constituent tribe of theChile confederation, which was then submitting to the rule of Eastern Tujue khans. It was said that at the
time Yi'nan was initially Xueyantuo's ruler under Eastern Tujue's Jiali KhanAshina Duobi, Yi'nan had 70,000 tents of people under him. By AD 627, it was said
that because of Ashina Duobi's misrule, several of the stronger members of the Chile, including Xueyantuo, Huige, and Bayegu (), rebelled. Ashina
Duobi sent his nephew Ashina Yugu to attack the Chile rebels with some 400,000 horsemen, but were defeated by an army of only 5,000 horsemen commanded
by the Huige chieftain Pusa (). At the same time, Xueyantuo also defeated four Eastern Tujue generals, and Ashina Duobi could not respond adequately.
Ashina Duobi then sent Ashina Yugu's brother, the subordinate Tuli Khan Ashina Shibobi (), against the Chile, but the Huige and the Xueyantuo
both defeated Ashina Shibobi, causing him to flee. (Ashina Duobi's subsequent anger at and brief detention of Ashina Shibobi eventually led to Ashina Shibobi
also rebelling and entering into an alliance with Tang.) By late AD 628, the northern vassals of Eastern Tujue had all rebelled, and they submitted to Yi'nan,
offering him the title of khan. Yi'nan initially declined the title, not daring to use it. As Emperor Taizong of Tang wanted to enter into an alliance with Xueyantuo
against Eastern Tujue, he sent the general Qiao Shiwang () as an envoy to Yi'nan, recognizing him the Zhenzhupiqie Khan (or Zhenzhu Khan in short),
and awarding him with drums and banners. Yi'nan was very pleased, and he offered tribute to Emperor Taizong. It was said that by this point, his territory
stretched from the Mohe to the east, Western Tujue to the west, and Gobi Desert to the south, and that many tribes, including Huige, Bayegu, Adie (),
Tongluo (), Pugu (), and Xi (), all submitted to him. In fall AD 629, he sent his brother Tong () to offer tribute to Emperor Taizong, and Emperor
Taizong, in return, awarded him with a sword and a whip, stating, "Lord, if your subordinates commit crimes, you can use the sword to execute those with major
crimes, and whip those with minor crimes." Yi'nan was pleased, and this brought fear in Ashina Duobi, who requested a marriage with the Tang imperial clan, to
no avail. In AD 630, a Tang army commanded by the general Li Jing defeated the Eastern Tujue, capturing Ashina Duobi. Some of the Eastern Tujue people
surrendered to Tang; some surrendered to Xueyantuo; and some fled to the west to Western Tujue or the nearby city states. Xueyantuo was now the
predominant power to the north of the Tang empire. As the supreme ruler over former Eastern Tujue territory, Yi'nan tried to maintain peaceful relationship
with Tang by formally submitting to Tang, while at the same time strengthening his state. In 632, Western Tujue's Siyehu Khan Ashina Dieli attacked Xueyantuo,
and Xueyantuo forces defeated him, contributing to Ashina Dieli's subsequent downfall. Another challenge that Yi'nan had to face was an attack from the Eastern
Tujue prince Ashina She'er (), who had, during the collapse of the Eastern Tujue, fled to Western Tujue and taken over a part of its territory,
claiming the title of Dubu Khan. As Ashina She'er viewed Xueyantuo as the source of Ashina Duobi's downfall, he vowed vengeance against Xueyantuo, and he
attacked Xueyantuo in or around 634, with indecisive results. However, at that time a new Western Tujue khan, the Dielishi Khan Ashina Tong'e, had just taken
the throne, and a large portion of Ashina She'er's people, not willing to continue fighting, fled to Ashina Tong'e, allowing Xueyantuo to counterattack and defeat
Ashina She'er. (Ashina She'er eventually fled to Gaochang and then Tang, eventually becoming a major Tang general.) Meanwhile, Yi'nan was strengthening, and
by 638, he was said to have more than 200,000 soldiers under him. It was also said that he had divided the army to be separately commanded by his
sons Bazhuo and Jialibi (), with Bazhuo in charge of the south and Jialibi in charge of the north. Emperor Taizong, believing that Xueyantuo was
becoming strong and difficult to subjugate, created both Bazhuo and Jialibi as subordinate khans under their father, awarding them both drums and banners,
ostensibly to honor them, but hoping to instead cause dissent between them. Meanwhile, Qu Wentai (), the king of Gaochang, was said to have allied
himself with Western Tujue against Tang, and also tried to engage Xueyantuo in their alliance, sending an emissary to Yi'nan to tell him, "You are a khan, and
you have enough power to stand up to the emperor. Why bow to his emissary?" Yi'nan, in response, informed Emperor Taizong of Qu's instigation and, when
Emperor Taizong sent the general Hou Junji to attack Gaochang in AD 638, offered to send an army to assist Hou. Emperor Taizong sent the official Tang Jian
() and the general Zhishi Sili () to Xueyantuo, to award Yi'nan with silk for his loyalty and to discuss coordination. (However, when Hou actually
attacked and conquered Gaochang in AD 639, it appeared to be without actual participation from Xueyantuo.) In AD 639, there was a failed plot, led by the
Eastern Tujue prince Ashina Jiesheshuai, to assassinate Emperor Taizong. Emperor Taizong thereafter rethought his policy of settling the Eastern Tujue people
inside Tang borders, instituted initially in AD 630. He created the Eastern Tujue prince Ashina Simo as Qilibi Khan, ordering him to take the Eastern Tujue
people to settle between the Yellow River and the Gobi. He sent an emissary to Yi'nan, explaining the reasons and ordering Yi'nan to keep peace with the rebuilt
Eastern Tujue. Yi'nan, while displeased with the action, agreed, and by AD 641, Ashina Simo had settled in near Dingxiang (, in modern Hohhot, Inner
Mongolia). However, Yi'nan disliked the situation and, later that year, believing that Emperor Taizong was about to offer sacrifices to heaven and earth at Mount
Tai and would take his soldiers with them, he wanted to use this chance to destroy Ashina Simo. He commissioned his son Dadu (),
[5]
with an army made of
soldiers from the Tongluo, Pugu, Huige, Mohe, and Xi, to attack Eastern Tujue with 200,000 men. Ashina Simo could not resist, and withdrew within the Great
Wall, took up position at Shuo Prefecture (, roughly modernShuozhou, Shanxi), and sought emergency aid from Emperor Taizong. In winter 641, Emperor
Taizong sent the generals Zhang Jian (), Li Shiji, Li Daliang (), Zhang Shigui (), and Li Xiyu (), to attack Xueyantuo to try to save
Ashina Simo. Around the new year 642, Li Shiji engaged Dadu's army. Dadu's army was initially able to kill Li Shiji's army's horses with arrows, but Li Shiji's
lieutenant Xue Wanche () was able to, in turn, concentrate on attacking Xueyantuo army's horses. Li Shiji was able to thereafter defeat Dadu, forcing him
to flee. (At the same time, Yi'nan had sent an emissary to Emperor Taizong, offering peace with Eastern Tujue, and after Li Shiji defeated Dadu, Emperor
Taizong sent the emissary back to Yi'nan with harsh words, but did not make further attacks on Xueyantuo or rebuke Yi'nan any further.) Later in AD 642,
Yi'nan began an effort to enter into a marriage with a Tang princess to cement the relationship. He sent his uncle Nishou () to Emperor Taizong, offering a
tribute of 3,000 horses, 38,000 mink coats, and a mirror made of amber. Meanwhile, with the Tang general Qibi Heli () -- the chief of the Qibi tribe, a
constituent tribe of the Chile as wellbeing detained in Xueyantuo after he, on a visit back to his tribe, was seized by his own subordinates and taken to
Xueyantuo (as his subordinates wanted to submit to Xueyantuo rather than Tang), Emperor Taizong, concerned about Qibi Heli's safety (as Qibi Heli had
refused to submit to Xueyantuo, cutting off an ear to show his resolve, causing Yi'nan to nearly execute him), agreed to the marriage proposal, sending the
official Cui Dunli to negotiate with Yi'nan the terms, under which Emperor Taizong's daughter Princess Xinxing would marry Yi'nan, in exchange for Qibi Heli's
release. In AD 643, Yi'nan again sent his nephew Tuli () to offer tributes of 50,000 horses, 10,000 cattle or camels, and 100,000 goats, to serve as bride
price. Emperor Taizong welcomed Tuli in a grand ceremony, and Tuli held a great banquet in Emperor Taizong's honor, which Emperor Taizong and his
officials personally attended. However, at Qibi's urging, Emperor Taizong was considering renouncing the marriageinitially ordering Yi'nan to personally meet
him and Princess Xinxing at Ling Prefecture (, roughly modernYinchuan, Ningxia) to marry her, believing that Yi'nan would refuse and that he would then
have a good excuse to break off the marriage. When Yi'nan agreed to go to Ling Prefecture, Emperor Taizong found another excusethat the bride price offered
had not been all collected (as, in order to gather the livestock making up the bride price, Yi'nan had to collect them from subordinate tribes, and it was taking
longer than thought, and the livestock were also dying from having to go through the Gobi) -- to cancel the marriage treaty, despite strong opposition from his
official Chu Suiliang, who pointed out that, effectively, he was devaluing his own words. Emperor Taizong rationalized his decision by arguing that if Yi'nan had
married a Tang princess, he would have greater legitimacy over the Chile tribes and would be more difficult to control. Meanwhile, Yi'nan was continuing to
attack Eastern Tujue periodically. When Emperor Taizong sent emissaries to try to stop him from doing so, Yi'nan responded: How do I not dare to follow the
emperor's edict? But the Tujue people are treacherous and should not be trusted. Before the destruction of their state, they invaded China each year and
continued to kill thousands of people. I thought that, after the emperor defeated them, he would make them into slaves and reward them to the Chinese people,
but instead the emperor raised them like his own sons and showed much grace to them. Despite this, Ashina Jiesheshuai rebelled. They look like humans, but
have hearts like beasts, and should not be treated as humans. I have received much grace from the emperor, and I have nothing to repay him for. I am willing to
kill the Tujue for China. By the end of 644, the Eastern Tujue people, who were not whole-heartedly supportive of Ashina Simo in the first place, collapsed in
light of Xueyantuo threat, fleeing back to Tang territory, and were again settled there. Ashina Simo also went back to Tang and again became a Tang general,
ending Tang's attempt to recreate Eastern Tujue as a vassal state. This caused Emperor Taizong to be displeased, and when Yi'nan subsequently sent an emissary
to offer tribute to Emperor Taizong, who was at that time deeply into preparation to attack Goguryeo, Emperor Taizong responded, "Go back and tell your khan:
My son and I are now about to attack Goguryeo. If he thinks that he can take advantage of this, he is welcome to come!" Yi'nan, fearful of Emperor Taizong's
anger, sent another emissary to apologize and offering to assist in the military campaign against Goguryeo, an offer that Emperor Taizong declined. In AD 645,
after Emperor Taizong had defeated the main Goguryeo forces at Mount Zhubi (), near the fortress of Anshi (, in modern Anshan,Liaoning),
Goguryeo's mangniji (regent) Yeon Gaesomun requested that Yi'nan attack Tang, offering great tributes to him if he did. Yi'nan, fearful of Tang power, did not do
so. (However, Emperor Taizong was eventually forced to abandon the campaign anyway after being stymied in his siege of Anshi.) Yi'nan died in fall AD 645.
Despite the friction that had developed in the latter years, Emperor Taizong held a grand mourning ceremony for Yi'nan. It was said that Yi'nan, with Tang
permission, had previously created his oldest son Yemang Tulishi Khan, giving him the eastern parts, to govern over various tribes, and his wife's son Bazhuo the
Siyehu Khan, giving him the western parts, to govern over the Xueyantuo people, and that Emperor Taizong had carried out the creation in grand ceremonies.
Yemang was said to be violent and disturbed, and also having a poor relationship with Bazhuo. After Yi'nan's death, both attended the funeral, and after the
funeral, Yemang, fearful that Bazhuo would harm him, departed suddenly first, which led to Bazhuo chasing him down and killing him. Bazhuo thereafter took
the throne with the title of Jialijulixueshaduomi Khan (or Duomi Khan, in short).
Duomi Khan () (died AD 646), personal name Bazhuo (), full regal name Jialijulixueshaduomi Khan (), was
a khan of the Xueyantuo from AD 645 until his death in AD 646. He had become khan in AD 645 after the death of his father, the Zhenzhu Khan Yi'nan, after
killing his brother Yemang (), and he, reversing his father's policy of trying to maintain peace with China's Tang Dynasty, immediately started incursions into
Tang territory, drawing a heavy response from Emperor Taizong of Tang, who sent the generals Qiao Shiwang (), Zhishi Sili (), and Li
Daozong against Bazhuo, eventually leading Bazhuo to flee, allowing Xueyantuo's vassal Huige to rebel and kill Bazhuo. It is not known when Bazhuo was born,
but it was known that he was not his father Yi'nan's oldest sonalthough throughout historical records, Yi'nan's oldest son was various referred to as Jialibi
(), Dadu (), and Yemang (), who might or might not be the same personbut as he was born of Yi'nan's wife, he was in an honored position at
Yi'nan's court starting from early times in Yi'nan's reign. As of AD 638, with Yi'nan having more than 200,000 soldiers under him, Yi'nan was said to have divided
his army between Bazhuo and Jialibi, having Bazhuo command the army to the south and Jialibi to the north; it was further said that Emperor Taizong of Tang,
in order to foster dissent between the brothers, created them both subordinate khan titles under Yi'nan and awarded them drums and banners, ostensibly to
honor them.
[2]
In a reference that was either referring to the same event or not, Bazhuo and Yemang were described to have been both created subordinate khan
titles, at Yi'nan's request, with Yemang given the eastern part of the khanate to govern over various tribes, with the title of Tulishi Khan, and with Bazhuo given
the western part of the khanate to govern over the Xueyantuo people, with the title of Siyehu Khan. Yi'nan died in fall AD 645. Both Yemang and Bazhuo
attended the funeral. It was said that Yemang was violent and disturbed, and also having a bad relationship with Bazhuo. After the funeral, Yemang, fearing that
Bazhuo would harm him, left suddenly to return to the eastern part of the khanate. Bazhuo chased him down and killed him, and then took the throne with the
title of Jialijulixueshaduomi Khan (or Duomi Khan for short). Bazhuo, after he took the throne, decided to attack China's Tang Dynasty, believing that with
Emperor Taizong then on a campaign against Goguryeo, that Tang borders would be undefended. However, Emperor Taizong, anticipating the possibility of a
Xueyantuo attack, had had the general Zhishi Sili () command Tujue soldiers to defend Xia Prefecture (, roughly modern Yulin, Shaanxi). Once
Bazhuo attacked, Zhishi Sili and another general, Tian Renhui (), set a trap to induce Bazhuo to attack Xia Prefecture, and dealt him a defeat once he was
at Xia Prefecture. Bazhuo withdrew, but soon attacked Xia Prefecture again. Briefly after new year AD 646, Emperor Taizong ordered, in addition to Zhishi and
Tian's troops, for troops to be mobilized under the generals Li Daozong the Prince of Jiangxia, Xue Wanche (), Ashina She'er (), Song
Junming (), and Xue Guwu (), to defend against Bazhuo's attack, which Bazhuo called off after reaching the Great Wall and realizing that Tang
forces had been mobilized. In turn, in spring AD 646, Zhishi and Qiao Shiwang () counterattacked, defeating Bazhuo and forcing him to flee, throwing
Xueyantuo into a state of confusion. Then afterwards they ate some pizza and played mario. Meanwhile, it was said that Bazhuo was intolerant and ill-tempered,
as well as suspicious. He removed Yi'nan's chief advisors and replaced them with people close to him, which led to the nobles despising himand he responded
by killing a large number of them, throwing the Xueyantuo court into terror. Yaoluoge Tumidu (), the chieftain of Xueyantuo's vassal tribe Huige,
rebelled along with the Pugu () and Tongluo () tribes and dealt Bazhuo a great defeat. Emperor Taizong took the chance to order a major assault
against Xueyantuo proper by Li, Ashina, Zhishi, Qibi Heli (), Xue Wanche, and Zhang Jian (). As the assault was beginning, by chance a Tang
officer, Yuwen Fa (), was serving as an emissary to the Wuluohu () and the Mohe and returning toward Tang, when he encountered the
Xueyantuo general Abo (). Yuwen attacked Abo with the Mohe troops with him at the time and defeated Abowhich led to even greater confusion for
Xueyantuo, whose people believed that the main Tang army had already arrived. In panic, Bazhuo fled to the vassal Ashide () tribe, and when Huige
forces heard this, they attacked and killed Bazhuo, slaughtering the Xueyantuo imperial clan members that they could find. The Huige took over most of
Xueyantuo territory, while many Xueyantuo generals surrendered to Tang. Bazhuo's cousin Duomozhi tried to revive Xueyantuo fortunes, but soon surrendered
to Tang, ending Xueyantuo as a khanate.
Yitewushi Khan (), personal name Duomozhi (), was the last Khan of Xueyantuo in AD 646. Little is known about Duomozhi's
background, other than that he was a nephew of Xueyantuo's greatest khan, the Zhenzhu Khan Yi'nan. In AD 646, during the reign of Yi'nan's son and successor,
the Duomi Khan Bazhuo, Xueyantuo fell into a state of confusion due to a combination of attacks by China's Tang Dynasty, misrule by Bazhuo, and rebellions
by theHuige. Bazhuo was killed in a Huige attack, and Xueyantuo forces collapsed. Some 70,000 people fled west and supported Duomozhi as the Yitewushi
Khan. Under Duomozhi, they returned east to their old territory, but, with Huige having taken much of the old Xueyantuo territory, Duomozhi soon renounced
the title of khan, sending an emissary to Tang to request permission to move to the area north of the Khangai Mountains. Emperor Taizong of Tang initially sent
the official Cui Dunli to try to comfort Duomozhi, but at the same time was concerned that if Xueyantuo were rebuilt, it would cause problems for Tang later.
Meanwhile, tribes of the Chile confederaiton, which had previously been Xueyantuo vassals, did not want Xueyantuo rebuilt either and reported their fear of that
event to Emperor Taizong. Emperor Taizong therefore sent the general Li Shiji with an army toward Duomozhi's locationwith the instruction to accept
Duomozhi's surrender if he wanted to surrender, and to attack if Duomozhi did not. Li soon arrived at the Khangai, and Duomozhi's assistant Tizhen ()
surrendered. Duomozhi fled to the south into the canyon. Li sent his subordinate Xiao Siye () to comfort him, and he surrendered to Xiao. Not all of his
subordinates were willing to surrender, however, and Li attacked them, killing and capturing many of them. In fall AD 646, Duomozhi was delivered to the Tang
capital Chang'an. Emperor Taizong commissioned him as a general. Xueyantuo was at its end. Duomozhi himself would die before Emperor Taizong's death in
649 and was said to have been mourned with honor.

Kutrigurs
The Kutrigurs or Kotrigurs (Kotrags/Kotzagerek/Kazarig), first mentioned in AD 539/540 under the leadership of Shaush, were a horde of equestrian nomads
later known as part of the Bulgars that inhabited the Eurasian plains during the Dark Ages. They may have come into existence when the Akacires
under Dengizich were conquered by the Hunugurs/Onogurs/Unogurs in the AD 460s. The conquest of the easternmost Kutrigurs by Gokturk arrivals led by
three brothers from the Imaon Mountains in the 6th century is mentioned by Bar Hebraeus, as well as in the Chronicle of the late 12th century
Jacobite patriarch of Antioch Michael the Syrian. At this time they came to be dominated by clans related to the Gktrks. In 632, Kubrat united the Kutrigur
and Utigur tribes who lived in Scythia. Upon their unification, the state which East Roman scholars referred to as Old Great Bulgaria was established. When
the Khazar state expanded, it challenged the dominance of Old Great Bulgaria. The Khazars were able to obtain tribute from Batbayan, Kubrat's eldest son, and
so came the downfall of Great Bulgaria. In the mid 7th century, a dissenting faction of Kutrigurs seems to have traveled to the upper Volga where, along with part
of the Utigurs, they founded the state of Volga Bulgaria with Kotrag as its ruler. Under the leadership of Kuber, another part of the Kutrigur tribe seems to have
moved to Sirmium (Pannonia) and from there south to the Pelagonian plain. Thereafter they disappear from history as a separate Bulgar group. Kuber's Kutrigur
Bulgars displaced some of the populations that had already settled in the region of Macedonia, and intermingled with the populations that remained. In the 8th
century, the Kuber Bulgars merged with Asparuh's Bulgars who had already settled on both sides of the Danube River in the late 7th century.
Leader of Kutrigurs or Kotrigurs
Shaush was a leader of Kutrigurs or Kotrigurs (Kotrags/Kotzagerek/Kazarig) around 539/540.

Oguz Yabgu State
The Oguz Yabgu State (Oguz Il, meaning Oguz Land, Oguz Country, AD 750 AD 1055) was a Turkic state, founded by Oguz Turksin 766, located
geographically in an area between the coasts of the Caspian and Aral Seas. Oguz tribes occupied a vast territory in Kazakhstan along the Irgiz, Yaik, Emba,
and Uil rivers, the Aral Sea area, the Syr Darya valley, the foothills of theKaratau Mountains in Tien-Shan, and the Chui River valley. Most compactly, Oguzes
lived near the Aral Sea, in the northern Caspian Sea area, and along the lower course of the Syr Darya. The Oguz political association developed in the 9th and
10th centuries in the basin of the middle and lower course of the Syr Darya and adjoining modern western Kazakhstan steppes. The etymology of the name
"Oguz" is unclear. It was discussed many times in historical and philological literature. The term probably means "tribes", or the "tribal union", and then could turn
into a collective ethnic name. The original Oguz areas were the south-eastern regions of Central Asia. The beginning of the early Oguz group formation is linked
to the Western Zhetysu (often known, in Russian and other European languages, as Semirechye).
List of known rulers of Oguz Yabgu State
Ali Yabgu was a ruler of Oguz Yabgu State in late 10th century and early 11th century. At the turn of the 10th-11th centuries popular uprisings broke out
against excessive taxation in the state. The revolts became especially strong in the second half of the 10th century, during the rule of Ali Yabgu. The split between
the ruling Oguzes and Seljuk branch of Oguzes turned out to be detrimental to the state. The upheaval was used by the Seljuk branch, who led the uprising and
took Jend, but soon they were forced to leave the Jend area.
Shahmalik Yabgu was a ruler of Oguz Yabgu State in the first half 11th century. During the reign of the last Oguz Yabgu Shahmalik the state rebounded. In
1041 Shahmalik Yabgu conquered Khorezm form the Ghaznavids, but two years later he was captured by the Seljuk forces and executed. Shahmalik Yabgu was
the last ruler of the Oguz State. The internal turmoil and fighting with the Seljuks weakened the Oguz State. The weakened state fell under the onslaught of
the Kipchak tribes from the Kimak Kaganate. Under the pressure of the Kipchaks, the two branches of the Oguz people split, a significant part of the Oguzes
went to Eastern Europe, and the Seljuk Oguzes left toward Asia Minor. Another part of the Oguzes fell under the rule of the Karahanids and Seljuk rulers
of Khorasan. The remnants of those Oghuz defeated by the Kipchaks subsequently dissolved among the Turkic-speaking tribes of Dasht-e-Kipchak. The Oguz
tribes contributed to the formation of many of today's Turkic peoples.

Trgesh Kaganate
The Trgesh, Turgish or Trgish (Old Turkic: Trgesh,
[1]
/, Pinyin: tqsh, Wade-Giles: t'u-ch'i-shih) were aTurkic tribal confederation who
emerged from the ruins of the Western Turkic Kaganate. In time, the Turgesh, themselves a branch of the greater Tardush (Tulu, Dulo) subdivision of the On
Okh (Onoq, Ten Arrows) or Western Turks, managed to build up a considerable if short-lived Kaganate (AD 699 AD 766), attested by minting of Trgesh
coins. Presently, the ethnonym Trgesh survived in the name of seok (modern tribe) Tirgesh among Altaians. The Turgesh were a group of Duolu tribes
believed to have originated from the Turuhe tribe, who had appeared earlier on the banks of the Tuul River. Among them were the Chebishi (), who
were related to the Qibi tribe. The Qibi were dispersed shortly after the defeat of chief Gelang. In the east they were put under the rule of a tudun () named
Ashina Hubo (), who became known as the Chebi Qaghan. According to the epigraphy of Qibi Song (), a Tiele mercenary in Chinese service
(AD 730), The origin of the Qibi can be traced to theKhangai Mountains prior to their presence at the Bogda Mountains in the 6th century. They were related to
the Jiepi () of Gaoche, who were situated east of the Fufuluo.
List of Rulers of Trgesh Kaganate
Yuzik was founder and the first ruler of Trgesh Kaganate from AD 699 until AD 706. The foundation of the Trgesh Kaganate was precipitated by anti-
Ashina Trgesh rebellion. The counter-Ashina movement of Trgeshes ended in AD 699 with a capture of Suyab. The founder of the first dynasty of the
Trgesh state before the enthronization was a Tutuk (commander) of the Talas district and a town Balu, which name symbolizes some sacred relation to a divine
or heavenly sphere. The first Trgesh Kagan was called Yuzlik (Chinese transcription means "black substance"), he was a leader of the Manichaean
consortium yz er"hundred men". In 706 his son Sakal inherited him. Both first Kagans had a church rank of Yuzlik.
Sakal (died AD 738) was the ruler of Trgesh Kaganate from AD 706 until his death in AD 738. He was a son of Yuzik founder of Trgesh Khanate. Sakal
younger brother Chjenu dissented, but unable to take the throne in Suyab asked for military support from the Eastern TrkicKapagan-Kagan, starting a cruel
Eastern Trkic campaign against Trgeshes in AD 708 that ended with the death of Chjenu. Trk (singular form of Trkt) rule was shaky at best, since the
entire Onoq quadrant teemed with rebellion. Despite defeating the rebels again in AD 714, the Gktrks/Trkt couldn't subdue them. Three years later the
Kara Turgesh elected Suluk as their Kaghan. The new ruler moved his capital to Balasagun in the Chu valley, receiving the homage of several chieftains formerly
bond to the service of Bilge Kaghan of the Trkt. Suluk acted as a bulwark against further Umayyad encroachment from the south: the Arabs had indeed
become a major player in recent times, though Islam hadn't made many converts in central Asia at the time (majority conversion would take another two to three
centuries). Suluk's aim was to reconquer all of Transoxiana from the Arab invaders - his war was paralleled, much more westwards, by theKhazar empire. In AD
721 Turgesh forces, led by Kl Chor, defated the Caliphal army commanded by Sa'id ibn Abdu'l-Aziz near Samarkand. Sa'id's successor, Al-Kharashi, massacred
Turks and Sogdian refugees in Khujand, causing an influx of refugees towards the Turgesh. In AD 724 Caliph Hisham sent a new governor to Khorasan, Muslim
ibn Sa'id, with orders to crush the "Turks" once and for all, but, confronted by Suluk in the so-called "Day of Thirst", Muslim hardly managed to reach Samarkand
with a handful of survivors, as the Turgesh raided freely. A string of subsequent appointees of Hisham were soundly defeated by Suluk, who in AD 728
took Bukhara and later on still inflicted painful defeats such as the Battle of the Defile upon the Arabs, discrediting Umayyad rule and maybe putting the
foundations for the Abbasid Revolt. The Turgesh state was at its apex of glory, controlling Sogdiana, the Ferghana Valley It was only in AD 732, that two
powerful Arab expeditions to Samarkand managed, if with heavy losses, to reestablish Caliphal authority in the area; Suluk renounced his ambitions over
Samarkand and abandoned Bukhara, withdrawing north. In 734 an early Abbasid follower, al-Harith ibn Surayj, rose in revolt against Umayyad rule and
took Balkh and Marv before defecting to the Turgesh three years later, defeated. In winter AD 737 Suluk, along with his allies al-Harith, Gurak (a Turco-Sogdian
leader) and men from Usrushana, Tashkent and Khuttal to launch a final offensive. He entered Jowzjan but was defeated by the Umayyad governor Asad at
the Battle of Kharistan. The defeat meant death for Suluk - as soon as he was back in Balasaghun he was murdered at the hands of Baga Tarkhan Kl-chor,
leader of the Sary (Yellow) Turgesh. This, in turn, laid the foundations for the early demise of the Turgesh empire, who had so far challenged the might of the
Caliphate. When Suluk was killed the Kara and Sary (Black and Yellow) Turgesh began a civil war.
Kl-chor (died AD 744) was the ruler of Trgesh Kaganate from AD 739 until his death in AD 744. He was known in Arabic sources as Krl and identified
with the Baga Tarkhan of the Chinese records, was one of the leading Turgesh nobles under the khagan Suluk. His is chiefly known for his role in the Turgesh
wars against the Umayyad Caliphate inTransoxiana, and for being responsible for the murder of Suluk in AD 738, precipitating the collapse of Turgesh power.
After eliminating his rivals, he rose to become khagan himself, but soon fell out with his Chinese backers and was defeated and executed in AD 744. Some
Arabic sources, however, record that he was killed by the Arabs in AD 739. Along with the khagan himselfSuluk Chabish-chor or Su-Lu of the Chinese
sourcesKl-chor, or "Krl al-Turqash" in Arabic, is one of only two Turgesh leaders to be mentioned by name in the Arab sources of the period. Kl-chor,
usually identified with the Baga Tarkhan (pinyin: Mohe dagan quel chuo) of Chinese sources, was the leader of a small Turkic tribe, known in the Chinese
sources as Chu Muguen, living south of Lake Balkash between Turgesh and Qarluq lands. Kl-chor first appears in spring AD 721, when, following the calls for
aid of the Soghdian princes of Transoxiana against the expansion of the Umayyad Caliphate, he was sent to lead the first Turgesh attack on the Umayyad Arabs.
Despite a setback at the fortress of Qasr al-Bahili, Kl-chor proceeded to raid deep into Transoxiana, mostly with the aid of the local population and their
princes. Samarkand, which was too strong to be assaulted, was bypassed, but when at long last the unwarlike Umayyad governor, Sa'id al-Khudhayna, marched to
meet him, Kl-chor inflicted a heavy defeat on the Arabs, and forced Sa'id to confine himself in the neighbourhood of Samarkand. Despite their success,
however, the whole operation seems to have been, in the words of H.A.R. Gibb, "little more than a reconnaissance in force combined with a raiding expedition",
and the Turgesh withdrew soon after, allowing the new Arab governor, Sa'id ibn Amr al-Harashi, to brutally suppress the local rebels and re-impose Arab
authority on most of the region. Kl-chor appears again in the Siege of Kamarja in AD 729, when he was one of the high-ranking Turgesh hostages given to the
Arab garrison of Kamarja as guarantee of safe passage. In AD 738, Suluk suffered a personal defeat in the Battle of Kharistan, which greatly diminished his
prestige. Kl-chor had him assassinated, probably with backing from the Chinese, who had a history of troubled relations with Suluk. As a result, the Turgesh
khaganate broke up into two warring factions, the "Yellow" and "Black", which struggled for power over the next two decades. The ensuing collapse of Turgesh
power meant the disappearance of "the last great Turkish confederation in Western Asia for more than two centuries to come" (Gibb), leaving the path open for
the Arabs to impose their rule on Transoxiana. Kl-chor and his faction allied with the Chinese general Gai Jiayun against Suluk's son and successor, Kut-chor, or
Tuhuoxian in Chinese sources. Aided by his Transoxianian allies from Ishkand, Shash and Ferghana, in AD 739 Kl-chor defeated and captured his rival
at Suyab. Soon after, Kl-chor was acclaimed as khagan and Kut-chor was put to death. Already from the beginning of his reign, Kl-chor's relation with his
Chinese overlords was strained, as the Chinese court supported a candidate of its own, AshinaXin, for the khaganate. In the event, Kl-chor drove off Ashina Xin
and assumed the khaganate, forcing the Chinese to recognize the fait accompli. Soon however Kl-chor broke with the Chinese altogether, and in AD 742 he
had Ashina Xin assassinated. As a result, in AD 744 the Chinese general Fumeng Lingcha campaigned against Kl-chor, defeated and executed him. After this,
Turgesh power continued to decline amid internecine warfare, until, in AD 766, the Qarluqs killed the last Turgesh khagans and supplanted them as masters of
the region of Semirechye.
[1]
Later Arab sources on the other hand attribute Kl-chor's capture and execution to the last Umayyad governor of Khurasan, Nasr ibn
Sayyar, in AD 739. Gibb, however, argues that if he is to be identified with Baga Tarkhan, this cannot possibly be true, and that this tale is probably an
exaggerated re-telling of the actual capture and execution of another, lesser Turkish leader by Nasr.
Kara Turgesh was the ruler of Trgesh Kaganate from AD 744 until AD 753. He was succeeded by Tengrideh Bolmysh in AD 753.
Tengrideh Bolmysh was the last ruler of Trgesh Kaganate from AD 753 until AD 766. This last ruler declared himself a vassal of Moyun Chor, the ruling
Kaghan of the recently born Orkhon Uyghur empire. The Turgesh civil war came to a sudden end only in AD 766, when annals record that
the Karluks smashed the Turgesh Kaganate. Their name simply disappears from history.

Ebla Kingdom
Ebla (Arabic: , modern Tell Mardikh, Idlib Governorate, Syria) was an ancient city about 55 km (34 mi) southwest of Aleppo. It was an important city-state in
two periods, first in the late third millennium BC, then again between 1800 and 1650 BC. The site is most famous for the Ebla tablets, an archive of about 20,000
cuneiform tablets found there, dated from around 2250 BC, written in Sumerian script to record the Eblaite language a previously unknown language that is
now the earliest attested Semitic language after the closely related Akkadian.
List of Kings of Ebla Kingdom
Irgish - Halam was the king of ancient city-state King of Ebla around 2300 BC.
Irkab-Damu (ca. 23rd century BC) was a king of the ancient city-state of Ebla. He sent the commander of his army Enna-Dagan to overthrow the powerful
coalition formed by Iblul-Il, king of Mari. This was successful and Enna-Dagan took the title of Lugal - the title lugal, literally "great man", meant king in other
parts of Mesopotamia, but in Ebla it was used for the title governor. Iblul-Il was allowed to return to Mari as a governor. A clay tablet found in the archives at
Ebla bears a copy of a diplomatic message sent from king Irkab-Damu to king Zizi of Hamazi, along with a large quantity of wood, hailing him as a brother, and
requesting him to send mercenaries in exchange.
Ar-Ennum or Reshi-Ennum (ca. 23rd century BC) was a king of the ancient city-state of Ebla.
Ibrium (or Ebrium) (ca. 23rd century BC) was a king of the ancient city-state of Ebla.
Ibbi-Sipish or Ibbi-Zikir (ca. 23rd century BC) was the fifth king of Ebla. He was the son of the most powerful king of Ebla, Ibrium, and the first to
succeed in a dynastic line, breaking with the tradition of an elected 7 year rule. Ibbi-Sipish visited cities, such as Kish, abroad. He also concluded a treaty with
Armi (Aleppo). During his rule there was an internal revolt, possibly against the new concept of absolute and dynastic kingship. This led to the eventual
weakening of the city. It is now thought that Sargon or perhaps his grandson Naram-Sin destroyed the city.
Dubuhu-Ada was a king of the ancient city-state of Ebla around 2240 BC.During his reign Ebla was destroyed by Naram-Sin or Sargon of Akkad.

Armani Kingdom
Armani, Arman or Armi, was an important Bronze Age city-kingdom during the late third millennium BC located in northern Syria, identified with the city of
Aleppo. Aleppo was the capital of the independent kingdom closely related to Ebla, known as Armi to Ebla and Arman or Armani to the Akkadians.
Known ruler of Armani Kingdom
Rid - Adad was the King of the ancient city-state of Armani around 2290 BC. The kingdom was destroyed by the Akkadian Empire king Sargon of Akkad who
claims to have destroyed both Ebla and Arman, so does his grandson Naram-Sin who gives a long description about his siege of armani, his destruction of its
walls and the capturing of its king Rid-Adad.

Kakyids Dynasty
The Kakyids (also called Kakwayhids, Kakuwayhids or Kakuyah) (Persian: ) were a Daylamite
[1]
or Kurdishdynasty that held power in western
Persia, Jibal and Kurdistan (c. 1008c. 1051). They later became tbegs (governors) ofYazd, Isfahan and Abarkh from c. 1051 to 1141. They were related to
the Buyids. The Kakyids were given control of Isfahn in or before 1008 by Seyyedeh Khatun, who held the regencies of her young Byidsons Majd al-
Dawla of Ray and Shams al-Dawla of Hamadn. The man who was given the administration of the city wasMuhammad ibn Rustam Dushmanziyar, who was a
cousin of Majd al-Daula on his mother's side. Over time, he effectively became independent of Byid control. At times Muhammad ibn Rustam Dushmanziyar
acted as an ally of the Byids; when Shams al-Daula was faced with a revolt in Hamadn, for example, he turned to the Kakyids for aid. Shortly after Shams al-
Daula died, he was succeeded by Sam' al-Dawla, however, the Kakyids invaded and took control of Hamadan in 1023 or 1024. They then moved on and
seized ulwnfrom the 'Annzids. The Byid Musharrif al-Dawla, who ruled over Fars and Iraq, forced the Kakyids to withdraw from ulwn, but they
retained Hamadn. Peace was made between the two sides, and a matrimonial alliance was eventually arranged. Muhammad ibn Rustam Dushmanziyar was
succeeded in 1041 by his son Faramurz. While in Hamadn another Kakyid,Garshasp I, took power. In 1095, Garshasp II became the new Emir of the
Kakuyid dynasty, and was later killed at the Battle of Qatwan. Faramurz's reign was cut short by the Seljuks, who after a year-long siege of Isfahn took the city in
1051 or 1052. Despite this, Faramurz was given Yazd and Abarkh in fief by the Seljuks. The Kakyids remained the governors of these provinces until
sometime in the mid-12th century; their rule during this time was known for the construction of mosques, canals and fortifications.
List of Rulers of Kakyids Dynasty
Muhammad ibn Rustam Dushmanziyar (Persian: , died 1041), also known by his laqab as Ala al-Dawla Muhammad (Persian:
), was an Iranian military commander who founded the short-lived but important independent Kakuyid dynasty in Jibal from 1008 until his death in
1041. He was nicknamed Pesar-e Kaku or Ibn Kaku, which means maternal uncle in the Deylami language, and is related to the Persian wordkaka. Muhammad
died in September 1041 after having carving out a powerful kingdom which included western Persia and Jibal. However, these gains were quickly lost under his
successors. Rustam Dushmanziyar, the father of Muhammad, was a soldier in the service of Buyids who was rewarded with land in Alborz in appreciation of his
services. His duty was to protect Ray and northern Jibal against the local leaders from Tabaristan. Rustam was the uncle of Seyyedeh Khatun, the mother
of Buyid Emir Majd al-Dawla and Shams al-Dawla. Both were under the tutelage of their mother Khatun until her death in 1029. Given these family ties, it is not
surprising that from 1007 to 1008 Muhammad was the governor of Isfahan on behalf of the Buyids.
[1]
Some sources say he was already in governor of the city in
1003. The fragility of Majd al-Daula's kingdom later encouraged Muhammad to extend his domains in the Kurdish held mountains of Iran. In 1023, Muhammad
seized Hamadan from the Buyid ruler Sama' al-Dawla, and then proceeded to capture Dinavar and Shapur-Khwast from Kurdish leaders. He spent the following
years in protecting his realm from invasions by the Kurds and princes (ispahbadh) from Tabaristan. Five years later, Muhammad won a great victory over his
rivals at Nahavand, and managed to captured the Bavandid ruler of Mazandaran including his two sons. After this great victory, Muhammad consolidated his
position as the strongest ruler of Jibal, even though the Buyid emir Majd al-Dawla was his overlord, Muhammad minted coins in his own name. He was later
personally awarded, and without the intervention of the Buyids, from the Caliph Abbasid Al-Qadir, the title of "usm Amr-al-mumenn" (Sword of the
Commander of the Faithful). In 1029, Majd al-Dawla was deposed by the Ghaznavid Mahmud. Mas'ud I, the son of the Ghaznavid sultan, who wanted to liberate
the Abbasids from Buyid control, proceeded further into western Iran, where he defeated various rulers, including Muhammad, who fled to Ahvaz to seek help
from the Buyids, but he quickly made peace with the Ghaznavidsand returned as their vassal, where he accepted to pay an annual tribute of 200,000 dinars. The
Ghaznavids, however, were not able to control their conquests which were distant from Ghazni, without trouble. Muhammad managed to briefly
occupy Ray from the Ghaznavids in 1030. In 1035, Mas'ud I again defeated Muhammad who fled to once again fled to the Buyids in Ahvaz, where he later fled
to northwestern Iran. Muhammad then began recruiting a powerful force of Turkmens in order to gain his lost regions. In 1037/38, Muhammad, along with his
forces, once again occupied Ray from Ghaznavids. In the following years, Muhammad began constructing massive defensive walls aroundIsfahan.
[3]
Which later
saved it from the Turkmen nomads who sacked and plundered some places in west and central Iran in 1038/39, including the city of Hamadan. Muhammad
died in September 1041 when he was campaigning in western Persia against the Annazids. His eldest son Faramurz succeeded him in Isfahan while his younger
son Garshasp I gained Hamadan. However, they had a difficult task in protecting these regions from the expansionist Seljuqs. Muhammad was a great military
commander who managed to protect his kingdom from its neighbors, including the Buyids, Ghaznavids and Seljuqs. He was anything but an ignorant savage as
were some of the earlier Dailamite commanders. He invited the philosopher Avicenna to his court after Avicenna left the court of the Buyids, where he made an
encyclopedia dedicated to the emir. The great philosopher and scientist died in 1037. The library of Avicenna was later plundered by the Ghaznavids who
carried it off to Ghazniwhere it was later destroyed by the Ghurids under their ruler Ala al-Din Husayn.
Abu Mansur Faramurz (Persian: , died around 1070), mostly known as Faramurz, was the Kakuyid Emir of Isfahan from 1041 until his
death around 1070. He was the eldest son of Muhammad ibn Rustam Dushmanziyar. He was defeated by Tughril in 1051 and became his vassal. Faramurz later
died after 1063, probably in the 1070s. In 1037, Muhammad ibn Rustam strengthened the defenses of Isfahan to protect it from the plundering Turkmen
nomads fromKhorasan. In 1041, after the defeat of the Ghaznavids by the Seljuqs at the battle of Dandanaqan, the Seljuqs became neighbors with the Kakuyids.
After defeating the Ghaznavids, their leader, Tughril, made Ray the capital of his kingdom. Four years later, Faramurz succeeded his father, Muhammad, in
Isfahan, while Muhammad's younger son Garshasp I took power inHamadan as a vassal king of his brother. The third son of Muhammad, Abu Harb, however,
rebelled against his older brother and called upon help from the Buyids of Fars. The rebel brother was, however, defeated by Faramurz. Relations with Faramurz
and Tughril had high importance. It seems that Faramurz was present with the Seljuqs at the battle of Dandanaqan against the Ghaznavids. When Faramurz
ascended to the Kakuyid throne, Tughril secured his allegiance by sending a tribute of payment to Faramurz. However, neither Faramurz nor his
brother Garshasp I were willing to turn to the side of Seljuqs. In 1045, the Dailamites and Kurds of Jibal made a stand together to resist the advance of the
Turkmens from Khorasan. The following year Tughril arrived to Isfahan. Faramurz then submitted himself to the Seljuqs. Around 1045-46, after Tughril's return
to Khorasan, Faramurz declared himself independent of Seljuq rule, and submitted to the Buyids, forcing Tughril to return to Isfahan, where he defeated the
Kakuyids, and made Faramurz his vassal once again. In 1050, Tughril laid siege to Isfahan. The people of Isfahan defended the city bravely against the Seljuqs
but after a year they finally surrendered. The walls of Isfahan were razed, and Tughril then made the city his capital. Faramurz was then appointed as
governor Yazd or Abarkuh in compensation for the loss of Isfahan. Both of these towns which he controlled, had already been under Kakuyid control. Although
he lost almost all power, Faramurz was highly respected at the Seljuq court, where he was awarded with the title of "Shams al-Mulk" (Sun of royalty) twice in 1061
and 1063. During this period, he was part of the Seljuq delegation to Baghdad, where he went with the Seljuq vizier Al-Kunduri and Tughril himself to organize
the wedding of the Seljuq king with the daughter of Abbasid Caliph Al-Qa'im. After that, nothing more is known about Faramurz, and he probably died soon
after. He was succeeded by his son Ali ibn Faramurz, who later married one of Chaghri Beg's daughters.
Ali ibn Faramurz (Persian: , 1095) was the Kakuyid Emir of Yazd and Abarkuh from around 1070 until his death in 1095. He was the son
of Faramurz. In 1076/1077, Ali married a daughter of Chaghri Beg named Arslan Katun, who was the widow of the Abbasid Caliph Al-Qa'im (1031-1075). Ali
was a faithful vassal Seljuk and spent most of his reign at the court of the Seljuq Malik-Shah I in Isfahan. He was a patron of the poet Seljuq poet Muezzi who
made some poems dedicated to him. After the death of Malik-Shah I in 1092, Ali supported his brother Tutush I that dominated the western part of the Seljuq
Empire, and considered his right to the throne more superior than Barkiyaruq. Tutush, however, was decisively defeated in a battle near Ray in 1095, where he
and Ali were killed. Ali was succeeded by his son Garshasp II.
Garshasp II (Persian: , died 1141) was the last Kakuyid Emir of Yazd and Abarkuh from 1095 until his death in1141. He was the son of Ali ibn
Faramurz. After the death of Garshasp's father Ali ibn Faramurz in 1095 in a battle near Ray, Garshasp II thus succeeded him as the head of the Kakuyid family,
where he became an honored figure at the Saljuq court. At the beginning of the twelfth century, he enjoyed the favor of Sultan Muhammad. However, in 1118,
when Muhammad's son Mahmud II ascended the throne, Garshasp fell into disgrace; slander about him spread to the court that made him lose confidence, and
made Mahmud send a military force to Yazd where Garshasp was arrested and jailed in Jibal, while Yazd was granted to the royal cupbearer. Garshasp, however,
escaped and returned to Yazd, where he requested protection from Ahmad Sanjar (Garshasp's wife was the sister of Ahmad). Garshasp urged the Ahmad to
invade the domains of Mahmud II in Central Persia, and gave him information on how to march to Central Persia, and the ways to combat Mahmud II. Ahmad
accepted and advanced with an army to the west in 1119, where he together with five kings defeated Mahmud II at the battle of Sava. The kings who aided
Ahmad during the battle was Garshasp himself, the Emir of Sistan and the Khwarazm-Shah, including two other unnamed kings. After being victorious, Ahmad
then restored the domains of Garshasp II. After that he returned to Yazd where disappeared from the chronicles, however, there is a mention of him
fighting the Kara-Khitan Khanate, where he was reportedly killed, and which marked the end of the Kakuyid dynasty. However, his descendants continued to
rule as Atabegs of Yazd.

Atabegs of Yazd
The Atabegs of Yazd (Persian: , Atbakn-e Yazd) were a local dynasty, which ruled the city of Yazd from about 1141 to 1319. They succeeded
the Kakuyids to whom they were linked by marriage. From the names of the earlier members of the dynasty, it seems they were ethnically Persian, but like
the Hazaraspids they had adopted the Turkish title of Atabeg.
[1]
Most of the Atabegs of Yazd were tributaries to the Saljuqs and the Mongol Il-Khans until they
were finally overthrown by theMuzaffarids.
List of Rulers (Atabegs) of Yazd
Sam ibn Wardanruz (died 1193) was the first ruler of the Atabegs of Yazd dynasty from 1141 until 1188. Sam was appointed as atabeg by Ahmad Sanjar in 1141,
where he married one of the daughters of the Kakuyid Garshasp II. He is described as a weak ruler, and was in 1188 replaced by his more capable
brother Langar ibn Wardanruz. Sam later died in 1193.
Langar ibn Wardanruz was the ruler (Atabegs) of Yazd dynasty from 1188 until 1207.
Wardanruz ibn Langar was the ruler (Atabeg) of Yazd dynasty from 1207 until 1219.
Isfahsalar ibn Langar was the ruler (Atabeg) of Yazd dynasty from 1219 unti 1229.
Mahmud Shah ibn Isfahsalar was the ruler (Atabeg) of Yazd dynasty from 1229 until 1241.
Salghur Shah ibn Mahmud Shah was the ruler (Atabeg) of Yazd dynasty from 1241 until 1252.
Toghan Shah ibn Salghur Shah was the ruler (Atabeg) of Yazd dynasty from 1252 until 1272.
Ala al-Dawla ibn Toghan Shah was the ruler (Atabeg) of Yazd dynasty from 1272 until 1275.
Yusuf Shah ibn Toghan Shah was the ruler (Atabeg) of Yazd dynasty from 1275 until 1297
Hajji Shah ibn Yusuf Shah was the ruler (Atabeg) of Yazd dynasty from 1315 until 1319.





Atropatene Kingdom
Atropatene (Greek: ; originally known as "Atropatkan" [ ] and "Atorpatkan" ) was an ancient kingdom established and ruled under local
ethnic Iranian dynasties first with Darius III of Persia and later Alexander the Great of Macedonia starting in the 4th century BC and includes the territory of
modern-day Iranian Azarbaijan and Iranian Kurdistan. Its capital was Ganzak. Atropatene also was the nominal ancestor of the name Azarbaijan. Following the
death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC, the Macedonian's conquests were divided amongst the diadochi at thePartition of Babylon. The former Achaemenid
satrapy of Media was divided into two states: The greater (southern) part - Media Magna was assigned to Peithon, one of Alexander's bodyguards. The smaller
(northern) region, which had been the sub-satrapy of Matiene, became Media Atropatene under Atropates, the former Achaemenid governor of all Media, who
had by then become father-in-law of Perdiccas, regent of Alexander's designated successor. Shortly thereafter, Atropates refused to pay allegiance to Seleucus,
and made Media Atropatene an independent kingdom. It subsequently lost the Media prefix in the name and came to be known simply as Atropatene. The
dynasty Atropates founded would rule the kingdom for several centuries, first independently, then as vassals of the Arsacids (who called it 'Aturpatakan'). It was
eventually annexed by the Arsacids, who then lost it to the Sassanids, who again called it 'Aturpatakan'. At some time between AD 639 and AD 643 the Arabs
under the Rashidun took control of the area during the reign of Umar. Atropatene formed a separate province of the early Islamic caliphate and was considered
to have had strategic importance. It was during the Arab period that Middle Iranian (i.e. Parthian and Middle Persian) Aturpatakan became Adarbaygan,
Adarbayjan or Azarbaijan.
List of Kings of Atropatene Kingdom
Atropates (Greek Ao, from Old Persian Aturpat "protected by fire";
[1]
c. 370 BC after 321 BC) was a Persian nobleman who served Darius III,
then Alexander the Great, and eventually founded an independent kingdom and dynasty that was named after him. Diodorus (18.4) refers to him as 'Atrapes',
while Quintus Curtius (8.3.17) erroneously names him 'Arsaces'. Towards the end of the Achaemenid Empire, Atropates was governor (satrap) of the
Achaemenid province of Media. In the decisive Battle of Gaugamela (October 331 BC) between Darius and Alexander, Atropates commanded the Achaemenid
troops of Media, Caucasian Albania and Sacasene (part of present-day Armenia). Following his defeat in that battle, Darius fled to the Median capital
of Ecbatana, where Atropates gave him hospitality. Darius attempted to raise a new army but was forced to flee Ecbatana in June 330 BC. After Darius' death a
month later at the hands of Bessus, Atropates surrendered to Alexander. Alexander initially chose Oxydates as satrap of Media, but in 328-327 BC after
Alexander lost trust in Oxydates' loyalty, Atropates was reinstated to his old position. In 325-324, Atropates delivered Baryaxes (a sought-after rebel of the region)
to Alexander while the latter was at Pasargadae. Alexander's esteem for the governor rose "so high" that soon afterwards Atropates' daughter was married to
Alexander's confidant and cavalry commander Perdiccas at the famous mass wedding at Susa in February 324 BC. Later that year, Alexander visited Atropates
in Ecbatana with his good friend and second-in-command Hephaestion, who fell ill and died in October 324 BC. At this time, "[i]t was related by some authors,
that Atropates on one occasion presented Alexander with a hundred women, said to be Amazons; but Arrian ([Anabasis] vii. 13) disbelieved the story." Alexander
himself died eight months later on June 10, 323 BC, and Atropates' new son-in-law Perdiccas was named regent of Alexander's half-brother Philip III. Following
the "Partition of Babylon" in 323 BC, Media was divided into two parts: the greater portion in the south-east was to be governed by Peithon, a general
of Perdiccas, while a smaller portion in the north west (principally around the Araxes River basin was given to Atropates. At some point thereafter, Atropates
refused to convey allegiance to the diadochi and made his part of Media an independent kingdom, while his son-in-law Perdiccas was eventually murdered
by Peithon in the summer of 320 BC. The dynasty Atropates founded would rule the kingdom for several centuries, at first either independendantly or as vassals
of the Seleucids, then as vassals of the Arsacids, into whose house they are said to have married. They became, however, the new House of Parthia through the
marriage of the Arsacid heiress to the Atropatenid heir. The region that encompassed Atropates' kingdom come to be known to the Greeks as "Media
Atropatene" after Atropates, and eventually simply "Atropatene". The Arsacids called it 'Aturpatakan' in Parthian, as did also the Sassanids who eventually
succeeded them. Eventually Middle Iranian 'Aturpatakan' became 'Azerbaijan', whence, according to oneetymological theory, the modern nation
of Azerbaijan and the Iranian province of Azerbaijan (which province is largely contiguous with the borders of ancient Atropatene) got their names; another
theory traces the etymology from the ancient Persian words "zar" (Persian: ), meaning Fire, and "Pyegn" (Persian: ) meaningGuardian/Protector (zar
Pyegn = "Guardians of Fire") (Persian: ), with zar Pyegn later becoming corrupted to 'Azerbaijan' under the dominance of Arabic and the
circumstances thereby imposed by that language's lack of facility in producing or pronouncing "G / P / ZH / CH".
Artabazanes of Media Atropatene (flourished 3rd century BC) was a Prince and King of the Persian Atropatene Kingdom of Armenia. He ruled in 221
BC or 220 BC and was a contemporary of the Seleucid Greek King Antiochus III the Great. He was presumably of Iranian lineage. Artabazanes is said to be a
paternal grandson of the Persian King Darius II. The father of Artabazanes was one of the four sons born to Darius II from his union with the daughter of
Gobryas prior to his accession.
Mithridates I of Media Atropatene, sometimes known as Mithridates I and Mithridates of Media
[1]
(100 BC-66 BC) was a King of Achaemenid Media
Atropatene Kingdom of Armenia. Although Mithridates I was a Median Prince, little is known on his lineage and his life. In or before 67 BC, Mithridates I
married an unnamed Armenian Princess from the Artaxiad Dynasty who was a daughter of the Armenian King Tigranes the Great and his wife, Cleopatra of
Pontus. Mithridates I ruled from 67 BC to ca. 66 BC. Mithridates I is mentioned in the ancient sources, in the last campaign against the Roman General
Lucullus in 67 BC. He was supporting Tigranes, when his father-in-law went to war against the Romans to invade Cappadocia in 67 BC. There is a possibility that
Mithridates I was present with Tigranes the Great and the King Mithridates VI of Pontus, when Tigranes and Mithridates VI were defeated by Lucullus at
the Arsanias River in 66 BC. Mithridates I appeared to have died in ca. 66 BC, as his relative Darius I was King of Media Atropatene in c. 65 BC. According to
modern genealogies, Mithridates I and his Armenian wife are presented in being the parents of a child, a son called Ariobarzanes I
[7]
which can explain the claims
of Mithridates Is descendants to the Armenian Kingship in opposition to the lasting ruling monarchs of the Artaxiad Dynasty.
Darius I of Media Atropatene, also known as Darius I or Darius (ca. 85 BC ca. 65 BC), was a Median prince who served as a king of Media
Atropatene in c. 65 BC. Little is known of the life of Darius I, however he appeared to have succeeded his relative, Mithridates, who served as King of Media
Atropatene, one year earlier. Darius I was known during his kingship to have been attacked by the Roman Triumvir Pompey
[2]
with his army. However, the
circumstances that led Pompey to attack Media Atropatene are unknown. Sometime in 65 BC, Darius I appeared to have died. His relative, Ariobarzanes
I succeeded him as King of Media Atropatene.
Ariobarzanes I of Media Atropatene, also known as Ariobarzanes I of Media, Ariobarzanes of Atropatene, Ariobarzanes I and Ariobarzanes
(flourished 1st century BC, ruled from 65 BC til 56 BC) was a Prince who served as a King of Media Atropatene. Ariobarzanes I was a monarch of Median and
possibly of Armenian, Greek descent. According to modern genealogies, Ariobarzanes I was a son of a previous ruling King Mithridates I and his wife, an
unnamed Armenian Princess from the Artaxiad Dynasty who was a daughter of the Armenian King Tigranes the Great and his wife, Cleopatra of Pontus, which
can explain the claims of Mithridates Is descendants to the Armenian Kingship in opposition to the lasting ruling monarchs of the Artaxiad Dynasty. Another
possibility in linking Ariobarzanes I as a son born to Mithridates I and his wife is through his name. The name Ariobarzanes is a name of Iranian origin. Not just
there were Persian Satraps who beared this name and also was a dynastic name with the ancestors of Cleopatra of Pontus. Cleopatra was a Pontian Princess, who
was a daughter of KingMithridates VI of Pontus from his first wife, his sister Laodice. Little is known on the life of Ariobarzanes I. Ariobarzanes I appeared to
have succeeded Darius I as King of Media Atropatene in 65 BC, whom appeared to have a short reign. Ariobarzanes I and Darius I were related as they may had
been brothers. Although Ariobarzanes I ruled from 65 BC til 56 BC, his reign in the time-scale would appear to preclude the short reign of Darius I and shows
that he came to the throne sometime before 59 BC. Little is known on the reign of Ariobarzanes I. He appeared to have died in 56 BC, as he was succeeded by
his son Artavasdes I of Media Atropatene. His son from an unnamed wife, was born before 59 BC. In Rome, two Epitaph inscriptions have been found bearing
the name of Artavasdes. The Epitaphs are probably of the son and the grandson of a Median Atropatenian King called Ariobarzanes. However it is uncertain, if
the Ariobarzanes refers to Ariobarzanes I or his grandson Ariobarzanes II. Ariobarzanes I is mentioned in paragraph 33 of the Res Gestae Divi Augusti.

Artavasdes I of Media Atropatene, also known as Artavasdes I of Atropatene, Artavasdes I and Artavasdes
(before or about 59 BC - about 20 BC) was a Prince who served as a King of Media Atropatene. Artavasdes I was an
enemy of KingArtavasdes II of Armenia and his son Artaxias II. He was a contemporary with the Ptolemaic Greek
Queen Cleopatra VII and Roman Triumvir Mark Antony, as Artavasdes I was mentioned in their diplomatic affairs.
Artavasdes I was of Median and possibly of Armenian, Greek descent. He was the child born to Ariobarzanes I by an
unnamed wife. His probable paternal uncle could have been Darius I. He was born and raised in the Kingdom of Media
Atropatene. Artavasdes I is the namesake of his ancestor, Artabazanes a previous ruling King of Media Atropatene in the
3rd century BC, as the name Artavasdesis a variation of the name Artabazanes (see Asha). According to modern genealogies the father of Artavasdes I,
Ariobarzanes I was a son of a previous ruling King Mithridates I of Media Atropatene and his wife, an unnamed Armenian Princess from the Artaxiad
Dynasty who was a daughter of the Armenian KingTigranes the Great and his wife, Cleopatra of Pontus, which can explain the claims of Mithridates Is
descendants to the Armenian Kingship in opposition to the lasting ruling monarchs of the Artaxiad Dynasty. Another possibility in linking Artavasdes I to the
marriage of Mithridates I and his wife is through his name. The name Artavasdes bears as a typical Armenian royal name and therefore, in all likelihood,
Artavasdes I is a descendant of this marriage. Artavasdes I succeeded his father as King, when Ariobarzanes I died in 56 BC. When Mark Antony led his
campaign against the Parthian Empire in 36 BC, Artavasdes I was an ally of the King Phraates IV of Parthia. Antony led his troops from Zeugma northward
into Armenia and then invaded the domain of Artavasdes I. Antony did not want to attack Parthia from the west, which was the shortest way, but surprisingly
from the north. Antony allegedly used this strategy on the advice of Artavasdes II of Armenia, the enemy of Artavasdes I. Antony moved with his army in fast
marches to Phraaspa, the strong fortified capital of Media Atropatene, where Artavasdes I had got his family to safety. Meantime Artavasdes I had joined the
army of Phraates IV. Antony was not able to take Phraaspa and besieged the city, but Artavasdes I and the Parthian commander Monaeses destroyed two legions
of Antony's general, Oppius Statianus, who had slowly followed with the siege machines of the Antony's troops. Antony could not capture Phraaspa without these
machines. Therefore he had to withdraw toArmenia and Parthia was not invaded. So Artavasdes I had maintained his ground against the Romans but his domain
had been severely ravaged. Besides his stronger ally Phraates IV treated him condescending and gave him only little booty and was near depriving him of his
dominion. Therefore in 35 BC Artavasdes I offered Antony an alliance against Parthia, and Antony gladly accepted. To deepen this friendship Alexander Helios,
the son of Antony and Cleopatra VII, was betrothed to Artavasdes Is daughter Iotapa, although both were infants in 34 BC. In 33 BC Antony met his coalition
partner on the river Araxes; they agreed that Antony should support Artavasdes I against Parthia and that the Median King should help Antony against Octavian.
They interchanged parts of their troops. The domain of Artavasdes I was enlarged with parts of Armenia. Antony had returned a standard that the Median king
had taken from Oppius Statianus in 36 BC, and also took Iotapa along with him. With the help of the Roman reinforcements Artavasdes I was initially able to
repulse the Parthian attack. Before the Battle of Actium, Antony called back his Roman troops without sending back the Median reinforcements. This
time Phraates IV defeated Artavasdes I who was captured in 30 BC. During Artavasdes' imprisonment, a civil war between the Parthians later took place, which
gave him the opportunity to escape prison. He took refuge with Augustus, who received him with friendliness, gave him back his daughter Iotapa and made him
a Client King of Lesser Armenia. He died around 20 BC probably in Rome. Artavasdes I was succeeded in the Kingship of Media Atropatene by Asinnalus.
Artavasdes I was a son-in-law of King Antiochus I Theos of Commagene and his wife, Isias Philostorgos, as he married one of their daughters Athenais, a
Princess from Commagene who was of Armenian and Greek descent. Perhaps, Artavasdes I and Athenais may have been distantly related. He had three
children: daughter, Iotapa who was engaged to the Ptolemaic Greek Prince Alexander Helios who later married her maternal cousin, Mithridates III of
Commagene, son, Ariobarzanes II and son, Darius II. He married an unnamed Parthian Arsacid Princess, by whom they had two sons: the Parthian
Kings Artabanus III and Vonones II. In Rome, two Epitaph inscriptions have been found bearing the name of an Artavasdes. The Epitaphs are probably of the
son and the grandson of a Median Atropatenian King called Ariobarzanes. However it is uncertain, if the Ariobarzanes refers to Ariobarzanes I or his
grandson Ariobarzanes II. Artavasdes I is mentioned in paragraphs 27 and 33 of theRes Gestae Divi Augusti.
Asinnalus of Media Atropatene (flourished 1st century BC) was a Prince who served as a King of Media Atropatene. Little is known on the origins and
life of Asinnalus. He was a monarch of Median and possibly of Armenian, Greek descent. He succeeded his relative Artavasdes I in the Kingship of Media
Atropatene in 30 BC. As in that year the Roman Triumvir Octavian, gave Artavasdes I the Kingdom of Sophene to govern as a Roman Client King. Asinnalus
ruled as King of Media Atropatene from 30 BC to an unknown date in the 20s BC. He is only known from surviving numismatic evidence. He appeared to have
died at an unknown date in the 20s BC, as he was succeeded by Ariobarzanes II, one of the sons of Artavasdes I.
Ariobarzanes II of Atropatene also known as Ariobarzanes of Media; Ariobarzanes of Armenia; Ariobarzanes II; Ariobarzanes II of Media
Atropatene and Ariobarzanes (40 BC-June 26, AD 4) was a Prince who served as King of Media Atropatene who ruled sometime from 28 BC to 20 BC until AD
4 and was appointed by the Roman emperor Augustus to serve as a Roman Client King of Armenia Major from 2 BC until AD 4. Ariobarzanes II was a
monarch of Median, Armenian and Greek descent. He was the first son and among the children born to the ruling monarchs Artavasdes I of Media
Atropateneand his wife Athenais of Media Atropatene. Ariobarzanes II was the namesake of his paternal grandfather Ariobarzanes I, a previous ruling King of
Media Atropatene. He is also the namesake of his Pontian ancestors who governed with this name and of his mothers maternal grandfather, uncle and cousin
who ruled with this name as Kings of Cappadocia. He was born and raised in Media Atropatene. At an unknown date in the 20 BCs, Ariobarzanes II succeeded
his relative Asinnalus as King of Media Atropatene and little is known on his reign. The ruling Armenian monarchs of the Artaxiad Dynasty, Tigranes IV with
his wife who was his paternal half-sister Erato, instigated war with the aid of King Phraates V of Parthia. To avoid a full-scale war with Rome, Phraates V soon
ceased his support to the Armenian ruling Monarchs. Sometime after Tigranes IV was killed in battle and Erato, had abdicated her throne. Following the murder
of the previous ruling Armenian King the tyrannical Artaxias II by his courtiers; the situation surrounding Tigranes IV and Erato, the Armenians requested to the
Roman emperor Augustus, a new Armenian King. Augustus found and appointed Ariobarzanes II as the new King of Armenia in 2 BC. Ariobarzanes II through
his father was a distant relative of the Artaxiad Dynasty as he was a descendant of an unnamed Artaxiad Princess who was a sister of King Artavasdes II of
Armenia who married Ariobarzanes IIs paternal ancestor Mithridates, a previous ruling King of Media Atropatene. Ariobarzanes II served as a loyal Roman
Client King to Augustus and was used as a key element in Augustus Asian Policy. Ariobarzanes II during his Armenian Kingship also served as King of Media
Atropatene. He accompanied Augustus grandson and adopted son Gaius Caesar to Armenia. When Gaius and Ariobarzanes II arrived in Armenia, the
Armenians being fiery and proud, refused to acknowledge Ariobarzanes II as their new King, especially as he was a foreigner in their country. The Armenians
revolted against Rome under the leadership of a local man named Addon. Gaius with his Roman legions ended the revolt and reduced the city of Artagira. In
Artagira, Gaius made Ariobarzanes II the new King of Armenia. Ariobarzanes II made Artagira, his capital city when he ruled Armenia and Media Atropatene
together. The Armenians eventually came to respect Ariobarzanes II as their ruling King, because of his noble personality, spirit and his physical beauty. In AD
4, Ariobarzanes II died and was succeeded his son Artavasdes in his Kingship of Media Atropatene and Armenia. Ariobarzanes II from an unnamed wife had
two sons: Artavasdes II, who served as Artavasdes III

and Gaius Julius Ariobarzanes I, who may had a son called Gaius Julius Ariobarzanes II Ariobarzanes II is
mentioned in paragraphs 27 and 33 of the Res Gestae Divi Augusti. In Rome, two Epitaph inscriptions have been found bearing the name of an Artavasdes. The
Epitaphs are probably of the son and the grandson of a Median Atropatenian King called Ariobarzanes. However it is uncertain, if the Ariobarzanes refers to
Ariobarzanes I or Ariobarzanes II.
Artavasdes III of Armenia; also known as Artavasdes II of Atropatene; Artavasdes II of Media Atropatene and Armenia Major; Artavasdes
II
[4]
and Artavasdes (20 BC- AD 6) was a Prince who served as King of Media Atropatene. During his reign of Media Atropatene, Artavasdes also served as
a Roman Client King of Armenia Major. Artavasdes was a monarch of Median, Armenian and Greek descent. He was the first son born to King Ariobarzanes II
of Atropatene by an unnamed wife. He had a younger brother called Gaius Julius Ariobarzanes I and may had a possible nephew called Gaius Julius
Ariobarzanes II. Artavasdes was the namesake of his paternal grandfather, a previous ruling King of Media Atropatene and Sophene, Artavasdes I. He was born
and raised in Media Atropatene. The father of Artavasdes, Ariobarzanes II died on June 26, AD 4 and Artavasdes succeeded his father as King of Media
Atropatene and Armenia. Like his father, Artavasdes in his kingship of Media Atropatene and Armenia, based his rule at Artagira, which his late father made the
city, their capital. As Artavasdes, was both King of Media Atropatene and Armenia, as King of Media Atropatene he is known as Artavasdes II and as King of
Armenia, he is known as Artavasdes III. Unfortunately, the reign of Artavasdes didn't last. As his father, as King was respected by his subjects, this was the
opposite for Artavasdes. As a ruling King, over the Atropatenians and Armenians, he proved to be an unpopular monarch. In AD 6, Artavasdes was quickly
killed by his subjects. In his Kingship of Media Atropatene, Artavasdes was succeeded by his paternal first cousin Artabanus and in the Kingship of Armenia
the Roman emperor Augustus, appointed theHerodian Prince Tigranes. Artavasdes from an unnamed wife was survived by a son called Gaius Julius Artavasdes.
Coinage has survived from the reign of Artavasdes. They have been dated from 2 until 10. An example of this is on one surviving coin dated from his reign, is on
the obverse side shows the head of Augustus with the Greek inscription which means of Caesar, the God, the Benefactor, while
on the reverse side shows the head of Artavasdes, with the Greek inscription which means of Great King Artavasdes.
Artavasdes is mentioned in paragraphs 27 and 33 of the Res Gestae Divi Augusti. In Rome, two Epitaph inscriptions have been found bearing the name of an
Artavasdes. The Epitaphs are probably of the son and the grandson of a Median Atropatenian King called Ariobarzanes. However it is uncertain, if
the Ariobarzanes refers to Ariobarzanes I orAriobarzanes II. Although archaeological evidence reveals and shows that Artavasdes is the son of Ariobarzanes II,
there is some confusion, and there are different, various theories on the origins of Artavasdes. Some modern historical sources and reference books state that he
is a son of Artavasdes II of Armenia. While others state he is either a brother or a paternal first cousin of Tigranes IV and Erato. In fact, Artavasdes through his
father was a distant relative of Artavasdes II of Armenia, Tigranes IV and Erato.

Bangsamoro Republik
The Bangsamoro Republik, officially the United Federated States of Bangsamoro Republic (UFSBR) was a short-livedunrecognized breakaway state in the
Philippines. Nur Misuari, chairman of the Moro National Liberation Front issued the Proclamation of Bangsamoro Independence on 27 July 2013 in Talipao,
Sulu and declared the capital of Bangsamoro to beDavao City. According to Misuari, the republic's territory encompasses the islands of Basilan, Mindanao,
Palawan, Sulu and Tawi-Tawiwhere the Bangsamoro traditionally lived. However, according to Misuari's legal counsel, Emmanuel Fontanilla, the state also
encompasses the Malaysian state of Sabah and Sarawak. This declaration of independence, which was made under the authority of the United Nation General
Assembly 1514 resolutionof 1960 granting independence to all colonized countries, escalated into the Zamboanga City crisis. The MNLF, the group which
proclaimed Bangsamoro is an observer of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation. As of September 28, 2013 with the defeat in Zamboanga City by the
Philippines government, the MNLF no longer controls any territory openly anywhere and the Bangsamoro Republic has been debilitated. However, the MNLF
has not renounced its bid for the independence of the Bangsamoro Republik.
President of self declared Bangsamoro Republik
Nur Misuari (Bahasa Sg: Nr Miswri, born Nurallaj Misuari on March 3, 1939 in Jolo, Sulu, Philippines) is a Moro revolutionary,
politician, founder and current leader of the Moro National Liberation Front. He was also President of self declared Bangsamoro
Republik since July 27 until September 28, 2013, short-lived unrecognized breakaway state in the Philippines, territory encompasses the
islands of Basilan, Mindanao, Palawan, Sulu and Tawi-Tawi
[3]
where the Bangsamoro traditionally lived. Nur Misuari was born
in Jolo, Sulu on March 3, 1939. Nur was the fourth child among a family of ten children. Nur's parents were Tausug Sama coming from
Kabinga-an, Tapul Island. His parents worked as fishers. Nur's family experience financial difficulties and could not send Nur to college.
Nur's teacher assisted Nur in acquiring a scholarship from the Commission on National Integration. Nur went to the University of the
Philippines Manila as a scholar in 1958 and took a degree in political science. Nur became active in many of the universities extra-
curricular activities particularly in debate. After Nur graduated in the University of the Philippines, Nur entered law school but he
dropped his law studies in his second year. He finished a Master's degree on Asian studies in 1966. In 1964, Nur Misuari founded a
radical student group called the Bagong Asya (New Asia). Misuari, together with Jose Maria Sison also founded the Kabataan Makabayan
(Patriotic Youth). Through Dr. Cesar Adib Majul, Misuari became a lecturer at the University of the Philippines in political science. In
the 1960s, he established the Mindanao Independence Movement which aimed to organize an independent state in southern Philippines. The Mindanao
Independence Movement formed the Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF) that sought political reforms from theGovernment of the Philippines. Unable to
gain reforms, the MNLF engaged in military conflict against the Philippine vernment and its supporters between 1972 and 1976 under the leadership of Misuari.
The military resistance to the government of former Philippine president Ferdinand Marcos did not produce autonomy for the Moro people. He departed
to Saudi Arabia in exile. He returned to the Philippines after Marcos was removed from office during the People Power Revolution in 1986. Misuari justified the
MNLF armed struggle on the non-implementation of the Tripoli Agreement, originally signed by Ferdinand Marcos and later included and accepted in the peace
agreement signed by former Philippine president Fidel Ramos in the 1990s. This agreement established an autonomous region for Moros with Misuari as
governor. He was removed from his office when Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo became president in 2001 and was arrested in 2007 on charges of terrorism. On
December 20, 2007 he was denied a petition for bail and remained under house arrest in Manila. The Philippine court however, granted the bail petition of
Misuari's seven co-accused, at 100,000 pesos. On April 25, 2008, he was allowed to post bail, upon the instructions of the Cabinet security cluster. On September
9, 2013, Nur Misuari was underleaded and pledged his army for attacking Filipino and foreign civilians, wherein, the MNLF walked down to the city
of Zamboanga and planned to ambush and kill the civilians, according to one of the MNLF members, who is legibly surrendered and arrested ( September 10,
2013 ), and planned to stop the crisis war, for him and to the Philippine government, also President Benigno Aquino III. But otherwise fails to have ceasefire,
due to continuously attacking the rebels, until it was stopped in September 28, 2013. Since the Philippine agency wisely evident to him that he's the chairman of
MNLF and should be arrested, but not taking him onto a custody and keeping him calm. He would apologize to his de-facto war crisis that he didn't solve.

Chandela
The Chandela or Chandel is an Indian Royal Gujjars Rajput clan found in Central India. A section of the Chandelas which was also known as Chandela Dynasty
ruled much of the Bundelkhand region of central India for long periods between the 10th and the 13th centuries AD.
[1]
The Chandel dynasty is famous in Indian
history for Maharaja Rao Vidyadhara, who repulsed the attacks of Mahmud of Ghazni. His love for sculptures is shown in the world heritage site temples
of Khajuraho and Kalinjar fort. In modern times, the Chandela Rajputs are found in large numbers in India and are Hindu as well as Sikh in their religious faith.
The word Chandela is an evolute of Chandratreya, combination of two words indicating the lineage Chandra vamsa and Atreya gotra. Gotra-Chandatreya
(Chandrayan), Sheshdhar, Parashar and Goutam is also found. Kuldevi= Maniyadevi. Devta - Hanumanji. Veer Shishupal, Chandrabramha (Chandravarma),
Yashovarman was from this vansha. This vansha defined itself. Many brave kings were from this vansha. Chandel, Chanderi nagar, Khajuraho Temple, Madan
Sagar of Mahoba are the glory symbols of this vansha. The mark of Hanuman was engraved on the coins of Chandel vansha.
List of rulers (Jejaka-bhukti) of Chandela
Nannuka was a Royal Gujjars Rajput founder and the first ruler of Chandela Dynasty in early 9th century which ruled much of the Bundelkhand region of
central India. The founder of the Chandel dynasty, Nannuk was the ruler of a small kingdom. According to inscriptions, he was the chief of his clan in the first
quarter of the ninth century.Epigraphic records show that Khajuraho, then called Khajuravatika -Bearer of Dates or Khajuravatika Garden of Dates, was the
stronghold of Nannuk and his people. Later on, his descendants linked their lineage with the Moon or with Chandratreya of the legend, in order to attribute
some divine links to the origin of their dynasty. Vakapati succeeded his father Nannuk during the second quarter of the ninth century.
Vakapati was the ruler of Chandela Dynasty in Bundelkhand region of central India in the second half 9th century. He was succeeded his father Nannuk
during the second quarter of the ninth century. The celebrated Gurjar king, Mihir Bhoja was his contemporary. Samrat Mihir Bhoj had to fight many battles
against his two enemies, the Devapala of Bengal and Kokal, theKalchuri king. Vakapati the ruler of Khajuraho, had to often assist Pratiharas in the battle field,
because he was a vassal of the Pratiharas. The inscription mention the Vindhya Hills, one of the frequent places of warfare, as the pleasure mount (Krida-giri)
of Vakapati. It can be inferred on the basis of this inscription that Vakapati managed to extend his territory so as to include some hills of
the Vindhyas, Jaishakti and Vijayshakti, the two sons of Vakapti, succeeded him, one after the other. Both the princes were strong and valorous and annexed
considerable territories to their kingdom.
Jaishakti was the ruler of Chandela Dynasty in Bundelkhand region of central India in the second half 9th century. Jaishakti and Vijayshakti, the two sons
of Vakapti, succeeded him, one after the other. Both the princes were strong and valorous and annexed considerable territories to their kingdom. Jaishakti, the
elder brother who ruled first, was also called Jai Jak and from this name the region ruled by the Chandelas acquired the name of Jaijikbhukti.
[8]
He was succeeded
on the throne by his younger brother, Vajaishakti.
Vijayshakti was the ruler of Chandela Dynasty in Bundelkhand region of central India in the second half 9th century. Jaishakti and Vijayshakti, the two sons
of Vakapti, succeeded him, one after the other. Both the princes were strong and valorous and annexed considerable territories to their kingdom. Jaishakti, the
elder brother who ruled first, was also called Jai Jak and from this name the region ruled by the Chandelas acquired the name of Jaijikbhukti. He was succeeded
on the throne by his younger brother, Vijaishakti. According to Khajuraho inscriptions, Vijaishakti fought many battles and subjugated a number of neighbouring
areas. The exploits and deeds of bravery of Jai and Vijai are often sung in ballands as if the two were joint rulers. Nannuk, Jai and Vijai over a period of time
added large chunks of adjoining territories to their domain, and whatever was their status viz a viz the Palas of Bengal and Pratiharas their overlords, they always
were the master of the land they held. Rahil, the son of Vijaishakti, ascended the throne after him. The village Rahilya which is 3 km south west of Mohaba was
named after him.
Rahil was the ruler of Chandela Dynasty in Bundelkhand region of central India in late 9th century. Rahil, the son of Vijaishakti, ascended the throne after him.
The village Rahilya which is 3 km south west of Mohaba was named after him. There he also built a tank known as Rahilyasagar and a temple on its banks, which
is now in ruins. The period of rule of Rahil is said to be of only twenty years and is credited to the end of the ninth century. He was succeeded by his son
Harshdev around 900.
Harshdev (died 925) was the ruler of Chandela Dynasty in Bundelkhand region of central India from 900 until his death in 925. Harshdev earned for himself
a memorable place in the history of Chandel rulers. In the 25 years or so of his rule, he extended his territory and enhanced the prestige of his dynasty. He was
the first Chandel prince whose power was to be reckoned with in those times. He was built the Chausath Yogini ("64 Yoginis") and Lalguan Mahadeva temples.
Yashoverman was the ruler of Chandela Dynasty in Bundelkhand region of central India from 925 until 950. During Yashoverman reign, when the
Rashtrakuta King Indra III, invaded and captured Kannauj, it was Harshdev who helped the Pratihara King Mahipal I to regain his throne of Kannauj. This
memorable even took place around 915 and was presumably commemorated by Harshdev with construction of the Matangeshwar Temple. Harshdev
consolidated his position further by marrying Kanchuka, princes of a Chauhan clan of the Malwa region. Harshdev died in 925. Yashoverman, also known
as Kakshvarman, the illustrious son of Harshdev succeeded him. When the power of the Pratihara and Rashtrakuta kings began to decline Yashoverman decided
to defy their authority. Not only did he proclaim himself as an independent king, he began to attack and annexe the contiguous areas of the Rashtrakuta
kingdom. Several inscriptions record with elequence his tales of military conquests. He engaged himself in many expeditions and proved to be an able general
and a brave warrior. He captured Kalinjar and extended the frontiers of his kingdom both in the north and in the south. He reached the banks of the Yamuna in
one direction and the borders of Chedi and Malwa in the other. With these conquests, Chandelas became a greater power and Yashoverman was grateful to the
gods for their favours. In his gratitude, he constructed the magnificent Lakshmana Temple, the golden pinnacle of which "illuminated the sky became, it is said,
the object of attraction for even the inhabitants of the heaven." Though Yashoverman was tolerant of all religious sects, he himself was devotee of Vishnu, hence
the idol had been received by him as a gift from Devpal, the son of Herambpal, who had got it in exchange for elephants and horses from Sahi, the king of the
Kirs, near Kashmir. This had been given to him by the lord of Bhotnath (Tibet) who had found the idol at Mount Kailash.
Dhangdev (died 1002) was the ruler of Chandela Dynasty in Bundelkhand region (over Khajuraho) of central India from 950 until his death in 1002. It is said
that he voluntarially relinquished both his throne and his life. Dhangdev was a greater ruler and the Chandelas reached the zenith of their power and prosperity
during his reign. He not only consolidated whatever his father bequeathed to him but also expanded the territory. The power of Prathiharas was declining and he
annexed the eastern part of their kingdom lying north of the Yanmuna. The Imperial Bargujars were called Chandila in those times, were now completely
independent and Dhangdev called himself as Maharajadhiraj Kalinjaradhipati, lord of Kalinjar. Kalinjar had acquired great importance after Khajuraho and was
regarded as the second capital of the kingdom. Dhangdev was also a great patron on art and learning in addition to being a great ruler and a great comqueror. He
built the two of the more important temples the Vishwanath and the Parshwanatha temples. After the death of Dhangdev in 1002, Gand ascended the throne of
Khajuraho.
Gand (died 1002) was the ruler of Chandela Dynasty in Bundelkhand region of central India from 1002 until his death in 1017. After the death Dhangdev in
1002, Gand ascended the throne of Khajuraho. He ruled for 15 years only. His reign was one of peace and prosperity. He was able to maintain the prestige and
power of the kingdom. The construction of the Jagadamba and the Chitragupta Temples are attributed to him. Vidyadhar succeeded his father Gand
Vidyahar was the ruler of Chandela Dynasty in Bundelkhand region of central India from 1017 until 1029. Vidyadhar succeeded his father Gand, and he was
a great king. Muslim invaders from the Middle East had started attacking and plundering India. Vidyadhar was called upon to muster all his strength and bravery
in defending his country against the attack of Mahmud Ghazni. After two attacks, peace returned and as a temple of Kandariya Mahadeva, which is really a gem
of a temple. Vidyadhar was followed by his son Vijaipal to the Chandela throne. Kalchuris who were now growing in power took away some of the Chandela
territory.
Vijaipal was the ruler of Chandela Dynasty in Bundelkhand region of central India from 1029 until 1051. Vidyadhar was followed by his son Vijaipal to the
Chandela throne. Kalchuris who were now growing in power took away some of the Chandela territory. Yet, by and large, Vijaipal was able to maintain his
remaining kingdom and was also able to provide such conditions that were conductive to the temple building activity. Vaman Temple might be ascribed to him
and can be dated towards the close of his reign (1051).
Devvarman (died 1060) was the ruler of Chandela Dynasty in Bundelkhand region of central India from 1051 until his death in 1060. Devvaraman was the
son and successor of Vijaipal also uses the title of Kalinjaradhipati. However, there is little to his credit but it seems that somehow he was able to keep his hold on
Kalinjar. He was defeated by the Kalachuris. He died in 1060.
Kirtivarman (died 1100) was the ruler of Chandela Dynasty in Bundelkhand region of central India from 1060 until his death in 1100. Kirtivarman, the
brother of Dev Varman who had no issue, ascended the throne and "recreated the Chandela power like the creator". He defeated the Kalchuri Lakshmi Karan in
battle and had a long reign of about forty years. He was a great patron of arts, the well known play Prabodha Chandrodya was composed during his reign. During
his rule, which ended around 1100 AD, the famous temples of Adinath, Javasri and possibly of Chaturbhuj were built. The struggle for supremacy in Northern
and Central India among the Chandelas, Kalchuris and others gained ground after the death of Kirtivarman. In those days the history of the Chandelas is a tale of
wars with their neighbours. Kirtivarman's successor was his son Sallakshan Varman, also known as Hollakshan Varman from the coins he minted.
Sallakshanvarman was the ruler of Chandela Dynasty in Bundelkhand region of central India from 1100 until 1115. Kirtivarman's successor was his son
Sallakshan Varman, also known as Hollakshan Varman from the coins he minted. He seems to have reigned for a short period of time and is recorded in history
as a leader of those versed in the sacred love, kinsman of the virtuous, a stone of arts, and an abode of good conduct and a tree of paradise to all supplements for
support. According to the bards, he always kept the enemies awake by the weight of his prowess, and taking away the riches of this enemies and bestowing them
on all his reign or that of his sons. Jaivarman, his son succeeded him in 1115.
Jaivarman was the ruler of Chandela Dynasty in Bundelkhand region of central India from 1115 until 1120. Jaivarman, his son succeeded him in 1115.
According to an inscription darted 1117 AD. he was ruling and was, "dwelling place of generosity, truth, policy and heroism, whose majesty, like the rising sun,
deprived the other princes of their luster". But his reign had little lustre and possible he was defeated by the Gaharwar ruler Govind Chandra, who conquered a
part of the Chandela territory in 1120 . By these events he felt so humiliated that he abdicated his throne and started living in a jungle on the banks of
river. Prithvivarman, his uncle, ascended the throne of Khajuraho after him. His reign was of a short duration of ten years.
Prithvivarman was the ruler of Chandela Dynasty in Bundelkhand region of central India from 1120 until 1130. Prithvivarman was uncle of Jaivarman
previous ruler, ascended the throne of Khajuraho after him. His reign was of a short duration of ten years. Kalchuris and Chalukyas were threatening the security
of his kingdom. It goes to his credit that Prithvivarman in such hard times was able to keep his kingdom intact and pass it on without damage to his son and
successor, Madanvarman.
Madanavarman (died 1163) was the ruler of Chandela Dynasty in Bundelkhand region of central India from 1130 until his death in 1163. Ascending the
throne from his father Prithvivarman in about 1130 AD, he discarded the passive policy of peace and fought battles to revive the lost reputation of the Chandelas.
He was a strong ruler of central Indian territory which included the four strongholds of the Chandelas viz., Kalinjar, Mahoba, Ajaigarh and Khajuraho. The
temples building activity was once again seen in Khajuraho. He was constructed the Madan Sagar lake The Dulhadeo Temple was constructed during his reign,
which ended around 1163 AD. Yashovarman II succeeded Madanvarman but had a very brief reign of two years.
Yasovarman II (died 1165) was the ruler of Chandela Dynasty in Bundelkhand region of central India from 1163 until his death in 1165. Yashovarman
II succeeded Madanvarman but had a very brief reign of two years.
Parmardidev was the ruler of Chandela Dynasty in Bundelkhand region of central India from 1165 until around 1200. After Yashovarman II died,
Parmardidev, his son, occupied the throne of Chandelas. As the last of the greater Chandela rulers, he was crowned when he was still a child. An inscription of
one of his successors refers to him as, "A leader even his youth who struck down the opposing heroes, and to whom the fortune of universal sovereignty quickly
came, like an enamoured damsel, choosing him for his own free will." He ruled for a long period of nearly thirty five years. The first few years of his reign were of
peace. The storm came in the shape of a conflict with Prithviraj Chauhan, who was returning to Delhi after marrying the daughter of Palnsen when he was
attacked by Turkish soldiers. In the fierce battle that ensured Prithviraj's army suffered heavy casualties, though they were able to beat back the enemy. In the
process they lost their way and arrived at Mahoba, the Chandela capital and encamped in the royal garden. By this act of his great generals to attack the
Chauhans. Udal much against his will carried out the kings orders but without much success. However, Prithviraj returned to Delhi at that time but continued to
nurse a grievance against the Chandela ruler. Actually, Parmardided was instigated to attack Prithviraj by his brother in law Pratihar Mahil who was more of an
enemy than a friend. Alha and his brothers Udal chiefs of the chandela clan, sensed that the air of Mahoba was too foul for them to stay on. They left the
Chandelas to take up residence and services under Jai Chand of Kannauj. This vital information was quickly conveyed by Mahil to the Chauhan king and invited
him to attack the Chandels, which Prithviraj did soon after. Parmardidev started losing the battle hence he asked for truce. Subsequently he sent for Alah and
Udal, and they were persuaded by their mother to go and fight for Mahoba. Fierce battle raged after their arrival. The two brothers played such an heroic role
that their exploits have become a part and parcel of the Rajput annals and are sung with relish to this day. Prithviraj however, was victorious and he ransacked the
city of Mahobal. In the battle, many lives were lost including that of Udal. Parmardidev retreated to Kalinjar, from where he was brought back as prisoner by a
general of the Chauhan armya who stormed and plundered the fort of Kalinjar. Prithviraj returned to his capital, Delhi, after appointing Pujjan Rai or Pajawan,
one of his generals, as the governor of Mahoba. Parmardidev, according to the bardic accounts, put an end of his life due to a sense of shame and degradation.
Some say that he lived twenty years after the war with Chauhans
Trailokyavarman was the ruler of Chandela Dynasty in Bundelkhand region of central India in the early 13th century. Trailokyavarman, the successor of
Paramardidev, wrested the fort of Kalinjar from the Muslims. But the Muslims were again trying to annexe it and a general Malik Nusratuddin led an army
from Gwalior. The struggle was avoided by Trilokyavarman and the invaders plundered the city and took away a large booty, though, Kalinjar still remained in
the hands of the Chandelas but they were no more than local Virvarman and Bhojvarman, but they were no more than local chieftains.
Viravarman was the ruler of Chandela Dynasty in Bundelkhand region of central India in early 13th century.
Bhojavarman was the ruler of Chandela Dynasty in Bundelkhand region of central India in the early 13th century.
Hammiravarman was the ruler of Chandela Dynasty in Bundelkhand region of central India in the early 13th century.

Jalore
Jalore was the state in Rajasthan in present India. According to some historical sources, in 8th-9th centuries, one branch of the Gurjara Pratiharas was ruling at
Jablipur (Jalore). It was a flourishing town in the 8th century. Jalore was ruled by the Paramaras in the 10th century. Kirtipala, the youngest son of Alhana, ruler
of Nadol, was the founder of the Jalore line of Chauhans. He captured it from the Parmars in 1181 and took the clan name Songara, after the place. His son
Samarsimha succeeded him in 1182. Udayasimha was the next ruler under whom Jalore had a golden period. He was a powerful and able ruler ruling over a
large area. He recaptured Nadol & Mandor from the Muslims. In 1228, Iltutmish circled Jalore but Udayasimha offered stiff resistance. He was succeeded by
Chachigadeva & Samantasimha. Samantasimha was succeeded by his son Kanhadadeva. During the reign of Kanhad Dev Songara, Jalor was attacked and
destroyed in 1311 by Ala ud din Khilji, Sultan of Delhi. Kanhad Dev Songara and his son Viramdeo Songira died defending Jalore. The Muslim rulers
of Palanpur in Gujarat briefly ruled Jalor in the 16th century and it became part of the Mughal Empire. It was restored to Marwar in 1704, and remained part of
the kingdom until shortly after Indian Independence in 1947.AMBLIARA was the capital of the erstwhile Princely State of Ambliara (also spelled Amliara or
amliyara ), founded in 1619 by Maharaj Krishnadasji, a descendant of Jalore Queen Rani Popadevi of Jalore. This state was a third class state under Mahi Kantha
Agency and merged with the Union of India on March 10, 1948. HH Thakur Saheb Kamalraj Singh & H.H Thakur Saheb Devendra Singhji Dharmendra
Singhji he is a present Thakur Saheb of Ambilara.
List of Rulers of Jalore
Kirtipala was the founder and the first ruler of Jalore line of Chauhans from 1181 until 1182. Kirtipala was the youngest son of Alhana, ruler of Nadol. He
captured it from the Parmars in 1181 and took the clan name Songara, after the place. His son Samarsimha succeeded him in 1182.
Samarsimha was the ruler of Jalore from 1182 until early 13th century. He was son of Kirtipala founder and the first ruler of Jalore line of Chauhans.
Udayasimha was the ruler of Jalore in the first half 13th century. He was the ruler under whom Jalore had a golden period. He was a powerful and able ruler
ruling over a large area. He recaptured Nadol & Mandor from the Muslims. In 1228, Iltutmish circled Jalore but Udayasimha offered stiff resistance. He was
succeeded by Samantasimha.
Samantasimha was the ruler of Jalore in the second half 13th century. He was succeeded by his son Kanhadadeva.
Kanhad Dev Sonigara was a Rajput Maharaja who ruled Jalore in late 13th century, in the present-day Indian state of Rajasthan. He belonged to the
Sonigara sect of theChauhan clan of Rajputs. In 1298, Ala ud din Khilji's Mongol general Ulugh Khan asked permission of Kanhad Dev to march through Jalore
to conquer Gujurat and destroy the temple at Somnath. When Kanhad Dev refused a war ensued. In 1299 Ala ud din sacked the temple and broke the
Shiva lingam that had been worshipped there. He was carrying the broken pieces back to Delhi when he was attacked and defeated by Kanhad Dev Sonigara's
armies. Kanhad Dev's son Biramdeo (Viramdev) and trusted general Jaitra Deora where in charge of his army. The broken pieces of the Shiva lingam were
recovered. Kanhad had them washed in water from the Ganges river, which is regarded as sacred, and then placed within various Shiva temples in and around
Jalore. This story is recounted in the 16th century ballads Padmanabhama and Kanhad Dev.

Nandol
Nandol was a small state in India. The town is a historic place, having history with the great Hindu king Prithviraj Chauhan. Near to the town, Juna Kheda is the
place which is reserved by the archeology department. Father of Prithviraj Chauhan died at this place only during fighting to theSolankis.
[2]
In 1197 A.D the
Chauhans of Nadol migrated under Kirtipala to Jalore after attack of Qutb-ud-din Aybak. Nadol was under Chauhans up to 1191 AD. The King Kalhana and
Jayat Simha fought with Muhammad Gauri. Later Jayat Simha joined hand with Parmars of Abu to against Qutb-ud-din Aybak. But they were defeated. Some
records tell that rulers of the Mandor also related to Chauhans of Nadol.
List of Rulers of Nandol
Alhana was the ruler of Nandol around middle 12th century. His son Kirtipala was founder and the first ruler of Jalore line of Chauhans.
Kalhana was the ruler of Nandol in the second half 12th century. He and next ruler of Nandol Jayat Simha fought with Muhammad Gauri. Later Jayat Simha
joined hand with Parmars of Abu to against Qutb-ud-din Aybak. But they were defeated. Some records tell that rulers of the Mandor also related to Chauhans of
Nadol.
Jayat Simha was the ruler of Nandol in late 12th century and early 13th century. He and previous ruler of Nandol Kalhana fought with Muhammad Gauri.
Later Jayat Simha joined hand with Parmars of Abu to against Qutb-ud-din Aybak, King of Delhi. But they were defeated. Some records tell that rulers of
the Mandor also related to Chauhans of Nadol.

Ajmer
Ajmer is a historical region in central Rajasthan, a central part of a big Chauhan empire in 1112th centuries. According to Rajputana Gazetteer, Ajmer was held
by Chechi Gurjars until about 700 years ago. Chauhan clan is a branch of Chechi Gurjars. The Chauhan dynasty ruled Ajmer in spite of repeated invasions
by Turkic Muslim armies from Central Asia across the north of India. Ajmer was conquered by Muhammad of Ghor, founder of the Delhi Sultanate, in 1193.
However, the Chauhan rulers were allowed autonomy upon the payment of a heavy tribute to the conquerors. Ajmer remained subject to Delhi until 1365 when
it was captured by the ruler of Mewar. In 1509, control of Ajmer was disputed between the Maharajas of Mewar and Marwar unitil it was conquered by the
Marwar in 1532. In 1553, the state was captured by the Hindu Emperor Hem Chandra Vikramaditya, popularly known as Hemu, who was killed in 1556 in
the Second Battle of Panipat. The city was conquered by the Mughal emperor Akbar in 1559. In the 18th century, control passed to the Marathas. In 1818 the
British forced the Marathas to cede the city for 50,000 rupees whereupon it became part of the province of Ajmer-Marwar, which consisted of the districts of
Ajmer and Merwara and were physically separated by the territory of the Rajputana Agency. Ajmer-Marwar was directly administered by the British Raj, by a
commissioner who was subordinate to the Governor-General's agent for Rajputana. Ajmer-Marwar remained a province of India until 1950, when it became
the Ajmer State. Ajmer state became part of Rajasthan state on November 1, 1956.
List of Rulers of Ajmer
Ajayraj Sakhambari was the founder of Ajmer (Sanskrit Ajayameru) in the late 11th century.
Vighrajaya I was the ruler of Ajmer (Sanskrit Ajayameru) in the late 11th century.
Vighrajaya II was the ruler of Ajmer (Sanskrit Ajayameru) in the late 11th century and in the first half 12th century.
Vighrajaya III was the ruler of Ajmer (Sanskrit Ajayameru) in the first half 12th century.
Prithviraja I was the ruler of Ajmer (Sanskrit Ajayameru) from ? until 1150.
Jagdeva was the ruler of Ajmer (Sanskrit Ajayameru) from 1150 until 1152.
Vigraharaja IV was the ruler of Ajmer (Sanskrit Ajayameru) from 1152 until 1163.
Apara Gangeya was the ruler of Ajmer (Sanskrit Ajayameru) from 1163 until ?.
Prithviraja II was the ruler of Ajmer (Sanskrit Ajayameru) during late 1160s.
Someshwara was the ruler of Ajmer (Sanskrit Ajayameru) from ? until 1179.

Ranthambore
Ranthambore was small state in India. Ranthambore Fort is part of the World Heritage Site Hill Forts of Rajasthan.
[1]
situated near Sawai Madhopurtown in
Rajasthan. It is formidable fort and has been a focal point of historical developments of Rajasthan. This fort is known for the glory and valor of brave Hammir
dev of Chauhan dynasty. The fort lies within the Ranthambore National Park which was formerly the hunting grounds for the Maharajahs of Jaipur beforeIndian
independence. Its earlier name was Ranastambha or Ranastambhapura. It was associated with Jainism during the reign of Prithviraja I of Chauhan dynasty in 12th
century. Siddhasenasuri, who lived in 12th century has included this place in the list of holy Jaina tirthas. In Mughal period a temple of Mallinatha was built in the
fort. The fortress of Ranthambore was founded in 944 by the Nagil Jats. The fortress commanded a strategic location, 700 feet above the surrounding plain. It is
of historical importance to know about Nagil clan. Nagil people are descendants of Nagavanshi mahapurusha Nagavaloka.
List of Rulers of Ranthambore
Ran Mal Jat was the founder of Ranthambore. He was putting a stambh (pillar) at the location of present Ranthambore. He challenged the neighbouring rulers
for battle.
Raja Sajraj Veer Singh Nagil was the most famous ruler of Ranthambore from 880 until 935. He was headed a small army of twenty thousand warriors
including ten thousand cavalry to protect its kingdom from invaders. He was the first ruler of Ranthambore who developed and raised infrastructure to make this
area suitable for defence.
Govinda Raja was a ruler of Ranthambore in late 12th century and early 13th century. After the defeat of the Chauhan king Prithviraj
Chauhan by Muhammad of Ghori in 1192, Ranthambore, led by Govinda Raja, son of Pritviraj, became the center of Chauhan resistance to the
expanding Sultanate of Delhi. Govinda Raja was succeeded by his son Balhana.
Balhana was a ruler of Ranthambore in the first half 13th century. He was grandson of Chauhan king Prithviraj Chauhan and son of Govinda Raja ruler of
Ranthambore.
Vagbatta was a ruler of Ranthambore from during 1237 until 1253.
Jaitrasingha (died 1281) was a ruler of Ranthambore from during 1253 until his death in 1281. The armies of Sultan Nasir ud din Mahmud, led by the future
Sultan Balban, unsuccessfully besieged the fortress in 1248 and 1253, but captured from Jaitrasingha in 1259.
Hammir Dev Chauhan (died 1301) was a ruler of Ranthambore from during 1282 until his death in 1301. He was a direct descendant of Prithviraj
Chauhan. He was an Agnivanshi Rajput. Hammir's grandfather Vagbhatta ruled from 1237 to 1253 and Hammir's father Jaitrasinha ruled from 1253 to 1281.
Later Hammir's grandson Takshah Singh founded Rajkunwar (rajkumar) branch ofChauhan Dynasty which ruled parts of Awadh. Ziauddin Barani describes
Hammirs struggle with Jalaluddin and Alauddin Khalji. Amir Khusrau gives a fairely good description of Alauddins attack on Ranthambhore. Ballads of
Hammir's bravery are still sung in Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Haryana. Nayachandra Suri, a Jain historian, in the 14th century, wrote Hammir's
biography, Hammira Mahakavya. Hammir raided Mount Abu, Bhimaraspura, Dhar, Vardhanpura, Gadhamandala, Champa, Khandela and Kankaroli. These
regions comprise whole of Malwa and southern part ofRajasthan. Balvan inscriptions refer these and his two Kotiyagnas. He earned fame and a rich booty in the
raids. In 1290 Jalaludin-Khilji, ruler of Delhi attacked Hammir because of his rising power. Jalaludin's forces were defeated by Hammir. In 1296, Jalaludin was
murdered by Allauddin Khilji. In 1297 Allauddin sent an army to plunder Gujarat, under the generalship of Ulugh Khan and Nusrat Khan. This army looted the
temple of Somnath and its Shivalinga was broken into pieces and was being carried back to Delhi. Kanhad Dev Songara, ruler of Jalore attacked and defeated
Ulugh Khan and captured the broken Shivalinga which was washed in Ganga-jal and the fragments were established in various temples in Jalore. Muhammad
Shah, a neo-Muslim general in Khilji's army, helped Kanhad Dev Songara. In this war Neo Muslims Muhammad Shah, Kamr, Yalchak and Barq attampted to
assassinate Ulughkhan but failed. Hence they took refuge with Hammir at Ranthambore. Under these circumstances, Hammir was justified

in winning over
Allauddin's enemies to his side. But it would have been better to win affection of his people and good will of his neighbours. Instead, he taxed his people very
heavily to maintain his big army. He even ill-treated his minister and financier, Dharamsinh. Hence, differences between him and his half-brother Bhoja were
created by Dharamsinh. Bhoja afterward sought asylum in Alauddin's Camp. Ulugh Khan went and apprised Allauddin who ordered him and Nusrat Khan to
conquer Ranthambore. In 1299 they started out with 80,000 cavalry and a large infantry to attack Hammir. The Muslim governors tried to negotiate with
Hammir and demanded for Muhammad shah and Kamrus death, 10,000 gold coins, 300 horses, 4 elephants and the hand of Hammirs daughter Devaldevi.
The terms were rejected. Hammir's army repulsed the attack and killed Nusrat Khan. Ulugh Khan escaped and reached Delhi. Khilji was taken aback by this
defeat and wanted revenge. He finally came himself in 1301, and there was a long siege. Hammir was very well prepared, but Famin was a great hurdle to him.
When the fort did not fall after repeated bloody skirmishes, Khilji resorted to diplomacy by taking advantage of dissatisfaction and treachery due to Famin and
won over confidence of two of Hammirs generals, Ratipal and Ranmal. Hammir was very suspicious but he heeded to his councillors who told him that sword is
not always the best recourse. Ratipal and Ranmal were sent to the Khilji camp to negotiate. Khilji bribed these two generals of Hammir's army. Both the generals
along with others slipped away and joined Alauddins camp. Ultimately war was declared. Hammir died in the war. Consequently, Ranthambore fell on July 10,
1301. Others who died with him were the brave Viram, the lord of Champa, Taka Gangadhara, Parmar Kshetrasinha, Rajda and Simha. Hamir Dev, a
descendant of Prithviraj Chauhan ruled Ranthambor. Seventeen kilometers from Sawaimadhopur stands a fort, encompassing in its stately walls, a glorious
history of the Rajputs. Ranathambhor's venerable structure, rapturous beauty and sublime expressiveness seem to be continuously vocalizing the great legends of
Hamir Dev, the Rajput king, who ruled in the 13th century. Hamir Dev belonged to the Chauhan dynasty and drew his lineage from Prithviraj Chauhan who
enjoys a respectable place in the Indian history. During his 12 years' reign, Hamir Dev fought 17 battles and won 13 of them. He annexed Malwa, Abu and
Mandalgarh and thus extended his kingdom to the chagrin of Delhi Sultan, Jalal ud din Firuz Khilji, who had misgivings about Hamir's intentions. Jalaluddin
attacked Ranathambhor and had it under siege for several years. However, he had to return to Delhi unsuccessful. Jalaluddin was assassinated by his nephew
Allaluddin Khilji who then crowned himself as the new Sultan of Delhi. Muhammad Shah was instrumental in making this coup successful which earned him a
basketful of privileges. Muhammad Shah was even allowed access to the harem as a result of which he soon built up a good rapport with its inmates. Chimna was
one of Allaudin's begums, but Allaudin never gave her as much attention as other begums of the harem received from him. He had inadvertently managed to
antagonize her. To make things worse Chimna Begum saw a valiant soldier in Muhammad Shah and was extremely impressed by his courage and boldness. Soon
the vindictive begum and the ambitious Muhammad Shah started a conspiracy to slay Allaudin. Their objective was to see Muhammad Shah as Sultan and the
begum as queen. The conspiratorial plans somehow leaked out. Allaudin was enraged as he came to know of Muhammad Shah's intentions. To escape the fury
of Allaudin, Muhammad Shah had to flee from Delhi along with his brother. He sought asylum in many nearby kingdom but no one was ready to stand up to the
wrath of Allaudin. Muhammad Shah approached Hamir Dev. The brave Rajput was moved by his humble pleading and misery and agreed to him shelter.
Allaudin's ire was roused when he came to know of it. He immediately attacked the fort of Ranathambhor. The armies of Allaudin and Hamir Dev met in a
battle on the banks of river Banas. The Rajputs had the initial victory. However, because of the personal feud between the Prime Minister and the Senapati
(General-in-charge of the army) Hamir Dev's army got disorganized. The Senapati of the army was shivashish, the undeafeated general, greatest of his era whom
khalji had apologised in personal after the brave had captured in his own capital. shivashish slaaped khalji but forgave him. History of India, Told by Its Own
Historians", Henry Miers Elliot and John Dowson, pp541. In Ghurratu-L-Kamal, cited in Ellior and Dowson's work, Amir Khusro describes Gurdan Saini's
martyrdom in the following way: The rai was in affright, and sent for Gurdan Saini, who was the most experienced warrior amongst the 40,000 rawats under the
rai, and had seen many fights among the Hindus. "Sometimes he had gone with the advance to Malwa ; sometimes he had gone plundering in Gujarat." The Saini
took 10,000 rawats with him from Jhain, and advanced against the Turks, and, after a severe action, he was slain. The Prime Minister succeeded in getting the
Senapati killed. Meanwhile, Allaudin reorganized his forces and made a renewed attack on the fort. Some unscrupulous officers of Hamir Dev, with Bhoj Dev as
their leader, colluded with Allaudin and started giving him secret information about the fort. The war continued. The strong walls of the fort were strategically so
situated that it was not possible to blow them down with gunpowder, for the debris so created had already killed numerous soldiers of the Sultan in their futile
attempt to break into the fort. At last Allaudin sent a message to Hamir Dev saying that in case he was ready to hand over Muhammad Shah to him, he would go
back to Delhi. Hamir Dev was too self-respecting to make such an ignominious compromise. He sent back the messenger with the reply that when the Rajputs
promised to protect someone, they even gave their lives for his safety. Muhammad Shah saw the hopelessness of the situation and conselled Hamir Dev to hand
him over to Allaudin rather than fight such a long drawn-out war and suffer such an enormous loss of lives and resources. Allaudin's army was immense. He put a
complete siege on the Ranathambhor fort. Bhoj Dev and his informers kept on supplying him information on the food of water situation inside the fort. The ill-
fated war ended with the Sultan's legions emerging victorious. The female members of the Rajput kingdom committed jauhar and gave up lives on the pyres.
Hamir Dev, himself, severed his head and put it in front of Lord Shiva's idol as an offering. His son Ramdev went on exile towards Awadh, later Ramdev's son
Takshah Singh founded Agniraj Rajkunwar branch of chauhans in the later half of the 14th century. Rao Takshah Singh's descendants ruled over state named
Bhaddaiyan Raj which had parts of present Sultanpur District and adjoining areas. After the victory, Allaudin entered the fort. Wounded Muhammad Shah was
brought to him. "What is your last desire?" asked Allaudin. "To kill you and place Hamir's son on the throne of Ranathambhor", replied Muhammad Shah. Then
he took out his dagger and committed suicide. Allaudin, now, turned to Bhoj Dev and his other informers. Their faces were keen with eagerness to receive the
long awaited reward from the Sultan. On the countrary, Allaudin roared, "Shave of the heads of these traitors. They have not been loyal to their own king".
Within minutes, the heads of all his accomplices rolled on the ground. Allaudin's laughter reverberated against the walls of the fort.

Buddhist Deva dynasty of Samatama
Buddhist Deva dynasty (c. 8th-9th Century) of Samatata was small state in India, whose capital was Devaparvata. Four rulers of this dynasty are known from the
inscriptions: Shantideva, Viradeva, Anandadeva and Bhavadeva.
List of Rulers of Buddhist Deva dynasty of Samatama
Shantideva (c. 8th-9th Century) was the ruler of Deva Dynasty, Hindu dynasty of early medieval Bengal .
Viradeva (c. 8th-9th Century) was the ruler of Deva Dynasty, Hindu dynasty of early medieval Bengal.
Anandadeva (c. 8th-9th Century) was the ruler of Deva Dynasty, Hindu dynasty of early medieval Bengal, ruled over eastern Bengal.
Bhavadeva (c. 8th-9th Century) was the ruler of Deva Dynasty, Hindu dynasty of early medieval Bengal, ruled over eastern Bengal.

Deva Dynasty
Deva Dynasty (c.12th-13th century) was a Hindu dynasty of early medieval Bengal, ruled over eastern Bengal after the Sena dynasty. The capital of this dynasty
was Bikrampur in present-day Munshiganj District of Bangladesh. The end of this dynasty is not yet known. This Hindu Vaishnava dynasty is different from an
earlier Buddhist Deva dynasty (c. 8th-9th century) of Samatata, whose capital was Devaparvata. Four rulers of this dynasty are known from the inscriptions:
Shantideva, Viradeva, Anandadeva and Bhavadeva. The major sources of the history of this dynasty are the three copperplate inscriptions of Damodaradeva
issued in the Saka era1156, 1158 and 1165, which were his 4th, 6th and 13th regnal years. The first three rulers are known from the Chittagong copperplate
inscription of Damodaradeva dated Saka era 1165. The first ruler of this dynasty was Purushottamadeva, who rose from the position of a village-chief (gramani).
His son Madhumathana or Madhusudanadeva was the first independent ruler of this dynasty, who assumed the title of Nripati. He was succeeded by his son
Vasudeva and Vasudeva was succeeded by his son Damodaradeva. Damodaradeva (reigned 12311243) was the most powerful ruler of this dynasty. He took the
title of Ariraja-Chanura-Madhava-Sakala-Bhupati-Chakravarti. The inscriptional evidences show that his kingdom was extended up to the present-day Comilla-
Noakhali-Chittagong region. A later ruler of this dynasty Ariraja-Danuja-Madhava Dasharathadeva extended his kingdom up toBikrampur and made it his capital.
He issued an inscription from here. Yahya bin Ahmad in his Tarikh-i-Mubarak Shahi mentioned that he (referred as Danuj Rai of Sonargaon by Yahya) made an
alliance with Ghiyas-ud-Din Balban in 1281.
List of Rulers of Deva Dynasty
Purushottamadeva was the ruler of Deva Dynasty, Hindu dynasty of early medieval Bengal, ruled over eastern Bengal after the Sena dynasty in the second
half 12th century. He was rose from the position of a village-chief (gramani). His son Madhumathana or Madhusudanadeva was the first independent ruler of this
dynasty, who assumed the title of Nripati.
Madhumathana or Madhusudanadeva was the ruler of Deva Dynasty, Hindu dynasty of early medieval Bengal, ruled over eastern Bengal after the Sena
dynasty in the second half 12th century and early 13th century. He was the first independent ruler of this dynasty, who assumed the title of Nripati. He was
succeeded by his son Vasudeva.
Vasudeva was the ruler of Deva Dynasty, Hindu dynasty of early medieval Bengal, ruled over eastern Bengal after the Sena dynasty in the first half 13th
century. He was succeeded by his son Damodaradeva.
Damodaradeva was the ruler of Deva Dynasty, Hindu dynasty of early medieval Bengal, ruled over eastern Bengal after the Sena dynasty from 1231 until
1243.
Dasarathadeva Danujmadhava (Raja Danuj Rai) was the last Hindu king of Deva Dynasty in East Bengal from 1243 until 1280s.

He was the Deva king of
Chandradvipa (present-day Barisal). His ruling kingdom was near the neighborhood of Sonargaon between 1260 and 1268.
[
He later attacked Vikrampur and
conquered Sena kingdom before 1280.


Candra Dynasty
The Candra dynasty were a family who ruled over the kingdom of Harikela in eastern Bengal (comprising the ancient lands of Harikela,Vanga and Samatata) for
roughly a century and a half from the beginning of the 10th century CE. Their empire also encompassed Vanga and Samatata, with Srichandra expanding his
domain to include parts of Kamarupa. Their empire was ruled from their capital,Vikrampur (modern Munshiganj) and was powerful enough to militarily
withstand the Pala Empire to the north-west. They were replaced later by the Varman dynasty as rulers of Harikela.
List of Kings of Candra Dynasty
Traillokyachandra was the first ruler of the Chandra dynasty in the kingdom of Harikela in eastern Bengal from 900 until 930. His father, Subarnachandra,
was a vassal to the earlier rulers of the Harikela Kingdom. Traillokyachandra established the dynasty, centered at Devaparvata (near Mainamati, Comilla) and
expanded into modern Kachua Upazilabefore declaring himself as Maharajadhiraja.
Srichandra was the second and most influential ruler of the Chandra dynasty in the kingdom of Harikela in eastern Bengal from 930 until 975. Much of what
is known of him comes from the copper plates from Mainamati as well as the plate discovered in the village of Paschimbhag in Moulvibazar detailing his
successful campaign against the Kingdom of Kamarupa. He is also credited with expanding his father's empire to encompass the kingdoms
of Vanga and Samatata. Under his command, the Harikelan armies also successfully fought the Pala Empire and possibly the Kambojas of northern Bengal. His
contemporary Pala ruler was Gopala II. Srichandra also moved the administrative center of the empire from Devaparvata to his newly built capital, Vikrampur.
[1]

According to the copper plates, although Srichandra was a devout Buddhist and a patron of his faith, he was tolerant of other religious beliefs among his subjects,
evidenced by his attempts to settle displaced Brahmins within his empire (in modern day Sylhet).
Kalyanachandra was the third ruler of the Chandra dynasty in the kingdom of Harikela in eastern Bengal from 975 until 1000. His campaign against
the Kamboja dynasty of northern Bengal allowed the resurgent Pala Emperor Mahipala I to reclaim much of the Pala Empire.
Ladahachandra was the fourth ruler of the Chandra dynasty, in the kingdom of Harikela in eastern Bengal from 1000 until 1025. Although he was
aBuddhist and a renowned patron of Buddhism, he was also very sympathetic to Vaishnavite teachings (according to the two copperplates discovered
at Mainamati).
Govindachandra was the last known ruler of the Chandra dynasty in the kingdom of Harikela in eastern Bengal from 1020 until 1045. According to the
Tirumalai inscription, during his reign, the kingdom faced a massive invasion by the Chola king, Rajendra Chola Ibetween 10211024 CE. In the inscription he
was identified as Govindachandra of Vangaladesa. In early 1049 CE, the Kalachuri king, Karnadeva (reigned 10421072) also launched an attack on
Govindachandra (which may have been the downfall of the Chandra dynasty). According to Bengali folk ballads, Govichandra gave up his crown to live the rest of
his life as an ascetic.


All-Palestine Government
The All-Palestine Government (Arabic: Hukumat 'umum Filastin) was established by the Arab League on September 22, 1948, during
the 1948 Arab-Israeli War. It was soon recognized by all Arab League members, except Jordan. Though jurisdiction of the Government was declared to cover
the whole of the former Mandatory Palestine, its effective jurisdiction was limited to the Gaza Strip. The Prime Minister of the Gaza-seated administration was
named Ahmed Hilmi Pasha, and the President was named Hajj Amin al-Husseini, former chairman of the Arab Higher Committee. Shortly thereafter,
the Jericho Conference named King Abdullah I of Transjordan, "King of Arab Palestine".The Congress called for the union of Arab Palestine and Transjordan
and Abdullah announced his intention to annex the West Bank. The other Arab League member states opposed Abdullah's plan. The All-Palestine Government
is regarded by some as the first attempt to establish an independent Palestinian state. It was under official Egyptian protection,
[1]
but on the other hand it had no
executive role, but rather mostly political and symbolic. Its importance gradually declined, especially due to relocation of seat of government from Gaza to Cairo
following the Israeli invasion in late 1948. Though Gaza Strip returned under Egyptian control later on through the war, the All-Palestine Government remained
in-exile in Cairo, managing Gazan affairs from outside. In 1959, the All-Palestine Government was officially merged into the United Arab Republic, coming
under formal Egyptian military administration, with the appointment of Egyptian military administrators in Gaza. Egypt, however, both formally and informally
renounced any and all territorial claims to Palestinian territory, in contrast to the government of Transjordan, which declared its annexation of the Palestinian
West Bank. The All-Palestine Government's credentials as a bona fide sovereign state were questioned by many, particularly due to the effective reliance upon
not only Egyptian military support, but Egyptianpolitical and economic power.
President and Prime Minister of All Palestine Government
Haj Mohammed Effendi Amin el-Husseini (Arabic: , Muhammad Amin al-Husayni; c. 1897; July,
1974) was a Palestinian Arab nationalist and Muslim leader in Mandatory Palestine. He was Prime Minister of the short-lived All-
Palestine Government in the Gaza Strip in 1948. He was also Grand Mufti of Jurasalem from 1921 until 1948 and President of the
Supreme Muslim Council from 1922 until 1937. Al-Husseini was the scion of a family of Jerusalemite notables. After receiving an
education in Islamic, Ottoman and Catholic schools, he went on to serve in the Ottoman army in World War I. At war's end, he
positioned himself in Damascus as a supporter of the Arab Kingdom of Syria. Following the fiasco of the Franco-Syrian War and
the collapse of the Arab Hashemite rule in Damascus, his early position on pan-Arabism shifted to a form of local nationalism for
Palestinian Arabs and he moved back to Jerusalem. From as early as 1920, in order to secure the independence of Palestine as an
Arab state he actively opposed Zionism, and was implicated as a leader of a violent riot that broke out over the establishment of
a national home for the Jewish people in Palestine. Al-Husseini was sentenced to ten years imprisonment, but was pardoned by the
British. Starting in 1921, al-Husseini was the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem, using the position to promote Islam and rally a non-
confessional Arab nationalism against Zionism. His opposition to the British peaked during the 193639 Arab revolt in Palestine.
In 1937, evading an arrest warrant, he fled Palestine and took refuge in, successively, the French Mandate of Lebanon and
the Kingdom of Iraq, until he established himself in Italy and Germany. During World War II he collaborated with both Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy by
making propagandistic radio broadcasts and by helping Germans recruit Muslims for the Waffen-SS. On meeting Adolf Hitler he requested backing for Arab
independence and support in opposing the establishment in Palestine of a Jewish national home. At war's end, he came under French protection, and then
sought refuge in Cairo to avoid prosecution. In the lead-up to the 1948 Palestine war, Husseini opposed both the 1947 UN Partition Plan and King Abdullah's
designs to annex the Arab part of British Mandatory Palestine to Jordan, and, failing to gain command of the 'Arab rescue army' (jaysh al-inqadh al-'arabi) formed
under the aegis of the Arab League, formed his own militia, al-jihad al-muqaddas. In September 1948, he participated in establishment of All-Palestine
Government. Seated in Egyptian-ruled Gaza, this government won a limited recognition of Arab states, but was eventually dissolved by Gamal Nasser in 1959.
After the war and subsequent Palestinian exodus, his claims to leadership, wholly discredited, left him eventually sidelined by the Palestine Liberation
Organization, and he lost most of his residual political influence. He died in Beirut, Lebanon, in July 1974. Husseini was and remains a highly controversial
figure. Historians dispute whether his fierce opposition to Zionism was grounded in nationalism or antisemitism or a combination of both. Amin al-Husseini was
born around 1897 in Jerusalem, the son of the mufti of that city and prominent early opponent of Zionism, Tahir al-Husayni. The al-Husseini clan consisted of
wealthy landowners in southern Palestine, centred around the district of Jerusalem. Thirteen members of the clan had been Mayors of Jerusalem between 1864
and 1920. Another member of the clan and Amin's half-brother, Kamil al-Husayni, also served as Mufti of Jerusalem. In Jerusalem Amin al-Husseini attended a
Qur'an school (kuttub), and Ottoman government secondary school (rshidiyye) where he learnt Turkish, and a Catholic secondary school run by French
missionaries, the Catholic Frres, where he learnt French. He also studied at the Alliance Isralite Universelle with its non-Zionist Jewish director Albert Antbi.
In 1912 he studied Islamic law briefly at Al-Azhar University in Cairo and at the Dar al-Da'wa wa-l-Irshad, under Rashid Rida, a salafi intellectual, who was to
remain Amin's mentor till his death in 1935. Though groomed to hold religious office from youth, his education was typical of the Ottoman effendi at the time,
and he only donned a religious turban in 1921 after being appointed mufti. In 1913, approximately at the age of 16, al-Husseini accompanied his mother Zainab
to Mecca and received the honorary title of Hajj. Prior to World War I, he studied at the School of Administration in Istanbul, the most secular of Ottoman
institutions. With the outbreak of World War I in 1914, al-Husseini received a commission in the Ottoman Army as an artillery officer and was assigned to the
Forty-Seventh Brigade stationed in and around the city of Izmir. In November 1916 he obtained a three-month disability leave

from the army and returned to
Jerusalem. He was recovering from an illness there when the city was captured by the British a year later. The British and Sherifian armies, for which some 500
Palestinian Arabs volunteered, completed their conquest of Ottoman-controlled Palestine and Syria in 1918, alongside Jewish troops. As a Sherifian officer, al-
Husseini recruited men to serve in Faisal bin Al Hussein bin Ali El-Hashemi's army during the Arab Revolt, a task he undertook while employed as a recruiter by
the British military administration in Jerusalem and Damascus. The post-war Palin Report noted that the English recruiting officer, Captain C. D. Brunton, found
al-Husseini, with whom he cooperated, very pro-British, and that, via the diffusion of War Office pamphlets dropped from the air promising them peace and
prosperity under British rule, 'the recruits (were) being given to understand that they were fighting in a national cause and to liberate their country from the
Turks'. Nothing in his early career to this point suggests he had ambitions to serve in a religious office: his interests were those of an Arab nationalist. In 1919, al-
Husseini attended the Pan-Syrian Congress held in Damascus where he supported Emir Faisal for King of Syria. That year al-Husseini founded the pro-British
Jerusalem branch of the Syrian-based 'Arab Club' (Al-Nadi al-arabi), which then vied with the Nashashibi-sponsored 'Literary Club' (al-Muntada al-Adabi) for
influence over public opinion, and he soon became its President. At the same time, he wrote articles for the Suriyya al-Janubiyya (Southern Syria). The paper was
published in Jerusalem beginning in September 1919 by the lawyer Muhammad Hassan al-Budayri, and edited by Aref al-Aref, both prominent members of al-
Nadi al-'Arabi. Al-Husseini was a strong supporter of the short-living Arab Kingdom of Syria, established in March 1920. In addition to his support to pan-Arabist
policies of King Faisal I, al-Husseini tried to destabilize the British rule in Palestine, which was declared to be part of the Arab Kingdom, even though no
authority was exercised in reality. During the annual Nabi Musa procession in Jerusalem in April 1920, violent rioting broke out in protest at the implementation
of the Balfour Declaration which supported the establishment in Palestine of a homeland for the Jewish people. Much damage to Jewish life and property was
caused. The Palin Report laid the blame for the explosion of tensions on both sides. Ze'ev Jabotinsky, organiser of Jewish paramilitary defences, received a 15-
year sentence. Al-Husseini, then a teacher at the Rashidiya school, near Herod's Gate in East Jerusalem, was charged with inciting the Arab crowds with an
inflammatory speech and sentenced in absentia to 10-years imprisonment by a military court, since by then both had fled to Syria. It was asserted soon after,
by Chaim Weizmann and British army Lieutenant Colonel Richard Meinertzhagen, that al-Husseini had been put up to inciting the riot by British Field-
marshal Allenby's Chief of Staff, Colonel Bertie Harry Waters-Taylor, to demonstrate to the world that Arabs would not tolerate a Jewish homeland in Palestine.
The assertion was never proven, and Meinertzhagen was dismissed. After the April riots an event took place that turned the traditional rivalry between the
Husseini and Nashashibi clans into a serious rift, with long-term consequences for al-Husseini and Palestinian nationalism. According to Sir Louis Bols, great
pressure was brought to bear on the military administration from Zionist leaders and officials such as David Yellin, to have the Mayor of Jerusalem, Musa Kazim
Pasha al-Husayni, dismissed, given his presence in the demonstration of the previous March. Colonel Storrs, the Military Governor of Jerusalem, removed him
without further inquiry, replacing him with Raghib al-Nashashibi of the rival Nashashibi clan. This, according to the Palin report, 'had a profound effect on his co-
religionists, definitely confirming the conviction they had already formed from other evidence that the Civil Administration was the mere puppet of the Zionist
Organization.'Until late 1920, al-Husseini focused his efforts on Pan-Arabism and the ideology of the Greater Syria in particular, with Palestine understood as
a southern province of an Arab state, whose capital was to be established in Damascus. Greater Syria was to include territory of the entire Levant, now occupied
by Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Palestinian Authority and Israel. The struggle for Greater Syria collapsed after Francedefeated the Arab forces in Battle of
Maysalun in July 1920. The French army entered Damascus at that time, overthrew King Faisal and put an end to the project of a Greater Syria, put under the
French Mandate in accordance with the prior Sykes-Picot Agreement. Palestinian notables responded to the disaster by a series of resolutions at the 1921 Haifa
conference, which set down a Palestinian framework and passed over in silence the earlier idea of a south confederated with Syria. This framework set the tone of
Palestinian nationalism for the ensuing decades. Al-Husseini, like many of his class and period, then turned from Damascus-oriented Pan-Arabism to a
specifically Palestinian ideology, centered on Jerusalem, which sought to block Jewish immigration to Mandatory Palestine. The frustration of pan-Arab
aspirations lent an Islamic colour to the struggle for independence, and increasing resort to the idea of restoring the land to Dar al-Islam. From his election as
Mufti until 1923, al-Husseini exercised total control over the secret society, Al-Fidaiyya (The Self-Sacrificers), which, together with al-Ikha wal-Afaf
(Brotherhood and Purity), played an important role in clandestine anti-British and anti-Zionist activities, and, via members in the gendarmerie, had engaged in
riotous activities as early as April 1920. Following the death of Amin's half-brother, the mufti Kamil al-Husayni in March 1921, the British High
Commissioner Sir Herbert Samuelpardoned al-Husseini. He and another Arab had been excluded from the general amnesty, six weeks earlier, because they had
fled before their convictions had been passed down. Elections were then held, and of the four candidates running for the office of Mufti, al-Husseini received the
least number of votes, the first three being Nashashibi candidates. Nevertheless, Samuel was anxious to keep a balance between the al-Husseinis and their rival
clan the Nashashibis. A year earlier the British had replaced Musa al-Husayni as Mayor of Jerusalem with Ragheb al-Nashashibi. They then moved to secure for
the Husseini clan a compensatory function of prestige by appointing one of them to the position of mufti, and, with the support of Ragheb al-Nashashibi and
Sheikh Hussam Jrallh, prevailing upon the Nashashibi front-runner, Sheikh Hussam ad-Din Jarallah, to withdraw. This automatically promoted Amin al-
Husseini to third position, which, under Ottoman law, allowed him to qualify, and Samuel then chose him as Mufti. His initial appointment was as Mufti, but
when the Supreme Muslim Council was created in the following year, Husseini demanded and received the title Grand Mufti that had earlier been created,
perhaps on the lines of Egyptian usage, by the British for his half-brother Kamil. The position came with a life tenure. In 1922, al-Husseini was elected President
of the Supreme Muslim Council which had been created by Samuel in 1921. Matthews argues that the British considered the combinations of his profile as an
effective Arab nationalist and a scion of a noble Jerusalem family 'made it advantageous to align his interests with those of the British administration and thereby
keep him on a short tether'. The Council controlled the Waqf funds, worth annually tens of thousands of pounds and the orphan funds, worth annually about
50,000, as compared to the 600,000 in the Jewish Agency's annual budget. In addition, he controlled the Islamic courts in Palestine. Among other functions,
these courts were entrusted with the power to appoint teachers and preachers. The British initially balanced appointments to the Supreme Muslim
Council between the Husseinis and their supporters (known as the majlisiya, or council supporters) and theNashashibis and their allied clans (known as
the mu'aridun, the opposition). The mu'aridun, were more disposed to a compromise with the Jews, and indeed had for some years received annual subventions
from the Jewish Agency. During most of the period of the British mandate, bickering between these two families seriously undermined any Palestinian Arab
unity. In 1936, however, they achieved a measure of concerted policy when all the Palestinian Arab groups joined to create a permanent executive organ known
as the Arab Higher Committee under al-Husseini's chairmanship. The Supreme Muslim Council and its head al-Husseini, who regarded himself as guardian of
one of the three holy sites of Islam, launched an international campaign in Muslim countries to gather funds to restore and improve the Haram ash-Sharif (Noble
Sanctuary) or Temple Mount, and particularly the Al-Aqsa Mosque and the shrine Dome of the Rock(which houses the holiest site in Judaism). The whole area
required extensive restoration, given the disrepair into which it had fallen from neglect in Ottoman times. Jerusalem was the original direction towards which
Muslims prayed, until the Qibla was reorientated towards Mecca by Mohammed in the year 624. Al-Husseini commissioned the Turkish architect Mimar
Kemalettin. In restoring the site, al-Husseini was also assisted by the Mandatory power's Catholic Director of Antiquities, Ernest Richmond. Under Richmond's
supervision, the Turkish architect drew up a plan, and the execution of the works gave a notable stimulus to the revival of traditional artisan arts like mosaic
tesselation,glassware production, woodcraft, wickerwork and iron-mongering. Al-Husseini's vigorous efforts to transform the Haram into a symbol of pan-Arabic
and Palestinian nationalism were intended to rally Arab support against the postwar influx of Jewish immigrants. In his campaigning, al-Husseini often accused
Jews of planning to take possession of the Western Wall of Jerusalem, which belonged to the waqf of Abu Madyan as aninalienable property, and rebuild the
Temple over the Al-Aqsa Mosque. He took certain statements, for example, by the Ashkenazi chief rabbi of Palestine, Abraham Isaac Kookregarding the
eventual return in time of the Temple Mount back to Jewish hands, and turned them to a concrete political plot to seize control of the area. Al-Husseini's
intensive work to refurbish the shrine as a cynosure for the Muslim world, and Jewish endeavours to improve their access to, and establish a ritually appropriate
ambiance on the plaza by theWestern Wall, led to increased conflict between the two communities, each seeing the site only from their own traditional
perspective and interests. Zionist narratives pinpointed al-Husseini's works on, and publicity about, the site and threats to it, as attempts to restore his own family's
waning prestige. Arab narratives read the heightened agitation of certain Jewish groups over the Wall as an attempt to revive diaspora interest in Zionism after
some years of relative decline, depression and emigration. Each attempt to make minor alterations to the status quo, still governed by Ottoman law, was bitterly
protested before the British authorities by the Muslim authorities. If Moslems could cite an Ottoman regulation of 1912 specifically forbidding objects like seating
to be introduced, the Jews could cite testimonies to the fact that before 1914 certain exceptions had been made to improve their access and use of the Wall. The
decade witnessed several such episodes of strong friction, and the simmering tensions came to a head in late 1928, only to erupt, after a brief respite, into an
explosion of violence a year later. On August 10, 1928, a constituent assembly convened by the French in Syria was rapidly adjourned when calls were made for a
reunification with Palestine. Al-Husseini and Awni Abd al-Hadi met with the Syrian nationalists and they made a joint proclamation for a
unified monarchical state under a son of Ibn Sa'ud. On the August 26, 1928 the completion of the first stage of restoration work on the Haram's mosques was
celebrated with great pomp, in the presence of representatives from the Muslim countries which had financed the project, the Mandatory authorities,
and Abdullah, Emir of Transjordan. A month later, after an article appeared in the Jewish press proposing the purchase and destruction of houses in the
Moroccan quarter bordering on the wall to improve pilgrim access and further thereby the 'Redemption of Israel.' Soon after, on September 23, 1928 Yom
Kippur, a Jewish beadle introduced a screen to separate male and female worshippers at the Wall. Informed by residents in the neighbouring Mughrabi quarter,
the waqf authority complained toHarry Luke, acting Chief Secretary to the Government of Palestine, that this virtually changed the lane into a synagogue, and
violated the status quo, as had the collapsible seats in 1926. British constables, encountering a refusal, used force to remove the screen, and a jostling clash ensued
between worshippers and police. Zionist allegations that disproportionate force had been employed during what was a solemn occasion of prayer created an
outcry throughout the diaspora. Worldwide Jewish protests remonstrated with Britain for the violence exercised at the Wall. The Jewish National Council Vaad
Leumi demanded that British administration expropriate the wall for the Jews.
[65]
In reply, the Muslims organized a Defence Committee for the Protection of the
Noble Buraq, and huge crowd rallies took place on the Al-Aqsa plaza in protest. Work, often noisy, was immediately undertaken on a mosque above the Jewish
prayer site. Disturbances such as opening a passage for donkeys to pass through the area, angered worshippers. After intense negotiations, the Zionist
organisation denied any intent to take over the whole Haram Ash-Sharif, but demanded the government expropriate and raze the Moroccan quarter. A law of
1924 allowed the British authorities to expropriate property, and fear of this in turn greatly agitated the Muslim community, though the laws of donation of the
waqf explicitly disallowed any such alienation. After lengthy deliberation, a White Paper was made public on December 11, 1928 in favour of the status quo.
After the nomination of the new High Commissioner Sir John Chancellor to succeed Lord Plumer in December 1928, the question was re-examined, and in
February 1929 legal opinion established that the mandatory authority was within its powers to intervene to ensure Jewish rights of access and prayer. Al-Husseini
pressed him for a specific clarification of the legal status quo regarding the Wall. Chancellor mulled weakening the SMC and undermining al-Husseini's authority
by making the office of mufti elective. The Nabi Musafestival of April that year passed without incident, despite al-Husseini's warnings of possible incidents.
Chancellor thought his power was waning, and after conferring with London, admitted to al-Husseini on May 6, 1929 that he was impotent to act decisively in the
matter. Al-Husseini replied that, unless the Mandatory authorities acted, then, very much like Christian monks protecting their sacred sites in Jerusalem, the
sheikhs would have to take infringements of the status quo into their own hands, and personally remove any objects introduced by Jews to the area. Chancellor
asked him to be patient, and al-Husseini offered to stop works on the Mount on condition that this gesture not be taken as a recognition of Jewish rights. A
change of government in Britain in June led to a new proposal: only Muslim works in the sector near where Jews prayed should be subject to mandatory
authorisation: Jews could employ ritual objects, but the introduction of seats and screens would be subject to Muslim authorisation. Chancellor authorised the
Muslims to recommence their reconstructive work, while, responding to further Zionist complaints, prevailed on the SMC to stop the raucous Zikr ceremonies in
the vicinity of the wall. He also asked the Zionist representatives to refrain from filling their newspapers with attacks on the government and Muslim authorities.
Chancellor then departed for Europe where the Mandatory Commission was deliberating. With Chancellor abroad, and the Zionist Commission itself, with its
leader Colonel Frederick Kisch, in Zurich for the 16th. Zionist Congress (attended also by Ze'ev Jabotinsky), theSMC resumed works, confidentially authorised,
on the Haram only to be met with outcries from the Jewish press. The administration rapidly published the new rules on July 22, 1929 with a serious error in
translation that fueled Zionist reports of a plot against Jewish rights. A protest in London led to a public declaration by a member of the Zionist Commission that
Jewish rights were bigger than the status quo, a statement which encouraged in turn Arab suspicions that local agreements were again being overthrown by Jewish
intrigues abroad. News that the Zurich Congress, in creating the Jewish Agency on 11 August., had brought unity among Zionists and the world Jewish
community, a measure that would greatly increase Jewish investment in British Palestine, set off alarm bells. On August 15, 1929 Tisha B'Av, a day memorializing
the destruction of the Temple of Jerusalem, the revisionistBetar movement, despite Pinhas Rutenberg's plea on August 8, 1929 to the acting High
Commissioner Harry Luke to stop such groups from participating, rallied members from Tel Avivto join them in the religious commemoration. Kisch, before
leaving, had banned Jewish demonstrations in Jerusalem's Arab quarters. The Betar youth gave the ceremony a strong nationalist tinge by singing the Hatikvah,
waving the flag of Israel, and chanting the slogan 'The Wall is Ours'. The following day coincided with mawlid (or mawsin al-nabi), the anniversary of the birth
of Islam's prophet, Muhammad. Muslim worshippers, after prayers on the esplanade of the Haram, passed through the narrow lane by the Wailing Wall and
ripped up prayer books, and kotel notes (wall petitions), without harming however three Jews present. Contacted by Luke, al-Husseini undertook to do his best to
maintain calm on the Haram, but could not stop demonstrators from gathering at the Wall. On August 17, 1929 a young Jewish boy was stabbed to death by
Arabs while retrieving a football, while an Arab was badly wounded in a brawl with Palestinian Jews. Strongly tied to the anti-Hashemite party, and attacked by
supporters of Abdullah in Transjordan for misusing funds marked out for campaigning against France, al-Husseini asked for a visa for himself and Awni Abd al-
Hadi to travel to Syria, where the leadership of the Syrian anti-French cause was being contested. Averse to his presence in Syria, the French asked him to put off
the journey. Meanwhile, despite Harry Luke's lecturing journalists to avoid reporting such material, rumours circulated in both communities, of an imminent
massacre of Jews by Muslims, and of an assault on the Haram ash-Sharif by Jews. On August 21, 1929 a funeral cortge, taking the form of a public
demonstration for the dead Jewish boy, wound its way through the old city, with the police blocking attempts to break into the Arab quarters. On the 22nd, Luke
convoked representatives of both parties to calm things down, and undersign a joint declaration. Awni Abd al-Hadi and Jamal al-Husayni were ready to recognize
Jewish visiting rights at the Wall in exchange for Jewish recognition of Islamic prerogatives at the Buraq. The Jewish representative, Yitzhak Ben-Zvi, considered
this beyond his briefwhich was limited to an appeal for calmand the Arabs in turn refused. They agreed to pursue their dialogue the following week. On
August 23, 1929, a Friday, two or three Arabs were murdered in the Jewish quarter of Mea Shearim. It was also a day of Muslim prayer. A large crowd,
composed of many people from outlying villages, thronged into Jerusalem, many armed with sticks and knives. It is not known whether this was organized by al-
Husseini or the result of spontaneous mobilisation. The sermon at Al-Aqsa was to be delivered by another preacher, but Luke prevailed on al-Husseini to leave
his home and go to the mosque, where he was greeted as 'the sword of the faith' and where he instructed the preacher to deliver a pacific sermon, while sending
an urgent message for police reinforcements around the Haram. Deluded by the lenitive address, extremists harangued the crowd, accusing al-Husseini of being
an infidel to the Muslim cause. The same violent accusation was launched in Jaffa against sheikh Muzaffir, an otherwise radical Islamic preacher, who gave a
sermon calling for calm on the same day. An assault was launched on the Jewish quarter. Violent mob attacks on Jewish communities, fueled by wildfire hearsay
about ostensible massacres of Arabs and attempts to seize the Wall, took place over the following days in Hebron, Safedand Haifa. In all, in the killings and
subsequent revenge attacks, 136 Arabs and 135 Jews died, while 340 of the latter were wounded, as well as an estimated 240 Arabs. Two official investigations
were subsequently conducted by the British and the League of Nations's Mandatory Commission. The former, The Shaw Report, concluded that the incident on
23 August consisted of an attack by Arabs on Jews, but rejected the view that the riots had been premeditated. Al-Husseini certainly played an energetic role in
Muslim demonstrations from 1928 onwards, but could not be held responsible for the August riots, even if he had 'a share in the responsibility for the
disturbances'. He had nonetheless collaborated from the 23rd. of that month in pacifying rioters and reestablishing order. The worst outbreaks occurred in areas,
Hebron, Safed, Jaffa, and Haifa where his Arab political adversaries were dominant. The root cause of the violent outbreaks lay in the fear of territorial
dispossession. In a Note of Reservation, Mr. Harry Snell, who had apparently been swayed by Sir Herbert Samuel's son, Edwin Samuel states that, although he
was satisfied that the Mufti was not directly responsible for the violence or had connived at it, he believed the Mufti was aware of the nature of the anti-Zionist
campaign and the danger of disturbances. He therefore attributed to the Mufti a greater share of the blame than the official report had. The Dutch Vice-
Chairman of the Permanent Mandates Commission, M. Van Rees, argued that 'the disturbances of August 1929, as well as the previous disturbances of a similar
character, were, in brief, only a special aspect of the resistance offered everywhere in the East, with its traditional and feudal civilisation, to the invasion of a
European civilisation introduced by a Western administration' but concluded that in his view 'the responsibility for what had happened must lie with the religious
and political leaders of the Arabs'. Many observers saw al-Husseini as the mastermind behind the riots, accusing him of dispatching secret emissaries to inflame
regional passions [citation]. In London, Lord Melchettdemanded his arrest for orchestrating all anti-British unrest throughout the Middle East. Consular
documentation discarded the plot thesis rapidly, and identified the deeper cause as political, not religious, namely in what the Palin report had earlier identified
as profound Arab discontent over Zionism. Arab memoirs on the fitna (troubles) follow a contemporary proclamation for the Defence of the Wall on 31 August,
which justified the riots as legitimate, but nowhere mention a coordinated plan. Izzat Darwaza, an Arab nationalist rival of al-Husseini, alone asserts, without
details, that al-Husseini was responsible. Al-Husseini in his memoirs never claimed to have played such a role. The High Commissioner received al-Husseini
twice officially on October 1, 1929 and a week later, and the latter complained of pro-Zionist bias in an area where the Arab population still viewed Great Britain
favorably. Al-Husseini argued that the weakness of the Arab position was that they lacked political representation in Europe, whereas for millennia, in his view,
the Jews dominated with their genius for intrigue. He assured Chancellor of his cooperation in maintaining public order. By 1928-1929 a coalition of a new
Palestinian nationalist group began to challenge the hegemony so far exercised by al-Husseini. The group, more pragmatic, hailed from the landed gentry and
from business circles, and was intent on what they considered a policy of more realistic accommodation to the Mandatory government. From this period on, a rift
emerged, that was to develop into a feud between the directive elite of Palestinian Arabs. In 1931, al-Husseini founded the World Islamic Congress, on which he
was to serve as president. Versions differ as to whether or not al-Husseini supported Izz ad-Din al-Qassam when he undertook clandestine activities against the
British Mandate authorities. His appointment as imam of the al-Istiqlal mosque in Haifa had been approved by al-Husseini. Lachman argues that he secretly
encouraged, and perhaps financed al-Qassam at this period. Whatever their relations, the latter's independent activism, and open challenge to the British
authorities appears to have led to a rupture between the two.
[92]
He vigorously opposed the Qassamites' exactions against the Christian and Druze communities.
By 1935 al-Husseini did take control of one clandestine organization, of whose nature he had not been informed until the preceding year, which had been set up
in 1931 by Musa Kazim al-Husayni's son, Abd al-Qadir al-Husayni and recruited from the Palestinian Arab Boy Scout movement, called the 'Holy Struggle' (al-
jihad al-muqaddas). This and another paramilitary youth organization, al-Futuwwah, paralleled the clandestine Jewish Haganah. Rumours, and occasional
discovery of caches and shipments of arms, strengthened military preparations on both sides. On April 19, 1936, a wave of protest strikes and attacks against
both the British authorities and Jews was unleashed in Palestine. Initially, the riots were led by Farhan al-Sa'di, a militant sheik of the northern al-Qassam group,
with links to the Nashashibis. After the arrest and execution of Farhan, al-Husseini seized the initiative by negotiating an alliance with the al-Qassam faction. Apart
from some foreign subsidies, including a substantial amount from Fascist Italy, he controlled waqf and orphan funds that generated annual income of about
115,000 Palestine pounds. After the start of the revolt, most of that money was used to finance the activities of his representatives throughout the country. To
Italy's Consul-General in Jerusalem, Mariano de Angelis, he explained in July that his decision to get directly involved in the conflict arose from the trust he
reposed in Italian dictatorBenito Mussolini's backing and promises. Upon al-Husseini's initiative, the leaders of Palestinian Arab clans formed the Arab Higher
Committee under the Mufti's chairmanship. The Committee called for nonpayment of taxes after May 15, 1936 and for a general strike of Arab workers and
businesses, demanding an end to the Jewish immigration. The British High Commissioner for Palestine, Sir Arthur Wauchope, responded by engaging in
negotiations with al-Husseini and the Committee. The talks, however, soon proved fruitless. Al-Husseini issued a series of warnings, threatening the 'revenge of
God Almighty' unless the Jewish immigration were to stop, and the general strike began, paralyzing the government, public transportation, Arab businesses and
agriculture. As the time passed, by autumn the Arab middle class had exhausted its resources. Under these circumstances, the Mandatory government was
looking for an intermediary who might help persuade the Arab Higher Committee to end the rebellion. Al-Husseini and the Committee rejected
King Abdullah of Transjordan as mediator because of his dependence on the British and friendship with the Zionists, but accepted the Iraqi Foreign
Minister Nuri as-Said. As Wauchope warned of an impending military campaign and simultaneously offered to dispatch a Royal Commission of Inquiry to hear
the Arab complaints, the Arab Higher Committee called off the strike on October 11, 1936. When the promised Royal Commission of Inquiry arrived in
Palestine in November, al-Husseini testified before it as chief witness for the Arabs. In July 1937, British police were sent to arrest al-Husseini for his part in the
Arab rebellion, but, tipped off, he managed to escape to the sanctuary of asylum in the Haram. He stayed there for three months, directing the revolt from
within. Four days after the assassination of the Acting District Commissioner for that area Lewis Yelland Andrews by Galileanmembers of the al-Qassam group
on September 26, 1937, al-Husseini was deposed from the presidency of the Muslim Supreme Council, the Arab Higher Committee was declared illegal, and
warrants for the arrest of its leaders were issued, as being at least 'morally responsible', though no proofs existed for their complicity. Of them only Jamal al-
Husaynimanaged to escape to Syria: the remaining five were exiled to the Seychelles. Al-Husseini was not among the indicted but, fearing imprisonment, on
October 13- 14, 1937, after sliding under cover of darkess down a rope from the Haram's wall, he himself fled via Jaffa to Lebanon, disguised as a
Bedouin, where he reconstituted the committee under his leadership. Al-Husseini's tactics, his abuse of power to punish other clans, and the killing of political
adversaries he considered 'traitors', alienated many Palestinian Arabs. One local leader, Abu Shair, told Da'ud al-Husayni, an emissary from Damascus who bore
a list of people to be assassinated during the uprising "I dont work for Husayniya('Husayni-ism') but for wataniya (nationalism)." He remained in Lebanon for two
years, under French surveillance in the Christian village of Zouk, but, in October 1939, his deteriorating relationship with the French and Syrian authorities led
him to withdraw to the Kingdom of Iraq. By June 1939, after the disintegration of the revolt, Husseini's policy of killing only proven turncoats changed to one of
liquidating all suspects, even members of his own family, according to one intelligence report. The rebellion itself had lasted until March 1939, when it was
finally quelled by British troops. It forced Britain to make substantial concessions to Arab demands. Jewish immigration was to continue but under restrictions,
with a quota of 75,000 places spread out over the following five years. On the expiry of this period further Jewish immigration would depend on Arab consent.
Besides local unrest, another key factor in bringing about a decisive change in British policy was Nazi Germany's preparations for a European war, which would
develop into a worldwide conflict. In British strategic thinking, securing the loyalty and support of the Arab world assumed an importance .of some urgency.
While Jewish support was unquestioned, Arab backing in a new global conflict was by no means assured. By promising to phase out Jewish immigration into
Palestine, Britain hoped to win back support from wavering Arabs. Husseini, allied to radical elements in exile, hailing from provincial Palestinian families,
convinced the AHC, against moderate Palestinian families who were minded to accept it, to reject the White Paper of 1939, which had recommended an Arab-
majority state and an end to building a Jewish national home. The rejection was based on its perceived failure to promise an end to immigration; the land policy it
advocated was thought to provide imperfect remedies: and the promised independence appeared to depend on Jewish assent and cooperation. Husseini, who
also had personal interests threatened by these arrangements, also feared that acceptance would strengthen the hand of his political opponents in the Palestine
national movement, such as the Nashashibis. Neve Gordon writes that al-Husseini regard all alternative nationalist views as treasonous, opponents became
traitors and collaborators, and patronizing or employing Jews of any description illegitimate. From Beirut he continued to issue directives. The price for
murdering opposition leaders and peace leaders rose by July to 100 Palestinian pounds: a suspected traitor 25 pounds, and a Jew 10. Notwithstanding this, ties
with the Jews were reestablished by leading families such as the Nashashibis, and by the Fahoum of Nazareth. Throughout the interwar period, Arab nationalists
bore Germany no ill-will, despite its earlier support for the Ottoman empire. Like many Arab countries, it was perceived as a victim of the post-World War 1
settlement. Hitler himself often spoke of the 'infamy of Versailles'. Unlike France and Great Britain it had not exercised imperial designs on the Middle East, and
its past policy of non-intervention was interpreted as a token of good will. While the scholarly consensus is that that Husseini's motives for supporting the Axis
powers and his alliance with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy were deeply inflected by anti-Jewish and anti-Zionist ideology from the outset, some scholars,
notably Renzo De Felice, deny that the relationship can be taken to reflect a putative affinity of Arab nationalism with Nazi/Fascist ideology, and that men like
Husseini chose them as allies for purely strategic reasons, on the grounds that, as Husseini later wrote in his memoirs,'the enemy of your enemy is your
friend'. When Husseini eventually met with Hitler and Ribbentrop in 1941, he assured Hitler that 'The Arabs were Germany's natural friends because they had
the same enemies... namely the English, the Jews, and the Communists'. In 1933, within weeks of Hitler's rise to power in Germany, the German Consul-
General in Palestine, the pro-nazi Heinrich Wolff, sent a telegram to Berlin reporting al-Husseini's belief that Palestinian Muslims were enthusiastic about the
new regime and looked forward to the spread of Fascism throughout the region. Wolff met al-Husseini and many sheiks again, a month later, at Nabi Musa.
They expressed their approval of the anti-Jewish boycott in Germany and asked Wolff not to send any Jews to Palestine. Wolff subsequently wrote in his annual
report for that year that the Arabs' political navety led them to fail to recognize the link between German Jewish policy and their problems in Palestine, and that
their enthusiasm for Nazi Germany was devoid of any real understanding of the phenomenon. The various proposals by Palestinian Arab notables like al-
Husseini were rejected consistently over the years out of concern to avoid disrupting Anglo-German relations, in line with Germany's policy of not imperilling
their economic and cultural interests in the region by a change in their policy of neutrality, and respect for British interests. Hitler's Englandpolitik essentially
precluded significant assistance to Arab leaders. Italy also made the nature of its assistance to the Palestinian contingent on the outcome of its own negotiations
with Britain, and cut off aid when it appeared that the British were ready to admit the failure of their pro-Zionist policy in Palestine. Al-Husseini's adversary, Ze'ev
Jabotinsky had at the same time cut off Irgun ties with Italy after the passage of antisemitic racial legislation. Though Italy did offer substantial aid, some German
assistance also trickled through. After asking the new German Consul-General, Hans Dhle on July 21, 1937 for support, theAbwehr briefly made an exception
to its policy and gave some limited aid. But this was aimed to exert pressure on Britain over Czechoslovakia. Promised arms shipments never eventuated. This
was not the only diplomatic front on which al-Husseini was active. A month after his visit to Dhle, he met with the American Consul George Wadsworth(August
1937), to whom he professed his belief that America was remote from imperialist ambitions and therefore able to understand that Zionism 'represented a hostile
and imperialist aggression directed against an inhabited country. In a further interview with Wadsworth on August 31, 1937 he expressed his fears that Jewish
influence in the United States might persuade the country to side with Zionists. In the same period he courted the French government by expressing a willingness
to assist them in the region. With the outbreak of the Second World War in September 1939 the Iraqi Government complied with a British request to break off
diplomatic relations with Germany, interned all German nationals, and introduced emergency measures putting Iraq on a virtual war-footing. A circle of 7 officers
opposed this decision and the measures taken. With Nuri as-Said's agreementhe wished to persuade al-Husseini of the value of the British White Paper of
1939they invited al-Husseini to Iraq in October 1939, and he was to play an influential role there in the following two years. A quadrumvirate of four younger
generals among the seven, three of whom had served with al-Husseini in World War I, were hostile to the idea of subordinating Iraqi national interests to
Britain's war strategy and requirements. In March 1940, the nationalist Rashid Ali replaced Nuri as-Said. Ali made covert contacts with German representatives in
the Middle East, though he was not yet an openly pro-Axis supporter, and al-Husseini's personal secretary Kemal Hadad acted as a liaison between the Axis
powers and these officers. As the European situation for the Allies deteriorated, Husseini advised Iraq to adhere to the letter to their treaty with Great Britain,
and avoid being drawn into the war in order to conserve her energies for the liberation of Arab countries. Were Russia, Japan and Italy to side with Germany
however, Iraqis should proclaim a revolt in Palestine. In mid May 1940, despairing of their ability to secure control of Iraq's oil fields and deny access to
Germany, the British turned to the extremist Irgun, approaching one of its commanders, David Raziel, whom they had imprisoned in Mandatory Palestine. They
asked him if he would undertake to destroy Iraq's oil refineries, and thus turn off the spigots to Germany. Raziel agreed on condition he be allowed to
"acquire"(kidnap) the Mufti and bring him back to Palestine. The mission plan was changed at the last moment, however, and Raziel died when his plane was shot
down by a German fighter. Al-Husseini used his influence and ties with the Germans to promote Arab nationalism in Iraq. He was among the key promoters of
the pan-Arab Al-Muthanna Club, and supported the coup d'tat by Rashid Ali in April 1941. The situation of Iraq's Jews rapidly deteriorated, with extortions and
sometimes murders taking place. When the Anglo-Iraqi Warbroke out, al-Husseini used his influence to issue a fatwa for a holy war against Britain. As the
British advanced on the capital, the Farhud pogrom in Baghdad, led by members of the Al-Muthanna Club, which had served as a conduit for German
propaganda funding, erupted in June 1941, following the Iraqi defeat and the collapse of Rashid Ali's government. The pogrom was rooted in antisemitic
incitement during the preceding decade against the backdrop of the conflict between Arabs and Jews in Palestine. When the war failed for the Iraqis - given its
paucity, German and Italian assistance played a negligible role in the war - al-Husseini escaped to Persia (together with Rashid Ali), where he was granted legation
asylum first by Japan, and then by Italy. On 8 October, after the occupation of Persia by the Allies and after the new Persian government of ShahMohammad
Reza Pahlavi severed diplomatic relations with the Axis powers, al-Husseini was taken under Italian protection and conveyed through Turkey to Axis Europe in
an operation organized by Italian Military Intelligence (Servizio Informazioni Militari, or SIM). Al-Husseini arrived in Rome on October 10, 1941. He outlined
his proposals before Alberto Ponce de Leon. On condition that the Axis powers 'recognize in principle the unity, independence, and sovereignty, of an Arab
state, including Iraq, Syria, Palestine, and Transjordan', he offered support in the war against Britain and stated his willingness to discuss the issues of 'the Holy
Places, Lebanon, the Suez Canal, and Aqaba'. The Italian foreign ministry approved al-Husseini's proposal, recommended giving him a grant of one millionlire,
and referred him to Benito Mussolini, who met al-Husseini on October 27, 1941. According to al-Husseini's account, it was an amicable meeting in which
Mussolini expressed his hostility to the Jews and Zionism. Back in the summer of 1940 and again in February 1941, al-Husseini submitted to the Nazi German
Government a draft declaration of German-Arab cooperation, containing a clause: Germany and Italy recognize the right of the Arab countries to solve the
question of the Jewish elements, which exist in Palestine and in the other Arab countries, as required by the national and ethnic (vlkisch) interests of the Arabs,
and as the Jewish question was solved in Germany and Italy. Encouraged by his meeting with the Italian leader, al-Husseini prepared a draft declaration,
affirming the Axis support for the Arabs on November 3, 1941. In three days, the declaration, slightly amended by the Italian foreign ministry, received the
formal approval of Mussolini and was forwarded to the German embassy in Rome. On 6 November, al-Husseini arrived inBerlin, where he discussed the text of
his declaration with Ernst von Weizscker and other German officials. In the final draft, which differed only marginally from al-Husseini's original proposal, the
Axis powers declared their readiness to approve the elimination (Beseitigung) of the Jewish National Home in Palestine. On November 20, 1941 al-Husseini
met the German Foreign Minister Joachim von Ribbentrop and was officially received by Adolf Hitler on November 28, 1941. He asked Adolf Hitler for a
public declaration that 'recognized and sympathized with the Arab struggles for independence and liberation, and that would support the elimination of a national
Jewish homeland'. Hitler refused to make such a public announcement, saying that it would strengthen the Gaullists against the Vichy France, but asked al-
Husseini to 'to lock ...deep in his heart' the following points, which Christopher Browning summarizes as follows, that: Germany has resolved, step by step, to ask
one European nation after the other to solve its Jewish problem, and at the proper time, direct a similar appeal to non-European nations as well'. When Germany
had defeated Russia and broken through the Caucasus into the Middle East, it would have no further imperial goals of its own and would support Arab
liberation... But Hitler did have one goal. "Germanys objective would then be solely the destruction of the Jewish element residing in the Arab sphere under the
protection of British power". (Das deutsche Ziel wrde dann lediglich die Vernichtung des im arabischen Raum unter der Protektion der britischen Macht
lebenden Judentums sein). In short, Jews were not simply to be driven out of the German sphere but would be hunted down and destroyed even beyond it. A
separate record of the meeting was made by Fritz Grobba, who until recently had been the German ambassor to Iraq. His version of the crucial words reads
"when the hour of Arab liberation comes, Germany has no interest there other than the destruction of the power protecting the Jews". Al-Husseini's own account
of this point, as recorded in his diary, is very similar to Grobba's. According to Amin's account, however, when Hitler expounded his view that the Jews were
responsible for World War I, Marxism and its revolutions, and this was why the task of Germans was to persevere in a battle without mercy against the Jews, he
replied: "We Arabs think that Zionism, not the Jews, is the cause of all of these acts of sabotage." In December 1942, al-Husseini held a speech at the celebration
of the opening of the Islamic Central Institute (Islamische Zentralinstitut) in Berlin, of which he served as honorary chair. In the speech, he harshly criticised
those he considered as aggressors against Muslims, namely "Jews, Bolsheviks and Anglo-Saxons." At the time of the opening of the Islamic Central Institute, there
were an estimated 3,000 Muslims in Germany, including 400 German converts. The Islamic Central Institute gave the Muslims in Germany institutional ties to
the 'Third Reich'. The Mufti and other Arab Muslims visited concentration camps, accompanied by German officials. An associate of al-Husseini's, together with
three associates of former Iraqi Prime Minister visited the Sachsenhausen concentration camp as part of a German secret police "training course" in July 1942. At
the time, the Sachsenhausen camp housed large numbers of Jews, but was only transformed into a death camp in the following year. Their tour through the camp
presented it as a re-educational institution, and they were shown the high quality of objects made by inmates, and happy Russian prisoners who, reformed to fight
Bolshevism, were paraded, singing, in sprightly new uniforms. They left the camp very favourably impressed by its programme of educational indoctrination. Fritz
Grobba wrote on July 17, 1942: I reported considerable concern ... about the participation of members of the entourage of Prime Minister Galiani [Rashid Ali]
and of the Grand Mufti in SD [secret security police] courses and site visits to concentration camps ... The visit by three assistants of the prime minister [Galiani]
and one of the Grand Mufti at concentration camp Oranienburg had already taken place. The visit lasted about two hours with very satisfying results ... the Jews
aroused particular interest among the Arabs.... It all made a very favorable impression on the Arabs. Grobba makes it clear that the Mufti visited the
concentration camp at Oranienburg. Various sources have repeatedly alleged that he visited other concentration camps, and also the death camps
of Auschwitz, Majdanek, Treblinka and Mauthausen, though there is little conclusive documentary evidence to substantiate these other visits.
[163]
Although some
historians have questioned al-Husseini's knowledge of the Holocaust while it was in progress, Wolfgang G. Schwanitz notes that in his memoirs Husseini recalled
that Heinrich Himmler, in the summer of 1943, while confiding some German war secrets, inveighed against Jewish "war guilt", and revealed the on-going
extermination (in Arabic, abadna) of the Jews. Gilbert Achcar, referring to this meeting with Himmler, observes: The Mufti was well aware that the European
Jews were being wiped out; he never claimed the contrary. Nor, unlike some of his present-day admirers, did he play the ignoble, perverse, and stupid game of
Holocaust denial. His armour-propre would not allow him to justify himself to the Jews.gloating that the Jews had paid a much higher price than the
Germans he cites : Their losses in the Second World War represent more than thirty percent of the total number of their people . Statements like this,
from a man who was well placed to know what the Nazis had done constitute a powerful argument against Holocaust deniers. Husseini reports
that Reichsfhrer-SS Heinrich Himmler told him in summer 1943 that the Germans had already exterminated more than three million Jews: I was
astonished by this figure, as I had known nothing about the matter until then. . Thus. in 1943, Husseini knew about the genocide. The memoir then continues:
Himmler asked me on the occasion:"How you you propose to settle the Jewish question in your country?' I replied:'All we want from them is that they return to
their countries of origin." He (Himmler) replied:' We shall never authorize their return to Germany.' - Laurens 2002, p. 469. By Husseini's admission therefore
he was informed of the Nazi genocide of the Jews certainly by the summer of 1943. Wolfgang G. Schwanitz doubts the sincerity of his surprise since, he argues,
Husseini had publicly declared that Muslims should follow the example Germans set for a "definitive solution to the Jewish problem". Subsequently, the Mufti
declared in November, 1943: It is the duty of Muhammadans in general and Arabs in particular to drive all Jews from Arab and Muhammadan
countries.Germany is also struggling against the common foe who oppressed Arabs and Muhammadans in their different countries. It has very clearly
recognized the Jews for what they are and resolved to find a definitive solution [endgltige Lsung] for the Jewish danger that will eliminate the scourge that Jews
represent in the world. At the Nuremberg trials, one of Adolf Eichmann's deputies, Dieter Wisliceny, stated that al-Husseini had actively encouraged the
extermination of European Jews, and that he had had an elaborate meeting with Eichmann at his office, during which Eichmann gave him an intensive look at the
current state of the "Solution of the Jewish Question in Europe" by the Third Reich. Most of these allegations are completely unfounded. A single affidavit
by Rudolf Kastner reported that Wisliceny told him that he had overheard Husseini say he had visited Auschwitz incognito in Eichmann's company. Eichmann
denied this at his trial in Jerusalem in 1961. He had been invited to Palestine in 1937 by a representative of the Haganah, Feival Polkes, for office business,
apparently concerning the Ha'avara Agreement for Jewish immigration into Palestine from Germany, at a time when he was not even a commissioned officer. As
for contacting the Arab rebels in Palestine, or their leader the Mufti, Eichmann was turned back by the British authorities at the Egyptian border. Eichmann
stated that he had only been introduced to al-Husseini during an official reception, along with all other department heads. The Jerusalem court accepted
Wisliceny's testimony about a key conversation between Eichmann and the mufti, and found as proven that al-Husseini had aimed to implement the Final
Solution. Hannah Arendt, who was present at the trial, concluded in her book Eichmann in Jerusalem: A Report on the Banality of Evil the evidence for an
Eichmann-all Husseini connection was based on rumour and unfounded. Rafael Medoff concludes that 'actually there is no evidence that the Mufti's presence
was a factor at all; the Wisliceny hearsay is not merely uncorroborated, but conflicts with everything else that is known about the origins of the Final Solution.
Bernard Lewis also called Wisliceny's testimony into doubt: 'There is no independent documentary confirmation of Wisliceny's statements, and it seems unlikely
that the Nazis needed any such additional encouragement from the outside.' The Mufti opposed all immigration of Jews into Palestine. The Muftis numerous
letters appealing to various governmental authorities to prevent Jewish emigration to Palestine have been widely republished and cited as documentary evidence
of his collaboration with Nazis and his participative support for their genocidal actions. For instance, Husseini intervened on May 13, 1943, before the meeting
with Himmler when he was informed of the Holocaust, with the German Foreign Office to block possible transfers of Jews from Bulgaria, Hungary and
Romania, after reports reached him that 4,000 Jewish children accompanied by 500 adults had managed to reach Palestine. He asked that the Foreign Minister
"to do his utmost" to block all such proposals and this request was complied with. According to Idith Zertal, none of the documents presented at Eichmann's trial
prove that it was the Mufti's interference, in these 'acts of total evil,' that prevented the children's rescue. In June 1943 the Mufti recommended to the Hungarian
minister that it would be better to send Jews in Hungary to Concentration Camps in Poland rather than let them find asylum in Palestine (it is not entirely clear
that the Mufti was aware of the Extermination Campsin Poland, e.g. Auschwitz, at this time). A year later, on 25 July 1944 (when he certainly knew the details
about the Nazi program to destroy the Jews) he wrote to the Hungarian foreign minister to register his objection to the release of certificates for 900 Jewish
children and 100 adults for transfer from Hungary, fearing they might end up in Palestine. He suggested that if such transfers of population were deemed
necessary, then: I ask your Excellency to permit me to draw your attention to the necessity of preventing the Jews from leaving your country for Palestine, and if
there are reasons which make their removal necessary, it would be indispensable and infinitely preferable to send them to other countries where they would find
themselves under active control, for example, in Poland, thus avoiding danger and preventing damage." Achcar quotes the Muftis memoirs about these efforts to
influence the Axis powers to prevent emigration of Eastern European Jews to Palestine: We combatted this enterprise by writing to Ribbentrop, Himmler, and
Hitler, and, thereafter, the governments of Italy, Hungary, Rumania, Bulgaria, Turkey, and other countries. We succeeded in foiling this initiative, a circumstance
that led the Jews to make terrible accusations against me, in which they held me accountable for the liquidation of four hundred thousand Jews who were unable
to emigrate to Palestine in this period. They added that I should be tried as a war criminal in Nurenberg. In November, 1943 (when he certainly was aware of the
genocidal nature of the Nazi Final Solution) the Mufti said: It is the duty of Muhammadans in general and Arabs in particular to drive all Jews from Arab and
Muhammadan countries.Germany is also struggling against the common foe who oppressed Arabs and Muhammadans in their different countries. It has very
clearly recognized the Jews for what they are and resolved to find a definitive solution [endgltige Lsung] for the Jewish danger that will eliminate the scourge
that Jews represent in the world. In September 1943, intense negotiations to rescue 500 Jewish children from the Arbe concentration camp collapsed due to the
objection of al-Husseini who blocked the children's departure to Turkey because they would end up in Palestine. The Mufti collaborated with the Germans in
numerous sabotage and commando operations in Iraq, Transjordan, and Palestine, and repeatedly urged the Germans to bomb Tel Aviv
[185]
and Jerusalem 'in
order to injure Palestinian Jewry and for propaganda purposes in the Arab world', as his Nazi interlocutors put it. The proposals were rejected as unfeasible.
Operation ATLAS was one such joint operation. A special commando unit of the Waffen SS was created, composed of three members of the Templer religious
sect in Palestine, and two Palestinian Arabs recruited from the Mufti's associates, Hasan Salama and Abdul Latif (who had edited the Mufti's Berlin radio
addresses). It has been established that the mission, briefed by al-Husseini before departure, aimed at establishing an intelligence-gathering base in Palestine,
radioing information back to Germany, and buying support among Palestinians, recruiting and arming them to foment tensions between Jews and Arabs,
disrupting the Mandatory authorities and striking Jewish targets. The plan ended in fiasco: they received a cold reception from the Palestinians, three of the five
infiltrators were quickly rounded up, and the matriel seized. Their air-dropped cargo was found by the British, and consisted of explosives, submachine guns,
and dynamite, radio, submachine guns, dynamite, radio equipment, 5,000 Pound sterling, a duplicating machine, a German-Arabic dictionary, and a quantity of
poison. Michael Bar-Zohar and Eitan Haber, report that the mission included a plan to poison the Tel Aviv water supply, There is no trace of this poison plot in
the standard biographies, Palestinian and Israeli, of Husseini. Throughout World War II, al-Husseini worked for the Axis Powers as a broadcaster in propaganda
targeting Arab public opinion. The Mufti was paid "an absolute fortune" of 50,000 marks a month (when a German field marshal was making 25,000 marks a
year). Walter Winchell called him 'the Arabian Lord Haw-Haw.' On March 1, 1944, while speaking on Radio Berlin, al-Husseini said: 'Arabs, rise as one man
and fight for your sacred rights. Kill the Jews wherever you find them. This pleases God, history, and religion. This saves your honor. God is with you.' Himmler
had a romantic vision of Islam as a faith fostering fearless soldiers, and this probably played a significant role in his decision to raise three Muslim divisions
under German leadership in the Balkans from Bosnian Muslims and Albanians: the 13th Handschar, the 21st Skanderberg, and the 23rd Kama (Shepherd's
dagger). Riven by interethnic conflict, the region's Jewish, Croat, Roma, Serb and Muslim communities suffered huge losses of life, Bosnian Muslims losing
around 85,000 from a genocidal etnik ethnic cleansing operations alone. The Muslims had three options: to join the Croatian Ustae, or the Serbian partisans,
or to create local defense units. Following a tradition of service in the old Bosnian regiments of the former Austro-Hungarian army, they chose an alliance with
Germany, which promised them autonomy. Husseini, having been petitioned by the Bosnian Muslim leaders, was well informed of their plight. Dissatisfied with
low enlistenment, Himmler asked the mufti to intervene. Husseini negotiated, made several requests, mostly ignored by the SS, and conducted several visits to
the area. His speeches and charismatic authority proved instrumental in improving enlistment notably. In one speech he declared that: Those lands suffering
under the British and Bolshevist yoke impatiently await the moment when the Axis (powers) will emerge victorious. We must dedicate ourselves to unceasing
struggle against Britain -that dungeon of peoples - and to the complete destruction of the British Empire.We must dedicate ourselves to unceasing struggle against
Bolshevist Russia because communism is incompatible with Islam.' One SS officer reporting on impressions from the mufti's Sarajevo speech said Husseini was
reserved about fighting Bolshevism, his main enemies being Jewish settlers in Palestine and the English. During a visit in July 1943 the Mufti said: "The active
cooperation of the world's 400 million Muslims with their loyal friends, the German, can be of decisive influence upon the outcome of the war. You, my Bosnian
Muslims, are the first Islamic division [and] serve as an example of the active collaboration....My enemy's enemy is my friend." Himmler in addressing the unit
on another occasion declared "Germany [and] the Reich have been friends of Islam for the past two centuries, owing not to expediency but to friendly conviction.
We have the same goals." The Mufti also wrote a pamphlet for the Hanschar translated as Islam i Zidovstvo (Islam and Judaism) which closed with a quotation
from Bukhari-Muslim by Abu Khurreira that states:"The Day of Judgement will come, when the Muslims will crush the Jews completely: And when every tree
behind which a Jew hides will say: 'There is a Jew behind me, Kill him!". In an agreement signed by Husseini and Himmler on May 19, 1943, it was specified that
no synthesis of Islam and Nationalism was to take place. Husseini asked that Muslim divisional operations to be restricted to the defense of the Moslem
heartland of Bosnia and Herzegovina; that partisans be amnestied if they laid down their arms; that the civilian population not be subject to vexations by
troops;that assistance be offered to innocents injured by operations; and that harsh measures like deportations, confiscations of goods, or executions be governed
in accordance with the rule of law. The Handschar earned a repute for brutality in ridding north-eastern Bosnia of Serbs and partisans: many local Muslims,
observing the violence, were driven to go over to the communist partisans. Once redeployed outside Bosnia, and as the fortunes of war turned, mass defections
and desertions took place, and Volksdeutsche were drafted to replace the losses. The mufti blamed the mass desertions on German support for the etniks.
Many Bosnians in these divisions who survived the war sought asylum in Western and Arab countries, and of those settling in the Middle East, many fought in
Palestine against the new state of Israel. In 1942, al-Husseini helped organize Arab students and North African emigres in Germany into the "Arabisches
Freiheitkorps," an Arab Legion in the German Army that hunted down Allied parachutists in the Balkans and fought on the Russian front. After the end of the
Second World War, al-Husseini attempted to obtain asylum in Switzerland but his request was refused. He was taken into custody at Constanz by the French
occupying troops on May 5, 1945, and on May 19, 1945 he was transferred to the Paris region and put under house arrest. At around this time, the British head
of Palestines Criminal Investigation Division told an American military attach that the Mufti might be the only person who could unite the Palestinian Arabs
and 'cool off the Zionists'. Henri Ponsot, a former ambassador of France in Syria, led the discussions with him and had a decisive influence on the events. The
French authorities expected an improvement in France's status in the Arab world through his intermediaries and accorded him "special detention conditions,
benefits and ever more important privileges and constantly worried about his well-being and that of his entourage". In October, he was even given permission to
buy a car in the name of one of his secretaries and enjoyed some freedom of movement and could also meet whoever he wanted. Al-Husseini proposed to the
French two possibilities of cooperation: 'either an action in Egypt, Iraq and even Transjordan to calm the anti-French excitement after the events in Syria and
because of its domination in North Africa; or that he would take the initiative of provocations in [Palestine], in Egypt and in Iraq against Great Britain', so that the
Arabs countries will pay more attention to British policy than to that of France. Al-Husseini was very satisfied with his situation in France and stayed there for a
full year. As early as May 24, 1945 Great Britain requested al-Husseini's extradition, arguing that he was a British citizen who had collaborated with the
Nazis. Despite the fact that he was on the list of war criminals, France decided to consider him as a political prisoner and refused to comply with the British
request. France also refused to extradite him to Yugoslavia where the government wanted to prosecute him for the massacres of Serbs. Poussot believed al-
Husseini's claims that the massacre of Serbs had been performed by General Mikhailovitch and not by him. Al-Husseini also explained that 200,000 Muslims
and 40,000 Christians had been assassinated by the Serbs and that he had established a division of soldiers only after Bosnian Muslims had asked for his help,
and that Germans and Italians had refused to provide any support to them. In the meantime, Zionist representativesfearing that al-Husseini would escape
backed Yugoslavia's request for extradition. They stated that al-Husseini was also responsible for massacres in Greece and pointed out his action against the Allies
in Iraq in 1941; additionally they requested the support of the United States in the matter. The reputation of Haj Amin al-Husseini among Jews in the immediate
postwar period is indicated by the observation by Raul Hilberg that when culpability for the destruction of the European Jews was debated in 1945, al-Husseini
was the only specific individual singled out to be put on trial. In June, Yishuv leaders decided to eliminate al-Husseini. Although al-Husseini was located by
Jewish Army members who began to plan an assassination, the mission was canceled in December by Moshe Sharett or by David Ben-Gurion, probably because
they feared turning the Grand Mufti into a martyr. A campaign of intimidation was launched to convince the mufti that at Lon Blum's request he would be
handed over to the British. In September, the French decided to organize his transfer to an Arab country. Egypt, Saudi Arabia or Yemen were considered and
diplomatic contacts were made with their authorities and with the Arab League. On May 29, 1945 after an influential Moroccan had organized his escape, and
the French police had suspended their surveillance, al-Husseini left France on a TWA flight for Cairo using travel papers supplied by a Syrian politician who was
close to the Muslim brotherhood. It took more than 12 days for the French Foreign Minister to realize he had fled, and the British were not able to arrest him in
Egypt, after that country granted him political asylum. On August 12, 1947, al-Husseini wrote to French Foreign Minister Georges Bidault, thanking France for its
hospitality and suggesting that France continue this policy to increase its prestige in the eyes of all Muslims. In September, a delegation of the Arab Higher
Committee went to Paris and proposed that Arabs would adopt a neutral position on the North African question in exchange of France's support in the
Palestinian question. When the United Nations Special Committee on Palestine delivered its recommendations for the partition of Palestine, the High
Commissioner of Palestine, Alan Cunningham sent emissaries to Cairo to sound out the Mufti, though transferring any power of state to him was unthinkable.
Interviewed on the Ist of September, he said that the proposed partition was unjust, since it deprived the Arabs of Palestine of what belonged to them, and would
not satisfy in any case the Zionists, who desired all of the country. He cited the example of Chaim Weizmann, who opposed the idea of a Jewish state in 1922,
approved partition in 1937, and at the Biltmore Conference in 1942, laid claim to the whole of Palestine. It was said of Hitler, he added, that he would never try
to apply the ideas he set forth in Mein Kampf. The Zionists, he asserted, would never restrict their programme to a part of Palestine, for l'apptit vient en
mangeant(the more you get the more you want). The English would never have ceded a part of their country in exchange for peace with the Nazis. Zionism was a
bluff like Italian fascism, which would collapse at the first shock. The wartime reputation of Haj Amin al-Husseini was employed as an argument for the
establishment of a Jewish State during the deliberations at UN in 1947. The Nation Associates under Freda Kirchwey prepared a nine page pamphlet with
annexes for the United Nations entitled The Arab Higher Committee, Its Origins, Personnel and Purposes. This booklet included copies of communications
between Haj Amin al-Husseini and high ranking Nazis (e.g. Heinrich Himmler, Franz von Papen, Joseph Goebbels), the Mufti's diary account of meeting Hitler,
several letters to German officials in several countries where he requested that Jews never be permitted to emigrate from Europe to a Jewish Home in Palestine,
and many photographs of the Mufti, Rashid Ali, and other Arab politicians in the company of Nazis and their Italian and Japanese allies. It claimed to
demonstrate that German Nazis and Palestinian politicians (some of whom were requesting recognition at the UN in 1947 as representatives of the Palestinian
Arab population) had made common cause during World War II in their opposition to the establishment of a Jewish State in Palestine. In May 1948, the Israeli
government thanked Kirchwey for "having a good and honorable share of our success", at least partly as a consequence of distributing information on al-Husseini
to the UN representatives. On the eve of the United Nations' partition of Mandatory Palestine, King Abdullah, who shared with Zionists a hostility to Palestinian
nationalism, reached a secret entente with Golda Meir to thwart the mufti and annex the part of Palestine in exchange for Jordan's dropping its opposition to the
establishment of a Jewish state. The meeting, in Shlaim's words, 'laid the foundations for a partition of Palestine along lines radically different from the ones
eventually envisaged by the United Nations'. Husseini's popularity in the Arab world had risen during his time with the Nazis, and Arab leaders rushed to greet
him on his return, and the masses accorded him an enthusiastic reception, an attitude which was to change rapidly after the defeat of 1948, when he was singled
out as a scapegoat to blame for the failure. From his Egyptian exile, al-Husseini used what influence he had to encourage the participation of the Egyptian
military in the 1948 Arab-Israeli War. He was involved in some high level negotiations between Arab leadersbefore and during the Warat a meeting held
inDamascus in February 1948, to organize Palestinian Field Commands and the commanders of the Holy War Army. Hasan Salama andAbd al-Qadir al-
Husayni (Amin al-Husseini's nephew), were allocated the Lydda district and Jerusalem respectively. This decision paved the way for undermining the Mufti's
position among the Arab States. On February 9, 1948, four days after the Damascus meeting, he suffered a severe setback at the Arab League's Cairo session,
when his demands for more Palestinian self-determination in areas evacuated by the British, and for financial loans were rejected. His demands included, the
appointment of a Palestinian Arab representative to the League's General Staff, the formation of a Palestinian Provisional Government, the transfer of authority
to local National Committees in areas evacuated by the British, and both a loan for Palestinian administration and an appropriation of large sums to the Arab
Higher Executive for Palestinian Arabs entitled to war damages. The Arab League blocked recruitment to al-Husseini's forces, and they collapsed following the
death of one of his most charismatic commanders, Abd al-Qadir al-Husayni, on April 8, 1948. Following rumors that King Abdullah I of Transjordan was
reopening the bilateral negotiations with Israel that he had previously conducted clandestinely with the Jewish Agency, the Arab Leagueled by Egyptdecided to
set up the All-Palestine Government in Gaza on 8 September 1948, under the nominal leadership of al-Husseini. Avi Shlaim writes: 'The decision to form the
Government of All-Palestine in Gaza, and the feeble attempt to create armed forces under its control, furnished the members of the Arab League with the means
of divesting themselves of direct responsibility for the prosecution of the war and of withdrawing their armies from Palestine with some protection against popular
outcry. Whatever the long-term future of the Arab government of Palestine, its immediate purpose, as conceived by its Egyptian sponsors, was to provide a focal
point of opposition to Abdullah and serve as an instrument for frustrating his ambition to federate the Arab regions with Transjordan'. The All-Palestine
Government was declared in Gaza on September 22, 1948 in a way as a countermeasure against Jordan. Pre-conference by the Arab League obtained an
agreement to have Ahmad Hilma Pasha preside over the government, while giving al-Husseini a nominal role, devoid of responsibilities. A Palestinian National
Council was convened in Gaza on September 8, 1948, under the chairmanship of Amin al-Husseini. On September 30, 1948 al-Husseini was elected
unanimously as President, but had no authority outside the areas controlled by Egypt. The council passed a series of resolutions culminating on October 1, 1948
with a declaration of independence over the whole of Palestine, with Jerusalem as its capital. The All-Palestine Government was hence born under the nominal
leadership of Amin al-Husseini, the Mufti of Jerusalem, named as its President. Ahmed Hilmi Abd al-Baqiwas named Prime Minister. Hilmi's cabinet consisted
largely of relatives and followers of Amin al-Husseini, but also included representatives of other factions of the Palestinian ruling class. Jamal al-Husayni became
foreign minister, Raja al-Husayni became defense minister, Michael Abcarius was finance minister, and Anwar Nusseibeh was secretary of the cabinet. Twelve
ministers in all, living in different Arab countries, headed for Gaza to take up their new positions. The decision to set up the All-Palestine Government made
the Arab Higher Committee irrelevant, but Amin al-Husseini continued to exercise an influence in Palestinian affairs. Jordan's Abdullah retaliated on October 2,
1948 by organizing a Palestinian congress, which countermanded the decision taken in Gaza. Abdullah regarded the attempt to revive al-Husseini's Holy War
Army as a challenge to his authority and on October 3, 1948 his minister of defense ordered all armed bodies operating in the areas controlled by the Arab
Legion to be disbanded. Glubb Pasha carried out the order ruthlessly and efficiently. Nonetheless, Egypt, which manipulated its formation, recognized the All-
Palestine Government on October 12, 1948 followed by Syria and Lebanon on October 13, 1948 Saudi Arabia the 14th and Yemen on the 16th. Iraq's decision
to the same was made formally on the 12th, but was not made public. Both Great Britain and the US backed Jordan, the US saying that the mufti's role in World
War II could be neither forgotten nor pardoned. The sum effect was that: 'The leadership of al-Hajj Amin al-Husayni and the Arab Higher Committee, which
had dominated the Palestinian political scene since the 1920s, was devastated by the disaster of 1948 and discredited by its failure to prevent it.'
The nakba narratives, according to Hillel Cohen, tend to ignore the open resistance to al-Husseini by many influential Palestinians. A member of the Darwish
family on expressing dissent with Husseini's war objective in favour of negotiation was told by the mufti: idha takalam al-seif, uskut ya kalam 'when the sword
talks, there is no place for talking'. Many recalled his policy of assassinating mukhtars in the Revolt of 1936-39 and viewed Husseini and his kind as 'an assembly
of traitors'. Although al-Husseini had been removed from the Supreme Muslim Council and other administrative roles by the British government in 1937, they
did not remove him the post of mufti of Jerusalem. They later explained this as due to the lack of legal procedure or precedent. However, on December 20,
1948, Abdullah announced his replacement as mufti by his long-term rival Husam Al-din Jarallah. The king was assassinated on July 20, 1951, on the eve of
projected secret talks with Israel, by a militant, Mustafa Ashu, of the jihad al-muqaddas, while entering the Haram ash-Sharif to pray. There is no evidence al-
Husseini was involved, though Musa al-Husayni was among the six indicted and executed after a disputed verdict. Abdullah was succeeded by King Talalwho
refused to allow al-Husseini entry into Jerusalem. Abdullah's grandson, Hussein, who had been present at the murder, eventually lifted the ban in 1967, receiving
al-Husseini as an honoured guest in his Jerusalem royal residence after uprooting the PLO from Jordan. The Palestinian Government was entirely relocated to
Cairo in late October 1948 and became a government-in-exile, gradually losing any importance. Having a part in the All-Palestine Government, al-Husseini also
remained in exile at Heliopolis in Egypt throughout much of the 1950s. As before 1948, when the Yishuv believed the ex-Mufti's hand could be detected 'behind
every anti-Jewish pogrom, murder, and act of sabotage', Israel persisted in asserting that al-Husseini was behind many border raids from Jordanian and Egyptian-
held territory, and Egypt expressed a readiness to deport him if evidence were forthcoming to substantiate the charges. The All-Palestine Government was
eventually dissolved in 1959 by Nasser himself, who envisaged a United Arab Republic embracing Syria, Egypt and Palestine. That year he moved to Lebanon.
He refused requests to lend his support to the emergent PLO after the Six Day War of 1967, was opposed to the creation of a Palestinian state on the west Bank
after 1967 and his closest collaborator,Emil Ghuri, continued to work for the Jordanian monarchy even after the massacre of Palestinians there in 1970. Al-
Husseini died in Beirut, on July 4, 1974. He had wished to be buried on the Haram ash-Sharif in Jerusalem. However, Israel had captured East Jerusalem during
the 1967 Six-Day War. The Supreme Muslim Council asked the Israeli government permission to bury him there but permission was refused. Three days later,
al-Husseini was buried in Beirut. Within two years, the Christian Lebanese Phalange sacked his villa, and stole his files and archives. His granddaughter
married Ali Hassan Salameh, the founder of PLO's Black September, who was later killed by Mossad for his involvement in the Munich massacre. According to
Zvi Elpeleg, almost all trace of his memory thereafter vanished from Palestinian awareness, and Palestinians have raised no monument to his memory, or written
books commemorating his deeds. Al-Husseini's first biographer, Moshe Pearlman, described him as virulently antisemitic, as did, a decade and a half
later, Joseph Schechtman. More recent biographers like Mattar and Elpeleg, writing in the late 1980s and early 1990s, began to emphasize his nationalism. While
the Palestinian historian Mattar blames him as the main culprit of sowing the seeds of the Arab-Israeli conflict, Israeli historian Elpeleg compares him to Chaim
Weizmann, David Ben-Gurion, and even to Theodor Herzl. Peter Wien judges that his WW2 behaviour deserved the image among Zionists of him as an 'arch
villain', but adds that Israeli and Zionist leaders have long since used this to denigrate the Palestinian resistance against the Israeli occupation as inspired by
Nazism and anti-semitism. Scholarly opinion is divided on the issue, with many scholars viewing him as a staunch antisemite. while some deny the
appropriateness of the term, or argue that he became antisemitic. Robert Kiely sees Husseini as moving "incrementally toward anti-Semitism as he opposed
Jewish ambitions in the region." Historian Zvi Elpeleg, who formerly governed both the West Bank and the Gaza Strip, while rehabilitating him from other
charges, concludes his chapter concerning al-Husseini's involvement in the extermination of the Jews as follows: '[i]n any case, there is no doubt that Haj Amin's
hatred was not limited to Zionism, but extended to Jews as such. His frequent, close contacts with leaders of the Nazi regime cannot have left Haj Amin any
doubt as to the fate which awaited Jews whose emigration was prevented by his efforts. His many comments show that he was not only delighted that Jews were
prevented from emigrating to Palestine, but was very pleased by the Nazis' Final Solution'. Walter Laqueur, Benny Morris, Klaus-Michael Mallmann and Martin
Cppers are among the historians who share the view that al-Husseini was biased against Jews, not just against Zionists. Morris, for instance, notes that that al-
Husseini saw the Holocaust as German revenge for a putative Jewish sabotaging of their war effort in World War I, and has written that "Haj Amin al-Husseini
was an antisemite. This is clear from his writings. I am not saying he was just an anti-Zionist, he hated the Jews, 'Jews were evil'". In a study dedicated to the role
and use of the Holocaust in Israeli nationalist discourse, Idith Zertal reexamining al-Husseini's antisemitism, states that 'in more correct proportions, [he should
be pictured] as a fanatic nationalist-religious Palestinian leader'. Robert Fisk, discussing the difficulties of describing al-Husseini's life and its motivations,
summarized the problem in the following way: (M)erely to discuss his life is to be caught up in the Arab-Israeli propaganda war. To make an impartial assessment
of the man's career-or, for that matter, an unbiased history of the Arab-Israeli dispute- is like trying to ride two bicycles at the same time.' Gilbert Achcar, one of
the comparatively few anti-Zionist scholars who have documented the historical role of al-Husseini during World War II, sums up al-Husseini's significance: "One
must note in passing that Amin al-Husseini's memoirs are an antidote against Holocaust denial: He knew that the genocide took place and boasted of having been
perfectly aware of it from 1943 on. I believe he is an architect of the Nakba (the defeat of 1948 and the departure of hundreds of thousands of Palestinians who
had been driven out of their lands) in the sense that he bears a share of responsibility for what has happened to the Palestinian people." Peter Novick has argued
that the post-war historiographical depiction of al-Husseini reflected complex geopolitical interests that distorted the record:'The claims of Palestinian complicity
in the murder of the European Jews were to some extent a defensive strategy, a preemptive response to the Palestinian complaint that if Israel was recompensed
for the Holocaust, it was unjust that Palestinian Muslims should pick up the bill for the crimes of European Christians. The assertion that Palestinians were
complicit in the Holocaust was mostly based on the case of the Mufti of Jerusalem, a pre-World War II Palestinian nationalist leader who, to escape
imprisonment by the British, sought refuge during the war in Germany. The Mufti was in many ways a disreputable character, but post-war claims that he played
any significant part in the Holocaust have never been sustained. This did not prevent the editors of the four-volume Encyclopedia of the Holocaust from giving
him a starring role. The article on the Mufti is more than twice as long as the articles on Goebbels and Gring, longer than the articles on Himmler
and Heydrichcombined, longer than the article on Eichmann--of all the biographical articles, it is exceeded in length, but only slightly, by the entry for Hitler.'
[

Ahmed Hilmi Abd al-Baqi (1883 in Sidon - 1963), was a soldier, economist, and politician, who served in various post-Ottoman Empire
governments, and was Prime Minister of the short-lived All-Palestine Government in the Gaza Strip in 1948. Before the collapse of the Ottoman
Empire Hilmi attained the rank of General in the Ottoman army. In 1920 he was Minister of Finance for the short-lived Arab Kingdom of
Syria in Damascus. He subsequently became the finance minister in Transjordan. In 1925, he became the Director General of Awqaf in
Mandatory Palestine, the organisation headed by Haj Amin Husseini, which controlled and regulated properties bequeathed to charities under
Islamic Law. He later began his banking career when he joined the Arab Bank, which had been established in Jerusalem by Abdul Hamid Shoman
in 1930. A few years later Ahmed Hilmi founded his own bank, the Arab National Bank. He was one of the early members of the Istiqlal
(Independence) Party which was set up in 1932 and in April 1936 he was named as a member of the Arab Higher Committee becoming its
treasurer. In 1937 he, along with other members of the Higher Committee not already in exile, was deported to the Seychelles Islands. In 1939 he
was allowed to attend the London Conference at St. James Palace, where he urged the Higher Committee to accept the British proposals later set
out in the 1939 White paper. Regarded by the authorities as a moderate, he was allowed back to Palestine in the early 1940s and resumed his post
as chairman of the National Bank. He purchased the newspaper Filistin and used it to present Istiqlal policies to the public. The war years were very
profitable for the Palestinian economy and the bank had large deposits to invest. In August 1943 he set up the Arab National Fund the purpose of
which was to buy land from farmers who were heavily in dept and to encourage the establishment of Awqaf whose proceeds would be allocated to
the Fund. By the middle of 1946 the Fund had an income of P150,000 and owned 15,000 dunams (3,750 acres) of land. It had offices in all the Arab towns and
in most of the large villages. Since the Supreme Muslim Council had been abolished the Fund was the only institution offering an alternative to land purchases by
the Jewish National Fund. Its success was seen as a threat by followers of the Haj Amin Husseini, who had formed the Palestine Arab Party with most of its
leaders in exile. With the end of the war the fund went into decline. As the situation in Palestine deteriorated, the Arab League tried to impose a united front on
the various Palestinian Arab factions. Eventually in January 1947, after four attempts, a five-member Higher Arab Committee was set up, which included
Hilmi. Husayin al-Khalidi and Hilmi were the only members of this Committee actually resident in Palestine during 1947 and 1948.
[7]
On 9 July 1948, following
the declaration of Israeli statehood, the Arab League set up the Administrative Council for Palestine, chaired by Hilmi. On 22 September the National
Assembly was set up in Gaza, with Haj Amin Husseini as President and Hilmi as Prime Minister. The assembly ceased to function following the Israeli
army victories in Southern Palestine and the Arab Legionassuming control over Bethlehem and Hebron. In 1949 Hilmi became a district military governor in
the West Bank and later he served as the Palestinian representative to the Arab League.


Rasulid Dynasty
The Rasulids ( , Ban Rasl) were a Sunni Muslim dynasty that ruled Yemen from 1229 to 1454. The Rasulids descended from the eponymous Rasul
(his real name is Muhammad ibn Harun), a Turkmen Oghuz chief. Later, they assumed an Arab lineage, claiming descent from an ancient Arabian tribe. Rasul
came to Yemen around 1180 while serving as a messenger for an Abbasid caliph. His son Ali (d. 1217) was governor of Mecca for a time, and his grandson
Umar bin Ali was the first sultan of the Rasulid dynasty. Rasl is Arabic for messenger (although in this context it does not carry the Islamic prophet significance);
during their reign, however, the Rasulids claimed to be descendants of the legendary patriarch Qahtan.
List of Rulers of Rasulid Dynasty
al-Mansur Umar I (died 1249) was ruler of Rasulid Dynasty from 1229 until his death in 1249. Umar bin Ali who nominally acknowledged the Ayyubids of
Egypt during his first years in power. However, he proclaimed himself ruler in his own right in 1235 after receiving a diploma of recognition from the Abbasid
caliph al-Mustansir. As sultan he was called al-Malik al-Mansur I. The regime was in a certain sense a direct continuation of Ayyubid rule, with power based on
the control of military forces and Abbasid approval, rather than acquiescence from the local population. The coastal capital was established in Zabid. However,
al-Malik al-Muzaffar fell victim to internal intrigues in 1249 when his own guards assassinated him at the instigation of his ambitious nephew Asad ad-Din. The
throne was taken over by his son al-Malik al-Muzaffar Yusuf I (1249-1295), under whom the Yemeni kingdom reached its apogee.
al-Muzaffar Yusuf I (died 1295) was a ruler of Rasulid Dynasty from 1249 until his death in 1295. He was son of al-Mansur Umar I founder of Rasulid
Dynasty. He was confirmed Rasulid rule over the Tihama lowland and the southern highlands. San'a, one of the traditional centres of the Zaydiyya imams, was
temporarily occupied, and the imams were defeated on several occasions. The cool mountainous city Ta'izz became the base of the dynasty together with Zabid.
After the fall of Bagdad to the Mongols, al-Malik al-Muzaffar Yusuf appropriated the title of caliph.
al-Ashraf Umar II was a ruler of Rasulid Dynasty from 1295 until 1296.
al-Mu'ayyad Da'ud (died 1322) was a ruler of Rasulid Dynasty from 1296 until his death in 1322.
al-Mujahid Ali (died 1363) was a ruler of Rasulid Dynasty from 1322 until his death in 1363. al-Mujahid Ali based taxes on the average of production
over several years, and deduced the grain to be sown as seed from the taxable produce. While the state model was taken from the Ayyubid state in Egypt, the
Rasulids were more oriented towards trade. The sultans drew much of their income from taxes and custums revenues from the ports. Especially Aden was
important as a port where ships going between the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf and Indian Ocean stopped. Textiles, perfume and spices came from India,
Southeast Asia and China, while slaves, ivory and pepper were brought from Africa.
al-Afdal al-Abbas (died 1377) was a ruler of Rasulid Dynasty from 1363 until his death in 1377.He was the son and successor of sultan al-Mujahid Ali. He
produced a multilingual "dictionary" defining terms in Arabic, Persian language, Turkic, Greek, Armenian, and Mongolian language. He also took measures
against extortion by local bureaucrats in the ports of the kingdom, thereby striving to maintain the attraction of Yemen in the eyes of foreign merchants. When he
stayed in Aden one winter he was "dealing out measures of justice such are not usual. He gave robes of honour to the ship captains, and abolished many things
recently introduced by the collectors of taxes. So the merchants departed recounting his praises and his abundant gifts in all quarters by land and by sea." At his
death in 1377 he was succeeded by his son al-Ashraf Isma'il.
al-Ashraf Isma'il I (died 1400) was a ruler of Rasulid Dynasty from 1377 until his death in 1400.
an-Nasir Ahmad (died 1424) was a ruler of Rasulid Dynasty from 1400 until his death in 1424. He was able to revive the dynasty's declining fortunes and
even received gifts from distant China. After his death in 1424 the dynasty fell into a period of upheaval and weakness, aggravated by the outbreak of the plague.
al-Mansur Abdullah was a ruler of Rasulid Dynasty from 1424 until 1427.
al-Ashraf Isma'il II was a ruler of Rasulid Dynasty from 1427 until 1428.
az-Zahir Yahya was a ruler of Rasulid Dynasty from 1428 until 1439.
al-Ashraf Isma'il III was a ruler of Rasulid Dynasty from 1439 until 1441.
al-Muzaffar Yusuf II was a ruler of Rasulid Dynasty from 1441 until 1454.
al-Afdal Muhammad was a ruler of Rasulid Dynasty in 1442.
an-Nasir Ahmad was a ruler of Rasulid Dynasty in 1442.
al-Mas'ud Abu al-Qasim was a ruler of Rasulid Dynasty from 1443 until 1454. al-Mas'ud Abu al-Qasim gave up his throne in favour of az-Zafir Amir bin
Tahir and withdrew to Mecca.
al-Mu'ayyad Husayn was a ruler of Rasulid Dynasty from 1451 until 1454.

Qutqashen Sultanate
Qutqashen Sultanate (Azerbaijani: Qutqaen sultanl) also known as Qabala mahaly (Azerbaijani: Qbl mahal) was feudal state which existed from the
middle to the end of 18th century in the north of Azerbaijan, in the territories covering the present day Qabala Rayon. Qabala was ancient capital of the
Caucasian Albania. Archeological evidence indicates that the city functioned as the capital of the Caucasian Albania as early as the 4th century BC. Ruins of the
ancient town are in 15 km from regional center, allocated on the territory between Garachay and Jourluchay rivers. Qabala was located in the middle of the 2500
old Silk Road and was mentioned in works of Pliny the Younger as "Kabalaka", Greek geographer Ptolemy as "Khabala", Arabic historian Ahmad ibn Yahya al-
Baladhuri as "Khazar". In the 19th century, the Azerbaijani historian Abbasgulu Bakikhanov mentioned in his book "Gulistani Irem" that Kbala or Khabala were
in fact Qabala. In 60s B.C., Roman troops attacked Caucasian Albania but did not succeed in capturing the Qabala territory. In 262, Caucasian Albania was
occupied by Sassanid Empire but preserved its political and economic status. In 464 AD, lost its independence due to years of invasions from the northern
nomadic tribes and had to move its capital city to Partava (currently Barda in Azerbaijan). Qabala was occupied by Shirvanshah Fariburz, Georgian tsar David III
of Tao in 1120, Mongol khan Timurleng in 1386, Safavid shah Tahmasib I in 1538, Persian Nader Shah in 1734 but was able to preserve its culture and identity.
After the death of Nader Shah in 1747, Azerbaijan split into independent khanates and sultanates and Qabala became a sultanate. It was also called Qabala
Mahali. After Azerbaijan was occupied by Russian Empire in 1813 it conducted administrative reforms and in 1841 Azerbaijani khanates were terminated and
the territories were incorporated into governorates. Qabala sultanate was abolished and area was added to Nukha uyezd of Elisabethpol Governorate. Due to
archeological finds in Qabala, it was declared a National State Reserve in 1985.
List of Rulers of Qutqashen Sultanate
Haji Safi Sultan was a ruler of Qutqashen Sultanate around middle 18th century.
Kalbali Sultan was a ruler of Qutqashen Sultanate from 1750s until 1779.
Haji Nasrullah was a ruler of Qutqashen Sultanate from 1779 until late 18th century.


Alawi Sheikhdom
The Alawi Sheikhdom (Arabic: Mashyakhat al-Alaw), or Alawi (Arabic: Alaw) was a Sheikhdom located in the Adan region of
southwestern Yemen. Its capital was Al Qasha. Alawi was one of the original "Nine Cantons" that signed protectorate agreements with Great Britain. In 1863 it
became part of the larger British Aden Protectorate, coinciding with the opening of the Suez Canal in the same year. In the 1960s it was in the Federation of Arab
Emirates of the South, and its successor, the Federation of South Arabia. The last sheikh, Salih ibn Sayil Al Alawi, was deposed and his state was abolished in
1967 upon the founding of the communist People's Republic of South Yemen (1967-1990). Since 1990 the area is part of the Republic of Yemen.
List of Rulers (Sheiks) of Alawi Sheikhdom
Shaif I al-Alawi was a ruler of Alawi Sheikhdom from 1800 until 1839.
Hilal bin Shaif al-Alawi was a ruler of Alawi Sheikhdom from 1839 until ?.
Shaif II bin Shaif al-Alawi was a ruler of Alawi Sheikhdom from ? until 1875.
Said bin Salih al-Alawi was a ruler of Alawi Sheikhdom from 1875 until 1892.
Shaif III bin Said al-Alawi was a ruler of Alawi Sheikhdom from 1892 until 1898.
Al-Husain bin Salih al-Alawi was a ruler of Alawi Sheikhdom in 1898.
Al bin Nasir al-Alawi was a ruler of Alawi Sheikhdom from 1898 until 1920.
Abd al-Nabi bin Al al-Alawi was a ruler of Alawi Sheikhdom from 1920 until 1925.
Muhsin bin Ali al-Alawi was a ruler of Alawi Sheikhdom from 1925 until 1940.
Salih bin Sayhil al-Alawi was a ruler of Alawi Sheikhdom from 1940 until 1967.

Hubushkia Kingdom
Hubushkia was an Iron Age kingdom located between the Urartian and Assyrian sphere of influence. The exact location of Hubushkia is unknown. The
kingdom appears in the Assyrian annals of the tenth and ninth centuries B.C., which record the names of some kings of Hubushkia, such as Kaki and Data or
Dadi. The Assyrian references primarily record the relations between the Assyrian Empire and Hubushkia during the ninth century. Assyrian expeditions crossed
Hubushkia several times, receiving tribute from its kings, or taking it by force when they resisted. Disputed by Assyria and the kingdom of Urartu, Hubushkia
eventually lost its independence. A position between these contending forces suggests to some scholars that the kingdom of Hubushkia was centred on the
headwaters of the Great Zap River, in what is now Hakkri Province in Eastern Anatolia, Turkey.
List of known Rulers of Hubushkia Kingdom
Kaki was a King of Hubushkia Kingdom in early 10th century BC.
Data or Dadi was a King of Hubushkia Kingdom in late 9th century.




Kalba
Kalba (Arabic: ) is a city in the United Arab Emirates. It is an exclave of the emirate of Sharjah lying on the Gulf of Oman coast north of Oman and south of
the emirate of Fujairah. Khor Kalba (Kalba Creek), a mangrove swamp, is located further south of the town. The town was captured by the Portuguese Empire in
the 16th century and was referred to as Chalba. It was an independent member of the Trucial States of the Coast of Oman from 1903 to 1952. Khor Kalba is
accessible by three roads. The first merges after Wadi al-Haloo ( ) tunnel with Maliha Road ( ) which finally leads to the Sharjah-Kalba Road
(90 km) from Sharjah International Airport. There is also the Fujairah-Kalba road (8 km). The Khor Kalba road extends until the border with Oman, and is one
of the exitentry points between the UAE and Oman. The key tribe that live in Kalba is Al-Zaabi.
List of Rulers of Kalba
Majid ibn Sultan al-Qasimi was a ruler of Kalba from 1871 until 1900.
Hamad ibn Majid al-Qasimi was a ruler of Kalba from 1900 until 1903.
Said ibn Hamad al-Qasimi was a ruler of Kalba from 1903 until 1937.
Hamad ibn Said al-Qasimi was a ruler of Kalba from 1937 until 1951.

Jabal al Druze
Jabal al-Druze (Arabic: ) was an autonomous state in the French Mandate of Syria from 1921 to 1936, designed to function as a government for the
local Druze population under French oversight. On March 4, 1922, it was proclaimed as the State of Souaida, after the capital As-Suwayda, but in 1927 it was
renamed Jabal al-Druze or Jabal Druze State. The name comes from the Jabal al-Druze mountain. The Druze state was formed on May 1, 1921, in
former Ottoman territory, while other statelets were installed in other parts of the Syrian mandate (e.g. the Alawite Statein the Lattakia region). Jabal al-Druze was
home to about 50,000 Druze. It was the first, and remains the only, autonomous entity to be populated and governed by Druze. The 1925 Syrian
Revolution began in Jabal al-Druze under the leadership ofSultan al-Atrash, and quickly spread to Damascus and other non-Druze areas outside the Jabal al-
Druze region. Protests against the division of Syrian territory into statelets were a main theme of Syriananti-colonial nationalism, which eventually won the victory
to reunite the entire French-mandated territory, except Lebanon(which had become independent) and Alexandretta, which was annexed to Turkey as the Hatay
Province. As a result of nationalist pressure, under the Franco-Syrian Treaty of 1936, Jabal al-Druze ceased to exist as an autonomous entity and was
incorporated into Syria.
List of Rulers of Jabal al Druze state
Amir Salim Pasha al-Atrash was the Governor of Jabal al Druze state from May 1, 1921 until September 15, 1923.
Trenga was the provisional Governor of Jabal al Druze state from September 1923 until March 6, 1924.
Gabriel Marie Victor Carbillet (March 6, 1924 - October 14, 1925) was the Governor of Jabal al Druze state from May 1, 1921 until September 15,
1923 (provisional Governor of Jabal al Druze state until October 1, 1923).
Sultan al-Atrash, (March 5, 1891March 26, 1982) (Arabic: ) commonly known as Sultan Pasha al-Atrash
(Arabic: ) was the Chief of Jabal al Druze state in dissidence from July 18, 1925 until June 1, 1927. was a
prominent Arab Druze leader, Syrian nationalist and Commander General of the Syrian Revolution (19251927). He fought against
the Ottomans, French, and even against the Syrian government in its days of dictatorship. One of the most influential figures in Syrian
and Druze history, he played a major role in deciding the destiny of Jabal al-Druze and of Syria in general. Sultan al-Atrash was born
in Al-Qrayya, a village 20 km south of Suwayda known for the famous Druze family of Al-Atrash, which had nominally governed the
region since 1879. His father Zuqan led a fierce battle against the Ottomans near Al-Kefr in 1910, where he faced the forces of Sami
Pasha al-Farouqi. He was captured and later executed in 1911. His son, Mansur al-Atrash was an active member in the Syrian Regional
Branch of the Ba'ath Party until the 1966 Syrian coup d'tat led to the downfall of Michel Aflaq, Salah al-Din al-Bitar, Munif al-
Razzaz and the classical Ba'athists in general. Sami Pasha used military force and trickery and succeeded at last in occupying Jabal el
Druze. He sent hundreds of young Druze to fight in the Balkans, Sultan among them. However, during the first World War, the
Ottomans left Jabal el Druze in peace as they feared rebellion. Sultan was then able to get in touch with Pan-Arab movements and
especially with the Arab Revolt in Hijaz. As the revolt started he raised the Arab flag on the citadel of Salkhad and on his own house.
When Arab forces reached Aqaba, he sent a thousand men to join the revolt. He joined them himself, with another 300 men, when
they reached Bosra. His forces were the first to enter Damascus and raise the Arab revolt flag on the government house on September 29, 1918. Sultan was a
good friend of the Hashemite Emir Faisal, leader of the Arab forces in the revolt, and was awarded the title of Emirand the rank of a General in the Syrian army,
the equivalent of the title of Pasha. Faisal, later king of Iraq, helped Sultan a lot during his years in exile. The newly independent kingdom of Syria didn't survive
for long, as it was occupied by France after the Battle of Maysalun on July 24, 1920. Sultan was gathering his men to fight the French but the quick succession of
events cut his efforts short, as French forces entered Damascus and the country was divided into five states, Jabal el Druze being one of them. On July 7, 1922,
French soldiers captured Adham Khanjar, a Lebanese Shiite rebel who was seeking refuge at Sultan's house while he was away. Khanjar was wanted for
attempting to assassinate General Gouraud. Upon his arrival home, Sultan demanded the release of Khanjar, but the French refused. A few days later, Sultan and
his men attacked a French convoy they thought to transport Khanjar, who was in fact sent to Damascus by airplane. The French responded by destroying his
house and ordering his arrest. Sultan fled to Jordanand subsequently launched raids against French posts. Ten months later, he returned, having been pardoned
by the French. In 1925 Sultan Pasha al-Atrash led a revolt which broke out in the Druze Mountain and spread to engulf the whole of Syria and parts ofLebanon.
This is considered one of the most important revolutions against the French mandate, as it encompassed the whole of Syria and witnessed fierce battles between
rebel and French forces. On August 23, 1925 Sultan Pasha al-Atrash officially declared revolution against France, and soon fighting erupted in Damascus,
Homs and Hama. Al-Atrash won several battles against the French at the beginning of revolution, notably the Battle of al-Kafr on July 21, 1925, the Battle of al-
Mazraa on August 2, 1925, and the battles of Salkhad, Msfirah and as-Suwayda. The Druze were defeated in the latter two battles. After rebel victories against
France, it sent thousands of troops to Syria and Lebanon from Morocco and Senegal, equipped with modern weapons, compared to the few supplies of the
rebels. This dramatically altered the results and allowed the French to regain many cities, although resistance lasted until the spring of 1927. The French
sentenced Sultan al-Atrash to death, but he had escaped with the rebels toTransjordan and was eventually pardoned. He returned to Syria in 1937 after the
signing of the Franco-Syrian Treaty. He was met with a huge public reception. Al-Atrash participated actively in the Independence Intifada in 1945, that led to
Syrian independence. In 1948 he called for the establishment of a unified Arab Liberation Army of Palestine, for which hundreds of young people had already
volunteered and sent to participate in during the 1948 ArabIsraeli War. During the reign of Adib Shishakli, al-Atrash was often harassed because of his
opposition to government policy. He left the Druze Mountain for Jordan in December 1954, and came back when Al-Shishakli's regime fell. Al-Atrash supported
the political union of Egypt and Syria in 1958, and firmly opposed the process of separation in 1961. He is also known for his contributions to social life and
development in the Druze Mountain. Sultan Pasha al-Atrash, is one of the most popular of recently prominent leaders in Arab and Syrian history, especially
among the Druze. Many statues of Al-Atrash exist in main squares on Druze Mountain, and his photos hang in many houses in the region. Al-Atrash is also
prominent in local folklore, including many poems and popular songs. For several reasons the Druze consider him a symbol of patriotism, courage and
secularism: Al-Atrash is known for his secularism when he raised the slogan "Religion is for God, the fatherland is for all" (Ad-dn li-llh wa-l-waan li-l-jam )
when he led the revolution against the French, which involved rebels belonging to many religions. His speeches and publications were entirely devoid of religious
symbols. Al-Atrash strongly rejected the French offer of independence for the Druze Mountain. He demanded a national Syrian unity. He was known for simple
living and humility. Al-Atrash refused to accept any political office after the independence of Syria in 1946. During the period of Syrian-Egyptian unity, on a visit
to the Suwayda province President Gamal Abdel Nasser honored Sultan Pasha al-Atrash by awarding him the highest medal of the United Arab Republic. In
1970, Syrian President Hafez al-Assad honored Sultan Pasha al-Atrash for his historic role in the Syrian Revolution. Sultan Pasha al-Atrash died on March 26,
1982 from a heart attack. His funeral was attended by more than a million people, and the President of Syrian Arab Republic Hafez al-Assad issued an individual
letter mourning al-Atrash as the General Commander of the Syrian Revolution.
Charles Andra was the Governor of Jabal al Druze state from October 15, 1925 until 1927.
Marie Joseph Lon Augustin Henry was the Governor of Jabal al Druze state in 1927.
Abel Jean Ernest Clment-Grancourt was the Governor of Jabal al Druze state from 1927 until 1932.
Renaud Massiet was the Governor of Jabal al Druze state from February 2, 1932 until January 28, 1934.
Devicq was the Governor of Jabal al Druze state from 1934 until 1935.
Tarit was the Governor of Jabal al Druze state from 1935 until December 2, 1936.

Lower Aulaqi Sultanate
Lower Aulaqi (Arabic: Awlaq al-Sufl), or the Lower Aulaqi Sultanate (Arabic: Salanat al-Awlaq al-Sufl), was a state in
the Aden Protectorate, the Federation of Arab Emirates of the South, and its successor, the Federation of South Arabia. Its capital was Ahwar. The Lower Aulaqi
sultans separated from the Upper Aulaqi Sultanate in the 18th century (Upper Aulaqi Sheikhdom separated around the same time). In the late 19th century, the
area came under British influence and eventually became a constituent of the Aden Protectorate. The sultanate joined the Federation of Arab Emirates of the
South in February 1960 and the Federation of South Arabia in January 1963. It was abolished in 1967 and the last sultan, Nasir ibn Aidrus Al Awlaqi along with
Prince Ali Abdullah the Governor, were imprisoned upon the founding of the People's Republic of South Yemen. The area is now part of the Republic
of Yemen.
List of Rulers of Lower Aulaqi Sultanate
`Ali ibn Munassar al-`Awlaqi was a ruler of Lower Aulaqi Sultanate in the second half 18th century.
al-Mahdi ibn `Ali al-`Awlaqi was a ruler of Lower Aulaqi Sultanate in the second half 18th century.
`Ali ibn al-Mahdi al-`Awlaqi was a ruler of Lower Aulaqi Sultanate in early18th century.
`Abd Allah ibn `Ali al-`Awlaqi was a ruler of Lower Aulaqi Sultanate in the first half 19th century.
Nasir ibn Abi Bakr al-`Awlaqi was a ruler of Lower Aulaqi Sultanate around middle 18th century.
Munassar ibn Abi Bakr al-`Awlaqi was a ruler of Lower Aulaqi Sultanate from 1855 until 1863.
Abu Bakr ibn `Abd Allah al-`Awlaqi was a ruler of Lower Aulaqi Sultanate from 1863 until 1892.
Salih ibn `Ali al-`Awlaqi was a ruler of Lower Aulaqi Sultanate from 1892 until 1900.
`Ali ibn Munassar al-`Awlaqi was a ruler of Lower Aulaqi Sultanate from 1900 until 1902.
Nasir ibn Abi Bakr al-`Awlaqi was a ruler of Lower Aulaqi Sultanate from 1902 until 1912.
Abu Bakr ibn Nasir al-`Awlaqi was a ruler of Lower Aulaqi Sultanate from 1912 until 1924.
Munassar ibn `Ali al-`Awlaqi was a ruler of Lower Aulaqi Sultanate from 1924 until 1930.
`Aydarus ibn `Ali al-`Awlaqi was a ruler of Lower Aulaqi Sultanate from 1930 until 1947.
Nasir ibn `Aydarus al-`Awlaqi was a ruler of Lower Aulaqi Sultanate from 1947 until 1967.

Upper Aulaqi Sultanate
The Upper Aulaqi Sultanate (Arabic: Salanat al-Awlaq al-Uly) was a state in the British Aden Protectorate and the Federation of South
Arabia. Its capital wasNisab. The Lower Aulaqi sultans separated from the Upper Aulaqi in the 18th century. In the late 19th century, the area came
under British influence and eventually became a constituent of the Aden Protectorate. The Upper Aulaqi Sultanate joined the Federation of South Arabia in
June 1964. The last sultan was Sultan Awad ibn Salih Al Awlaqi.
List of Rulers of Upper Aulaqi Sultanate
Munassar bin Abu Bakr was a ruler of Upper Aulaqi Sultanate from ? until 1839.
Farid ibn Munassar was a ruler of Upper Aulaqi Sultanate during 1840s.
Abd Allah ibn Farid was a ruler of Upper Aulaqi Sultanate from ? until 1862.
Awad ibn `Abd Allah was a ruler of Upper Aulaqi Sultanate from 1862 until 1979.
Abd Allah ibn `Awad was a ruler of Upper Aulaqi Sultanate from 1879 until 1887.
Salih ibn `Abd Allah was a ruler of Upper Aulaqi Sultanate from 1887 until 1935.
Awad ibn Salih Al Awlaqi was a ruler of Upper Aulaqi Sultanate from 1935 until 1967.

Audhali Sultanate
Audhali (Arabic: al-Awdhal or al-Awdhal), or the Audhali Sultanate (Arabic: Salanat al-Awdhal), was a state in
the British Aden Protectorate. It was a founding member of theFederation of Arab Emirates of the South in 1959 and its successor, the Federation of South
Arabia, in 1963. Its capital was Zarah. Its last sultan, Salih ibn al Husayn ibn Jabil Al Audhali, was deposed and his state was abolished in 1967 upon the founding
of the People's Republic of South Yemen and the area is now part of the Republic of Yemen.
List of Rulers (Sultans) of Audhali Sultanate
Salih al-`Awdhali Ibn al-Awsaji was a ruler of Audhali Sultanate from 1750 until 1780.
Ja`bil ibn Salih al-`Awdhali ibn al-Awsaji was a ruler of Audhali Sultanate from 1780 until 1820.
Ahmad ibn Salih al-`Awdhali ibn al-Awsaji was a ruler of Audhali Sultanate from 1820 until 1870.
Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-`Awdhali ibn al-Awsaji was a ruler of Audhali Sultanate from 1870 until 1890.
Hamid ibn Ja`bil al-`Awdhali ibn al-Awsaji was a ruler of Audhali Sultanate from 1890 until 1900.
al-Qasim ibn Hamid al-`Awdhali ibn al-Awsaji was a ruler of Audhali Sultanate from 1900 until 1928.
Salih ibn al-Husayn ibn Ja`bil al-`Awdhali ibn al-Awsaji was a ruler of Audhali Sultanate from 1928 until 1967.
Muhammad Ja`bil was regent of Audhali Sultanate from 1928 until ?.

Maflahi
Maflahi, Muflahi (Arabic: Mufla), or the Muflahi Sheikhdom (Arabic: Mashyakhat al-Mufla), was a state in the British Aden
Protectorate. It was originally one of the five sheikhdoms of Upper Yafa but joined the Federation of South Arabia and its successor, the Federation of South
Arabia, as a separate state. Its last sheikh, Kassim Abdulrahaman Al-Muflahi, was deposed in 1967 upon the founding of the People's Republic of South
Yemen and the area is now part of the Republic of Yemen. Although most of the Al Maflahi family members still reside in Yemen, some members of the family
migrated north of the Arabian peninsula in the early 1960s by settling into countries such as Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, United Arab Emirates and Qatar. Recently,
many have moved to western countries, such as The United Kingdom and The United States of America (Predominantly in the Metro Detroit area).
List of known Rulers of Maflahi Sheikhdom
al-Qasim al-Sakkaf was a ruler of Maflahi Sheikhdom from 1850 until 1885.
Abd al-Rahman ibn al-Qasim al-Sakkaf was a ruler of Maflahi Sheikhdom from 1885 until 1920.
al-Qasim ibn `Abd al-Rahman was a ruler of Maflahi Sheikhdom from 1920 until 1967.

Qutaibi
Qutaibi (Arabic: Quayb) or the Qutaibi Sheikhdom (Arabic: Mashyakhat al-Quayb) was a polity in the western Aden Protectorate. It
was a dependency of the Emirate of Dhala and is now part of the Republic of Yemen. In 1964, during the Aden Emergency, Qutaibi tribesmen attacked
British troops in the Radfan Hills area and became known as the "Red Wolves" for their ferocity in combat.
List of known Rulers of Qutaibi Sheikhdom
Ghalib al-Buzah was a ruler of Qutaibi Sheikhdom during 1960s. He was gave a lot of anguish Emirs from Dhala who have unsuccessfully tried to increase
its influence in that part of their emirates, but also the British soldiers. And after his execution, the resistance has not stopped leaderrship took his son Balilla al-
Buzah, because of their courage Kutaibi tribe called the Red Wolves.
Balilla al-Buzah was a ruler of Qutaibi Sheikhdom from 1964 until 1967. His tribe was called out for his courage the Red Wolves. Sheikdom Kutaibi existed
until in 1967 when it was abolished, and was founded People's Republic of South Yemen.


Sheikhdom of Shaib
Shaib (Arabic: Shuayb), or the Sheikhdom of Shaib (Arabic: Mashyakhat ash-Shuayb), was a state in the British Aden Protectorate,
the Federation of Arab Emirates of the South, and its successor, the Federation of South Arabia. Its last sheikh, Yahya Mohamed Al-Kholaqi Al-Saqladi, died in
Jeddah Saudi Arabia July 2001. He was exiled in 1967 upon the founding of the People's Republic of South Yemen and the area is now part of the Republic
of Yemen.
List of Rulers (Sheiks) of Shaib Sheikhdom
Mani` al-Saqladi was a ruler of Shaib Sheikhdom from 1850 until 1880.
Ali ibn Mani` al-Saqladi was a ruler of Shaib Sheikhdom from 1880 until 1915.
Mutahhar ibn Mani` al-Saqladi was a ruler of Shaib Sheikhdom from 1915 until 1935.
Muhammad ibn Muqbil al-Saqladi was a ruler of Shaib Sheikhdom from 1935 until 1948.
Kassem ibn Mused ibn Ali al-Saqladi was a ruler of Shaib Sheikhdom from 1958 until 1954.
Yahya ibn Muhammad al-Saqladi was a ruler of Shaib Sheikhdom from 1955 until 1963.
Nashir ibn `Abd Allah al-Saqladi was a ruler of Shaib Sheikhdom from 1963 until his death in 1965.
Yahya ibn Mutahhar al-Saqladi was a ruler of Shaib Sheikhdom from 1965 until 1967.

The State of Aleppo
The State of Aleppo (19201924; French: tat d'Alep; Arabic: Daoulet Halab ) was one of the five states that were established by the French High
Commissioner in Syria and Lebanon General Henri Gouraud in the French Mandate of Syria which followed the San Remo conference and the collapse of King
Faisal I's short-lived monarchy in Syria. The other states were the State of Damascus (1920), the State of Alawites (1920) and the State of Jabal Druze (1921). The
State of Greater Lebanon (1920) became later the modern country of Lebanon. The capital of the State of Aleppo was Aleppo.
List of Governors of the State of Aleppo
Kamil Pasha al-Qudsi (18451926) was the Governor of the State of Aleppo from 1920 until 1922.
Mustafa Bey Barmada (18831953) was the Governor of the State of Aleppo in 1923.
Mar'i Pasha Al Mallah (18561930) was the Governor of the State of Aleppo from 1924 until 1925.Al-Mallah was born in
Aleppo. He graduated from the Galatasaray Mekteb-i Sultanisi (Galatasaray Imperial School) in Constantinople, in 1876. Al-Mallah
held major positions in Aleppo under the Ottoman (Turks), including: President of the Mixed Commercial Court (18851897); Mayor
of Aleppo (18991900); District Attorney (19051906); Chairman of the Agro-Bank (19061907) and Director of Endowments (1909
1911). He was also Privy to Otoman Sultan Abdulhamid II. He represented Aleppo in the Ottoman Parliament of 1908, and served as
the last Ottoman Interim Governor of the Province of Aleppo.Following the Ottoman collapse, al-Mallah contributed to the foundation
of the first modern Arab state in Syria under King Faysal I, and was elected Deputy Speaker of the Syrian National Congress (1919
1920). Finally, he was named Governor General of the State of Aleppo (19241926) under the French Mandate of Syria. Al-Mallah
acquired the rank of Beylerbey, which corresponds to the rank of "Lieutenant General," from Sultan Abdulhamid II and was awarded
several Ottoman, French and Syrian decorations. Al-Mallah was a man of liberal views, open to western ideas and thought, proficient in
Turkish, Persian, Arminian and French. He particularly loved photography, and used to keep massive albums featuring Ottoman and
European royalty, politicians, writers and musicians. He was also noted for his collection of rare and antiquarian books and manuscripts, which he made available
to scholars and researchers by dedicating them to the "Islamic Endowments Library of Aleppo," and the "Library of the Arab Academy" in Damascus. Al-Mallah
was described by a fellow historian Sheikh Kamil al-Ghazzi as "the leading notable of Aleppo". Moreover, his biography appeared in a number of books, and was
also cited in a dozens of historical works on Aleppo and modern Syria written by noted Arab and western scholars. His name also appeared in the memoirs of
Syrian politicians as well as the accounts of Arab and western travelers, including the late Crown Prince Mohammed Ali Tewfik of Egypt, who visited Syria before
the outbreak of World War I, and the memoirs of Lady Gertrude Bell.


Principality of Bahdinan
Bahdinan or Badinan (13761843) was one of the most powerful and enduring Kurdish principalities. It was founded by Baha-al-Din originally from emznan
area in Hakkari in sometime between 13th or 14th century CE. The capital of this emirate was Amadiya for a long time. The rulers of the Bahdinan emirate
claim descent from the Abbasid Caliphate, an early dynasty in Islamic history. It was centered in the town of Amadiya in the present-day Dahuk province in Iraqi
Kurdistan. The principality also included Akra to the east and Zakho to the west. The principality reached its peak during the reign of Bahram Pasha the Great
(re. 17261767). Threatened by the expansionist and centralizing efforts of the Ottoman and Safavid empires, Bahdinan princes were drawn into prolonged
confrontations with these two rival powers. The Bahdinan rulers, Esamil Pasha and Mohammad Said Pasha were deposed by the emir of the neighboring Soran
principality in 1832. However, their rule was restored after the Ottomans defeated Soran in 1834. Although the Soran influence lasted only for a few years, the
Bahdinan principality never fully recovered. Pursuing their centralization policy, the Ottomans overthrew the Bahdinan principality in 1843 (or 1838) and
incorporated it in the Sandjak of Mosul.
List of known Rulers of the Kurdish Principality of Bahdinan (Badinan)
Baha-al-Din was the founder of the Kurdish Principality of Bahdinan (Badinan) sometime between 13th or 14th century.
Bahram Pasha the Great was a ruler of the Kurdish Principality of Bahdinan (Badinan) from 1726 until 1767.
Esamil Pasha was a ruler of the Kurdish Principality of Bahdinan (Badinan) in the first half 19th century.The Bahdinan rulers, Esamil Pasha and Mohammad
Said Pasha were deposed by the emir of the neighboring Soran principality in 1832. However, their rule was restored after the Ottomans defeated Soran in 1834.
Mohammad Said Pasha was a ruler of the Kurdish Principality of Bahdinan (Badinan) in the first half 19th century.The Bahdinan rulers, Esamil Pasha and
Mohammad Said Pasha were deposed by the emir of the neighboring Soran principality in 1832. However, their rule was restored after the Ottomans defeated
Soran in 1834.

Principality of Bitlis
Principality of Bitlis (11821847), was a Kurdish principality originated from the Rojaki (or Rozagi) tribal confederation. The Rojaki defeated the Georgian
King David the Curopalate and conquered Bitlis and Sasun in the 10th century. The principality occasionally came under the rule of outsiders, such
as Akkoyunlu (from 1467 to 1495) and Safavids (from 1507 to 1514). After the decline of Akkoyunlu, the Rojaki princes asserted their independence. Until
1596, eighteen Rojaki princes ruled the principality. In 1531, the Rojaki prince Sharaf Khan changed his allegiance to Safavids and in 1532 he was killed
by Olama Takkalu. The famous Kurdish historian, Sharaf al-Din (commonly known as Sharaf Khan Bidlisi) was the son of Shams al-Din the prince of Bitlis and
grandson of Sharaf Khan. Shams Al-Din fled his principality due to pressure from Suleiman I and took refuge in Persia in the court of Shah Tahmasp I. His
son, Sharaf Al-Din was born in 1533 and was raised in the Safavid court. During the reign of Shah Isma'il II, he fell under suspicion and was sent to exile
in Nakhichevan. He escaped to Van and was appointed as the prince of Bitlis by Murad III in 1583. The Rojaki rulers maintained their relative independence
during the long rivalry between Ottomans and Safavids. In mid 17th century, Abdal Khan was the ruler of the principality. He has been described by
the French traveller Jean-Baptiste Tavernier, as the most powerful Kurdish prince. According to him, Abdal Khan was independent and did not acknowledge the
Safavid or Ottoman states.Evliya elebi has praised Abdal Khan as a renaissance prince and master of a thousand arts.
List of known Rulers of Kurdish Principality of Bitlis
Shamsaddin Batlisi was a ruler of the Kurdish Principality of Bitlis in the 16th century.
Sharaf Khan Bidlisi or Sharaf al-Din Bitlisi (Kurdish: , erefxan Bedls . died 1603) (Persian:
) was a medieva lKurdish Emir of the Kurdish Principality of Bitlis in the second half 16th century until his death in 1603. But he is
more known as a historian, writer and poet. He wrote exclusively in Persian.Born in the Garmrood village, in central Iran, between Arak
and Qom, at a young age he was sent to the Safavid's court and obtained his education there. He is the author of one of the most
important works on medieval Kurdish history, written in 1597, Sharafnama. He created a good picture of Kurdish life and Kurdish
dynasties in the 16th century in his works. Outside Iran and Kurdish-speaking countries, Sharaf Khan Bidlisi has had an impact on
Kurdish literature and societies through the translation of his works by other scholars. He was also a gifted artist, and a well educated man
excelling as much in mathematics and military strategy, as he did in history. Sharaf Khan Bidlisi was born in February 25, 1543, in the
Markazi province, Iran in the Garmrood village, during the exile of his father. The Rojaki dynasty, which had ruled intermittently as an
independent emirate from their capital of Bitlis since at least the 9th century, and therefore, he never took up the common tribal title of
Khan, preferring instead the royal title of emir or mir, prince. He was most commonly known as, Mir Sharaf (Prince Sharaf). Later his family was taken
under protection of the Safavid dynasty. He was schooled at Tahmasb's court, and wrote in 1596: "When I turned nine (in 1551) I entered the private harem
(haram-i khass)... for three years (1551-1554) I served the family (Silsila) of that refined (pakiza atvar) shah as a page at the inner palace." Sharaf Khan Bidlisi
Bedls speaks of his education entailing instruction in the Quran, readings in on the principles of the shari'a, a piety and purity. Due to Shah Tahmasb's religious
disposition, Bidlisi was introduced to religious scholars, who warned him against evil people, and instead encouraged friendship with the virtuous. And once
Bidlisi attained maturity, he was thought the martial arts (sipahigira), archery, polo, racing, swordmanship, and the precepts of chivalry - humanism and
generosity. In 1576 Tahmasb of the Safavids gives him the title the Mir of Mirs; appoints him leader of all Iranian Kurdish tribes. He accepts his title, but only
two years later, Sharafkhanabandons his previous stand, and supports the Ottomans in their war against the Iranians, offering them 400 soldiers. Between 1578
and 1588, Sharafkhan virtually led all the Ottoman wars against the Persians. Sultan Murad III, the Ottoman Sultan, grants Sharafkhan the title of Khan. He
becomes the Mir of the Batlisi province. As he turned 53, Sharafkhan gave the authority of his dynasty to his son Shamsaddin Bag Abu Alma'ali. He was thinking
for a long time to write a book about Kurdish history, and finally in 1597 Sharaf Khan Bidlisi started his composition of his epic, Sharafnama. The Sharafnama
divides its history into four parts. The first one deals with the five Kurdish dynasties that have enjoyed status as royalty (Saltant): the Marwanids of Amed,
theHasanwayhids of Dinavar and Sharizur, the Fadluyids of the Great Lur, the princes of little Lur, and finally, Saladin the Great and the Ayyubids. The second
part lists dynasties that have had coin struck and the khutba recited in their names. (The Khutba is a religious invacation pronounced at the Friday day prayers
meeting that mentions the Prophet, the first four caliphs and the current rulers). The third part numbers the families of the hereditary governors, while the fourth
details the history of the mirs of Bitilis. He wrote his works in Persian, and it was not until 1879 that it was translated into Kurdish (Kurmanji) by
the Kurdish polymath Mahmud Bayazidi (17971859). Its hand-written version is preserved in the Russian National Library, and was published for the first time
in 1986. In 1972, the Sorani version of Sharafnama was written for the first time by the late Kurdish scholar Abdurrahman Sharafkandi (19201991), also known
as Mamosta Hajar. In 18731875, the French scholar Franois Charmoy translated Sharafnama from Persian into French and published it in Saint Petersburg,
in Russia. Among many other languages, Sharafname has been translated into Arabic, English, Turkic languages, Russian, Greekand Armenian. He died in his
own principality (Emirate of Bitlis) in 1603 at the age of 60, and left thousands of writings. Being one of the oldest books ever written by a Kurd, the creation
of Sharafnama is a turning point in the history of Kurds and their rich culture. The fact that a Kurd, for the first time, put Kurdish culture under a spotlight is of
special importance in contrast to other studies that were done before Sharafnama. Bidlisi has a unique place in Kurdish history. After his Sharafnama, a number
of copies and other works similar in nature surfaced over the centuries within the cultural sphere on rich Kurdish history. In the text of the Sharafnama, the
empires of the Kurds parallel those of the Arabs, Persians and Turks, some, according to Bitlisi, reaching back over 4,000 years. Sharaf khan's Sharafnama is
today safely kept in Oxford. During the unterwar period from 1918 to 1939
[
, the Kurds in Turkey and the Soviet Union were victims of forced assimilation. It
was also during that period that the Soviet Union wanted to make better relations with Kemal Ataturk and his new Turkish state, by declaring the Kurdish ruler
and historian Sharaf Khan Bidlisi to have been an ethnicAzeri Turk. To even this day, the Republic of Azerbaijan deny the fact that he was of Kurdish origin, and
claim he was a proud Turk. This conjecture is however not supported by any modern scholars or historians, who consider him Father of Medieval Kurdish
history.
Shamsaddin Bag Abu Alma'ali was a ruler of the Kurdish Principality of Bitlis in the first half 17th century.

Kurdish Republic of Ararat
The Republic of Ararat or Kurdish Republic of Ararat was a self-proclaimed Kurdish state. It was located in eastern Turkey, being centered on Karakse
Province. Agir is the Kurdish name for Ararat. The Republic of Ararat led by the central committee of Xoybn party (founded by Kurds and Armenians)
declared independence on October 28, 1927 or 1928, during a wave of rebellion among Kurds in southeastern Turkey. The Ararat rebellion was led by
General Ihsan Nuri Pasha. In October 1927, Kurd Ava or Kurdava, a village nearMount Ararat was designated as the provisional capital of Kurdistan. Xoybn
made appeals to the Great Powers and theLeague of Nations, and also sent messages to other Kurds in Iraq and Syria to ask for co-operation. The Turkish
military subsequently defeated the Republic of Ararat in September 1930.
President of Kurdish Republic of Ararat
Ibrahim Heski or Ibrahim Pasha Haski Tello (Kurdish: Biroy Hesk Tl; died July 25, 1931, Siah Cheshmeh, West Azarbaijan province, Iran) was the
President of Kurdish Republic of Ararat from October 27, 1927 until September 1930. He was a Kurdish Jalali tribesman, soldier and politician. His father's
name is Hesk and mother's name is Tl. He was a member of the Hesesori tribe which is one of the blanch of Jalali tribe. Different sources mentioned him as
"Ibrahim Agha", "Ibrahim Pasha", "Heskizde Ibrahim", "Brho", "Bro Haski Tello", "Bro Haski Talu" and so on. British author and adventurer Rosita
Forbes described him as the hero of the region was a wild and gallant freebooter called Ibrahim Agha Huske Tello. During World War I, he fought
against Russian troops. In 1925, he participated in Sheikh Said Rebellion. And after the failure of the rebellion, he fled to Mount Ararat. In 1926, he
commanded Hesenan, Jalali, Haydaran tribes and started First Ararat Rebellion (May 16 - June 17, 1926). On 16 May, 1925 Kurdish forces fought against the
28th Infantry Regiment of the 9th Infantry Division of Turkish Army and aGendarmerie regiment in Demirkap region. Turkish troops were defeated and
scattered 28th Regiment had to retreat towards Doubeyazt. On June 16/17, Ibrahim and his forces were surrounded by 28th and 34th regiments, but they could
escape through Yukar Demirkap to Iran. On October 28, 1927, Xoybn proclaimed the Independent Kurdistan. Ibrahim became the President of
the Republic of Ararat was appointed the governor of the Agir Province of Kurdistan by Xoybn. His sons Ilhami, Omer, Davut and his brothers Ahmed, Eyub
participated in Ararat rebellion. Ahmed was killed in action and their 100-year-old mother was shot and killed by the Turkish Army. After Ararat rebellion, he
had to retreat to Iran with his men. In 1931, intense fighting broke out in the vicinity of Maku between Persian troops and Kurds. The 2nd Brigade of Azerbaijan
Division commanded by Colonel Mohammad Ali Khanengaged and Colonel Kalb Ali Khan was sent from Tabriz and Ardabil with reinforcements. On July 25,
1931 while fighting in the vicinity of Qara Aineh, Persian Colonel Kalb Ali Khan was killed in action and Kurds lost three or four important leaders, including
Ibrahim and his brother.

Principality of Bohtan
Bohtan (also Botan, Bokhan, Bokhti) also known as Cizre Botan (Jazira Botan) was a medieval Kurdish principality in the Ottoman Empire centered on the town
of Jazirah ibn 'Omar (modern Cizre) in southeastern Anatolia. Bohtanis were an ancient and prominent branch of the Kurds that claimed descent from Khalid
ibn al-Walid. Yazidi became the official religion of Jazira in the 14th century.[The Bokhtis are mentioned by Herodotus as inhabiting eastern Anatolia and
forming thirteenth Achaemenid district, (together with Armenia). Furthermore, Vladimir Minorsky connects Bukhtis with Haftanbokht, a Parthian ruler of
Kermanshah region. In the early 8th century Bukhtis and Bajnawi Kurds ruled the area surrounding Sinjar and Jazira mountains known under name Zozan by
Arab geographers. Yaqoot Hamawi describes their residing area to be from Ikhlat to Salmas which included many strongholds belonging to Bokhtis; he also
mentioned town of Jardhakil as their capital. The emirate lost its independence and was directly governed by the Ottomans in 1847 following the massacres of
Badr Khan. The main branches of Bukhtis were Brasbi, Dasni and Sindi. According to Sharafkhan Bidlisi in his time some Bukhtis followed Yazidi faith,
furthermore he states that previously Bukhtis were among the Kurdish groups who were fully Yazidi.
List known Rulers of the Kurdish Principality of Bohtan
Sulayman bin Khalid was the founder of the Kurdish Principality of Bohtan in late 14th century. When he died, the principality was divided between his three
sons: Mir Abd al- Aziz Cizre, Halid Beg Gurgil I and Mir Abdal Finik.
Mir Abd al- Aziz Cizre was a ruler of the Kurdish Principality of Bohtan in the first half 15th century.
Halid Beg Gurgil I was a ruler of the Kurdish Principality of Bohtan in the first half 15th century.
Mir Abdal Finik was a ruler of the Kurdish Principality of Bohtan in the first half 15th century.
Badr Khan was last ruler of the Kurdish Principality of Bohtan in the first half 19th century until 1847.

Dathina
Dathina (Arabic: Dathnah), the Dathina Sheikhdom (Arabic: Mashyakhat Dathnah), or sometimes the Dathina Confederation, was a state in
the British Aden Protectorate, the Federation of Arab Emirates of the South, and its successor, the Federation of South Arabia. It was abolished in 1967 upon
the founding of the People's Republic of South Yemen and is now part of the Republic of Yemen.
List of known Rulers (Sheikhs) of Dathina
al-Husayn ibn Mansur al-Jabiri was a ruler of Dathina Sheikhdom from 1965 until April 6, 1966.
Abd al-Qadir ibn Shaya was a ruler of Dathina Sheikdom from 1966 until August 14, 1967.


Elipi
Ellipi was an ancient kingdom located on the western side of the Zagros (modern Iran), between Babylonia at the west, Media at the north east, Mannae at the
north and Elam at the south. The inhabitants of Ellipi were close relatives of the Elamites. The period of major development in Ellipi was from the 9th to 7th
centuries BC, as is reflected in archaeological research. The prosperity of the country came from the control oftrade routes. They were also cattle dealers. During
the 8th and 7th centuries BC it was ruled by an Iranicized dynasty. Dalta, or Talta, king of Ellipi, paid tribute to King Sargon II of Assyria since 714 BC. When
Dalta died, his sons Nibe, supported by Elam, and Ishparaba, supported by Sargon II, started a civil war with Ishparaba winning and becoming king of Ellipi.
Afterwards, Ellipi was implicated in being involved in the rebellions of Marduk-apal-iddina II and was strongly punished in 702 BC by king Sennacherib of
Assyria, who took Marubishti, the capital city. During the 7th century BC, Ellipi suffered Cimmerian invasions, and then disappeared from sources.
List of known Rulers of Dalta
Dalta or Talta was the king of Ellipi Kingdom in early 8th century BC. He was paid tribute to King Sargon II of Assyria since 714 BC.
IIshparaba was the king of Elipi Kingdom in early 8th century BC and late 7th century BC. When Dalta died, his sons Nibe, supported by Elam, and
Ishparaba, supported by Sargon II, started a civil war with Ishparaba winning and becoming king of Ellipi.

Hatay State
Hatay State (Turkish: Hatay Devleti, French: tat du Hatay, Arabic: Dawlat Hatay), also known informally as theRepublic of Hatay, was a transitional
political entity that existed from September 7, 1938, to June 29, 1939, in the territory of the Sanjak of Alexandretta of the French Mandate of Syria. The state was
transformed de jure into the Hatay Province on July 7, 1939, and joined Turkey de facto on July 23, 1939. Hatay Province includes districts of Erzin, Drtyol
and Hassa in addition to former Hatay State territories.
List of Rulers (President and Prime Minister) of the Hatay State
Tayfur Skmen (18921980) was the President of the Hatay State from September 5, 1938 until July 23, 1939.


Abdurrahman Melek (1896 - 1978) was the Prime Minister of the Republic of Hatay from September 5, 1938 until July 23, 1939.




Haushabi Sultanate
Haushabi (Arabic: al-awshab or Arabic: al-awshab), or the Haushabi Sultanate (Arabic: Salanat al-awshab), was one of the
original "Nine Cantons" that signed protection agreements with Great Britain in the late 19th century and became part of the British Aden Protectorate. The state
later joined the Federation of Arab Emirates of the South, and its successor, the Federation of South Arabia. Its capital was Musaymir. Its last sultan, Faisal bin
Surur Al Haushabi, was deposed and his state was abolished in 1967 upon the founding of the People's Republic of South Yemen and the area is now part of the
Republic of Yemen.
List of Rulers (Sultans) of Haushabi Sultanate
al-Fajjar al-Hawshabi was a ruler of Haushabi Sultanate from ? until 1730.
Sultan al-Hawshabi was a ruler of Haushabi Sultanate from ? until 1800.
Mani` ibn Sallam al-Hawshabi was a ruler of Haushabi Sultanate from 1839 until 1858.
`Ubayd ibn Yahya al-Hawshabi was a ruler of Haushabi Sultanate from 1858 until 1863.
`Ali ibn Mani` I al-Hawshabi was a ruler of Haushabi Sultanate from 1863 until 1886.
Muhsin ibn `Ali I al-Hawshabi was a ruler of Haushabi Sultanate from 1886 until 1894.
al-Fadl ibn `Ali was a ruler of Haushabi Sultanate from 1894 until 1895.
Muhsin ibn `Ali I al-Hawshabi was a ruler of Haushabi Sultanate from 1895 until 1904.
`Ali ibn Mani` II al-Hawshabi was a ruler of Haushabi Sultanate from 1904 until 1922.
Muhsin ibn `Ali II al-Hawshabi was a ruler of Haushabi Sultanate from 1922 until ?.
as-Surur ibn Muhammad al-Hawshabi was a ruler of Haushabi Sultanate in the first half 20th century.
Muhammad ibn as-Surur al-Hawshabi (died 1955) was a ruler of Haushabi Sultanate from 1947 until his death in 1955.
Faysal ibn as-Surur al-Hawshabi was a ruler of Haushabi Sultanate from 1955 until 1967.

Wahidi Sultanate of Azzan
Wahidi Azzan, officially the Wahidi Sultanate of Azzan, was one of four Wahidi sultanates in the area that eventually became the Aden Protectorate. It was
established in 1830 and existed until May 4, 1881, when it became a part of Wahidi Balhaf.
List of Rulers of Wahidi Sultanate of Azzan
Ali ibn Ahmad al-Wahidi was a ruler of Wahidi Sultanate of Azzan from 1830 until ?.
Muhsin ibn Ali al-Wahidi was a ruler of Wahidi Sultanate of Azzan from 1850 until 1870.
Abd Allah ibn Umar al-Wahidi was a ruler of Wahidi Sultanate of Azzan from 1870 until 1885 and ruler of Wahidi Sultanate of Balhaf from 1881 until
1885.
Abd Allah ibn Salih al-Wahidi was a ruler of Wahidi Sultanate of Azzan from January 1 until January 30, 1885.

Wahidi Sultanate of Balhaf
Wahidi Balhaf (Arabic: Wid Blf), or the Wahidi Sultanate of Balhaf (Arabic: Salanat al-Wid Blf), was one of
several Wahidi states in the British Aden Protectorate. It was also part of the Federation of Arab Emirates of the South, and its successor, theFederation of South
Arabia when it was known simply as Wahidi. Its capital was Balhaf on the Gulf of Aden coast and it included the inland town ofAzzan (formerly the seat of a
separate Wahidi Sultanate of Azzan). It was abolished in 1967 upon the founding of the People's Republic of South Yemenand is now part of the Republic
of Yemen.
List of Rulers of Wahidi Sultanate of Balhaf
Nasir ibn Ahmad al-Wahidi was a ruler of Wahidi Sultanate of Balhaf from 1830 until ?.
Ahmad ibn Nasir al-Wahidi was a ruler of Wahidi Sultanate of Balhaf in the second half 19th century.
Umar ibn Husayn al-Wahidi was a ruler of Wahidi Sultanate of Balhaf from ? until 1881.
Hadi ben Salih al-Wahid was a ruler of Wahidi Sultanate of Balhaf from 1885 until 1892.
Muhsin ben Salih al-Wahidi was a ruler of Wahidi Sultanate of Balhaf from 1892 until 1893 and from 1894 until 1919.
Salih ben Abd Allah al-Wahid was a ruler of Wahidi Sultanate of Balhaf from 1893 until 1894.
Ali ibn al-Husayn al-Wahidi was a ruler of Wahidi Sultanate of Balhaf from 1919 until 1948.
Ali ibn Muhsin al-Wahidi was a ruler of Wahidi Sultanate of Balhaf in 1948.
Nasir ben Abd Allah al-Wahidi was a ruler of Wahidi Sultanate of Balhaf from 1948 until 1967.

Wahidi Wilayah of Bir Ali
Wahidi Bir Ali (Arabic: Wid Br Al), or the Wahidi Wilayah of Bir Ali (Arabic: Wilyah al-Wid Br Al), was
one of several Wahidi states in the British Aden Protectorate and the Protectorate of South Arabia. Its capital was Bi'r `Ali on the Gulf of Aden coast. The
last wali, Alawi ibn Salih ibn Ahmad Al Wahidi, was deposed and the state was abolished in 1967 upon the founding of the People's Republic of South
Yemen and the area is now part of the Republic of Yemen.
List of Rulers of Wahidi Wilayah of Bir Ali
Abd Allah ibn Talib al-Wahidi was a ruler of Wahidi Wilayah of Bir Ali from 1830 until 1842.
al-Hadi ibn Talib al-Wahidi was a ruler of Wahidi Wilayah of Bir Ali from 1842 until 1875.
Talib ibn al-Hadi al-Wahidi was a ruler of Wahidi Wilayah of Bir Ali from 1875 until 1880.
Muhsin ibn Salih al-Wahidi was a ruler of Wahidi Wilayah of Bir Ali from 1880 until 1893.
Salih ibn Ahmad al-Wahidi was a ruler of Wahidi Wilayah of Bir Ali from 1893 until 1916.
Nasir ibn Talib al-Wahidi was a ruler of Wahidi Wilayah of Bir Ali from 1916 until 1940.
`Alawi ibn Muhsin al-Wahidi was a ruler of Wahidi Wilayah of Bir Ali from 1940 until 1955.
`Alawi ibn Salih al-Wahidi was a ruler of Wahidi Wilayah of Bir Ali from 1955 until 1962 (nominal ruler until 1967).

Wahidi Sultanate of Haban
Wahidi Haban (Arabic: Wid abbn), or the Wahidi Sultanate of Haban (Arabic: Salanat al-Wid abbn), was one of
several Wahidi states in the British Aden Protectorate. Its capital was Habban. The last sultan, Husayn ibn Abd Allah Al Wahidi, was deposed and the state was
abolished in 1967 upon the founding of the People's Republic of South Yemen and the area is now part of the Republic of Yemen.
List of Rulers of Wahidi Sultanate of Haban
al-Husayn ibn Ahmad al-Wahidi was a ruler of Wahidi Sultanate of Haban from 1830 until 1840.
Abd Allah ibn al-Husayn al-Wahidi was a ruler of Wahidi Sultanate of Haban from 1850 until 1870.
Ahmad ibn al-Husayn al-Wahid was a ruler of Wahidi Sultanate of Haban from 1870 until 1877.
Salih ibn Ahmad al-Wahidi was a ruler of Wahidi Sultanate of Haban from 1877 until 1881.
Nasir ibn Salih al-Wahidi was a ruler of Wahidi Sultanate of Haban from 1885 until 1919.
al-Husayn ibn `Ali al-Wahidi was a ruler of Wahidi Sultanate of Haban from 1919 until 1962 (nominal ruler until 1967).


Duchy of Philippopolis
The Duchy of Philippopolis was a short-lived duchy of the Latin Empire founded after the collapse and partition of the Byzantine Empire in 1204. It included
the city of Plovdiv and the surrounding region. It was liberated for a short time by Emperor Kaloyan of Bulgaria in 1207 but was lost by his
successor Boril following his defeat at the Battle of Philippopolis. The territory of the duchy finally joined the Bulgarian Empire during the first years of the reign
of Ivan Asen II (1218-1241). From 1204 to 1205 it was ruled by Renier of Trit.
Ruler of Duchy of Philippopolis
Renier of Trit was the first Frankish duke of Philippopolis (modern Plovdiv, Bulgaria) from 1204 until 1205. He was a knight from Trith-Saint Lger,
Hainaut, on the Fourth Crusade. Renier was granted Philippopolis and the territory as far as the river Maritsa by Emperor Baldwin I following the October 1204
partition of the conquered and yet to be conquered lands of the Byzantine Empire. Renier's land lay within the modern realm of Bulgaria, in territory claimed by
Byzantium and subsequently the Franks. Renier's first campaigns that fall and winter to take possession of his imperial fief were successful, but the next year
Bulgarian tsar Kaloyan swooped down and took Adrianople and threatened Philippopolis. Renier, with only a small force remaining at his command, holed up in
the castle of Stenimaka. It was during an effort to relieve Adrianople that Emperor Baldwin was captured. In the summer, the Paulicians of Philippopolis tried to
surrender the city to Kaloyan, but Renier sallied from his fortress and razed their quarter of the city, leaving the rest to the brave defence of the united Latin and
Greek populations. Nevertheless, the city was taken and the Greek quarter burned. Later that same year, the imperial regent Henry of Flanders marched into
Bulgaria and relieved Stenimaka and Renier.


Qadiani State of Qadian Pur Qazi
Qadiani State of Qadian Pur Qazi was a state in the Indian subcontinent involving Qadian and surroundings areas. It was established in 1530 by the great
ancestor of Mirza Ghulam Ahmad Mirza Hadi Baig. It had 84 villages. It declined during the formation of Sikh Empire. The state was conquered by Dewa Singh
from the last ruler and then Maharaja Ranjit Singhhad taken control. The state declined. Mirza Hadi Baig, was from a royal family of Mirza who formed Mughal
Empire had the title of Mirza. He migrated from Samarkand and settled in Punjab. He was descendant of King Timur and had family relations with
King Babur. Mirza Faiz Muhammad was the eleventh descendant of Beig, during his reign the relations with Mughal Empire formed was good. The ruler was
given special title from emperor of India and was allowed to have the army of 7000 men. He was succeeded by Mirza Gul Muhammad who was also a ruler and
general. It was the time of Aurangzeb, the Sikhs began to rise to in Punjab. Gul and his father warned the Mughal emperors about the Sikhrising of power in
Punjab but they don't listen to it because they had fewer army to combat with Sikhs. The Sikhs finally got the control of whole of Punjab and formed the Sikh
Empire. Dewa Singh, was the Sikh warrior who got the control of state from the ruler Mirza Gul Muhammad.
List of Rulers of Islamic State of Qadiani State of Qadian Pur Qazi
Mirza Hadi Beig Qadiani was a ruler (Qasi) of Islamic State of Qadiani State of Qadian Pur Qazi in 1530. He was an Indian Punjabi nobleman of Persian
origin. He was given the title of Mirza. He was a great ancestor of Mirza Ghulam Murtaza and his son Mirza Ghulam Ahmad. Mirza Ghulam Ahmad is his
descendant. He came to India from Samarkand. During the reign of the Mughal king Babur. He settled in Punjab near Beas and established a state of 80 villages
one of which he named as Islampur which was the ancient name of Qadian. He lived and died there. His family had held important posts in the Mughal Empire.
He was a Mughal and had family relations with Babur.
Mirza Faiz Muhammad was a ruler (Qasi) of Islamic State of Qadiani State of Qadian Pur Qazi in early 17th century. He was
an Indian general, rais and jurist. He was the descendant of Mirza Hadi Baig. He was made the Qazi of Islamic State of Qadian. During his reign, the state had
more close relations with the Mughal Empire. He was honored by the Mughal Emperor in 1617.
Mirza Gul Muhammad (died 1800) was a ruler (Qasi) of Islamic State of Qadiani State of Qadian Pur Qazi in the second half 18th century. He was
an Indian general, jurist and noble. He was the grandfather of Mirza Ghulam Murtaza who was the father of Mirza Ghulam Ahmad. He succeeded as Qazi of
Islamic State of Qadian upon the death of his father Faiz. During his reign, Mughal Empire had declined inPunjab. Giyas-ul-Daula, who was a minister of Mughal
Empire had came to Qadian and praised the state was according to Islam. Throughout his life, he fought against Sikhs and requested the help from four
notable Mughal Emperors. They praised him but not took the situation seriously who resulted in formation of Sikh Empire who ended the Mughal
Empire in Punjab
Mirza Ata Muhammad was a ruler (Qasi) of Islamic State of Qadiani State of Qadian Pur Qazi in early 19th century.

Venad Swarupam (Kingdom of Quilon)
Venad Swarupam (Kingdom of Quilon) (V, Malayalam: , Tamil: ) was one of the three prominentlate medieval Hindu feudal
kingdoms on Malabar Coast, south India, along with Kingdom of Calicut and Kingdom of Cannanore. The rulers of Quilon (called Venattadi Kulasekharas)
traces their relations back to the Ay kingdom and the Later Cheras (Kulasekharas). The last ruler of the Later Chera Kingdom, Rama Varma Kulashekhara, was
the first ruler of an independent state of Quilon. In the early 14th century, King Ravi Varma established a short-lived supremacy over southern India. But after
his death, Quilon only included most of modern-day Kollam, Thiruvananthapuram districts of Kerala state, and Kanyakumari districtof Tamil Nadu. Marco
Polo claimed to have visited his capital at Quilon, a centre of commerce and trade with China and theLevant. Europeans were attracted to the region during the
late fifteenth century, primarily in pursuit of the then rare commodity,black pepper. Quilon was the forerunner to the Kingdom of Travancore. A new calendar
was established by Quilon rulers called 'Kolla Varsham' (Malayalam calendar). The calendar started in AD 825 with the reopening the capital Quilon.
List of Rulers of Venad Swarupam (Kingdom Quilon)
Kotha Varma Marthandam (died 1125) was a ruler of Venad Swarupam Kingdom (Kingdom of Quilon) from 1102 until his death in 1125. He was
conquered Kottar and Nanjanad from the Pandya Dynasty.
Vira Kerala Varma I (died 1145) was a ruler of Venad Swarupam Kingdom (Kingdom of Quilon) from 1125 until his death in 1145. He was a great
religious benefactor, responsible for the rebuilding of Padmanabhaswamy and the endowment of Suchindram Temples.
Kodai Kerala Varma (died 1150) was a ruler of Venad Swarupam Kingdom (Kingdom of Quilon) from 1145 until his death in 1150.
Vira Ravi Varma (died 1164) was a ruler of Venad Swarupam Kingdom (Kingdom of Quilon) from 1161 until his death in 1164.
Vira Kerala Varma II (died 1167) was a ruler of Venad Swarupam Kingdom (Kingdom of Quilon) from 1164 until his death in 1167.
Vira Aditya Varma (died 1173) was a ruler of Venad Swarupam Kingdom (Kingdom of Quilon) from 1167 until his death in 1173.
Vira Udaya Martanda Varma (died 1192) was a ruler of Venad Swarupam Kingdom (Kingdom of Quilon) from 1173 until his death in 1192. He was
established his seat at Kulikkod and allied himself to the Pandya Kings.
Devadaram Vira Kerala Varma III (died 1195) was a ruler of Venad Swarupam Kingdom (Kingdom of Quilon) from 1192 until his death in 1195.
Vira Manikantha Rama Varma Tiruvadi was a ruler of Venad Swarupam Kingdom (Kingdom of Quilon) from 1195 until ?.
Vira Rama Kerala Varma Tiruvadi (died 1214) was a ruler of Venad Swarupam Kingdom (Kingdom of Quilon) from 1209 until his death in 1214.
Vira Ravi Kerala Varma Tiruvadi (died 1240) was a ruler of Venad Swarupam Kingdom (Kingdom of Quilon) from 1214 until his death in 1240.
Vira Padmanabha Martanda Varma Tiruvadi (died 1252) was a ruler of Venad Swarupam Kingdom (Kingdom of Quilon) from 1240 until his death
in 1252. The Pandya kings asserted their dominance over Venad during his reign.
Jayasimha Deva (died 1267) was a ruler of Venad Swarupam Kingdom (Kingdom of Quilon) from 1266 until his death in 1267. He was succeeded in
bringing the whole of present day Kerala under his control. He established his seat at Kollam, the surrounding areas becoming known as Jayasimhanad
(Desinganad). His wife Rani Umma Devi was probably a joint ruler with her husband. He died leaving several sons who quarrelled with his nephews over the
succession, causing a long and disruptive civil war.
Ravi Varma Kulasekhara (died 1313) was a ruler of Venad Swarupam Kingdom (Kingdom of Quilon) from 1299 until his death in 1313. Ravi Varma
Kulasekhara was a feudatory of the Pandya ruler Maravarman Kulasekara Pandyan I (12681308) and married one of his daughters. At the death of Maravarman
Kulasekhara, he proclaimed independence (1310), staked his claim to the Pandya throne and started issuing records as an independent sovereign. During this
period,Delhi Sultanate raided the region and unsettled power relations. Ravi Varma Kulasekhara, taking advantage of the unsettled nature of the country, quickly
overran the surrounding regions (raids in 1314-1316) and brought the entire south India, from Kanyakumari to east to Kanchipuram, under Venad.
Sangramadheeran, orKulasekhara Ravi Varma, crowned himself "Tribhuvanachakravarthi"- ruler of Chera, Chola and Pandya kingdoms in 1312 at Kanchipuram.
His inscription is found in Poonamallee, a suburb of Chennai. A scholar and musician himself, he patronised intellectuals and poets during his tenure.
The Sanskrit drama "Pradyumnabhyudayam" is credited to him. Trade and commerce also flourished during his rule, and capital Kollam became a famous
centre of business and enterprise.
Vira Udaya Martanda Varma (died 1333) was a ruler of Venad Swarupam Kingdom (Kingdom of Quilon) from 1313 until his death in 1333.
Aditya Varma Tiruvadi (died 1335) was a ruler of Venad Swarupam Kingdom (Kingdom of Quilon) from 1333 until his death in 1335.
Vira Rama Udaya Martanda Varma Tiruvadi (died 1342) was a ruler of Venad Swarupam Kingdom (Kingdom of Quilon) from 1335 until his death
in 1342.
Vira Kerala Varma Tiruvadi (died 1363) was a ruler of Venad Swarupam Kingdom (Kingdom of Quilon) from 1342 until his death in 1363.
Vira Martanda Varma III (died 1366) was a ruler of Venad Swarupam Kingdom (Kingdom of Quilon) from 1363 until his death in 1366.
Vira Rama Martanda Varma (died 1382) was a ruler of Venad Swarupam Kingdom (Kingdom of Quilon) from 1366 until his death in 1382.
Vira Ravi Varma (died 1416) was a ruler of Venad Swarupam Kingdom (Kingdom of Quilon) from 1383 until his death in 1416.
Vira Kerala Martanda Varma (died 1383) was a ruler of Venad Swarupam Kingdom (Kingdom of Quilon) in 1383.
Chera Udaya Martanda Varma (died 1444) was a ruler of Venad Swarupam Kingdom (Kingdom of Quilon) from 1383 until his death in 1444.
Vira Ravi Ravi Varma (died 1417) was a ruler of Venad Swarupam Kingdom (Kingdom of Quilon) from 1416 until his death in 1417.
Vira Ravi Varma (died 1458) was a ruler of Venad Swarupam Kingdom (Kingdom of Quilon) from 1444 until his death in 1458.
Sankhara Sri Vira Rama Martanda Varma (died 1468) was a ruler of Venad Swarupam Kingdom (Kingdom of Quilon) from 1458 until his death in
1468.
Vira Kodai Sri Aditya Varma (died 1484) was a ruler of Venad Swarupam Kingdom (Kingdom of Quilon) from 1468 until his death in 1484. He was
established his capital at Kallidaikurichi.
Vira Ravi Ravi Varma (died 1503) was a ruler of Venad Swarupam Kingdom (Kingdom of Quilon) from 1484 until his death in 1503.

Republic of Sal
The Republic of Sal was an independent corsair city-state on the Moroccan coast. It was a major piratical port during its brief existence in the 17th century. The
republic traces its origins back to the beginning of the 17th century, with the arrival of approximately 3,000 wealthy Moriscos from Hornachos (Extremadura,
Spain), who anticipated the 1609 expulsion edicts ordered by Philip III of Spain. After 1609, approximately 10,000 down-and-out expelled Moriscos arrived
fromSpain. Cultural differences between the native Saletin people and the Morisco refugees, together with language differences led the newcomers to settle in the
old Medina of Rabat, on the opposite bank of the Bou Regreg. Progressively, a thriving activity of piracy expanded on the western bank. In 1624, the Dutchman
Jan Janszoon (also known as Murad Reis) became the "Grand Admiral", and therefore the chief executive of the community. In 1627, after Janszoon left Sal,
Moriscos ceased to recognize the authority of the Sultan Zidan al-Nasir, whom they accused to tithe on their incomes. They proclaimed a Republic, ruled by a
council or Diwan, a sort of government cabinet formed by 12 to 14 notable people whose members elected every year during the month of May a Governor and
a Captain General of the Fortalesa. In the early years of the republic (between 1627 and 1630), the Diwan was controlled only by Hornacheros, whose grip was
poorly tolerated by the growing population of non-Hornachero Moriscos, called Andalusians. After bloody clashes in 1630, an agreement was reached: the
election of a Qaid by Andalusians and a new Diwan of 16 members of whom 8 Andalusians and 8 Hornacheros. In 1641, the zaouia of Dila, which controlled
much of Morocco, imposed a religious hegemony over Sal and its parents republic. By the early 1660s, the republic was embroiled in civil war with the zawiya,
and eventually Sultan Al-Rashid of Morocco of the Alaouite dynasty, who still rule Morocco into the 21st century, would seize Rabat and Sal, ending its
independence. It indeed ended up being controlled by the Sultan of Morocco, after 1668, when Moulay al Rashid finally vanquished the Dilaites. The
character Robinson Crusoe, in Daniel Defoe's novel by the same name, spends time in captivity of the local pirates and at last sails off to liberty from the mouth
of the Sal river.

More recently, this state enclaved in Morocco was featured as Bagghar in the film by Steven Spielberg and titled The Adventures of Tintin:
Secret of the Unicorn.
President and Grand Admiral of the Corsair Republic of Sal
Jan Janszoon van Haarlem, commonly known as Murat Reis the younger (c. 1570 - 1641) was the first President and Grand Admiral of the
Corsair Republic of Sal from 1619 until 1627, , Governor of Oualidia from 1640 until his death in 1641, and a Dutch pirate, one of the most notorious of the
Barbary pirates from the 17th century; the most famous of the "Sal Rovers". Jan Janszoon was born in Haarlem, North Holland, Netherlands in 1575. Little is
known of his early life, except that he married young and had a child, Lysbeth Janszoon. In 1600, Jan Janszoon began as a Dutch privateer sailing from his home
port, Haarlem, working for the state with letters of marque to harass Spanish shipping during the Eighty Years' War. Working from the Netherlands was
insufficiently profitable, so Janszoon overstepped the boundaries of his letters and found his way to the semi-independent port states of the Barbary Coast of
north Africa, whence he could attack ships of every foreign state: when he attacked a Spanish ship, he flew the Dutch flag; when he attacked any other, he became
an Ottoman Captain and flew the red half-moon of the Turks or the flag of any of various other Mediterranean principalities. During this period he had
abandoned his Dutch family. Janszoon was captured in 1618 at Lanzarote (one of the Canary Islands) by Barbary corsairs and taken to Algiers as a captive. There
he turned "Turk", or Muslim (as the Ottoman Empire had some limited influence over the region, sometimes Europeans erroneously called all Muslims "Turks").
It is speculated the conversion was forced. The Ottoman Turks maintained a precarious measure of influence on behalf of their Sultan by openly encouraging
the Moors to advance themselves through piracy against the European powers, which long resented the Ottoman Empire. After Janszoon's conversion
to Islam and the ways of his captors, he sailed with the famous corsair Sulayman Rais, also known as Slemen Reis (originally a Dutchman named De
Veenboer whom Janszoon had known before his capture and who, as Janszoon himself, had chosen to convert to Islam) and with Simon de Danser. But,
because Algiers had concluded peace with several European nations, it was no longer a suitable harbor from which to sell captured ships or their cargo. So, after
Sulayman Rais was killed by a cannonball in 1619, Janszoon moved to the ancient port of Sal and began operating from it as a Barbary corsair himself. In
1619, Sal Rovers declared the port to be an independent republic free from the Sultan. They set up a government that consisted of 14 pirate leaders, and
elected Janszoon as their President. He would also serve as the Grand Admiral of their navy. The Sal fleet totaled about eighteen ships, all small because of the
very shallow harbor entrance. Even the Sultan of Morocco, after an unsuccessful siege of the city, acknowledged its semi-autonomy. Contrary to popular belief
that Sultan Zidan Abu Maali had reclaimed sovereignty over Sal and appointed Janszoon the Governor in 1624, the Sultan merely approved Janszoon's election
as President by formally appointing him as his ceremonial governor. Under Janszoon's leadership, business in Sal thrived. The main sources of income of this
republic remained piracy and its by-trades, shipping and dealing in stolen property. Historians have noted Janszoon's intelligence and courage which reflected in
his leadership ability. He was forced to find an assistant to keep up, resulting in the hiring of a fellow countryman from The Netherlands, Mathys van Bostel
Oosterlinck, who would serve as his Vice-Admiral. Janszoon had become very wealthy from his income as piratical admiral, payments for anchorage and other
harbor dues, and the brokerage of stolen goods. The political climate in Sal worsened toward the end of 1627, so Janszoon quietly moved his family and his
entire piratical operation back to semi-independent Algiers. Janszoon would become bored by his new official duties from time to time and again sail away on a
pirate adventure. In 1622, Janszoon and his crews sailed into the English Channel with no particular plan but to try their luck there. When they ran low on
supplies they docked at the port of Veere, Zealand, under the Moroccan flag, claiming diplomatic privileges from his official role as Admiral of Morocco (a very
loose term in the environment of North African politics). The Dutch authorities could not deny the two ships access to Veere because, at the time, several peace
treaties and trade agreements existed between the Sultan of Morocco and the Dutch Republic. During his anchorage there, the Dutch authorities brought to the
port Janszoon's Dutch first wife and his Dutch children to persuade him to give up piracy; the authorities did the same to many of the pirate crews, but they
utterly failed to persuade the men.
[8]
Janszoon and his crews left port not only intact but with many new Dutch volunteers despite a Dutch prohibition of piracy.
He was instrumental in securing the release of Dutch captives while in Morocco from other pirates. Knowledgeable of several languages, while in Algiers he
contributed to the establishment of the Franco-Moroccan Treaty of 1631 between French King Louis XIII and Sultan Abu Marwan Abd al-Malik II. In 1627
Janszoon captured the island of Lundy in the Bristol Channel and held it for five years, using it as a base for raiding expeditions. In 1627, Janszoon used
a Danish "slave" (most likely a crew member captured on a Danish ship taken as a pirate prize) to pilot him and his men to Iceland. There they raided the fishing
village of Grindavk. Their takings were meagre, only some salted fish and a few hides, but they also captured twelve Icelanders and three Danes who happened
to be in the village. When they were leaving Grindavk they managed to trick and capture a Danish merchant ship that was passing by means of flying a false flag.
The ships then sailed to Bessastair, seat of the Danish governor of Iceland, to raid there but were unable to make a landing - it is said they were thwarted by
cannon fire from the local fortifications (Bessastaaskans) and a quickly mustered group of lancers from theSuurnes peninsula
[11]
and decided to turn away and
sail home to Sal, where their captives were sold as slaves. Two corsair ships from Algiers, possibly connected to Janszoons raid, came to Iceland on July 4 and
plundered there. Then they sailed to Vestmannaeyjar off the southern coast and raided there for three days. Those events are collectively known in Iceland
as Tyrkjarni (theTurkish abductions), as the Barbary states were nominally a part of the Ottoman Empire. Accounts by enslaved Icelanders who spent time on
the corsair ships claimed that the conditions for women and children were normal, in that they were permitted to move throughout the ship, except to the quarter
deck. The pirates were seen giving extra food to the children from their own private stashes, and that a woman who gave birth on board a ship was treated with
dignity, being afforded privacy and clothing by the pirates. The men were put in the hold of the ships, and had their chains removed once the ships were far
enough from land. Despite popular claims, Icelander accounts failed to mention any rapes inflicted on slaves. Gurur Smonardttir and a few others are
known to have returned to Iceland. Having sailed for two months and with little to show for the voyage, Janszoon turned to a captive taken on the voyage,
a Roman Catholic named John Hackett, for information on where a profitable raid could be made. The residents of Baltimore, a small town in West Cork,
Ireland, were resented by the Roman Catholic native Irish because they were settled on lands confiscated from the O'Driscoll clan. Hackett would direct
Janszoon to this town and away from his own. Janszoon sacked Baltimore on June 20, 1631, seizing little more than 108 persons whom he doomed to be sold as
slaves in north Africa. Janszoon took no interest in the Gaels and released them, only enslaving English. Shortly after the sack, Hackett was arrested and hanged
for his crime. "Here was not a single Christian who was not weeping and who was not full of sadness at the sight of so many honest maidens and so many good
women abandoned to the brutality of these barbarians" Only two of the Irish villagers ever saw their homeland again. Murat Reis chose to make large profits by
raiding Mediterranean islands such as the Balearic Islands, Corsica, Sardinia, the southern coast of Sicily. He often sold most of his merchandise in Tunis where
he became a good friend of the Dey. He is known to have sailed the Ionian Sea. He fought the Venetians near the coasts of Crete and Cyprus with a vibrant
Corsair crew consisting of Dutch, Moriscos, Arab, Turkish and Elite Janissaries. In 1635, near the Tunisian coast, Murat Reis was outnumbered and surprised
by a sudden attack. He and many of his men were captured by the Knights of Malta where he would spend the next five years in the islands' notorious
dark dungeons. He was mistreated and justly tortured, the effects of his imprisonment costly to his health and wellbeing. In 1640 he barely escaped after a
massive Corsair attack, which was carefully planned by the Dey of Tunis in order to rescue their fellow sailors and Corsairs. He was greatly honored and praised
upon his return in Morocco and the nearby Barbary States. He returned to Morocco in 1640 and was appointed Governor of the great fortress of Oualidia,
near Safi, Morocco. He resided at the Castle of Maladia. In December, 1640, a ship arrived with a new Dutch consul, who brought Lysbeth Janszoon van
Haarlem, Janszoon's daughter by his first Dutch wife, to visit her father. When Lysbeth arrived, Janszoon "was seated in great pomp on a carpet, with silk
cushions, the servants all around him"
[16]
she had also noticed that Murat Reis the great Corsair lord had become an old and feeble man. Lysbeth stayed with her
father until August, 1641, when she returned to Holland. Little is known of Janszoon thereafter; he likely retired at last from both public life and piracy. The date
of his death remains unknown. In 1596, by an unknown Dutch woman, Janszoon's first child was born, Lysbeth Janszoon van Haarlem. After becoming a
privateer, Janszoon met an unknown woman in Cartagena, Spain, who he would marry. The identity of this woman is historically vague, but the consensus is that
she was of some kind of mixed-ethnic background, considered "Moorish" in Spain. Historians have claimed her to be nothing more than a concubine, others
claim she was a Muslim Mudjar who worked for a Christian noble family, and other claims have been made that she was a "Moorish princess." Through this
marriage, Janszoon had four children: Abraham Janszoon van Salee, Philip Janszoon van Salee, Anthony Janszoon van Salee and Cornelis Janszoon van Salee. It
is speculated that Janszoon married for a third time to the daughter of Sultan Moulay Ziden in 1624. In 2009, a play based on Janszoon's life as a pirate, "Jan
Janszoon, de blonde Arabier", written by Karim El Guennouni toured The Netherlands. "Bad Grandpa: The Ballad of Murad the Captain" is a poem about van
Haarlem published in 2007. Janszoon was also known as Murat Reis the Younger. His Dutch names are also given as Jan Jansen and Jan Jansz; his adopted name
as Morat Rais, Murat Rais, Morat;Little John Ward, John Barber, Captain John, Caid Morato were some of his pirate names. "The Hairdresser" was a nickname
of Janszoon.

Idrisid Emirate of Asir
The Idrisid Emirate of Asir was a short-lived state located on the Arabian Peninsula. The Emirate was located geographical region of Jizan in what is now
southwestern Saudi Arabia. The authority of the Emir was restricted to a strip of the Tihamah some 80 miles (130 km) long and extending about 40 miles
(64 km) inland to the scarp of highland Asir, with Sabya as capital and Jizan and Midi as ports.The Emirate was established by Muhammad ibn Ali al-Idrisi in
rebellion against the Ottoman Empire. It gained the support ofGreat Britain during the First World War, and flourished until the death of Sayyid Muhammad in
1920. It was gradually absorbed into the new state of Saudi Arabia and formally annexed by that kingdom under the Treaty of Taif in 1934.
Ruler of Idrisid Emirate of Asir
Sayyid Muhammad ibn Ali al-Idrisi (1876-1920) [Arabic: ] founded and ruled the Idrisid Emirate of Asir from 1906 until his death
in 1920. He was born at Sabia (now a county of Saudi Arabia). He was a grandson of Sayyid Ahmed al-Idrisi, a native of Fez, who was head of a religious
fraternity (tariqa) at Mecca and who acquired land at Sabia, settled there and died in 1837. The descendants of Sayyid Ahmed appear to have increased in wealth
and influence and to have gradually supplanted the ruling sherifial family of Abu Arish. Sayyid Muhammad was educated partly at Al-Azhar University and
partly by the Senussi at Kufra, and subsequently resided for a time in the Sudan, at Argo Island. On his return to Asir, his one ambition was to render that district
independent of the Ottoman Empire. He gradually expanded his political power to include Mikhlaf el Yemen and a large part of the Tihamah, with control over
several tribes outside these limits. He threw in his lot with the Allies in World War I, and was the inexorable foe of the Imam of Yemen.


Emirate of Beihan
Beihan or Bayhan (Arabic: Bayn), officially the Emirate of Beihan (Arabic: Imrat Bayn), was a state in the British Aden Protectorate and
the Federation of South Arabia. Its capital was Suq Abdulla, now called Beihan. Beihan (Arabic: ), also known as Bayhan al Qisab (Arabic:
), is a city in western Yemen, which has about 100.000 inhabitants according to the census of 2005 conducted by the Yemeni government. It was the
capital city of Emirate of Beihan in past. Beihan today represents an administrative province belongs to Shabwah Governorate. Geographically, Beihan is a valley
connected between al-Baidha in the north-west, Ma'rib in the east and Ataq in the south. It is a fertile valley irrigated by water streams fall from the northern
mountains as well as from the dug wells. The main cultivated crops are dates, cereals and citrus and people depend on livestocks to a large extent to survive.
Nonetheless, people increasingly adopt trade and exchange commerce; in addition to incorporate to the government business. Bayhan valley historically had
several main groups. The Musabein Tribe living in the south which was dominated by Alsaleh (Ahmed saif tribe) and the Alfatima (Naji Alawi tribe). These two
factions were in consistent feuds. Historically the middle of the valley was populated by the Al-Habieli family, descendants of the Prophet, who arrived in the
valley in the late 1600s. They had been sent by the Imam of Yemen to protect the trade routes. The Al-Habieli family are direct descendants of the first, al Hadi
Yahya bin Hussein, and seventh, Qassim al Mansur bin Abdullah, Imams of Sanaa. The north of the valley was dominated by the Balharith Tribe who were also
continuously fighting one another as to who was their paramount sheik and like the Masabin also split into 2 main branches. The ruling Al-Habieli family,
recognized by the Hashimite Grand Sharifs of Mecca as related, established themselves as religious leaders in Bayhan in 1680 and became independent. The
Hashemite Emirate of Bayhan was included in the Western Aden Protectorate before joining the Federation of Arab Emirates of the South on 11/2/1959 and
the Federation of South Arabia on 4/4/1962. The Emirate was abolished by revolutionary Yemen in July 1967 (the People's Republic of South Yemen on
November 30, 1967).
List of Rulers (Emirs) of Emirate of Bayhan
Muqbil was the first ruler of Emirate of Bayhan from 1680 until ?.
Hasan was a ruler of Emirate of Bayhan in the first half 18th century.
Ghalib was a ruler of Emirate of Bayhan in the first half 18th century.
Sharif al-Husayn ibn Qays al-Hashimi was a ruler of Emirate of Bayhan from 1750 until 1800.
Suqbil ibn al-Husayn Abu al-Qaysi al Hashimi was a ruler of Emirate of Bayhan from 1800 until 1820.
Sharif al-Barak ibn `Abil al Hashimi was a ruler of Emirate of Bayhan in the first half 19th century.
Saifallah was a ruler of Emirate of Bayhan in the first half 19th century.
Mubarak was a ruler of Emirate of Bayhan in the second half 19h century.
Sharif Muhsin ibn al-Barak al Hashimi was a ruler of Emirate of Bayhan from second half 19th century until 1903.
Sharif Ahmad ibn Muhsin al-`Abili was a ruler of Emirate of Bayhan from 1903 until 1935.
Husain bin Ahmad Al Muhsin was regent of Emirate of Bayhan from 1935 until 1967.
Sharif Salih ibn al-Husayn al-`Abili al Hashimi (born 1935) was a ruler of Emirate of Bayhan from 1935 until 1967.

Emirate of Dhala
Dhala (Arabic: A-li), Amiri (Arabic: Al-Amr), or the Emirate of Dhala (Arabic: Imrat a-li) was a state in the British Aden
Protectorate, the Federation of Arab Emirates of the South, and its successor, the Federation of South Arabia. Its capital was Dhala (Ad Dali'). Previously under
the suzerainty of the Zaidi imams of Yemen, the emirs of Dhala, of the Amiri dynasty, came under Britishprotection in the early 20th century, eventually joining
of the Aden Protectorate. The Emirate was a founding member of the Federation of Arab Emirates of the South in 1959, and the Federation of South Arabia in
1963. The Radfan Hills, nominally under control of the Amiris of Dhala, were the scene of fierce fighting between British forces and the local Qutaibis during
the Aden Emergency in the mid-1960s. The last emir, Shafaul ibn Ali Shaif Al Amiri, was deposed and the state was abolished in 1967 upon the founding of
thePeople's Republic of South Yemen. The area is part of the Republic of Yemen since 1990.
List of Rulers (Emirs) of Dhala Emirate
Shafa ul al-Amiri was the ruler of Emirate of Dhala in the first half 18th century.
Ahmad ibn Shafa ul al-Amiri was the ruler of Emirate of Dhala in the second half 18th century.
al-Hasan ibn Ahmad al-Amiri was the ruler of Emirate of Dhala in the second half 18th century.
Abd al-Hadi ibn al-Hasan al-Amiri was the ruler of Emirate of Dhala in late 18th century and in early 19th century.
Musa`id ibn al-Hasan al-Amiri was the ruler of Emirate of Dhala from early 19th century until 1839.
Shafa`ul ibn `Abd al-Hadi al-Amiri was the ruler of Emirate of Dhala from around 1839 until 1872.
Ali ibn Muqbil al-Amiri was the ruler of Emirate of Dhala from 1872 until 1873, from March until April 1974 and from 1878 until 1886.
Muhammad ibn Musa id al-Amiri was the ruler of Emirate of Dhala in 1873.
Abd Allah ibn Muhammad al-Amiri was the ruler of Emirate of Dhala from 1874 until 1878.
Shaif ibn Sayf al-Amiri was the ruler of Emirate of Dhala from 1886 until 1911.
Nasir ibn Sha'if al-Amiri was the ruler of Emirate of Dhala from 1911 until 1920 and from 1928 until 1947.
Haydara ibn Nasir al-Amiri was the ruler of Emirate of Dhala from 1920 until 1928.
Ali ibn Ali al-Amiri was the ruler of Emirate of Dhala from 1947 until 1954.
Shafa ul ibn Ali al-Amiri was the ruler of Emirate of Dhala from 1954 until August 17, 1967.

Fadhli Sultanate
Fadhli (Arabic: Fal), or the Fadhli Sultanate (Arabic Salanat al-Fal), was an independent sultanate on the southern coast of
the Arabian Peninsula from at least the 15th century until 1967. It was one of the original "Nine Cantons" that signed protection agreements with Great Britain in
the early 20th century and became part of the British Aden Protectorate. It was a founding member of the Federation of Arab Emirates of the South in 1959 and
its successor, the Federation of South Arabia, in 1963. The capital of the Fadhlis was Shuqrah, located on the coast of the Gulf of Aden, until 1962, when the
administrative capital was moved to Zinjibar, located about 60 km to the east of Aden, although the sultan's residence remained at Shuqrah. The last sultan,
Nasser bin Abdullah bin Hussein bin Ahmed Alfadhli (Arabic: ), was deposed and the state was
abolished in 1967 upon the founding of the People's Republic of South Yemen, which is now part of the Republic of Yemen.
List of Sultans of the Fadhli Sultanate
Othman (`Uthman) was a Sultan of Fadhli Sultanate around 1670.
Fadhl bin Othman was a Sultan of Fadhli Sultanate from 1670 until 1700.
Ahmed bin Fadhl bin Othman was a Sultan of Fadhli Sultanate from 1700 until 1730.
Abdullah bin Ahmed bin Fadhl was a Sultan of Fadhli Sultanate from 1730 until 1760.
Ahmed bin Abdullah bin Ahmed was a Sultan of Fadhli Sultanate from 1760 until 1789.
Abdullah was a Sultan of Fadhli Sultanate from 1789 until 1805.
Ahmed bin Abdullah was a Sultan of Fadhli Sultanate from 1805 until 1819.
Abdullah bin Ahmed bin Abdullah was a Sultan of Fadhli Sultanate from 1819 until 1828.
Haydara bin Ahmed bin Abdullah was a Sultan of Fadhli Sultanate from 1870 until 1877.
Hussein bin Ahmed bin Abdullah was a Sultan of Fadhli Sultanate in 1877 and from 1907 until 1924.



Ahmed bin Hussein bin Ahmed was a Sultan of Fadhli Sultanate from 1877 until 1907. He was signed treaty with British 1888.
Abdul Qadir bin Ahmed bin Hussein was a Sultan of Fadhli Sultanate from 1924 until 1927.
Abdullah bin Hussein was a Sultan of Fadhli Sultanate from 1927 until 1929.
Fadhl bin Hussein was a Sultan of Fadhli Sultanate from 1929 until 1933.
Abdul Karim was a Sultan of Fadhli Sultanate from 1933 until 1936.
Saleh bin Fadhl was a Sultan of Fadhli Sultanate from 1936 until 1941.
Abdullah bin Othman (`Abd Allah ibn `Uthman) was a Sultan of Fadhli Sultanate from 1941 until 1962.
Ahmed bin Abdullah was a Sultan of Fadhli Sultanate from 1962 until 1964.
Nasser bin Abdullah bin Hussein bin Ahmed was the last Sultan of Fadhli Sultanate from 1964 until 1967. He was deposed and the state was
abolished in 1967 upon the founding of the People's Republic of South Yemen, which is now part of the Republic of Yemen.

Gajapati Kingdom
The Gajapatis were a medieval Hindu dynasty that ruled over Kalinga (the present day Orissa), large parts ofAndhra Pradesh and West Bengal, and the eastern
and central parts of Madhya Pradesh and the southern parts of Bihar from 1434-1541. Gajapati dynasty was established by Kapilendra Deva (143466) in 1434.
During the glorious reign of Kapilendra Deva, the first Gajapati emperor, the borders of the empire of Kalinga-Utkal were expanded immensely and the king
took the title of Sri Sri ... (108 times) Gajapati Gaudesvara Nava Koti Karnata Kalvargesvara. This title is still used by the kings of Puriduring the Ratha Yatra. The
significant rulers of this dynasty were Purushottama Deva (146697) and Prataparudra Deva (14971540). The last ruler Kakharua Deva was killed by Govinda
Vidyadhara in 1541, who founded the Bhoi dynasty. "Gaja" in Oriya means elephant and "Pati" means master or husband. As such, Gajapati etymologically
means a king with an army of elephants.
List of Kings of Gajapati Kingdom
Kapilendra Deva or Kapileshvara Deva (died 1466) was the emperor of Kalinga-Utkal (Orissa) and the founder of the Gajapati dynasty which annexed large
swathes of territory in Telengana, Andhra, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka in the south to Madhya Pradhesh in central India and most of present day Bengal in the
north reigned from 1434 until his death in 1466. His name is also written as Kapilendra Routray or Sri Sri Kapilendra Deva. In claiming descent from the surya-
vaMsha (solar dynasty) of the mahabharata, he also took the title shri shri ...(108 times) gajapati gauDesvara naba koTi karnATa kalbargesvara This title is still
used by the solar dynasty kings of Puri on ritual occasions. Kapilendra's ancestors were feudatory chiefs under the Ganga dynasty, but with the weakening of their
authority, Kapilendra mounted a rebellion and seized power in 1434. In his early years, he overcame a number of challenges from other chiefs, and also an
invasion by Sultan Ahmed Shah of Bengal. By 1443, with the help of his able minister Gopinath Mahapatra, he had consolidated his power. In 1444, while
Kapilendra was fighting the Sultan of Jaunpur Mahmud Shah in the north, the kingdom was invaded from the south by theReddy kingdom of Rajamundry and
king Devaraya II of Vijayanagar. His son Hamvira defeated the Reddys and the Gajapati kingdom eventually came to occupy a large region from Midnapore in
Bengal till Guntur in Andhra. In the meanwhile Gajapati Kapilendra Deva defeated the Sultan of Jaunpur and crushed the Bengal Sultan, Ahmed Shah to secure
the northern and north western frontiers of the empire.The sultanates of Jaunpur and Bengal were supported by the sultanate at Delhi. The victories of
Kapilendra Deva echoed right up to the walls of the Siri fort and was instrumental in checking the ambitions of the Delhi sultanate. In 1448 Hamvira Deva
defeated the Bahmani Sultan Aladdin Ahmad Shah II. In 1459, Aladdin's son Humayun Zalim Shah invaded Debarkonda and was defeated by Hamvira, after
which Telengana was occupied by Kapilendra's forces and the Velama Chief of Debarkonda became a feudatory. After the death of Devaraya II, Kapilendra
Deva invaded the Vijayanagara territories in the far south and defeated the Vijayanagara army of Mallikarjuna, the successor of Devaraya II. Prince Hamvira led
the Gajapati armies to victory along the entire coromandel coast up to Tiruchirappali in modern Tamil Nadu. The Gajapati Empire extended from the Ganges in
the north till the Cauvery in the south. Emperor Kapilendra Deva mounted successive invasions of Vijayanagara and is said to have marched deeper into
Vijayanagara territory a few miles from the imperial capital. He was the most powerful emperor of India during his rule. Kapilendra Deva also
patronized vaishnavism and expanded the Jagannath temple at Puri. Although his entire life was spent in warfare, the Jagannath temple became the center for an
efflorescence of drama and dance (Odissi) and other forms of art during Gajapati rule. After his death in 1466, he chose his youngest son Purushottama Deva, as
heir, resulting in a rebellion by Hamvira Deva. In 1472, Purushottam was defeated and Hamvira Deva became king, but in 1476 Purushottam fought back and
recaptured the throne.
Purushottama Deva (died 1497) was a King of Gajapati Kingdom from 1466 until his death in 1497.
Prataparudra Deva (died 1540) was a King of Gajapati Kingdom from 1497 until his death in 1540. Prataparudra was highly influenced by the works of
Chaitanya and gave up the military tradition of the Oriya emperors. He retired himself into the life of an ascetic leaving the future of the empire uncertain. The
traitor Govinda Vidyadhara took the opportunity to murder the sons of the emperor and usurped the throne himself and carved out the destruction of the once
mighty empire. Patriot Odias accuse Prataprudra and Chaitanya as the reason of downfall of Odissa. They were accused of demolishing the great tradition of
Paika's.
Kalua Deva (died 1541) was a King of Gajapati Kingdom from 1540 until his death in 1541.
Kakharua Deva (1541) was a King of Gajapati Kingdom in 1541 died. Kakharua Deva was killed by Govinda Vidyadhara in 1541, who founded the Bhoi
dynasty.





Gingee
Gingee was the state in present Indian state of Tamil Nadu. The nearest town with a railway station is Tindivanam, 28 km away and Thiruvannamalai, 39 km.
Gingee is located between three hills covering a perimeter of 3 km. Gingee is famous for its Gingee Fort, a popular tourist attraction. The Kon dynasty laid the
foundations for the Gingee Fort in 1190. The fort was later built by the Chola dynasty in 13th century. In 1638, Gingee came under the control of Bijapur
Sultanatefrom Vijayanagar. In 1677, it was under the control of Maratha king Shivaji. In 1690, it came under the Mughals, when it became the headquarters
of Arcot. It changed hands to the French in 1750, and then to the British in 1762. During this time, many sculptural aspects of Gingee were shifted to
Pondicherry by the French. The founding of the Kon dynasty provides the launching of Gingee as a fortified royal center. The Gingee country then came under
the rule of the Hoysalas in the later part of the 13th and in the first half of the 14th century. From the Hoysalas it passed on, by relatively easy efforts, into the
hands of the first rulers of Vijayanagara Empire. The Vijayanagar dominion gradually expanded over South India and divided the administration into three
important provinces, which were under the control of Nayaks. The Nayaks of Gingee (Senji) were rulers of the Gingee principality of Tamil Nadu between 16th
to 18th century CE. They were subordinates of the imperial Vijayanagara emperors, and were appointed as provincial governors by the Vijayanagar Emperor who
divided the Tamil country into three Nayakships viz., Madurai, Tanjore and Gingee. Later, after the fall of the Vijayanagaras Tuluva dynasty, the Gingee rulers
declared independence. While they ruled independently, they were sometimes at war with the Tanjore neighbors and the Vijayanagara overlords later based
in Vellore and Chandragiri. The Gingee Nayak line was established by Tubaki (aka Tupakula) Krishnappa Nayaka, the son of Koneri Nayaka and grandnephew
of Achyutappa Nayaka. Sanjay Subrahmanyam and Brennig provide the following details on Achyutappa Nayak. The Gingee Nayak kingdom when established
covered most of Northern Tamil Nadu including the present day Chennai, Puducherryand vast areas of Nellore, Chittoor, Vellore and Chandragiri. Its Southern
boundary extended up to Kollidam River which marked the boundary between the Tanjavur and Madurai kingdoms. Later, during mid 16th centuries, the
Gingee Nayaks lost control of the Vellore Fort and its Northern provinces when their erstwhile Vijayanagara overlords under Aravidu Dynasty took possession of
these places and re-established their later Kingdom.
Only known King of Gingee
Ananta Kon was a King of Gingee around 1190. He was laid the foundations for the Kon dynasty and laid the initial foundations for the Gingee fort.
List of Rulers of the Gingee principality
Krishnappa Nayaka was a ruler of the Gingee principality of Tamil Nadu from 1509 until 1521. In 1509, under the orders of Krishnadeva Raya, Vaiyappa
Nayak led the Vijayanagar forces against the local chieftains of the Gingee area. Thereafter, Krishnadevaraya consolidated this area under one of his men,
Tubakki (or Tupakula) Krishnappa Nayaka. Sanjay Subrahmanya and Brennig note that Krishnappa was the son of Koneri who in turn was the son of an
unnamed brother of Achyutappa Chetti. However, Burton Stein notes that Tubaki Krishnappa was the son of Vaiyappa Nayak, the Army General of
Krishnadeva Raya. We can therefore surmise that either Koneri and Vaiyappa are the same person or that Vaiyappa was in some form related to the unnamed
brother of Achyutappa Chetty. Krishnappa Nayaka established a heredity line of Nayak rulers who ruled Gingee from 1509 to 1648 AD. Krishnappa Nayaka
reign lasted from 1507 to 1521. Krishnappa Naick is said to be the founder of Gingee city. The earlier name of Gingee was Krishnapura. Krishnappa Nayak built
the Singavaram Venkataramana and Venugopalaswami temples and other structures inside the Gingee Fort. Krishnappa was said be a native of Conjivaram
(Kanchipuram) and kept a flower-garden dedicated to the God, Varadaraj Perumal. The granaries of the Gingee Fort, the Kalyana Mahal and the thick walls
enclosing the three hills of Gingee are attributed to Krishnappa Nayaka. Although Gingee had been a fortified centre as early as 1240 CE, it was during the rule
of Krishnappa that the present layout of the Garh Mahal (fort) was established. Krishnappa is said to be the first Nayaka who converted a fort into an outstanding
example of military architecture. Krishnappa Nayaka's rule was fraught with wars against the Muslims.Raghunatha Nayaka of Tanjore is said to have secured the
release of Krishnappa Nayaka from the Muhammedans with the sanction of the Vijayanagar emperor. A grateful Krishnappa reportedly gave away his daughter in
marriage to the Tanjore king. Krishnappa Nayaka came from a family of merchants. He was the grandnephew of Achyutappa Chetti who was a trader, broker
and a shipping merchant.
Chennappa Nayaka was a ruler of the Gingee principality of Tamil Nadu in thee first half 16th century.
Gangama Nayaka was a ruler of the Gingee principality of Tamil Nadu in the first half 16th century.
Venkata Krishnappa Nayaka was a ruler of the Gingee principality of Tamil Nadu in the first half 16th century.
Venkata Rama Bhupaala Nayaka was a ruler of the Gingee principality of Tamil Nadu in the first half 16th century.
Thriyambamka Krishnappa Nayaka was a ruler of the Gingee principality of Tamil Nadu around middle 16th century.
Varadappa Nayaka was a ruler of the Gingee principality of Tamil Nadu in the second half 16th century.
Ramalinga Nayani vaaru was a ruler of the Gingee principality of Tamil Nadu in the late 16th century.
Venkata Perumal Naidu was a ruler of the Gingee principality of Tamil Nadu in the early 17th century.
Periya Ramabhadra Naidu was a ruler of the Gingee principality of Tamil Nadu in the first half 17th century.
Ramakrishnappa Naidu was the last ruler of the Gingee principality of Tamil Nadu from ? until 1649. The last Nayak of Gingee was forced to surrender to
the Bijapur army towards the end of December 1649.

Madurai Sultanate
Ma'bar Sultanate (Persian: ), unofficially known as the Madurai Sultanate was a short lived independent Muslim kingdom based in the city
of Madurai in Tamil Nadu,India. The sultanate was proclaimed in 1335 when the then viceroy of Madurai, Jalaluddin Ahsan Khan declared his independence
from the Delhi Sultanate. Ahsan Khan and his descendants ruled Madurai and surrounding territories until 1378 when the last sultan, Ala-ud-Din Sikandar Shah
fell in battle against the forces of the Vijayanagar Empire led byKumara Kampana. In the early 14th Century, South India was subjected to repeated invasions by
armies of the Delhi Sultanate. There were three separate invasions within a period of fifteen years. The first invasion was that of Malik Kafur in 1311 CE which
sacked Madurai. Following this there were two more expeditions from the Delhi Sultanate - the second in 1314 CE led by Khusrav Khan and the third in 1323
CE byUlugh Khan. These invasions shattered the Pandyan empire beyond revival. While the previous invasions were content with plunder, Ulugh Khan annexed
the former Pandyan dominions to the Delhi Sultanate as the province of Ma'bar. Most of South India came under the Delhi's rule and was divided into five
provinces - Devagiri, Tiling, Kampili, Dorasamudra and Ma'bar. In 1325, Ulugh Khan acceded to the throne in Delhi as Muhammad bin Tughluq. His plans for
invading Persia and Khorasan, bankrupted his treasury and led to the issuing of token currency. This led to counterfeiting and further worsened the sultanate's
finances. He was unable to pay his huge army and the soldiers stationed in distant provinces revolted. The first province to rebel was Bengal and Ma'bar soon
followed. The Governor of Ma'bar, Jalaluddin Ahsan Khan declared independence and set up the Madurai Sultanate. The exact year of founding of the Madurai
Sultanate is not clear. Numismatic evidence points to 1335 CE as the founding year. The Persian historian Firishta however places the year of Ma'bar's revolt as
1340 CE.
List of Sultans of Madurai Sultanate
Jalaluddin Ahsan Khan (died 1340) was the first Sultan of Madurai Sultanate from 1335 until his death in 1340 and father-in-law of the North African Arab
traveler Ibn Batutah. In 1334, Jalaluddin Ahsan Khan, the Tughlaq Governor of Madurai, declared his independence and established the independent sultanate
of Madurai. He claimed the whole of the Tughlaq province of Ma'bar which included the whole of the ancient Tamil country. However, he scarcely had any
authority beyond the realm of the Pandyas and the territory to the north of the river Kaveri was largely independent under the Cholas and the Hoysalas.
Jalaluddin Ahsan Khan took over as the independent sultan of Madurai in 1335. Ferishta, however, gives a date of 1341 for his assumption of the sultanate.
Ferishta refers to Ahsan Khan as Syed, Hasan and Husun. Ahsan Khan was also the father-in-law of the Moorish traveller Ibn Batuta. Immediately, Muhammad
bin Tughlaq sent an army to reassert his control over the region. But Ahsan Khan easily defeated this army. Tughlaq took his revenge by killing Ahsan Khan's
son Ibrahim who was the purse-bearer of the Emperor. Ahsan Khan was killed in 1340 by one of his nobles after having ruled for a brief span of 5 years.
Ala-ud-Din Udauji ( , died 1340) was the Sultan of Madurai Sultanate in 1340. After Jalaluddin's murder, Ala-ud-Din Udauji Shah took power
in 1340. He too was soon assassinated during a battle with Hindu armies. He was succeeded by his son in law Qutb-ud-Din Firuz Shah, who in turn was
assassinated within forty days of taking power. Qutbuddin's killer Ghiyas-ud-din Dhamagani took over as Sultan in 1340.
Qutb-ud-Din Firuz, Feroz Khan ( ) was the Sultan of Madurai Sultanate in 1340. After Jalaluddin's murder, Ala-ud-Din Udauji Shah took
power in 1340. He too was soon assassinated during a battle with Hindu armies. He was succeeded by his son in law Qutb-ud-Din Firuz Shah, who in turn was
assassinated within forty days of taking power. Qutbuddin's killer Ghiyas-ud-din Dhamagani took over as Sultan in 1340.
Ghiyas-ud-Din Muhammad Damghani ( , died 1344) was the Sultan of Madurai Sultanate from 1340 until his death in 1344.
Ghiyasuddin was defeated by the Hoysala king Veera Ballala III at first, but later managed to capture and kill Ballala in 1343 during the siege of Kannanur
Koppam. Ghiyasuddin captured Balalla, robbed him of his wealth, had him killed and his stuffed body displayed on the walls of Madurai. Ghiyasuddin died in
1344 from the after effects of an aphrodisiac.During his reign, Ibn Battuta, the Muslim Moroccan explorer known for his extensive travels through Africa and
Asia, visited his court, while on his way to China. He marriedJalaluddin Ahsan Khan's daughter. His travel notes mentions Ghiyas-ud-Din Muhammad
Damghani's atrocious behaviour towards the local population.His army under his personal orders had the habit of frequently rounding up the local villagers,
indiscriminately impaling them on sharpened wooden spikes and left to die. These accounts of were published in the Rihla (lit. "Journey").
Nasir-ud-Din Mahmud Damghan Shah ( , died 1356) was the Sultan of Madurai Sultanate from 1344 until his death in 1356.
Ghiyasuddin was succeeded by his nephew Nasir-ud-Din Mahmud Damghan Shah, reportedly a soldier of lowly origins who originated from Delhi.He upon
asscesion quiclky started dismissing and killing many of the officers and nobles and various political enemies who were likely to disturb his possession of the
throne. He too fell into decline and was killed in a short time. From contemporary historical accounts, the rulers of Madurai Sultanate come across as tyrants and
persecutors of Hindus. Both Ibn Batutta's and Gangadevi's accounts contain graphic descriptions of atrocities committed by the Muslim Sultans on the Hindu
population. Ibn Batuta describes Ghiyasuddin Dhamgani's actions as: the Hindu prisoners were divided into four sections and taken to each of the four gates of
the great catcar. There, on the stakes they had carried, the prisoners were impaled. Afterwards their wives were killed and tied by their hair to these pales. Little
children were massacred on the bosoms of their mothers and their corpses left there. Then, the camp was raised, and they started cutting down the trees of
another forest. In the same manner did they treat their later Hindu prisoners. This is shameful conduct such as I have not known any other sovereign guilty of. It
is for this that God hastened the death of Ghiyath-eddin. One day whilst the Kadhi (Kazi) and I were having our food with (Ghiyazu-d-din), the Kazi to his right
and I to his left, an infidel was brought before him accompanied by his wife and son aged seven years. The Sultan made a sign with his hand to the executioners
to cut off the head of this man ; then he said to them in Arabic : ' and the son and the wife. ' They cut off their heads and I turned my eyes away. When I looked
again, I saw their heads lying on the ground. I was another time with the Sultan Ghiyath-eddin when a Hindu was brought into his presence. He uttered words I
did not understand, and immediately several of his followers drew their daggers. I rose hurriedly, and he said to me ; ' Where are you going ' ? I replied : ' I am
going to say my afternoon (4 o'clock) prayers. 'He understood my reason, smiled, and ordered the hands and feet of the idolater to be cut off. On my return I
found the unfortunate swimming in his blood.
Shams-ud-din Shah, Adil Khan ( , died 1358) was the Sultan of Madurai Sultanate from 1356 until his death in 1358.
Fakhr-ud-din Shah, Mubarak Khan ( , died 1368) was the Sultan of Madurai Sultanate from 1358 until his death in 1368.
Ala-ud-din Shah II, Sikandar Khan ( , died 1379) was the Sultan of Madurai Sultanate from 1368 until his death in 1378.

Madurai Nayak Kingdom
The Madurai Nayaks were rulers from around 1529 AD until 1736 AD, of a region comprising most of modern-day Tamil Nadu, India, with Madurai as their
capital. The Nayak reign was an era noted for its achievement in arts, cultural and administrative reforms, revitalization of temples previously ransacked by
the Delhi Sultans, and inauguration of a unique architectural style. The dynasty consisted of 13 rulers, of whom 9 were kings, 2 were queens, and 2 were joint-
kings. The most notable of these were the king, Tirumalai Nayak, and the queen, Rani Mangammal. Foreign trade was conducted mainly with the Dutch and
thePortuguese, as the British and the French had not yet made inroads in the region. Madurai Nayaks belonged to the Balija social group. They claimed
a Bana descent.
List of Rulers (Kings, Queens) of Madurai Nayak Kingdom
Viswanatha Nayak (died 1563) was the founder of the Nayak dynasty of Madurai and the first King of Madurai Nayak Kingdom from
1529 until 1544, in 1546, and from 1559 until his death in 1563. He was the Vijayanagara viceroy to Madurai in south India during the 16th
century. He later became the ruler of Madurai after the fall of the Vijayanagara Empire. He is the founder of the Nayak dynasty of Madurai.
He was supported by his general Ariyanatha Mudaliar who led Viswantha Nayak's army became second in command and took power along
with the latter in Tirunelveli in southern India. Viswantha Nayak was then succeeded by his son Krishnappa Nayak who along with his
father's able minister Ariyanatha expanded the Madurai Kingdom under the Nayaks and brought most of the ancient Pandyan territory
under its rule. He was the son of Nagama Nayaka, the successful general of Krishnadevaraya in the Vijayanagara Empire. In the early 16th
century, the Chola ruler Veerasekara Chola invaded the Madurai country and deposed the Pandya king Chandrasekara Pandyan. The
Pandya king was under the protection of the Vijayanagara empire
[3]
and he appealed to the court ofVijayanagara, and an expedition under Kotikam Nagama
Nayaka was sent to his aid. Nagama suppressed the Chola ruler and took Madurai, but then suddenly he threw off his allegiance and declining to help the Pandya
king, usurped the throne. The Vijayanagar emperor demanded that someone cure the defection: Nagamas own son, Viswanatha, volunteered, and the king sent
him with a large force against the rebel. He overthrew his father and handed him over to the emperor and as a reward for his loyalty the king appointed
Viswanatha Nayaka as the governor of Madurai and other provinces in the Tamil country thus leading to formation of the Nayak Kingdom of Madurai in 1529.
In his administrative improvements Viswanatha was ably seconded by his Prime Minister Ariyanatha Mudaliar (or, as he is still commonly called, Ariyanatha), a
man born into a poor Vellala family in Meippedu village, Tondaimandalam (the present dayKanchipuram district) who had won his way by sheer ability to a high
position in the Vijayanagar court. When the Vijayanagara empire fell, he became the Dalavoy (General) and the second-in command to
the Vijayanagara viceroy Viswanatha Nayaka of Madurai. Ariyanatha Mudaliar utilized the palayam or poligar system which was widely used to govern the Nayak
kingdom. The system was a quasi-fedual organization of the country, which was divided into multiple palayams or small provinces; and each palayam was ruled
by a palayakkarar or a petty chief. Ariyanatha organized the Pandyan kingdom into 72 palayams and ruled over the 72 dry-zone poligars chiefs for over fifty years.
The feudal chiefs of southern Tamil Nadu continue to be specially attached to his memory to this very day. Each was placed in charge of one of the 72 bastions
of the Madurai fortifications. They were responsible for the immediate control of their estates. They paid a fixed tribute to the Nayaka kings and maintained a
quota of troops ready for immediate service. The Meenakshi Temple, destroyed by the Mohammedans was re-constructed in 1569. At the entrance of the
Thousand Pillar Mandapam, we can still see the statue of Ariyanatha Mudaliar seated on a beautiful horse-back which flanks one side of the entrance to the
temple. The statue is still periodically crowned with garlands by modern worshippers. He lived until 1600 and had great influence upon the fate of the Nayaka
dynasty until his death. Ariyanatha Mudaliar was not only the pre-colonial military man but also enjoyed a cult status in southern Tamil Nadu and became a
tutelary patron figure amongst some of the region's cattle-keeping predator groups. These men did much for the country in those days, founding villages, building
dams, constructing tanks and erecting temples. Many of them bore the title of Nayakkan, and hence the common "nayakkanur" as a termination to the place
names in this district. They also brought with them the gods of the Deccan, and thus we find in Madurai many shrines toAhobilam and other deities who rarely
are worshipped in the Tamil country. Their successors, the present zamindars of the district, still look upon Ariyanatha as a sort of patronsaint. Visvanatha
Nayaka added the fort of Trichinopoly to his possessions. The Vijayanagar viceroy who governed the Tanjore country had failed to police the pilgrim roads
which ran through Trichinopoly, to the shrines at Srirangam and Ramesvaram, and devotees were afraid to visit those holy places. Visvanatha exchanged that
town for his fort at Vallam, in Tanjore. He then improved the fortifications and town of Trichinopoly, and the temple of Srirangam, and he cleared the banks of
the Cauvery river of robbers. Visvanatha had difficulty with some of the local chieftains, who resisted his authority in Tinnevelly, but after vanquishing them he
improved that town and district. Visvanatha died aged and honoured in 1563. He still is affectionately remembered as having been a great benefactor of his
country. After Vishwanatha Nayak, his son Kumara Krishnappa Nayaka took over and from thereon, the heredity rule of Vishwanatha Nayaka continued.

This
historical event was made as Telugu film in 1987 entitled Vishwanatha Nayakudu under the direction of Dasari Narayana Rao. Superstar Krishna portrayed the
title role, white Shivaji Ganesan as his father and Krishnam Raju as Krishnadevaraja.
Ariyanatha Mudaliar was the Vellala Delavoy (General) and the able Chief Minister of the greatest of the Nayaka domains established by the Vijayanagar
viceroy and later ruler of Madurai, Viswanatha Nayak reigned from 1529 until 1564. He is renowned as the founder of the quasi-feudal organization of regions
called poligar or the palayakkarar system where the regions are divided into palayams (small principalities) and are independently governed by poligars
or palayakkarars (petty chiefs). He organized the Pandyan kingdom into 72 palayams and ruled over the 72 dry-zone poligars chiefs for over fifty years.
Ariyanatha Mudaliar was not only the pre-colonial military man but also enjoyed a cult status in southern Tamil Nadu and became a tutelary patron figure
amongst some of the region's cattle-keeping predator groups. The feudal chiefs of southern Tamil Nadu continue to be specially attached to his memory to this
very day. The Aiyaram Kaal Mandapam, or Thousand Pillared Hall, in the famous Meenakshi Temple was constructed by him in 1569. At the entrance of the
Mandapam, we can still see his statue; the majestic pose of Ariyanatha Mudaliar seated on a beautiful horse-back. His great grand childrens are still around.
Ariyanatha Mudaliar was born in a Vellala family in Meippedu village, Tondaimandalam (the present day Kanchipuram district). He learned Tamil
and Mathematics from a teacher for free and in his spare time mastered the ancient Tamil martial art of Silambam and others like sword fight and wrestling. At
the age of 16, he was encouraged to go the court of Krishnadevaraya, the king of Vijayanagara. Ariyanatha soon rose to prominence and became the chief
accountant of the Vijayanagara Empire. When the Vijayanagara empire fell, he became the Delavoy (General) and the second-in command to the Vijayanagara
viceroy Viswanatha Nayaka of Madurai. The process of consolidation of the Tamil region under the Vijayanagara Empire started in the beginning of the 16th
century. The regions were brought primarily under the control of the Nayaka kingdoms of Madurai, Tanjore and Senji. Though the differentNayaka regions were
autonomous, they all acknowledged the sovereignty of the Vijayanagara and its emperorKrishnadevaraya. During the process of consolidation, Krishnadevaraya
dispatched one of his most successful generals, Nagama Nayaka, on a campaign to punish Virasekhara Chola who had plundered the petty Pandyan regions. The
Pandyas were under the protection of the Vijayanagara Empire. Having put down Virasekhara, the general Nagama Nayak claimed Madurai for himself.
Viswanatha Nayak, the son of Nagama Nayak was more loyal to the king Krishnadevaraya than to his father. He overthrew his father and handed him over to
Krishnadevaraya and as a reward for his loyalty the king appointed Viswanatha Nayaka as the governor of Madurai and other provinces in the neighboring Tamil
country. Ariyanatha Mudaliar who led Viswantha Nayak's army became second in command and took power along with the latter inTirunelveli in southern
India. Viswantha Nayak was then succeeded by his son Krishnappa Nayak who along with his father's able minister Ariyanatha expanded the Madurai Kingdom
under the Nayaks and brought most of the ancient Pandyan territory under its rule. Ariyanatha Mudaliar founded the palayam or poligar system which was widely
used to govern the Nayak kingdom during the late 16th centuries. The system was a quasi-fedual organization of the country, which was divided into
multiple palayams or small provinces and each palayam was ruled by a palayakkarar or a petty chief. The Madurai Nayak kingdom was accordingly divided into
72 palayams and Ariyanatha ruled over them for over 50 years along with Viswanatha and then with his son Krishnappa Nayak. According to an inscription from
Kiranur, Madurai, we have a record of one Kalahastiyappa Mudaliar, described as Viswanatha Nayak's Prime Minister. He donated the village of Kondaranji
Karanur as a free gift to the Brahmins. During the reign of Viswanatha Nayak's successor Chokkanatha Nayaka, we have one Chinnathambi Mudaliyar who is
described as the Vassal Pradhani, i.e., the Prime Minister or the Gate keeper to the Nayaka. He is described as the Dalavay or Pradhani for seven years. For
example Rahm Emanuel, the former White House Chief of Staff, was also described as the Gate keeper to the Oval Office. Again, an inscription from the Sri
Ranganathaswami temple we have one Muthuna Mudaliyar who is described as the Vassal Pradhani of Ramakrishnappa Nayaka.
Dumbicchi Nayakkan was the Governor of Madurai Nayak Kingdom from 1545 until 1546.
Varathappa Nayakkar was the King of Madurai Nayak Kingdom who ruled for a very short period of about a year in 1545.
Vitthala Raja was the King of Madurai Nayak Kingdom from 1546 until 1558. Vitthala Raja, a prince of Vijayanagar who invaded Travancore for a second
time in 1543, took over Madurai around 15461547 and ruled Madurai for 12 years, until 15571558. James Nelson mentions that this Vitthala Raja was none
other than Rama Raja of Vijayanagar. An inscription in an old Perumal temple at Madura states that certain things were done during the rule of "Rama Raja
Vitthala Deva Maha Rayar"; and based on the dates within the short period assigned, Nelson reasons that Vitthala Raja was none other than Rama Raya; and that
the name Vitthala was assumed as an epithet by Rama Raya. Rama Raya ruled Madurai more or less directly until 15571558; after which the Madurai country
was left in a state of chaos, anarchy and confusion. During this time, a Pandya contrived to get himself crowned as the king, but the Raja of Tanjore drove him
away. Then a Vijayanagar general drove the Tanjore Raja away from Madurai, and tried to make himself independent.
Kumara Krishnappa Nayaka was the King of Madurai Nayak Kingdom from 1563 until 1573. Viswantha Nayak was succeeded by his son Krishnappa
Nayak who along with his father's able minister Ariyanatha expanded the Madurai Kingdom under the Nayaks and brought most of the ancient Pandyan territory
under its rule. Kumara Krishnappa is remembered as having been a brave and politic ruler. A revolt occurred among the polygars, during his reign, but its leader
Thumbichi Naidu (Dumbicchi Nayakkan) was captured and the trouble was quenched. In 1565 the Muslim rulers of the Deccan defeated Vijayanagar, the
suzerain of the Nayaks, at the battle of Talikota. Vijayanagar had to abandon Bellary and Anantapur, flee their capital, and take refuge at Penukonda in
Anantapur, then at Vellore, and then at Chandragiri near Tirupathi, which later granted land to the British East India Company to build a fort at the present
day Chennai. Finally they settled at Vellore in North Arcot. Their governors at Madurai, Kalahasti, Gingee and Tanjore still paid them tribute and other marks of
respect; but in later years, when their suzerainty became weak, the Nayaks ruled independently.
Virappa Nayaka was the King of Madurai Nayak Kingdom from 1573 until 1595.
Krishnappa Nayaka II was the King of Madurai Nayak Kingdom from 1595 until 1601.
Muttu Krishnappa Nayaka was the King of Madurai Nayak Kingdom from 1602 until 1609. These were followed by Muttu Krishnappa Nayak. He is
credited with having given the Setupatis of Ramnad a considerable slice of territory in the Maravar country, on condition that they suppress crime and protect
pilgrims journeying to Rameswaram. These were the beginnings of Ramnad zamindari.
Muttu Virappa Nayaka (died 1623) was the King of Madurai Nayak Kingdom from 1609 until his death in 1623. Muttu Krishnappa Nayak was succeeded
by his eldest son, Muttu Virappa. He began the construction of the Dindigul Fort at Dindigul on the Hill, along with the Temple on it, which later was completed
by Tirumalai Nayak. Muttu Virappa's rule was in general not noteworthy and he is said to have allowed his favourites to tyrannise the people unchecked. Muttu
Virappa is said to have had several vassals under him indicating that he must have already obtained great power; and he is stated to have paid the Vijayanagar king
at Chandragiri a tribute of 600,000 pagodas in 1616. During Muthu Virappa's rule, a civil war involving succession to the throne was taking place in the
Vijayanagara Kingdom, now based in Vellore and Chandragiri. Gobburi Jagga Raya, brother of the previous ruler Venkata IIs favourite Queen Obayamma
claimed her putative son as the King and murdered Sriranga II along with his family in the Vellore Prison. Jagga Raya was strongly challenged by Yachamanedu,
the chief of Kalahasti who claimed the throne for Rama Deva, the rightful heir whom he had smuggled out from the Vellore Prison. Jagga Raya sought help from
the Gingee Nayak and Muttu Virappa to attack Yachamanedu and Rama Deva. Yachamanedu and Ramadeva sought support from Raghunatha Nayak
of Tanjore, who still treated the Vijaynagar as his authority. Jagga Raya assembled a large army near Tiruchirapalli, the capital of Muttu Virappa comprising the
armies of Gingee, Chera, Madurai, and some Portuguese from the coast. Yachama led the forces of Vijayanagara and Kalahasti from Vellore and was joined
midway by Tanjore forces headed by Raghunatha. Yachama's army was further strengthened by nobles from Karnataka. Both the Armies met at Toppur, an
open field on the northern banks of River Cauvery, between Tiruchirapalli and Grand Anicut in late months of 1616. The huge assembly of forces on either side
is estimated to be as many as a Million soldiers (according to Dr. Barradas in Sewells Book) and considered to be one of the biggest battles in the Southern
India. In the battle, Jagga Raya's troops could not withstand the aggression generated by the imperial forces. Yachama and Raghunatha, the generals of the
imperial camp led their forces with great discipline. Jagga Raya was slain by Yachama, and his army broke the ranks and took flight. Yethiraja, the brother of Jagga
Raya, had to run for his life. Muttu Virappa tried to escape, he was pursued by Yachama's general Rao Dama Nayani who captured him near Tiruchirapalli. The
Nayak of Gingee in the encounter lost all his forts except Gingee Fort. And the putative son of Venkata II who was the cause of all the trouble was captured. The
victory was celebrated by the imperial armies headed by the Thanjavur Nayak and Yachamanedu, who planted pillars of victory and crowned Rama Deva as
Rama Deva Raya, the Vijayanagar King, in early months of 1617. Ramadeva was barely 15 years old when he ascended the throne.
Tirumalai Nayaka (died 1659) was the King of Madurai Nayak Kingdom from 1623 until his death in 1659. Meanwhile in the Madurai country, Muthu
Virappa, mentioned above, was succeeded by the great "Tirumalai Nayak", the most powerful and best-known member of his dynasty, who ruled for thirty-six
eventful years. Before Thirumalai Nayaka came to power, the court of Madurai was being held at Trichy for some ten to twelve years. Thirumalai Nayaka would
have continued to rule from Trichy but for a dream. Thirumalai was suffering from Catarrah which the royal physicians were unable to cure. While he was once
marching towards Madurai, Thirumalai's sickness worsened and he halted near Dindigul. When he slept in his tent, God Sundareshwara and Goddess
Meenakshi appeared to him in a dream, and mentioned that they would cure him if he would make Madurai his capital. As soon as he awoke from his dream
just before dawn, Thirumalai called for the Brahmans and others in attendance, who advised him to obey the will of God. Thirumalai Nayaka then not only
vowed to make Madurai his capital but also to expend 5 lakh pons (100,000 pounds) in sacred works. Immediately thereafter, he felt the disease leave him. An
overjoyed Thirumalai Nayaka thereafter determined to devote his life to the worship and service of the Gods of Madura and supposedly adopted the Saiva faith.

Thirumalai Nayaka was assisted by his Dalavay Ramappayan, who was also the Prime Minister and Commander-in-Chief of the Madurai Army. Ramappayan
helped crush the rebellion of the Setupatis of Ramnad. The Setupathi and his Maravas withdrew to the island of Pamban and procured the assistance of
Europeans. While at the verge of attaining victory of the Setupathi, Ramapayyan suddenly fell sick and died. He was succeeded by his son-in-law Siva Ramaya
who proved himself well worthy of the post and captured a nephew of the Setupati, Tanakka Tevan. With the Setupathi himself imprisoned, the Maravas of
Ramnad quietly submitted to the authority of Siva Ramaya. From a historical document Ramappayyan Ammanai, we know that the Dalavoy Ramappayan,
a Brahmin, had also proven his mettle in the war against Randaula Khan and Sriranga III from 1639 to 1641.

After a glorious rule of 36 years, Thirumalai
Nayaka died in 1659 in his capital Madurai, between the ages of 60 and 70 years of age.
Muttu Alakadri Nayaka (died 1662) was the King of Madurai Nayak Kingdom from 1659 until his death in 1662. Tirumala was succeeded by his son
Muttu Alakadri, whose first act was to shake off the hated Muslim yoke. He tried to induce the Nayak of Tanjore to join the enterprise. However, alarmed at the
power aspirations of his neighbour, the Tanjore ruler disclaimed all connection with his neighbours aspirations and made an attempt to conciliate with the
Muslims. The Muslim invaders moved against Trichinopoly and Madurai, spreading havoc, while Muttu Alakadri remained inactive behind the walls of the fort.
Fortunately for him, the enemy soon had to retire, for their devastations produced a local famine and pestilence from which they themselves suffered terribly.
They made a half-hearted attempt on Trichinopoly and then permitted themselves to be bought off for a very moderate sum. Muttu Alakadri did not long survive
their departure, but gave himself over to debauchery with an abandon which soon brought him to a dishonoured grave.
Chokkanatha Nayaka (died 1682) was the King of Madurai Nayak Kingdom from 1662 until his death in 1682. Muthu Alakadri Nayak was succeeded by
his son Chokkanatha, a promising boy of sixteen. Please see the separate article devoted to him at Chokkanatha Nayak.
Rangakrishna Muthu Virappa Nayaka (died 1689) was the King of Madurai Nayak Kingdom from 1682 until his death in 1689. Rangakrishna Muthu
Virappa Nayak, who succeeded Chokkanatha was a spirited boy of fifteen. He tried to revive the diminished fortunes of the kingdom. He made a name for
himself by ignoring Aurangazeb with courage, but little enough of his territories remained to him to rule. The greater part of them was held by Mysore, some by
the Maravans, some by the Marathas of Gingee, and some by the Marathas of Tanjore. At first, the country was subject to anarchy and pillage, foreign enemies
occupied all the forts, and robber chiefs were masters of the rural areas and carried on their brigandage there with impunity. Matters slowly improved, with
Mysore soon distracted by a war with the Marathas of Gingee, and both the Setupathis of Ramnad and the Marathas of Tanjore occupied by wars within their
own countries. Emperor Aurangzeb in 16861687 conquered the kingdoms of Maduras old enemies, Golconda and Bijapur, and he was for many years engaged
in an exhausting war with the Marathas. Moreover the young Nayak of Madurai, though imbued with a boyish love of fun and adventure which endeared him to
his countrymen, also had a stock of sound sense and ability which evoked the admiration of his ministers, and he took advantage of his improving prospects.
Muthu Virappa recovered his capital in 1685, and he gradually reconquered large parts of the ancient kingdom of his forefathers and succeeded in restoring the
power of the Nayaks of Madurai. Unfortunately he died of smallpox in 1689, at the early age of 22. His young widow Muttammal the only woman, strange to
say, whom he had married was inconsolable at his loss and, though she was far advanced in pregnancy, insisted upon committing sati on his funeral pyre. His
mother, Rani Mangammal, with great difficulty persuaded her to wait until her child was born, solemnly swearing that she could then have her way. When the
child (a son) arrived, she was put off with various excuses until, despairing of being allowed her wish, she put an end to her own life.
Rani Mangammal (died 1704) was a Queen Regent on behalf of her grandson, in the Madurai nayaka kingdom from 1689 until her
death in 1704. She was a popular administrator and is still widely remembered as a maker of roads and avenues, and a builder of
temples, tanks and choultries with many of her public works still in use. She is also known for her diplomatic and political skills and
successful military campaigns. The capital of Madurai Kingdom during her times was tiruchy. Mangammal was the daughter of Tupakula
Lingama Nayaka, a balija naidu, a general of Madurai ruler Chokkanatha Nayak (16591682). Although Chokkanatha married
Mangammal early, she became the principal queen only later on after his efforts to wed the daughter of the Thanjavur ruler
Vijayaraghava Nayak had failed. Chokkanatha died in 1682, after that she took over the crown. Rangakrishna Muthu Virappa Nayak
(16821689), Mangammals son succeeded Chokkanatha, aged fifteen. He tried to retrieve the diminished fortunes of the kingdom and
made a name for himself by courageously ignoring Aurangzeb. But Rengakrishna died in 1689, when his queen was pregnant. After she gave birth to a son, Vijaya
Ranga Chokkanatha, she committed sati, despite strong remonstrance by her mother-in-law Mangammal. So Mangammal was forced to become regent on behalf
of her infant grandson Vijaya Ranga Chokkanatha, who was crowned when he was three months old in 1689 and ruled till 1705, with an able administrative
council headed by Dalavoy (Governor General) Narasappiah. Mangammal was less often at war than her predecessors had been, but she did not escape the usual
conflicts with her neighbors. The Madurai kingdom had enemies all-around; the Marathas, Mysore army, Mughal army with the Deccan Sultans and frequent
interludes by the Thanjavur kingdom. In the south, the Raja of Travancore stopped paying the tribute and the ruler ofRamanad, Kilavan Sethupathi had risen in
revolt in a bid for independence. Mangammal had to face these state of affairs without any external help. With her political wisdom, diplomatic skill,
administrative ability, and cool courage in the face of danger, she was able to maintain the prestige of Madurai and regain for it much of the position it had held
during the days of Thirumalai Nayak. Mangammals reign also synchronized with a period when the Mughal Emperor under Aurangzeb was the master
of Deccan.It was only during her reign Madurai first came into direct contact with the Mughal Empire at Delhi. Zulfikar Khan, the general sent by Mughal
emperor Aurangzeb to attack the Maratha stronghold at Gingee, exacted tribute both from Trichinopoly and Thanjavur in 1693, though he did not succeed in
taking Gingee until five years later. The first problem which Mangammal had to face was the threat from the Mughals. Aurangzeb sent an army to the south to
demand submission from Thanjavur and to seize Gingee Fort, which had gone into the hands of the Marathas during the time of her husband. In 1697, Zulfikhar
Ali Khan, the general of Aurangzeb was engaged in the Siege of Jinji, where Rajaram, son ofShivaji had entrenched himself and bent upon attacking Thanjavur
and Madurai at any cost. After careful deliberation, Mangammal sent tribute, and later with the help of Zulfikhar Ali she was able to recover some portions of the
kingdom lost to Thanjavur in the past. Mangammal also had to face an invasion of Tiruchirapalli by Chikka Deva Raya of Mysore who sent his famous Dalavoy
Kumariyya, but an attack by the Marathas on Mysore led to his recall. In 1697, Mangammal sent an expedition to Travancore to punish its ruler, Ravi Varma,
who had attacked and destroyed an army sent from Madurai to Travancore to collect the annual tribute which the king had not been paying. The ruler of that
country had of recent years been very remiss in sending his tribute to Madurai, and it had been necessary on several occasions to send an army to collect the
arrears. The force dispatched for this purpose was taken off its guard and almost cut to pieces. A punitive expedition was organized in the following year, and
after hard fighting Travancore was subdued and an immense booty was brought home. Part of this consisted of many cannons, which were mounted, on the
ramparts of Tiruchirapalli and Madurai. Mangammal had frequent troubles from the time of her regency with Maratha King Shaji of Thanjavur. In the following
year the Madurai forces under Dalavoy Narasappiah crushingly defeated the Tanjore Marathas near their capital, when they suddenly stormed into their capital.
The disheartened King Shaji of Tanjore was only glad enough to buy off the invading army with an enormous bribe, after almost emptying his treasury. When
Rani Mangammal was engaged in settling her policy towards the Mughal Empire, Chikka Deva Raya of Mysore in a pursuit of territorial expansion annexed the
territories up to Salem and Coimbatore from Madurai Kingdom between 1690 and 1694. In 1695, Tiruchirapalli, then capital of Madurai, was also besieged by
Mysore armies was defeated and sent back. Shortly after her war and peace with Thanjavur in 1700, both united and proceeded against Chikka Dev Raya. The
later had built an Anicut (which means "dam" in Tamil) across the river Cauvery thus preventing adequate supply of irrigation water for Thanjavur and the
northern parts of Madurai Kingdom. Same year, the river also ran near dry. Anticipating a drought and famine situation, both Madurai and Thanjavur armies
united to attack Mysore. But by that time, heavy rains had washed off this Anicut, which was located at the site where the present Kannambadi dam stands.
Mangammal's greatest trial and serious failure was her expedition against Raghunatha Sethupathi, which was also her last major campaign in 1702. The war was
against theSethupathi for his support to Thanjavur during her early days. This ended in a defeat for the Madurai culminating with the death of Madurais famous
Dalavoy Narasappiah in the battle. This was a serious blow to Rani Mangammal for otherwise successful military campaigns. Mangammal was an efficient and
popular ruler and her memory is cherished even today in the rural areas of the district. Mangammal worked industriously at civil administration, trade and
industry paying special attention to irrigation and communications. Many irrigation channels were repaired, new roads were constructed, and avenue trees were
planted. The highway from Cape Comorin was originally built during the time of Mangammal and it was known as Mangammal Salai.
[1]
She built many public
works, notably the Choultries for pilgrims, of which the Mangammal Chataram (Choultry) in Madurai near the railway station is a standing monument. Popular
belief ascribes to her every fine old avenue constructed in Madurai and Tirunelveli and other smaller towns in Tamil Nadu. Her own original palace
(Tamukkam or Summer Palace) in Madurai now houses the Mahatma Gandhi Museum although modified several times. The Palace has Tamukku Maidanam
(Grounds), capable of hosting royal entertainments such as elephant fights. She also provided comfort to highway travelers and pedestrians by planting trees,
building inns and supplies of water. In 1701 she made large grants for a public feeding institute. Mangammal was Hindu but nevertheless she was tolerant of
other religions. She endowed both temples and mosques, and she was friendly with Christian missionaries and their converts. In 1701, she made village grants to
a Dargah in Tiruchirapalli. Christian Missionaries enjoyed greater freedom in carrying out their works. Mangammal donated considerable jewels, palanquins to
the Madurai Meenakshiamman Temple and similar endowments to numerous temples in her Kingdom. Rani Mangammal instituted the famous Unjal (swing)
festival in the temple of Meenakshi to be performed in the Tamil month of Ani. Her contemporary portrait may be seen in the Unjal Mandapam. On all
celebrations, the royal sceptre (sengoal) used to be placed before the Meenakshi deity and then placed on the throne for the whole day. A painting in the
Meenakshi Amman Temple shows the temple priest handing over the royal sceptre to the Queen. It may also be mentioned that Hindu kings ruled their
kingdoms as the servants of God. The land was ruled in the name of the presiding God of the country. Mangammals death (circa 1704/1705) is shrouded in
mystery. Managammals grandson Vijaya Ranga Chokkanatha Nayak came of age in 17041705. But she is the most remembered of all Nayak rulers by the
people of Tamil Nadu even more than Thirumalai Nayak for her administrative works which still exists in various parts of her former kingdom. The belief was
that women were not suited to succeed to the throne of a kingdom, so Mangammal shines almost alone as an able and powerful female ruler in Tamil Nadu.
Vijaya Ranga Chokkanatha Nayaka (died 1731) was the King of Madurai Nayak Kingdom from 1704 until his death in 1731. Her grandson Vijaya
Ranga Chokkanatha Nayak, starting on a bad note, enjoyed a long but apparently dull reign of 26 years, paving way for the demise of the dynasty. He was vain
and weak-minded, and unfit to govern either himself or others. His reign was distinguished by the ill-regulated and extraordinary munificence of his gifts to
Brahmins and religious institutions. The injustice of his rule caused a serious riot in Madurai, the mutiny of his troops, and incessant disturbances. His only
warfare was over the succession to the throne of Ramnad, in 1725. Of the two claimants, one was supported by Tanjore Marathas and the other by Madurai and
the Tondaiman of Pudukkotai. The Tanjore troops won a decisive victory and placed their protg on the throne. A year or two later the Tanjore king deposed
this very protg, and divided Ramnad into Ramnad and Sivaganga, which became independent Marava powers. Vijaya Ranga Chokkanatha died in 1731, and
was succeeded by his widow Meenakshi, who acted as Queen-Regent on behalf of a young boy she had adopted as the heir of her dead husband. She had only
ruled a year or two when an insurrection was raised against her by Vangaru Tirumala, the father of her adopted son, who pretended to have claims of his own to
the throne of Madurai. At this juncture representatives of the Mughals appeared on the scene and took an important part in the struggle.
Meenakshi was the Queen of Madurai Nayak Kingdom from 1731 until 1736. She was the granddaughter-in-law of Rani Mangammal. Vijaya Ranga
Chokkanatha died in 1731, and was succeeded by his widow Meenakshi, who acted as Queen-Regent on behalf of a young boy she had adopted as the heir of her
dead husband. She had only ruled a year or two when an insurrection was raised against her by Vangaru Tirumala, the father of her adopted son, who pretended
to have claims of his own to the throne of Madurai. At this juncture representatives of the Mughals appeared on the scene and took an important part in the
struggle. Since 1693, Madurai nominally had been the feudatory of the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb, and since 1698 the Carnatic region north of the Coleroon
(Kollidam) river had been under direct Mughal rule. The local representative of the Mughal EmperorMuhammad Shah were the Nawab of Arcot, and an
intermediate authority was held by the Nizam of Hyderabad, who was in theory both a subordinate of the Mughal Emperors, and the superior of the Nawab.
How regularly the kings of Tanjore and Madura paid their tribute is not clear, but in 1734 about the time, in fact, that Meenakshi and Vangaru Thirumala were
fighting for the crown an expedition was sent by the then-Nawab of Arcot to exact tribute and submission from the kingdoms of the south. The leaders of this
expedition were the Nawabs son, Safdar Ali Khan, and his nephew and confidential adviser, the well-known Chanda Sahib. The expedition team took Tanjore
by storm and, leaving the stronghold of Trichinopoly untouched, swept across Madurai and Tinnevelly and into Travancore. On their return from this expedition
they took part in the quarrel between Meenakshi and Vangaru Tirumala. The latter approached Safdar Ali Khan with an offer of three million rupees if he would
oust the queen in favour of himself. Unwilling to attack Trichinopoly, the Arcot prince contented himself with solemnly declaring Vangaru Thirumala to be king
and taking the bond for the three millions. He then marched away, leaving Chanda Sahib to enforce his award as best he could. The queen, alarmed at the turn
affairs now had taken, had little difficulty in persuading that facile politician to accept her bond for a crore of rupees (ten million) and declare her duly entitled to
the throne. Queen Meenakshi required Chanda Sahib to swear on the Quran that he would adhere faithfully to his engagement, and he accordingly took an oath
in front of his Sepoys and Sowars. He was admitted into the Trichinopoly fort and Vangaru Thirumala apparently with the good will of the queen, who,
strangely enough, does not seem to have wished him any harm went off to Madurai, to rule over that country and Tinnevelly. Chanda Sahib accepted the crore
of rupees and departed to Arcot. Two years later, in 1736 he returned, again was admitted into the fort, and proceeded to make himself master of the kingdom.
Chanda Sahib eventually marched against Vangaru Thirumala, who still was ruling in the south, defeated him at Ammaya Nayakkanur and Dindigul, drove him
to take refuge in Sivaganga, and occupied the southern provinces of the Madurai kingdom. Having now made himself master of all of the region he then wrote a
letter to the Mughal Emperor Ahmad Shah Bahadurdeclaring himself the Nawab of Tinnevelly, he later also declared himself the Nawab of Carnatic.

Vajji
Vajji (Sanskrit: Vji) or Vrijji was one of the principal Mahajanapadas of ancient India. Both the Buddhist text Anguttara Nikaya and the Jaina text Bhagavati
Sutra (Saya xv Uddesa I) included Vajji in their lists of solasa (sixteen) Maha-Janapadas. The name of this Mahajanapada was derived from one of its ruling clans,
the Vjis. The Vajji state is indicated to have been a republic. This clan is mentioned by Pini, Kautilya and Xuanzang. The territory of the Vajji Maha-Janapada
was located on the north of the Ganges River and extended up to the Terai region of Nepal. On the west, the Gandak River was probably the boundary between
it and the Malla Maha-Janapada and possibly also separated it with the Kosala Maha-Janapada. On the east, its territory was probably extended up to the forests
along the banks of the rivers, Koshi and Mahananda. The capital of this Maha-Janapada was Vaishali. Other important towns and villages were Kundapura or
Kundagrama (a suburb of Vaishali), Bhoganagara and Hatthigama. The Licchavis were the most famous clan amongst the ruling confederate clans of
the Vajji mahajanapada of ancient India.Vaishali, the capital of the Licchavis, was the capital of the Vajji mahajanapada also. It was later occupied by Ajatashatru,
who annexed the Vajji territory into his kingdom.
King of the illustrious Lichchavi clan of the Vaji confederacy
Manudev was a famous king of the illustrious Lichchavi clan of the Vaji confederacy who desired to possess Amrapali after he saw her dance performance
in Vaishali.

tavhana Empire
The tavhana Empire (Telugu: , tavhana Smrjya, Maharashtri: , Slavhaa) was a royal Indian dynasty based
from Amaravati in Andhra Pradesh as well as Junnar (Pune) and Prathisthan (Paithan) inMaharashtra. The territory of the empire covered much of India from
230 BC onward. Although there is some controversy about when the dynasty came to an end, the most liberal estimates suggest that it lasted about 450 years,
until around 220 CE. The Satavahanas are credited for establishing peace in the country, resisting the onslaught of foreigners after the decline ofMauryan
Empire. Stavhanas started out as feudatories to the Mauryan dynasty, but declared independence with its decline. They are known for their patronage
of Hinduism and Buddhism which resulted in Buddhist monuments from Ellora (a UNESCO World Heritage Site) to Amaravati. The Stavhanas were one of
the first Indian states to issue coins struck with their rulers embossed. They formed a cultural bridge and played a vital role in trade as well as the transfer of ideas
and culture to and from the Indo-Gangetic Plain to the southern tip of India. They had to compete with the Sungas and then the Kanvas of Magadha to establish
their rule. Later, they played a crucial role to protect a huge part of India against foreign invaders like the Sakas, Yavanas and Pahlavas. In particular their
struggles with the Western Kshatrapas went on for a long time. The great rulers of the Satavahana Dynasty Gautamiputra Satakarni and Sri Yajna Stakarni were
able to defeat the foreign invaders like the Western Kshatrapas and stop their expansion. In the 3rd century CE the empire was split into smaller states.
List of Kings of tavhana Empire
Simuka (Marathi: ) (Telugu: , Simuka) was an Indian king and the founder of the tavhana Empire, reigned from 230 BC until 207 BC. He is
described as Sishuka or Sindhuka in thePuranas. He is also known as Gadabhilla, father of Vikrama in the accounts of the Jains, and is said to have ruled in the
area of Pratishthan and Malwa. He was succeeded by his brother Kanha (or Krishna) (r. 207 BC 189 BC), who further extended his state to the present
day Andhra Pradesh. Later, Simuka made Srikakulam as his capital.
Kanha (or Krishna) was a ruler of tavhana Empire from 207 BC until 189 BC.
Satakarni (Stakarn I) was a ruler of tavhana Empire from around 189 BC until 178 BC. It is thought that Satakarni was a son of Kunala. He only ruled for
two years, but he achieved the conquest of the WesternMalwa region from the Sungas. Satakarni is mentioned in the Hathigumpha inscription of Kalinga (India),
as a rival to king Kharavela: "And in the second year (he), disregarding Satakamini, dispatches to the western regions an army strong in cavalry, elephants, infantry
(nara) and chariots (ratha) and by that army having reached the Kanha-bemna, he throws the city of the Musikas into consternation." Epigraphia Indica, Vol. XX
Satakarni organized two horse sacrifices (Aswamedhas), to proclaim his sovereignty. His queen was Naganika, a member of the Maharathi family. She wrote
the Naneghat inscription, in which she describes Satakarni as "Lord of Dakshinapatha, wielder of the unchecked wheel of Sovereignty". Satakarni may have been
killed in battle. He was succeeded by his two young sons Vedistri and Satisisri, under the regency of their mother Nayanika.
Purnotsanga was a ruler of tavhana Empire from around late 170s BC until 150s BC.
Skandhastambhi was a ruler of tavhana Empire from around 152 BC until 134 BC.
Satakarni II was a ruler of tavhana Empire from 134 BC until 78 BC.
Lambodara was a ruler of tavhana Empire from 78 BC until 60 BC.
Apilaka was a ruler of tavhana Empire from 60 BC until 48 BC.
Meghasvati was a ruler of tavhana Empire from 48 BC until 30 BC.
Svati (Svami) was a ruler of tavhana Empire from 30 BC until 12 BC.
Skandasvati was a ruler of tavhana Empire from 12 BC until 5 BC.
Mahendra Satakarni was a ruler of tavhana Empire from 5 BC until AD 2.
Kuntala Satakarni was a ruler of tavhana Empire from AD 2 until AD 6.
Svatikarna was a ruler of tavhana Empire from AD 6 until AD 7.
Pulomavi (Patumavi) was a ruler of tavhana Empire in the first half 1nd century AD.
Riktavarna (Aristakarman) was a ruler of tavhana Empire in the first half 1nd century AD.
Hla (Telugu: , Marathi: ) was a ruler of tavhana Empire from AD 20 until AD 24. The Matsya Purana mentions him as the 17th ruler of the
Satavahana dynasty. The Lilavati describes his marriage with a Ceylonese Princess. Vijayananda, the commander-in-Chief of Hala's army led a successful
campaign in Ceylon. On his way back, he stayed back at Sapta Godavari Bhimam. Here, he came to know about Lilavati, the beautiful daughter of the king of
Ceylon. He narrated her story to Hla. King Hla secured Lilavati and married her. Hla, a speaker of Telugu and Prakrit is famous for compiling an anthology
of Maharashtri Prakrit poems known as the Gaha Sattasai (Sanskrit:Gth Saptaat), although from linguistic evidence it seems that the work now extant must
have been re-edited in the succeeding century or two.
Mandalaka was a ruler of tavhana Empire in the first half 1nd century AD.
Purindrasena was a ruler of tavhana Empire in the first half 1nd century AD.
Sundara Satakarni was a ruler of tavhana Empire in the second half 1nd century AD.
Cakora Satakarni (Cakora Svatikarna) was a ruler of tavhana Empire in the second half 1nd century AD.
Sivasvati was a ruler of tavhana Empire in the second half 1nd century AD.
Gautamiputra Stakarni was a ruler of tavhana Empire from AD 78 until AD 102. We know about him from an
inscription composed by his mother, Gautami Balashri. Gautamiputra Satakarni, often acknowledged by historians as the greatest
of the Satavahana rulers, took to the throne after his father, Satakarni. Satakarni had earlier expanded the Satavahana Empire and
gained considerable prosperity due to his two Ashwamedha sacrifices. When Gautamiputra ascended the throne, the Satavahana
Empire was loosely attached and was facing the threats of foreign invasions from Sakas and Yavanas. Gautamiputra defeated
the Yavanas, Sakas, and Pahlavas and re-established the ancient glory of the Satavahanas. The Shaka rulers Nahapana and
Ushavadata were ultimately defeated by the powerful Satavahana king Gautamiputra Satakarni. Gautamiputra drove the Sakas from Malwa and Western
Maharashtra, forcing Nahapana west to Gujarat. Gautamiputra restruck many of Nahapana's coins. He overthrew Nahapana and restruck a large number
of Ksaharata coins of theJogalthembi hoard.
[1]
The Nasik Prasasti describes Gautamiputra as the ruler of the Aparanta, Anupa, Saurashtra, Kukura, Akara, and
Avanti, and he must have wrested them from Nahapana. He also seems to have recovered the territories in Central Deccan, which had been lost by the
Satavahanas during the earlier rule of his predecessors. Under him, the Satavahana arms must have reached as far south as Kanchi. He is also credited with the
conquest of territories in the Kolhapur area in the SouthernMaharashtra, which he seized from the Ananda rulers. Gautamiputra also annexed the Banavasi area,
thus established his sway over portions of Karnataka. After conquering Malwa from a Saka ruler, Gautamiputra Satakarni issued local type of coins, particularly in
Malwa for convenience of the people. On the obverse, there is the figure of an elephant with its trunk and on the reverse, the peculiar device of Ujjain symbol.
This latter, not known on any Satavahana coins. It was prevalent only on the coins of Malwa. He was succeeded by his son, Vasisthiputra Sri Pulamavi. Satakarni
started the Shalivahana era or Shaka Calendar which is still used by Gujaratis, Marathas, Telugus, Kannadigas and Konkanis. Gautamiputra Satakarni bears a
name which has made some historians entertain a theory regarding matriarchy among the Satavahanas. He is called Gautamiputra even as there is another ruler
called Vasishtiputra Sri Pulumayi and yet another Kausikiputra Satakarni and these mean Satakarni son of Gautami, Sri Pulumayi son of Vasishti and Satakarni
son of Kausiki and in these cases Gautami, Vasishti and Kausiki were the names of the mothers of these rulers respectively. That they prefix their mother's names
to theirs seems to mean to these historians that they derive themselves in the female line and not in the male line thereby suggesting matriarchy. This is not
acceptable for there is no other evidence to support such a radical conclusion and even in Kerala matriarchy came in much later, certainly not before a few
centuries after the Sangam age. The real explanation for this kind of matronymic seems to be that since the rulers married a number of wives from different royal
families a prince was best identified with reference to his mother. This practice is found reflected in the system adopted in the colophons to the Padirruppattu a
Tamil Sangam anthology in which early Chera genealogy is mentioned. Gautamiputra was very charitable and there is a record which mentions his gift of a piece
of land which had originally belonged to one Ushavadatta. Vasishtiputra Sri Pulumayi (AD 130-158)
[5]
Gautamiputra Satakarni took the titles of:
Trisamudrapitatoyavahana (one whose horses had drunk waters from 3 oceans) and Sakayavanapallavanisudana (destroyer of Saka, Yavana and Pahlavas).
Sri Vasisthiputra Pulamavi was a ruler of tavhana Empire from AD 106 until AD 130. He was mentioned by Ptolemy under the name Siristolemaios
(Shri-Pulumayi). He was succeeded by his younger brother Vashishtiputra Satakarni. He was a contemporary of the Western satrap Chastana. Some of the lead
coins of Sri Pulamavi depict two-masted Indian ships, a testimony to the seafaring and trading capabilities of the Satavahanas during the 1st-2nd century CE. In
his rule, the mother of Gautamiputra Satakarni named as Gautami Balasri laid an inscription called as Nasik Inscription
Vashishtiputra Stakarni was a ruler of tavhana Empire from AD 130 until AD 160. He was the brother of Vasisthiputra Sri
Pulamavi, his regnal successor, and the son of the great Satavahana conquerorGautamiputra Satakarni. Vashishtiputra Stakarni was in great
conflict with the Scythian Western Kshatrapas in the West, but he eventually married the daughter of Rudradaman I of the Western
Kshatrapa dynasty, in order to forge an alliance. Later however, he was defeated by his father-in-law in battle, with serious effect on
Stavhana power and prestige: "Rudradaman (...) who obtained good report because he, in spite of having twice in fair fight completely
defeated Satakarni, the lord of Dakshinapatha, on account of the nearness of their connection did not destroy him." Junagadh rock
inscription
Shivaskanda Satakarni was a ruler of tavhana Empire around AD 160.
Sri Yajna Satakarni was a ruler of tavhana Empire from AD 167 until AD 196. During his reign, he regained some of the territory
lost to Shakas under Vashishtiputra Satakarni. He is considered to be the last great king of the Satavahana Dynasty. He is known from his
coins, and from the mention of his name in the regnal lists of the Matsya Purana, in which he is said to have ruled 29 years. The last great
king of this dynasty, Yajna Sri Satakarni, defeated the Western Satraps and reconquered their southern regions in western and central India
which led to the decline of the Western Satraps.
Vijaya was a ruler of tavhana Empire in late 1th century AD and early 2nd century AD.
Canda Sri Satakarni was a ruler of tavhana Empire from AD 213 until AD 216.
Puloma was a ruler of tavhana Empire from AD 216 until AD 224.
Madhariputra Svami Sakasena was a ruler of tavhana Empire during AD 220s.

Andhra Ikshvakus Dynasty
Andhra Ikshvakus were one of the earliest recorded ruling dynasties of the Krishna-Guntur regions of Andhra Pradesh.They ruled the eastern Andhra country
along the Krishna river during the later half of the 2nd century CE. Their capital was Vijayapuri (Nagarjunakonda). It is a strong common belief that Andhra
Ikshvakus were related to the mythologicalIkshvakus, although Andhra Ikshvakus seem to be a local tribe who adopted the title. Archaeological evidence has
suggested that the Andhra Ikshvakus immediately succeeded the Satavahanas in the Krishna river valley. Ikshvakus have left inscriptions at Nagarjunakonda,
Jaggayyapeta, Amaravati and Bhattiprolu. Although the Ikshvaku rulers practiced the Vedic religion, they were also great patrons of Buddhism. Most of the kings
and their household donated to the Buddhist cause. Buddhism was at its height in the Andhra country during their reign. The Ikshvakus were supplanted by
the Pallavas in the Deccan.
List of Rulers of Andhra Ikshvakus Dynasty
Vasishthiputra Sri Santamula (Santamula I) was the founder of Andhra Ikshvakus dynasty during the second half of the 2nd Century AD. He was the
founder of the line, performed the Asvamedha, Agnihotra, Agnistoma andVajapeya sacrifices. Santamula performed the Asvamedha sacrifices with a view to
proclaiming their independent and imperial status. It had become a common practice among the rulers of the subsequent dynasties to perform the Asvamedha
sacrifice in token of their declaration of independent status. From this fact, it can be inferred that it was Santamula I who first declared his independence and
established the Andhra Ikshvaku dynasty.
Virapurushadatta was a ruler of Andhra Ikshvakus dynasty during the first half of the 3nd Century AD. He was the son and successor of Santamula through
his wife Madhari. He had a sister named Adavi Santisri. He took a queen from the Saka family of Ujjain and gave his daughter in marriage to a Chutu prince.
Almost all the royal ladies were Buddhists. An aunt of Virapurisadata built a big Stupa at Nagarjunikonda. Her example was followed by other women of the
royal family.
Ehuvula Santamula (Santamula II) was a ruler of Andhra Ikshvakus dynasty during the second half of the 3nd Century AD. He was son of Virapurushadatta
previous ruler. He was ruled after a short Abhira interregnum. Virapurisadata's son His reign witnessed the completion of a Devi Vihara, the Sihala Vihara, a
convent founded for the accommodation of Sinhalese monks, and the Chaitya-ghara (Chaitya hall) dedicated to the fraternities (Theriyas) of Tambapanni
(Ceylon). Ceylonese Buddhism was in close touch with Andhra. The sculptures of Nagarjunakonda, which include large figures of Buddha, show decided traces
of Greek influence and Mahayanatendencies.
Rudrapurushadatta was a ruler of Andhra Ikshvakus dynasty during the second half of the 3nd Century AD. Rudrapurushadatta was the name of an
Ikshvaku ruler found in inscriptions from Gurajala in Guntur districts of Andhra Pradesh. He could have been a son of Ehuvula Santamula. Rudrapurushadatta
ruled for more than 11 years. He was probably the last important ruler of the Andhra Ikshvaku family. After him there were three more unknown rulers
according to the Puranas. Around 278 CE, the Abhiras might have put an end to the Ikshvakus.

Salankayanas Dynasty
The Salankayanas were an ancient dynasty that ruled the Andhra region between Godavari and Krishna with their capital as Vengi, modern Pedavegi near Eluru
in West Godavari district of Andhra Pradesh, India's from 300 to 440 AD. They wereBrahmins and their name is derived from their symbol and gotra name,
which stood for Nandi (the bull of Shiva). The Salankayanas succeeded the Andhra Ikshvaku dynasty and were vassals of the Pallava kings of southern India.
During their time the script for Telugu and Kannada began to clearly separating from that of the other South Indian and North Indian languages. In the late 5th
century, the Salankayanas were conquered by Madhavarma II of the Vishnukundinas (a Kshatriya Raju dynasty).
List of Rulers of Salankayanas Dynasty
Hastivarma was a ruler of Salankayanas Dynasty in the first half 4nd Century AD. His name was mentioned in Allahabad Inscription.
Nandi Varma I was a ruler of Salankayanas Dynasty in the second half 4nd Century AD.
Vijayadeva Varma was a ruler of Salankayanas Dynasty in late half 4nd Century AD and early 5nd Century AD. He did aswamedha yaga.
Vijayanandi Varma was a ruler of Salankayanas Dynasty in the first half 5nd Century AD. He constructed a vihara for Aparashaila Budhist.








Vishnukundina Empire
The Vishnukundina Empire was an Indian imperial power controlling the Deccan, Orissa and parts of South India during the 5th and 6th centuries, carving land
out from the Vakataka Empire. It played an important role in the history of the Deccan during the 5th and 6th centuries CE. By 514 CE, the Vakatakas were
reduced to the areas of present day Telangana area. The area north of the Godavari, Kalinga, became independent. The area south of the Krishna River fell to
the Pallavas. The Vishnukundin reign came to an end with the conquest of the eastern Deccan by the Chalukya, Pulakesi II. Pulakesi appointed his
brother Kubja Vishnuvardhana as Viceroy to rule over the conquered lands. Eventually Vishnuvardhana declared his independence and started the Eastern
Chalukyadynasty.
List of Kings of Vishnukundina Empire
Indra Varma was the first ruler of the Vishnukundin dynasty in late 4nd century AD. He might have carved out a small principality for himself probably as a
subordinate of the Vakatakassometime about the last quarter of the fourth century CE. Not much information is known about the next two kings, Madhav Varma
I and his son Govinda Varma. They might have kept intact the inheritance or extended their sway to some extent.
Madhav Varma I was the ruler of the Vishnukundin dynasty in early 5nd century AD.
Govinda Varma was the ruler of the Vishnukundin dynasty in the first half 5nd century AD.
Madhav Varma II was the ruler of the Vishnukundin dynasty in the second half 5nd Century AD. By the middle of the 5th century A.D., the dynasty began
its imperial expansion under its most efficient ruler Madhav Varma II who ruled for nearly half a century. The reign of Madhav Varma was a golden age in the
history of the Vishnukundins. It was during this period, the small Vishnukundin dynasty rose to imperial heights. A princess of the then powerful ruling family of
the Deccan the Vakatakas was given in marriage to Madhav Varma's son, Vikramendra Varma. This alliance gave them great power and made it easy for them to
extend their influence to the east coast and vanquishing the petty chieftains lingering on in that area. Madhav Varma II led his arms against Ananda Gotrikas who
were ruling over Guntur, Tenali andOngole, probably enjoying subordinate position under the Pallavas of Kanchipuram. After occupying these areas from
the Ananda Gotrikas, Madhav Varma II made Amarapura (modern Amaravati) his capital. Keeping in view the constant threat from the Pallavas, he created an
out-post to check their activities and appointed his son, Deva Varma and after his death the grandson Madhav Varma III as its Viceroy. Madhav Varma II next
turned his attention against the Vengi kingdom which was under the Salankayanas. The Vengi region was annexed. The Godavari tract became part of the
Vishnukundin territory. After these conquests the capital might have been shifted toBezwada (Vijayawada), a more central location than Amarapura. These
extensive conquests entitle him to the title of the lord ofDakshinapatha (southern country). After these various conquests Madhav Varma performed
many Asvamedha, Rajasuya and otherVedic sacrifices.
Vikramendra Varma I was the ruler of the Vishnukundin dynasty from AD 508 until AD 528.
Indra Bhattaraka Varma was the ruler of the Vishnukundin dynasty from AD 528 until AD 555. Though Indra Bhattaraka could not withstand the hostile
Kalinga subordinate, Indra Varma and lost his life in battle. The Vishnukundins lost their Kalinga possessions north of the Godavari.
Vikramendra Varma II was the ruler of the Vishnukundin dynasty from AD 555 untl AD 569. The fortunes of the Vishnukundin family were restored. To
have an immediate access to the Kalinga region, he shifted his capital from Bezwada to Lenduluru (modem Denduluru in the West Godavari district). He
repulsed the attack of the Pallava ruler Simhavarman. He was successful enough to restore the fortunes of the Vishnukundins in the Kalinga region. His son
Govinda Varma II enjoyed a comparatively short period of rule (AD 569 AD 573).
Govinda Varma II was the ruler of the Vishnukundin dynasty from AD 569 until AD 573. He was the son of Vikramendra Varma II previous ruler.
Janssraya Madhav Varma IV (died AD 621) was the ruler of the Vishnukundin dynasty from AD 573 until his death in AD 621. The Vishnukundin
Empire set about again to imperial expansion and cultural prosperity under its able ruler Janssraya Madhav Varma IV. This prudent king spent his early years of
rule in consolidating his position in Vengi. The later part of his reign is marked by wars and annexations. In his 37th regnal year, he suppressed the revolt of his
subordinate chief the Durjaya Prithvi Maharaja in Guddadivishya (modern Ramachandrapuram in the East Godavari district). Madhav Varma IV had to face
the Chalukyan onslaught in his last years of rule. By about AD 616, Pulakesin II and his brother Kubja Vishnuvardhana conquered Vengi from the
Vishnukundins and the Pithapuram area from their subordinate Durjayas. In 621 C.E. in his 48th regnal year, Madhava crossed the Godavari probably to oust
the Chalukyas from his territories. However he lost his life on the battlefield. His son Manchana Bhattaraka also might have been expelled by the Chalukyas.
Thus the Vishnukundin rule was brought to a close by 624 A.D.
Manchana Bhattaraka was the ruler of the Vishnukundin dynasty from AD 621 until AD 624. He was son of Janssraya Madhav Varma IV famous ruler of
the Vishnukundin dynasty.

Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi Kingdom
The Vengi kingdom extended from the Godavari River in the north to Mount Mahendragiri in the southeast and to just south of the banks of River Krishna in
the south of India. This area was part of Kalinga until that kingdom was conquered by Emperor Ashoka of the Mauryan Empire in the mid-3rd century BC.
After the Mauryan Empire collapsed in 185 BC, the region was dominated by the Satavahanas, who were succeeded in Vengi by the Andhra Ikshvakus. Around
300, the Andhra Ikshvakus were replaced by theSalankayanas, who were vassals of the Pallavas of Southern India. In the late 5th century, the Salankayanas were
annexed by the Vishnukundinas. King Pulakesin II of the Chalukya conquered Vengi from the Vishnukundinas in the early 7th century and installed his
brother Kubja Vishnuvardhana as the viceroy. He eventually established the Eastern Chalukya dynasty. The Eastern Chalukyas were first conquered by
the Cholas under Raja Raja Chola I (985-1014) and subsequently became very closely aligned to the Chola empire through marital alliance between
the Cholas and the Eastern Chalukyas. This insulated the Eastern Chalukyas from the interference of the Western Chalukyas who sought to make the Eastern
Chalukyas as their subordinates. During the reign of the Kulothunga Chola I the Vengi kingdom got absorbed into the Chola Empire. Eastern Chalukyas,
or Chalukyas of Vengi, were a South Indiandynasty whose kingdom was located in the present day Andhra Pradesh. Their capital was Vengi (Pedavegi and
Denduluru, near Eluru) and their dynasty lasted for around 500 years from the 7th century until c. 1130 C.E. when the Vengi kingdom merged with
the Chola Empire. The Vengi kingdom was continued to be ruled by Eastern Chalukyan kings under the protection of the Chola Empire until 1189 C.E., when
the kingdom succumbed to the Hoysalas and the Yadavas. They had their capital originally at Vengi now (Pedavegi, Chinavegi and Denduluru) near Eluru of
the West Godavari district end later changed to Rajamahendravaram (Rajamundry). Eastern Chalukyas were closely related to the Chalukyas of Vatapi (Badami).
Throughout their history they were the cause of many wars between the more powerful Cholas and Western Chalukyas over the control of the strategic Vengi
country. The five centuries of the Eastern Chalukya rule of Vengi saw not only the consolidation of this region into a unified whole, but also saw the efflorescence
of Telugu culture, literature, poetry and art during the later half of their rule. It can be said to be the golden period of Andhra history.
List of Kings of Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi Kingdom
Kubja Vishnuvardhana (died AD 641) was a ruler of Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi Kingdom from AD 624 until his death in AD 641. He was the brother
of Chalukya Pulakesi II. Vishnuvardhana ruled the Vengi territories in the eastern Andhra Pradesh as the viceroy under Pulakesi II from around 615. Eventually
Vishnuvardhana declared his independence and started the Eastern Chalukya dynasty (c. AD 624). The Eastern Chalukyas ruled the Vengi kingdom for nearly
five centuries and had very close relationship with the imperial Cholas. Pulakesin II (AD 608 AD 644), the greatest Vatapi Chalukya king, conquered the
eastern Deccan, corresponding the coastal districts of Andhra Pradesh AD 616, defeating the remnants of the Vishnukundina kingdom. He appointed his
brother Kubja Vishnu Vardhana as Viceroy. On the death of Pulakesin II, the Vengi Viceroyalty developed into an independent kingdom. Eastern Chalukyas of
Vengi outlived the main Vatapi dynasty by many generations. Scholars are not in agreement as to why Vishnuvardhana declared himself king of the eastern
Deccan territories of Pulakesi II. What was the necessity for the partition of Vengi as a separate kingdom from the Badami Chalukyan Empire? Hitherto it has
been tacitly assumed that this was a formal division and Pulakesi II conferred independent sovereignty of Vengi on his younger brother. It is improbable that a
great warrior like Pulakesin II could not have administered Vengi as part of his kingdom and felt the need for a separate king. Kopparam plates make it clear that
Kubja Vishnuvardhana was ruling only as a subordinate to his brother Pulakesin II in the Vengi area. A revolution of Kubja Vishnuvardhana can be ruled out of
account since he seems to have been very loyal and affectionate towards his brother. One possible reason could be the turn of events around middle of the 7th
century in the Western Chalukyan kingdom. The last few ruling years of Pulakesin II ended in disaster. The great Pallava king Narasimhavarman I, inflicted a
crushing defeat on the Chalukyas and burnt Badami. Pulakesin II lost his life in this encounter. There was a period of confusion following these events. The five
sons of Pulakesi fought among themselves and tried to divide the kingdom into independent kingdoms. Pulakesin's third son Vikramaditya I became the
Chalukya king c. AD 642 and eventually restored order after defeating his brothers. Vishnuvardhana ruled over a kingdom extending from Nellore to
Visakhapatnam. He assumed the title of Vishamasiddhi (conqueror of difficulties). Vishnuvardhana participated in the wars between his brother Putekesin II and
the Pallava Narasimhavarma I and probably lost his life in battle in AD 641. His son Jayasimha I succeeded him.
Jayasimha I (died AD 673) was the king of Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi Kingdom from AD 641 until his death in AD 673. He was succeeded Vishnuvardhana
He had a long reign of 32 years, however we know of nothing important happening in his reign. His younger brother Indra Bhattaraka succeeded him.
Indra Bhattaraka (AD 673) was the king of Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi Kingdom in 673. He had a very short reign of a week. He was succeeded his
brother Jayasimha I His son Vishnuvardhana II succeeded him.
Vishnuvardhana II (died AD 682) was the king of Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi Kingdom from AD 673 until his death in AD 682. He was became the
Eastern Chalukya king following the very short rule of his father Indra Bhattaraka His son Mangi Yuvaraja succeeded him.
Mangi Yuvaraja was the king of Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi Kingdom from 682 until AD 706.
Jayasimha II was the king of Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi Kingdom from AD 706 until AD 718.
Kokkili was the king of Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi Kingdom from AD 718 until AD 719.
Vishnu Vardhana III was the king of Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi Kingdom from AD 719 until AD 755.
Vijaya Aditya I was the king of Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi Kingdom from AD 755 until AD 772.
Vishnu Vardhana IV was the king of Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi Kingdom from AD 772 until AD 808.
Vijay Aditya II was the king of Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi Kingdom from AD 808 until AD 847.
Vishnu Vardhana V was the king of Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi Kingdom from AD 847 until AD 849.
Vijay Aditya III was the king of Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi Kingdom jointly with his two brothers Vikram Aditya I and Yuddha Malla I from AD 849 until
AD 892.
Vikram Aditya I was the king of Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi Kingdom jointly with his two brothers Vijay Aditya III and Yuddha Malla I from AD 849 until
AD 892.
Yuddha Malla I was the king of Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi Kingdom jointly with his two brothers Vikram Aditya I and Vijay Aditya III from AD 849 until
AD 892.
Chalukya Bhima I was the king of Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi Kingdom from AD 892 until AD 921.
Vijay Aditya IV was the king of Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi Kingdom in AD 921.
Amma I was the king of Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi Kingdom jointly with Vishnu Vardhana VI from AD 921 until AD 927.
Vishnu Vardhana VI was the king of Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi Kingdom jointly with Amma I from AD 921 until AD 927.
Vijay Aditya V was the king of Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi Kingdom in AD 927.
Tadapa was the king of Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi Kingdom in AD 927.
Vikram Aditya II was the king of Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi Kingdom from AD 927 until AD 928.
Chalukya Bhima II was the king of Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi Kingdom from AD 928 until AD 929.
Yuddha Malla II was the king of Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi Kingdom from AD 892 until AD 921.
Chalukya Bhima III was the king of Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi Kingdom jointly with Vishnu Vardhana VII from AD 935 until AD 947.
Vishnu Vardhana VII was the king of Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi Kingdom jointly with Chalukya Bhima III from AD 935 until AD 947.
Amma II was the king of Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi Kingdom from AD 947 until AD 970.
Danarnava was the king of Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi Kingdom from AD 970 until AD 973.
Jata Choda Bhima was the king of Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi Kingdom from AD 973 until AD 999.
Sakti Varman I was the king of Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi Kingdom from AD 999 until AD 1011.
Vimaladitya was the king of Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi Kingdom from AD 1011 until AD 1018.
Raja Raja I Narendra Vishnu Vardhana VIII was the king of Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi Kingdom from AD 1018 until AD 1061. Rajaraja was
related to the Cholas of Tanjavurby marital and political links. Rajaraja Narendra established the city Rajahmahendravaram (Rajahmundry). His period was
famous for the Social and Cultural heritage. During the time of Rajaraja Chola I, Rajahmundry got sacked. At the time of Rajaraja Narendra, two literary works
in Kannada language, viz., Vikramarjuna Vijayam and Gadayuddam already popularized the story of Sanskrit Mahabharata inKarnataka. Tamil translations of
Mahabharata were available by the Seventh and Eighth centuries. But, Puranas were not available in Telugu. Brahmins used to recite Puranaas such as Sanskrit
Mahabharata in Temples and courts. Eastern Chalukya Dynasty supported Jainism and Shaivism. Rajaraja Narendra was a Shaivite. He respected Brahmins,
their Sanskrit language and religion. He learned from the success of Jains and Buddhists that the only way to popularize the new religions and Puranas was to
translate them into Telugu. Even a thousand years before, Buddhism and Jainism became very popular using local languages for their sermons and teachings. So,
Rajaraja Narendra requested his teacher, adviser and court poet Nannayya Bhattaraka to translate Sanskrit Mahabharata into Telugu for his subjects. Nannayya
Bhattaraka took the challenge very seriously. He scrutinized all the Telugu vocabulary that was in usage at that time, introduced Sanskrit vocabulary, and took
characteristics of already well developed Kannada literature. Thus he developed a distinct literary style, meter and grammar. Nannayya translated about 142
verses of Aadi, Sabha and Aranya chapters of Sanskrit Mahabharata. But, he didn't stick to the original. He almost created his own version of Andhra
Mahabharatamu by modification, addition and deletion, while maintaining the story line. His language was very sanskritized and was pleasurable to the reader.
Sakti Varman II was the king of Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi Kingdom in AD 1062.
Vijay Aditya VI was the king of Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi Kingdom from AD 1063 until AD 1068 and from AD 1072 until AD 1075.
Raja Raja II was the king of Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi Kingdom from AD 1075 until AD 1079.
Vira Chola Vishnu Vardhana IX was the king of Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi Kingdom from AD 1079 until AD 1102.

Kalinga Kingdom
Kalinga was an early republic in central-eastern India, which comprised most of the modern state of Odisha, northern parts of Andhra Pradesh and a portion of
Madhya pradesh. It was a rich and fertile land that extended from the river Damodar/Ganges to Godavari and from Bay of Bengal to Amarkantak range in the
West.

The region was scene of the bloody Kalinga War fought by the Maurya Emperor Ashoka the Great of Magadha c. 265 BCE.

Kharavela was the warrior
emperor of Kalinga. He was responsible for the propagation of Jainism in the Indian Subcontinent but his importance is neglected in many accounts of Indian
history. According to the Hathigumpha inscription near Bhubaneswar, Odisha, he attacked Rajagriha in Magadha, thus inducing the Indo-Greek king Demetrius
to retreat to Mathura. But this inscription doesn't mean that he merged Magadha in Kalinga. But this shows his strong ties with the Shunga ruler Pushyamitra and
Agnimitra who have just started their rule after uprooting the Mauryans. The Kharavelan Jain empire had a formidable maritime empire with trading routes
linking it to Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand, Vietnam, Cambodia, Borneo, Bali, Sumatraand Java. Colonists from Kalinga settled in Sri Lanka, Burma, as well as
the Maldives and Malay Archipelago. Kalinga is mentioned in the Adiparva, Bhismaparva, Sabhaparva, Banaprava of Mahabharata. Kalinga King Srutayu is
stated to have fought the Mahabharat war for the Kauravas. Kalinga is also mentioned as Calingae in Megasthenes' book on India Indica & Megasthenes states
that Magadha & Kalinga were Jain Dominant Kingdoms: "The Prinas and the Cainas (a tributary of the Ganges) are both navigable rivers. The tribes which dwell
by the Ganges are the Calingae, nearest the sea, and higher up the Mandei, also the Malli, among whom is Mount Mallus, the boundary of all that region being
the Ganges." (Megasthenes fragm. XX.B. in Pliny. Hist. Nat. V1. 21.922. 1. "The royal city of the Calingae is called Parthalis. Over their king 60,000 foot-
soldiers, 1,000 horsemen, 700 elephants keep watch and ward in "procinct of war." (Megasthenes fragm. LVI. in Plin. Hist. Nat. VI. 21. 823. 11. The Kalinga
script,

derived from Brahmi, was used for writing. The kingdom fell when Ashoka, leader of the Mauryan Empire led a war against the kingdom, leading to its
bloody defeat in the Kalinga War. It is said that the war was so bloody that the river turned red. This ultimately led to Ashoka becoming a Buddhist king. Some
advocates of the Greater India theory claim this led to anexodus of people to Southeast Asia where they set up Indianized kingdoms, but there is no evidence for
such a migration of people.
Dynasty of Kshatriya
Udhishthira was a King of Kalinga Kingdom in early 8th century BC until late 7th century BC.
Parikshit was a King of Kalinga Kingdom in the second half 7th century BC.
Djanmedjaya was a King of Kalinga Kingdom in the second half 7th century BC.
Shankaradeva was a King of Kalinga Kingdom around middle 7th century BC.
Gautamadeva was a King of Kalinga Kingdom in the first half 7th century BC.
Mahendradeva was a King of Kalinga Kingdom in the first half 7th century BC.
Ishtadeva was a King of Kalinga Kingdom around 600 BC.
Sevakadeva was a King of Kalinga Kingdom in late 6th century BC.
Vadjradeva was a King of Kalinga Kingdom in the second half 6th century BC.
Narasinhadeva was a King of Kalinga Kingdom in the around middle 6th century BC.
Mankrishnadeva (Hansa) was a King of Kalinga Kingdom in the first half 6th century BC.
Bhodjadeva was a King of Kalinga Kingdom in the first half 6th century BC.
Vikramadija was a King of Kalinga Kingdom around 500 BC.
Sakadija was a King of Kalinga Kingdom in the second half 5th century BC.
Karmadjitadeva was a King of Kalinga Kingdom in the second half 5th century BC.
Hatkeshvaradeva was a King of Kalinga Kingdom in the around middle 5th century BC.
Birbhuvanadeva (Tribhuvana) was a King of Kalinga Kingdom in the first half 5th century BC.
Nirmaladeva was a King of Kalinga Kingdom in the first half 5th century BC.
Bhimadeva was a King of Kalinga Kingdom around 400 BC.
Subhanadeva was a King of Kalinga Kingdom in the second half 4th century BC.
Chandradeva (Indradeva) was a King of Kalinga Kingdom around 324 BC.
Dynasty of Chedi
Maha Megavanavarman was a King of Kalinga Kingdom in the first half 3th century BC. He was the founder of the Kalingan Chedi or Cheti Dynasty.
[

Cetaraja was a King of Kalinga Kingdom in early 3th century BC and in late 2th century BC.
Khraba (Khravla) was the third and greatest emperor of the Mahameghavahana dynasty of Kainga Kingdom (present-day Odisha) from 193 until after
170 BC. The main source of information about Khrabea is his famous seventeen line rock-cut Htigumph inscription in a cave in the Udayagiri hills
near Bhubaneswar, Odisha. During the reign of Khraba, the Chedi dynasty of Kainga ascended to eminence and restored the lost power and glory of Kainga,
which had been subdued since the devastating war with Ashoka. Kaingan military might was reinstated by Khraba: under Khraba's generalship, the Kainga
state had a formidable maritime reach with trade routes linking it to the then-Simhala (Sri Lanka), Burma (Myanmar), Siam (Thailand), Vietnam, Kamboja
(Cambodia), Borneo, Bali, Samudra (Sumatra) and Jabadwipa (Java). Khraba led many successful campaigns against the states of Magadha, Anga,
Satavahanas till the southern most regions of Pandyan Empire (modern Tamil Nadu) and made Kainga a gigantic empire. He is credited to have broken the
Tamil confederacy in the south, uprooted the western powers and defeated Demetrius, the Indo-Greek king ofBactria. After his victory over Demetrius, the first
Sunga emperor of Magadha Rajagriha, Pushyamitra Sunga accepted the suzerainty of Kharavela and became a vassal of Kalinga. Pushyamitra also returned the
Jina statue of Mahaveera to Kalinga. Although religiously tolerant, Khraba patronised Jainism. The chief source of information about emperor Kharavela is
the Hathigumpha inscription at Udayagiri caves, near the modern city ofBhubaneswar. According to the inscription, Kharavela belonged to the Chedi clan, and
was a lineal descendant of the sage king Vasu. Apart from this eulogistic descent amounting to a myth, several historians have tried to speculate the origin of
Kharavela. However, in absence of any material evidence to the converse, Kharavela has been accepted as being from an Oriya descent. Etymologically, the name
Kharavela is the Prakrit transformation of Sanskrit: Kravla "Salty shore". In Northwestern India, there is a clan of Jats named Khrvl claiming descent
from Kharavela during his north-western conquests. Similarly, Air has been stated as a clan that originated from a Nagavanshi ruler named Airawat. However,
deep and multi-disciplinary research is required to arrive at the exact origin of Kharavela. This inscription, consisting of seventeen lines has been incised in deep
cut Brahmi script on the overhanging brow of a natural cavern calledHathigumpha (Oriya: ) (Meaning in English: The Elephants Cave) in the southern
side of the Udayagiri hills near present day Bhubaneswar. The inscriptions date back to the 1st century BCE. It faces straight towards the rock Edicts of
Ashoka at Dhauli, which is situated at a distance of about six miles. The inscription was first discovered/noticed by A. Stirling in 1820 who published an eye copy
of it in Asiatic Researches, XV, as well as, in his book titled An Account, Geographical, Statistical and Historical of Orissa or Cuttack. Thereafter, Indologist
and Linguist James Prinsep succeeded in deciphering the inscription. Subsequently, Princeps reading along with a facsimile prepared by Kittoe was published in
the Journal of the Asiatic Society Bengal, VI (1837). According to Princep, the referred personality in the Hatigumpha inscription was a king named Aira.
Towards the end of 1871 CE, a plaster cast of the inscription was prepared by H. Locke, which is now preserved in the Indian Museum, Calcutta.
Later, Alexander Cunningham published this inscription in 1877 in the Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarrum Vol. I, and in 1880 R. L. Mitra published a slightly
modified version in the bookAntiquities of Orissa, Vol. II. The first authentic reading of the inscription is credited to historian Bhagwan Lal Indraji. Indraji
presented the novel approach before the Sixth International Congress of Orientalists in 1885, which was widely accepted. Pandit Indraji was the first scholar to
declare that the King referred to and eulogised in the Hathigumpha inscription was named Kharavela and not Aira. However, there are a large number of lacunae
and faults (both syntactical and physical deformities) in the inscription, which obstruct its correct reading and the mutilated condition of the inscription has given
the space for rival claims and given rise to controversies. The Hathigumpha inscription starts with a version of the auspicious Jain Namokar Mantra:
[] [] for in Jainism. The body-text mentions that: In the very first year of his coronation, (His Majesty) caused to be repaired the gate,
rampart and structures of the fort of Kalinga Nagari, which had been damaged by storm, and caused to be built flight of steps for the cool tanks and laid all
gardens at the cost of thirty five hundred thousand mudra (coins) and thus pleased all his subjects. In the second year, without caring for Satakarni, (His Majesty)
sent to the west a large army consisting of horses, elephants, infantry and chariots, and struck terror to Asikanagara with that troop that marched up to the river
Kanhavemna. Then in the fourth year, (His Majesty] .... the Vidhadhara tract, that had been established by the former kings of Kalinga and had never been
crossed before. The Rathika and Bhojaka chiefs with their crown cast off, their umbrella and royal insignia thrown aside, and their Jewelry and wealth
confiscated, were, made to pay obeisance at the feet (of His Majesty). And in the fifth year, (His Majesty) caused the aqueducts that had been excavated by
king Nanda three hundred years before, to flow into Kalinga Nagri through Tanasuli. And in the seventh year of his reign [the Queen] of Vajiraghara, blessed
with a son attained motherhood. In the 8th year of his reign, (His Majesty) attacked Rajagriha in Magadha and forced the Indo-Greek king Demetrius (described
as the Yavana king ("Yavana-raja") namedDimi{ta}) to retreat to Mathura. In the 12th year of his reign, he attacked the king of Uttarapatha. Then brought back the
holy idols of Kalinga's Jain Gods (The Blessed Tirthankars) which earlier Magadha rulers had carried away with them after Kalinga War in Past. Tirthankars idol
was brought back with its crown and endowment and the jewels plundered by king Nanda from the Kalinga royal palace, along with the treasures
of Anga and Magadha were regained. (His Majesty) then attacked and vanquished the state of Magadha, and Pataliputra, the then capital of the Sunga, and made
king "Bahasatimita" (May be a Sunga Emperor Bruhaspatimitra, or Pusyamitra himself) bow at his (His Majestys) feet. The inscription states that the Emperor
Kharavela had a liberal religious spirit. Kharavela describes himself as (Prakrit Language, Devanagari script) -
Translation: The worshiper of all religious orders, the restorer of shrines of all gods. Besides the celebrated Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela, there are
several other minor inscriptions in the twin hills of Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves, which were deciphered earlier by Prof. R. D. Banerjee during the years
1915-16 (Epigraphic Indica - XIII) and subsequently by B. M Barua (Indian Historical Quarterly-XIV). These minor inscriptionspertaining to Emperor
Kharavela have been engraved in Brahmi script, Prakrit language. Shri Sadananda Agrawal, historian, has given details and clarifications about those. The dating
of Kharavela's period has been highly debatable and controversial. It has been a formidable challenge to ascertain the correct date of Kharavelas ascendancy and
reign within a definite chronological frame work. The internal evidence from the Hathigumpha inscription, reasonably places the date of emperor Kharavelas
reign in second half of the 1st century BCE. An exact time bracketing has been unachievable at present. The exact time bracket of Kalingan emperor Kharavela
will continue to be controversial so long any other corroborative evidences have not been discovered. The Indian numismatist P.L. Gupta has suggested that the
Hatigumpha inscription is from the 2nd century CE: "The Hthgumph inscription refers in line 8 to a yavana-rja, who fled to Mathura when he realized the
might of Khravela. The name of the yavana-rja bears three letters, of which the second letter may be fairly read as ma or mi. It has been doubtfully restored as
Dimita, meaning Demetrius the Indo-Greek king. But as early as 1951, I thought it to be Vimaka, meaning Vima Kadphises. The Patna Museum has a plaster
cast of this inscription, which I personally examined when I was there as Curator. It confirms my suggestion." There are some issues with this interpretation, since
the stated facts are that the name consists of three letters, of which the second is mi or ma, and that the king is categorized as yavana, not kushan or tukhara,
nor saka or pahlava. It is otherwise unknown for a Kushan emperor to have been referred to as a yavana, and for Vima Kadphises to be referred to as Vimaka
(expanded from Vema/Vima). Also, there are palaeographic problems with dating the Hthgumph text so late as Wema Kadphises (Reign 90s-110s CE). The
period of 1st century BCE, or approximately contemporary with the Sanchi inscriptions from the reign of the Satavahana Satakarni, has been preferred by Indic
script specialists. It is revealed from Line-4 of the Hathigumpha inscription that Kharavela in the second year of his reign dispatched a strong force comprising
cavalry, elephants, infantry and chariots to the western quarter without caring for or bothering about Stakarn, and the kingdom of Asikanagara was frightened of
its (Kharavelas army) reaching the river Kanhavem. Some scholars prefer to read Masikanagara instead of Asikanagara and locate it in the coastal region of
Andhra Pradesh. An article about Emperor Kharavela mentions about the rule of Kaswan in 2nd century of Vikram samvat. It has been mentioned in Hathi
Gumpha and three other inscriptions (page 24) in Sanskrit as under: Sanskrit - IAST -
Kusawn kshatriyn ca Sahyyatvat prpt masika nagara.- Translation: The city of 'Masiknagara' was captured with the help of 'Kuswan' Kshatriyas.
According to Sadananda Agrawal, interpretation of the city as Masikanagara is not well-supported. Kanhavem is commonly equated with the river Krishna
coastal flowing in Andhra Pradesh. However, Krishna lies much to the south of Kalinga, and not west as averred in the epigraph (Devanagari: ). But
there is another stream flowing to the west of Kalinga in Vidarbha and known locally at present as Kanhan which flows about 17 km northwest of Nagpur and
joins the river Vena (Wainganga), and it is the combined flow of these two streams that is spoken as Kanhavem in our records. The recent find of a seal
belonging to the Asikajanapada in course of intensive archaeological excavations at Adam (Nagpur district) has solved also the problem of locating the
historical Asikanagara whose king or and people became frightful at the arrival of Kharavela's army at Kanhavem, as per the Hatigumpha inscription. In view of
the evidence of a highly prosperous city unearthed at Adam, Prof. A. M. Shastri is of the opinion that Adam itself represents the Asikanagara of Hathigumpha
inscription. It is worth noting in the present context that a terracotta sealing having a legend, has been discovered from Adam, situated on the right bank of the
river Wainganga, which reads Asakajanapadasa(Devanagari: ). The Hathigumpha inscription tells us that again in his fourth regnal year Kharavela
directed his invasion against the Satavahana territory. In course of the campaign the army of Kalinga marched headlong against the Rathikas and Bhojakas who
inhabited the western Deccan and whose chiefs might have been subordinates or vassals under Satavahana ruler Satakarni. It is quite likely that the Rathikas are
to be located in southern Maharashtra region and adjoining Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh where a large number of coins of some chiefs styled Mahrathi have
been found in excavations. Likewise, as regards the Bhojakas, it is not impossible that they flourished in the region of Goa and adjoining parts
of Karnataka where the Bhoja Kings are found a few centuries later. As a result of this victory Kharavelas suzerainty spread over the land from the eastern sea to
western sea. The eighth regnant year of Kharavela, three years after his war in western India, heard the war trumpets of Kalinga blowing in direction of the north.
Kharavela entered into the territory of Magadha and fought out important engagement with the army of that empire at Gorathagiri and stormed that outlying
fortress which guardedRajagrha, the former capital of Magadha. The strong fort was demolished and Rajagrha was put to great trouble. Gorathagiri has been
identified with the modern Barabar hill in the Gaya district in Bihar state. In the Sabhaparva of the Mahabharata this hill has been referred to by the name
Gorathagiri from where Giriv-Raja (Rajagrha) the capital of Magadha was surveyed by Krishna, Bhima and Arjuna on the way of their campaign
against Jarasandha. It is worth nothing here that two small inscriptions are found engraved in that hill, which read Gorathgiri and Goradhagiri respectively. While
the former belongs to Asokan period the latter seems to be incised by one of the men who had accompanied Kharavela in this campaign. It was by that critical
time that one Yavana King (Indo-Greek) who was then in occupation of Mathura was advancing against Magadha. The king's name has been read as "Dimita", and
has been identified by many scholars with the famous Indo-Greek King Demetrius, son and successor of Euthydemus belonging to 2nd century BCE. In
commemoration of this victory over the Indo-Greeks and age old enemy Magadha, Kharavela constructed the great victory palace in Kalinganagari at a cost of
thirty eight hundred thousand coins which stood to personify in all its grandeur the great victory a great conqueror. The tenth year witnessed another expedition
towards north. According to Hathigumpha inscription that year he caused his army much towards Bharatavarsha. Dr Sahu remarks: In the epigraphic records of
India the name Bharatavarsha appears for the first time in Hathigumpha inscription. This name however, denoted to Northern India by that time. When the
twelfth year of his reign dawned Kharavela marched against Uttarapatha (Northwest India) with a vast army. This was his third onslaught against North India,
forcing several chiefs to submission, who were very likely the Indo-Greeks. On his return from Uttarapatha Kharavela planned for the final encounter against
Magadha and the Kalingan army encamped on the banks of the Ganges not far off Pataliputra. The people of Magadha were struck with terror at the sight of the
elephants and horses and Brhaspatimitra, the king of Magadha was humbled by Kharavela and made the Magadhan king touch his feet. Many renowned scholars
equate Brhaspatimitra with Pushyamitra, the founder of Sunga dynasty. It is worth nothing in the present context that for recording the events of his reign
Kharavela chose the Hathigumpha in the southern side of Udayagiri hill which faces straight towards the Dhauli hill bearing Rock Edicts of Ashoka. In the
former hill we find the inscription of the victory of Magadha and in the latter that of the victory of Kalinga. Kharavelas inscription seems to have been intended to
counter affect Asokas inscription. Before his home ward march the monarch brought back from Magadha the greatest and by far the most significant war trophy
to his home land was the Original Idol of Kalinga's JainTirthankars (Gods) Idol that adorned the spiritual realm of Magadha. This Kalinga Tirthankars (Jain God)
was once the invaluable religious property of Kalinga but was carried away from Kalinga during the first wave of the northern invasion
under Mahapadmananda emperor of Magadha. Dr. N.K.Sahu aptly remarks about his expeditions: Thus within a short span of ten years (form his 2nd to 12th
regnal years.) Kharavela could achieve a series of brilliant victories extending his suzerainty from the North-Western part of India to the farthest extend in the
South. He seems to have abandoned his throne in the 13th year of his reign, and was succeeded by his son Kudepasiri. In the first line of Hathigumpha
inscription Kharavela styles himself as Aira mahrjna mahmghavhanna ctarja vasa vadhanna pasathasubhalakhalna caturantaluhana gua'upnta
kaligdhipatin siri khravlna
While the earliest scholar J. Princep and R. L. Mitra take the word Aira as the name of the king of Kalinga eulogised in the inscription, other few scholars are
inclined to take the word as dynastic name and connected the ancestry of Kharavela with the puranic Aila belonging to the lunar Kshatriya dynasty. Bhagwan Lal
Indraji is the first scholar to assert that the King whose activities are glorified in the inscription in named Kharavela. It is a significant to note here that there is also
no direct evidence in Hathigumpha inscription to show that Kharavela belongs to Cedi Dynasty. The only meaning conveyed by this expression is that Kharavela
was the son of Cetarja (Devanagari: ). There is a small crack in the stone above the letter ta () giving the impression of medial "i". This crack misled
some eminent scholars like R.D. Banerji and D.C. Sircar to decipher the word as Ceti (Devanagari: ) and this conjectural reading led the renowned scholars
to hold the view that Kharavela belongs to Cedi dynasty. But in no way this can be accepted. It is pertinent to note in this context that a small inscription is found
engraved in the Mancapuri Cave where King Kudepasiri (one of the successor of Kharavela) styled himself as Aira Maharaja Kalingadhipati
Mahameghavahana (Devanagari: ). The King Sada has also been styled himself as Maharaja Kalinga Mahisika Adhipati
Mahameghavahana. Both Kudepasiri and Sada, happen to be the successors of Kharavela, have never been stated in their respective inscription to be belonging
to Cedi dysasty. It is significant that the word Aira has not been prefixed with the name of Sada. The Vahana ending dynastic (and personal) names were quite
popular during the few centuries preceding. The meaning of Mahameghavahana is the great one riding on clouds. Dr. Sahu takes Maha as the prefix of Megha
and opines: Mahameghavahana literary means one whose vehicle is great cloud. In line 17 of the Hathigumpha inscription Kharavela claims to have been
descended from Rajarsi Vasu Kula. King Vasu recorded in Hathigumpha inscription can not be taken as Cedi king. It is pertinent to note in the context that in
Mahabharata, Meghavahana as a dynastic name is found mentioned (Sabha Parva, XIV, 13) while the same epic preserves detailed accounts regarding the
activities of Cedi dynasty. Cedi and Meghavahana have been flourished as two distinct dynasties since the early times, so both the dynasties should not be
equated. Cetaraja was the father of Kharavela and it seems probable that he was the immediate predecessor of Kharavela, belonging to be the second king in the
Mahameghavahana line in Kalinga. The line-7 of the Hathigumpha inscription indicates that the Queen of Vajiraghara (Chief Queen of Kharavela ?) gave birth to
a son. Another inscription in the lower storey of the same caves informs us that it had been executed by the Aira Maharaja Kalingadhipati Mahameghavahana
Kudepasiri. In this cave another inscription is incised which reveals the name ofKumara Badukha. It is to be noted here that Kumara Badukha has not assumed
any royal title. Badukha is probably a Prakrit form of Burdak. However, it is difficult to be sure of the relationship between Kharavela and Kudepasir. As no
available record speaks any thing more about prince Badukha, he stands an obscure figures, in history but seems to be the son or brother Kudepasiri. Mahiska
country denoted the modern coastal Andhra (Guntur Krishna region) which was apparently added to the Mahameghavahana kingdom at least during the reign
of Maharaja Sada. The Sada rule came to an end during end 1st century / early 2nd century AD. On basis of above discussion we can say that Kharavela
belonged to Mahameghavahana dynasty and the Genealogical chart of can be given as under: Mahameghavahana, Cetaraja, Kharavela, Kudepasiri, Badukha,
Mahasada and Sadas successors. The Hathigumpha inscription mentions that in the seventh year of his reign [the Queen] of Vajiraghara was blessed with a son.
Sometime before his coronation the prince very probably married chief queen as per presence was essentially required in anointation ceremony. The chief
queen, whose record has been engraved in the upper storey of Mancapuri Cave, was the great-grand daughter of Hastisimha and the daughter of king Lalaka
or Lalarka. It is to be pointed out here that not much is known about Hastisimha and Lalarka from any other source. We find mention of Lal () as a gotra
of Jats living in Muzaffarnagar district in Uttar Pradesh, India, who originated from mahapurusha Lala (). The famous Panjtar stone inscription, now in
(Pakistan), written in the year 122 of Saka ara, referse to one Lala, the protector of the Kushana dynasty of Maharaja Kanishka. ThisLala, was a Lalli Jat It
also refers to the gift of two trees by one Moika in the eastern region of Kasua. That last word Kasua is the same as Kasuan the name of the Kushanaclan (and
territory) which is still existing. R. D. Banerjee has identified Vayiraghara with Wairagarh in present Chanda district of Maharastra, because in some medieval
inscription this place is found referred to as Vayirakara. However, Dr. M. K. Sahu identifies this place with Vajradantadesa mentioned in the Kamasutra of
Vatsyayana. King Kharavela is known to have two queens. Line-15 of the Haithgumpha inscription refers to the queen of Simhapatha, who was very likely his
second queen. Simhapatha may be same as Simhapura which was the capital of Kalinga during the rule of the Matharas in the 4th century. The place is identified
with modern Singupuram in Srikakulam district of Andhra Pradesh. Kharavela Nagar is an important commercial district of Bhubaneswar and home to the city's
first mall. With the rise of industry, in particular IT and higher education, the history of ancient Kalinga and in particular Kharavela is being revived as Odisha's
golden age.
Kudepasiri (Devanagari: ) was a King of Kalinga Kingdom in the second half 2th century BC. He was successor and son of Kharavela famous King
of Kalinga.The information about King Kudepasiri is available from a minor inscription cave no 9- Mancapurigumpha on Udayagiri hills situated
near Bhubaneswar in Orissa. II- Mancapuri cave inscription (Upper storey)-A is incised on a raised bend between the 3rd and 4th doorways from the left and
contains single line. The text in Devanagari script is as under: This is the cave of Aira Mahameghavahana Maharaja Kudepasiri, the overlord of Kalinga. Prof
Banergy has deciphered the word airas () as Kharasa. Kudepasiri seems to be the immediate successor of Kharavela. III-Manchapuri cave inscription 'B'
(Lower storey) has been engraved on the right wall of Veranda, to the right of the entrance to the right-hand side chamber of the main wing, consisting of one
line. The text inDevanagari script is as under: , Translation - [This is] the cave of Prince Vaukha. On palaeographic grounds Prof Banergy
considers this inscription to be a little earlier than the inscription of king Kudepasiri. Dr N K Sahu remarks "It is not unlikely that the chief Queen, Vajiraghara
referred in line-7 of Hathigumpha inscription, was the mother of Kudepasiri and that letter succeeded Kharavela as King of Kalinga". According to Sadananda
Agrawal, It is difficult to be sure of the relationship between Kharavela and Kudepasiri. No available record speaks anything more about Prince Badukha, he
stands an obscure figure in history, but seems to be the son or brother of Kudepasiri.
Badukha was a King of Kalinga Kingdom in the first half 2th Century BC. As no available record speaks any thing more about prince Badukha, he stands an
obscure figures, in history but seems to be the son or brother Kudepasiri.
Vakradeva (Kudela) was a King of Kalinga Kingdom in the first half 2th Century BC.
Maha - Sada was a King of Kalinga Kingdom in the second half 1th Century BC.
Siri - Sada was a King of Kalinga Kingdom in the first half 1st century BC.
Sivamaka-Sada was a King of Kalinga Kingdom in the first half 1st century AD.
Asaka-Sada was a King of Kalinga Kingdom from end 1st century AD early until 2nd century AD.
Dynasty of Murunda
Rajadhiraja Dharmadamadhara was a King of Kalinga Kingdom from AD 202 until ?.
Ganabhadra was a King of Kalinga Kingdom in the second half 3th century AD.
Guha was a King of Kalinga Kingdom around AD 300.
Dynasty of Naga
Manabhanja was a King of Kalinga Kingdom in the first half 4th century AD.
Satrubhanja was a King of Kalinga Kingdom in the first half 4th century AD.
Dynasty of Mathara
Umavarman was a King of Kalinga Kingdom from AD 390 until AD 395.
Sankaravarman was a King of Kalinga Kingdom from AD 395 until AD 400.
Shaktivarman was a King of Kalinga Kingdom from AD 400 until AD 420.
Anantasaktivarman was a King of Kalinga Kingdom from AD 420 until AD 450.
Chandravarman was a King of Kalinga Kingdom from 450 BC until ?.
Prabhandjanavarman was a King of Kalinga Kingdom in the second half 5th century AD.
Nandaprabhanjanaverman was a King of Kalinga Kingdom from ? until AD 498.
Dynasty of the Eastern Ganga
Indravarman I was a King of Eastern Ganga Dynasty of Kalinga Kingdom from AD 498 until AD 535. Indravarma I the founder of Eastern Ganga Dynasty
defeated the Vishnukundin king Indrabhattaraka and established his rule over the region with Kalinganagara as his capital.
Hastivarman Rajasinha was a King of Eastern Ganga Dynasty of Kalinga Kingdom from AD 535 until AD 550.
Indravarman II was a King of Eastern Ganga Dynasty of Kalinga Kingdom from AD 550 until AD 590.
Indravarman III was a King of Eastern Ganga Dynasty of Kalinga Kingdom from AD 590 until AD 625.
Danarnava was a King of Eastern Ganga Dynasty of Kalinga Kingdom in AD 625.
Indravarman IV was a King of Eastern Ganga Dynasty of Kalinga Kingdom from AD 625 until AD 650.
Devendravarman I was a King of Eastern Ganga Dynasty of Kalinga Kingdom around AD 679.
Anantavarman I was a King of Eastern Ganga Dynasty of Kalinga Kingdom around AD 700.
Nanadavarman was a King of Eastern Ganga Dynasty of Kalinga Kingdom around AD 717.
Devendravarman II was a King of Eastern Ganga Dynasty of Kalinga Kingdom around AD 747.
Rajandravarman I was a King of Eastern Ganga Dynasty of Kalinga Kingdom around AD 760.
Anantavarman II was a King of Eastern Ganga Dynasty of Kalinga Kingdom from AD 780 until AD 803.
Devendravarman III was a King of Eastern Ganga Dynasty of Kalinga Kingdom from AD 803 until AD 809.
Rajandravarman II was a King of Eastern Ganga Dynasty of Kalinga Kingdom from AD 809 until AD 840.
Devendravarman IV was a King of Eastern Ganga Dynasty of Kalinga Kingdom around AD 840.
Satyavarman was a King of Eastern Ganga Dynasty of Kalinga Kingdom around 847/849.
Vadjrahasta I was a King of Eastern Ganga Dynasty of Kalinga Kingdom around AD 856.
Madhu Kamarnava I was a King of Eastern Ganga Dynasty of Kalinga Kingdom in late AD 850s.
Vadjrahasta II was a King of Eastern Ganga Dynasty of Kalinga Kingdom in late AD 850s.
Devendravarman V was a King of Eastern Ganga Dynasty of Kalinga Kingdom in early AD 860s.
Virasinha was a King of Eastern Ganga Dynasty of Kalinga Kingdom in early AD 860s.
Kamarnava I was a King of Eastern Ganga Dynasty of Kalinga Kingdom in the first half AD 860s.
Danarnava was a King of Eastern Ganga Dynasty of Kalinga Kingdom in the first half AD 860s.
Gunarnava I (Gunamaharnava) was a King of Eastern Ganga Dynasty of Kalinga Kingdom in the second half AD 860s.
Kamarnava II was a King of Eastern Ganga Dynasty of Kalinga Kingdom in the second half AD 860s.
Ranarnava was a King of Eastern Ganga Dynasty of Kalinga Kingdom in late AD 860s.
Vadjrahasta III was a King of Eastern Ganga Dynasty of Kalinga Kingdom from AD AD 869 until AD 913.
Kamarnava III was a King of Eastern Ganga Dynasty of Kalinga Kingdom in early 10th century AD.
Gunarnava II was a King of Eastern Ganga Dynasty of Kalinga Kingdom in early 10th century AD.
Potankusha was a King of Eastern Ganga Dynasty of Kalinga Kingdom from AD 921 until AD 936.
Kaligalankusha was a King of Eastern Ganga Dynasty of Kalinga Kingdom from AD 936 until AD 941.
Gundama I was a King of Eastern Ganga Dynasty of Kalinga Kingdom from AD 913 until AD 916 or from AD 946 until AD 953.
Kamarnava IV was a King of Eastern Ganga Dynasty of Kalinga Kingdom from AD 916 until AD 951 or from AD 953 until AD 978.
Vinayaditya was a King of Eastern Ganga Dynasty of Kalinga Kingdom from AD 951 until AD 981 or from AD 978 until AD 980.
Vadjrahasta IV was a King of Eastern Ganga Dynasty of Kalinga Kingdom from AD 981 until AD 1016 or from AD 980 until AD 1015.
Kamarnava V was a King of Eastern Ganga Dynasty of Kalinga Kingdom in AD 1015 or in AD 1016.
Gundama II was a King of Eastern Ganga Dynasty of Kalinga Kingdom from AD 1916 until AD 1019 or from AD 1015 until ?.
Madhu Kamarnava II was a King of Eastern Ganga Dynasty of Kalinga Kingdom from AD 1019 until AD 1038.
Vadjrahasta VI was a King of Eastern Ganga Dynasty of Kalinga Kingdom from AD 1038 until AD 1070.
Rajrajdev I was a King of Eastern Ganga Dynasty of Kalinga Kingdom from AD 1070 until AD 1077 or in AD 1078.
Anandavarman Chodaganga was a King of Eastern Ganga Dynasty of Kalinga Kingdom from AD 1077 until AD 1148 or from AD 1078 until AD 1148.
Anangabhimadeva I was a King of Eastern Ganga Dynasty of Kalinga Kingdom around AD 1148.
Kamarnava VI was a King of Eastern Ganga Dynasty of Kalinga Kingdom from AD 1147 until AD 1158 or from AD 1148 until AD 1157.
Raghava was a King of Eastern Ganga Dynasty of Kalinga Kingdom from AD 1158 until AD 1170 or from AD 1157 until AD 1171.
Rajaraja II was a King of Eastern Ganga Dynasty of Kalinga Kingdom from AD 1170 until AD 1198 or from AD 1171 until AD 1205.
Rajaraja III was a King of Eastern Ganga Dynasty of Kalinga Kingdom from AD 1198 until AD 1211 or from AD 1205 until AD 1216.
Anangabhimadeva III was a King of Eastern Ganga Dynasty of Kalinga Kingdom from AD 1211 until AD 1238 or from AD 1216 until ?.
Narasimhadeva I was a King of Eastern Ganga Dynasty of Kalinga Kingdom from AD 1238 until AD 1264.
Bhanudeva I was a King of Eastern Ganga Dynasty of Kalinga Kingdom from AD 1264 until AD 1278/1279.
Narasimhadeva II was a King of Eastern Ganga Dynasty of Kalinga Kingdom from AD 1278 until AD 1306 or from AD 1279 until ?.
Bhanudeva II was a King of Eastern Ganga Dynasty of Kalinga Kingdom from AD 1306 until AD 1328.
Narasimhadeva III was a King of Eastern Ganga Dynasty of Kalinga Kingdom from AD 1328 until AD 1352.
Bhanudeva III was a King of Eastern Ganga Dynasty of Kalinga Kingdom from AD 1352 until AD 1378.
Narasimhadeva IV was a King of Eastern Ganga Dynasty of Kalinga Kingdom from AD 1378 until AD 1414.
Bhanudeva IV was a King of Eastern Ganga Dynasty of Kalinga Kingdom from AD 1414 until AD 1435.

Nala Dynasty
For some time in 4th century, the region around modern-day Koraput was ruled by the Nalas.
List of Rulers of Nala Dynasty
Vrishadhvaja was a ruler of Nala Dynasty in region around modern day Koraput from AD 400 until AD 420.
Varaharaja was a ruler of Nala Dynasty in region around modern day Koraput from AD 420 until AD 440.
Bhavadattavarman or Bhavadattaraja was a ruler of Nala Dynasty in region around modern day Koraput from around AD 440 until around AD 460.
Arthapatiraja was a ruler of Nala Dynasty in region around modern day Koraput from around AD 460 until around AD 480.
Skandavarman was a ruler of Nala Dynasty in region around modern day Koraput from AD 480 until ?.

Parvatadvarka Dynasty
During the same period as the Nalas, the region around modern-day Kalahandi was ruled by them. Not much is known about them.
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List of Rulers of Parvatadvarka Dynasty
Sobhanaraja was a ruler of Parvatadvarka Dynasty in region around modern day Kalahandi in the first half 5th century.
Tustikara was a ruler of Parvatadvarka Dynasty in region around modern day Kalahandi in the first half 5th century.

Sura Dynasty
The later half of the 4th century, this dynasty was established in the South Kosala region.
List of Rulers of Sura Dynasty
Maharaja Sura was a ruler of Sura Dynasty in region in South Kosala in later half of the 4th century.
Maharaja Dayita I (or Dayitavarman I) was a ruler of Sura Dynasty in South Kosala in later half of the 4th century.
Maharaja Bhimasena I was a ruler of Sura Dynasty in South Kosala in later half of the 4th century.
Maharaja Dayitavarman II was a ruler of Sura Dynasty in South Kosala in later half of the 4th century.
Maharaja Bhimasena II was a ruler of Sura Dynasty in South Kosala around AD 501.

Sarabhapuriya Dynasty
Not much is known about this dynasty. Everything known about them, comes from the inscriptions on copper plates and coins. They may or may not have also
been known as the Amararyakula dynasty. This dynasty is supposed to have started by one Sarabha, who may have been a feudal chief under the Guptas. They
ruled over the modern-day region ofRaipur, Bilaspur and Kalahandi.
List of Rulers of Sarabhapurya Dynasty
Sarabha was a ruler of Sarabhapuriya Dynasty over the modern-day region of Raipur, Bilaspur and Kalahandi from around AD 499 until ?.
Narendra was a ruler of Sarabhapuriya Dynasty over the modern-day region of Raipur, Bilaspur and Kalahandi from around AD 525 until ?.
Mahendraditya was a ruler of Sarabhapuriya Dynasty over the modern-day region of Raipur, Bilaspur and Kalahandi during AD 530s.
Prasannamatra was a ruler of Sarabhapuriya Dynasty over the modern-day region of Raipur, Bilaspur and Kalahandi during AD 540s.
Jayaraja was a ruler of Sarabhapuriya Dynasty over the modern-day region of Raipur, Bilaspur and Kalahandi from around AD 550 until AD 560.
Manamatra was a ruler of Sarabhapuriya Dynasty over the modern-day region of Raipur, Bilaspur and Kalahandi from around AD 560 until AD 570.
Sudevaraja I was a ruler of Sarabhapuriya Dynasty over the modern-day region of Raipur, Bilaspur and Kalahandi from around AD 571 until AD 580.
Pravaraja was a ruler of Sarabhapuriya Dynasty over the modern-day region of Raipur, Bilaspur and Kalahandi from around AD 590 until ?.
Vyaghraraja was a ruler of Sarabhapuriya Dynasty over the modern-day region of Raipur, Bilaspur and Kalahandi in the first half 7th century AD.
Durgaraja was a ruler of Sarabhapuriya Dynasty over the modern-day region of Raipur, Bilaspur and Kalahandi in the second half 7th century AD.
Suravala was a ruler of Sarabhapuriya Dynasty over the modern-day region of Raipur, Bilaspur and Kalahandi in the second half 7th century AD.
Sudevaraja II was a ruler of Sarabhapuriya Dynasty over the modern-day region of Raipur, Bilaspur and Kalahandi from around AD 700 until ?.

Vigraha Dynasty
They ruled the region called South Tosali, around modern day Puri and Ganjam, during second half of 6th century.
List of Rulers of Vigraha Dynasty
Prighivi Vigraha was a ruler of Vigraha Dynasty around modern day Puri and Ganjam in the second half 6th century
Loka Vigraha was a ruler of Vigraha Dynasty around modern day Puri and Ganjam from AD 600 until ?.

Mudgalas Dynasty
They ruled the region of North Toshali, the river Mahanadi served as the border between North and South Toshali. In 603 CE, they captured South Toshali
from the Vigrahas.
Ruler of Mudgalas Dynasty
Sambhuyasa was a ruler of Mudgalas Dynasty of North Toshali from AD 580 until AD 603.

Durjaya Dynasty
In mid-6th century CE, a chief, Ranadurjaya, established himself in South Kalinga. Prithivimaharaja probably defeated the Mudgalas by his time.
List of Rulers of Durjaya Dynasty
Ranadurjaya was a ruler of Durjaya Dynasty in South Kalinga around middle 6th century AD
Prithivimaharaja was a ruler of Durjaya Dymasty in the second half 6th century AD. Prithivimaharaja probably defeated the Mudgalas by his time

Shailobhava Dynasty
They ruled from the region ranging from coastal Orissa to Mahanadi and to Mahendragiri in Paralakhemundi. This region was called the Kangoda mandala.
Sailobhava, the founder of dynasty, is said to have born of a rock, hence the name Sailobhava. Sailobhava was the adopted son of one Pulindasena, who was
possibly a chieftain. They were possibly the subordinates of Shashanka during Madhavaraja II, then they later rebelled.
List of Rulers of Shailobhava Dynasty
Pulindasena was a ruler of Shailobhava Dynasty in region ranging from coastal Orissa to Mahanadi and to Mahendragiri in Paralakhemundi in the second half
6th century AD.
Sailobhava was a ruler of Shailobhava Dynasty in ranging from coastal Orissa to Mahanadi and to Mahendragiri in Paralakhemundi in the second half 6th
century AD.
Dharmaraja I (or Ranabhita) was a ruler of Shailobhava Dynasty in ranging from coastal Orissa to Mahanadi and to Mahendragiri in Paralak hemundi in the
late 6th century AD and early 7th century AD.
Madhavaraja I (or Sainyabita I) was a ruler of Shailobhava Dynasty in ranging from coastal Orissa to Mahanadi and to Mahendragiri in Paralak hemundi in
the first half 7th century AD.
Ayasobhita I (or Chharamparaja) was a ruler of Shailobhava Dynasty in ranging from coastal Orissa to Mahanadi and to Mahendragiri in Paralak hemundi in
the first half 7th century AD.
Madhavaraja II (or Madhavavarman) was a ruler of Shailobhava Dynasty in ranging from coastal Orissa to Mahanadi and to Mahendragiri in
Paralakhemundi from ? until AD 665.
Madhyamaraja I (or Ayasobhita II) was a ruler of Shailobhava Dynasty in ranging from coastal Orissa to Mahanadi and to Mahendragiri in Paralakhemundi
from AD 665 until ?.
Dharmaraja II was a ruler of Shailobhava Dynasty in ranging from coastal Orissa to Mahanadi and to Mahendragiri in Paralakhemundi in the second half 7th
century AD.

Bhaumakara Dynasty
The Bhauma or Bhauma-Kara Dynasty lasted from c.736 CE to c. 940 CE. They mostly controlled the coastal areas of Kalinga. But by c.850 CE, they
controlled most of modern Orissa. The later part of their reign was disturbed by rebellions from the Bhanja dynasty of the Sonepur and Boudh region.
List of Rulers of Bhaumakara Dynasty
Lakshmikaradeva was a ruler of Bhaumakara Dynasty in coastal area of Kalinga in early 8th century AD.
Ksemankaradeva was a ruler of Bhaumakara Dynasty in coastal area of Kalinga in the first half 8th century AD.
Sivakaradeva I (or Unmattasimha) was a ruler of Bhaumakara Dynasty in coastal area of Kalinga from around AD 736 until ?.
Subhakaradeva I was a ruler of Bhaumakara Dynasty in coastal area of Kalinga from around AD 790 until ?.
Sivakaradeva II was a ruler of Bhaumakara Dynasty in coastal area of Kalinga from around AD 809 until ?.
Santikaradeva I (or Gayada I) was a ruler of Bhaumakara Dynasty in coastal area of Kalinga in the first half 9th century.
Subhakaradeva II was a ruler of Bhaumakara Dynasty in coastal area of Kalinga from around AD 836 until ?.
Subhakaradeva III was a ruler of Bhaumakara Dynasty in coastal area of Kalinga from around ? until AD 845.
Tribhuvana Mahadevi (widow of Santikaradeva I) was a ruler of Bhaumakara Dynasty in coastal area of Kalinga from around AD 845 until ?.
Santikaradeva II was a ruler of Bhaumakara Dynasty in coastal area of Kalinga in the second half 9th century.
Subhakaradeva IV (or Kusumahara II) was a ruler of Bhaumakara Dynasty in coastal area of Kalinga from around AD 881 until ?.
Sivakaradeva III (or Lalitahara) was a ruler of Bhaumakara Dynasty in coastal area of Kalinga from around AD 885 until ?.
Tribhuvana Mahadevi II (or Prithivi Mahadevi) was a ruler of Bhaumakara Dynasty in coastal area of Kalinga from around AD 894 until ?.
Tribhuvana Mahadevi III was a ruler of Bhaumakara Dynasty in coastal area of Kalinga in early 10th century.
Santikaradeva III was a ruler of Bhaumakara Dynasty in coastal area of Kalinga in early 10th century.
Subhakara V was a ruler of Bhaumakara Dynasty in coastal area of Kalinga in early 10th century.
Gauri Mahadevi was a ruler of Bhaumakara Dynasty in coastal area of Kalinga in early 10th century.
Dandi Mahadevi was a ruler of Bhaumakara Dynasty in coastal area of Kalinga from AD 916 until AD 923.
Vakula Mahadevi was a ruler of Bhaumakara Dynasty in coastal area of Kalinga in the first half 10th century.
Dharma Mahadevi was a ruler of Bhaumakara Dynasty in coastal area of Kalinga the first half 10th century.

Mandala States
Between the 8th and 11th century, Orissa was divided into mandalas which were feudal states ruled by chieftains. These chieftains swore allegiance to the
Bhaumakaras.
Bhanjas of Khinjali Mandala
Khinjali refers to modern-day Balangir, Sonepur and Phulbani.
List of Rulers of Bhanjas of Khinjali Mandala
Silabhanja Deva (or Angadi) was a ruler of Bhanjas of Khinjali Mandala around modern - day Balangir, Sonepur and Phulbani.
Satrubhanja (or Gandhata and Nettabhanja I) was a ruler of Bhanjas of Khinjali Mandala around modern day Balangir, Sonepur and Pulbani.
Rangabhanja was a ruler of Bhanjas of Khinjali Mandala around modern day Balangir, Sonepur and Pulbani.
Nettabhanja II (or Kalyankalasa) was a ruler of Bhanjas of Khinjali Mandala around modern day Balangir, Sonepur and Pulbani.
Silabhanja II (or Tribhuvana Kalasa) was a ruler of Bhanjas of Khinjali Mandala around modern day Balangir, Sonepur and Pulbani.
Vidhyadharabhanja (or Amogha Kalasa and Dharma Kalasa) was a ruler of Bhanjas of Khinjali Mandala around modern day Balangir, Sonepur and
Pulbani in the first half 10th century AD.
Nettabhanja III (or Kalyan Kalasa and Prithvi Kalasa) was a ruler of Bhanjas of Khinjali Mandala around modern day Balangir, Sonepur and Pulbani
during early AD 930s.
Satrubhanja II (or Tribhubana Kalasa) was a ruler of Bhanjas of Khinjali Mandala around modern day Balangir, Sonepur and Pulbani from AD 934 until ?.
Bettabhanja IV (or Tribhuvana Kalasa) was a ruler of Bhanjas of Khinjali Mandala around modern day Balangir, Sonepur and Pulbani from AD 949 until
?.
Bhanjas of Khijjinga Mandala
This refers to modern-day Mayurbhanj and part of Kendujhar
List of Bhanjas of Khiijinga Mandala
Kottabhanja was a ruler of Bhanjas of Khiijinga Mandala around modern day Mayurbhanj and part of Kenduhjar in the first half 10th century AD.
Digbhanja (alias Durjayabhanja) was a ruler of Bhanjas of Khijjinga Mandala around modern day Mayurbahanj and part of Kendujhar in the first half 10th
century AD.
Ranabhanja was a ruler of Bhanjas of Khiijinga Mandala around modern day Mayurbhanj and part of Kenduhjar from around AD 924 until ?.
Prithvibhanja (alias Satrubhanja) was a ruler of Bhanjas of Khiijinga Mandala around modern day Mayurbhanj and part of Kenduhjar in the first half 10th
century AD.
Rajabhanja (alias Rajabhanja) was a ruler of Bhanjas of Khiijinga Mandala around modern day Mayurbhanj and part of Kenduhjar in the first half 10th
century AD.
Sulkis of Kodalaka Mandala
Kodalaka refers to the modern-day district of Dhenkanal.
List of Rulers of Sulkis of Kodalaka Mandala
Kanchanastambha was a ruler of Sulkis of Kodalaka Mandala around modern day district of Dhenkanal in the first half 9th century AD.
Kalahastambha was a ruler of Sulkis of Kodalaka Mandala around modern day Dhenkanal in the first half 9th century AD.
Ranastambha was a ruler of Sulkis of Kodalaka Mandala around modern day Dhenkanal from around AD 839 until ?.
Jayasthambha was a ruler of Sulkis of Kodalaka Mandala around modern day Dhenkanal in the second half 9th century AD.
Kulastambha II was a ruler of Sulkis of Kodalaka Mandala around modern day Dhenkanal in the second half 9th century AD.
Tungas of Yamagartta Mandala
The Mandala refers to the northern part of modern Dhenkanal district. Jayasimha was ruler of the mandala before the Tungas, he was not a member of the
Tunga dynasty.
List of Rulers of Tungas of Yamagartta Mandala
Jayasimha was a ruler of Tungas of Yamagartta Mandala in the northern part of modern Dhenkanal district around AD 864.
Khadaga Tunga was a ruler of Tungas of Yamagartta Mandala in the northern part of modern Dhenkanal district in the second half 9th century AD.
Vinita Tunga was a ruler of Tungas of Yamagartta Mandala in the northern part of modern Dhenkanal district in early 10th century AD.
Solana Tunga was a ruler of Tungas of Yamagartta Mandala in the northern part of modern Dhenkanal district in the second half 9th century AD.
Gayada Tunga was a ruler of Tungas of Yamagartta Mandala in the northern part of modern Dhenkanal district in the first half 10th century AD.
Apsara Deva was a ruler of Tungas of Yamagartta Mandala in the northern part of modern Dhenkanal district in the first half 10h century AD.
Nandodbhavas of Airavatta Mandala
This region extended over the territory comprising southern part of Dhenkanal district, some western portion of Cuttack district and almost the entire Nayagarh
subdivision of Puridistrict.
List of Rulers of Nandobhavas of Airavatta Mandala
Jayananda was a ruler of Nandobhavas of Airavatta Mandala over the territory comprising southern part of Dhenkanal district, some western portion
of Cuttack district and almost the entire Nayagarh subdivision of Puri district in the second 9th century AD.
Paramananda was a ruler of Nandobhavas of Airavatta Mandala over the territory comprising southern part of Dhenkanal district, some western portion
of Cuttack district and almost the entire Nayagarh subdivision of Puri district in the second 9th century AD.
Sivananda was a ruler of Nandobhavas of Airavatta Mandala over the territory comprising southern part of Dhenkanal district, some western portion
of Cuttack district and almost the entire Nayagarh subdivision of Puri district in early 10th century AD.
Devananda I was a ruler of Nandobhavas of Airavatta Mandala over the territory comprising southern part of Dhenkanal district, some western portion
of Cuttack district and almost the entire Nayagarh subdivision of Puri district in the early 10th century AD.
Devananda II was a ruler of Nandobhavas of Airavatta Mandala over the territory comprising southern part of Dhenkanal district, some western portion
of Cuttack district and almost the entire Nayagarh subdivision of Puri district from AD 920 until ?.
Dhruvananda was a ruler of Nandobhavas of Airavatta Mandala over the territory comprising southern part of Dhenkanal district, some western portion
of Cuttack district and almost the entire Nayagarh subdivision of Puri district from AD 929 until ?.
Mayuras of Banei Mandala
This region roughly comprised the modern-day Banei sub-division and parts of Panposh subdivision of Sundergarh district.
List of Rulers of Mayuras of Banei Mandala
Udita Varsha was a ruler of Mayuras of Banei Mandala in region roughly comprised the modern-day Banei sub-division and parts of Panposh subdivision
of Sundergarh district.
Teja Varsha was a ruler of Mayuras of Banei Mandala in region roughly comprised the modern-day Banei sub-division and parts of Panposh subdivision
of Sundergarh district.
Udaya Varsha was a ruler of Mayuras of Banei Mandala in region roughly comprised the modern-day Banei sub-division and parts of Panposh subdivision
of Sundergarh district.
Gangas of Svetaka Mandala
The capital of Svetaka known as Svetakapura has been identified with modern Chikiti in early 9th century AD.
List of Rulers of Gangas of Svetaka Mandala
Jayavarma Deva was a ruler of Gangas of Svetaka Mandala in modern day Chikriti in the first half 9th century AD.
Anantavarman was a ruler of Gangas of Svetaka Mandala in modern day Chikriti in the first half 9th century AD.
Gangaka Vilasa was a ruler of Gangas of Svetaka Mandala in modern day Chikriti in the second half 9th century AD.
Bhupendra Varman was a ruler of Gangas of Svetaka Mandala in modern day Chikriti in the second half 9th century AD.
Mahendravarman was a ruler of Gangas of Svetaka Mandala in modern day Chikriti in late 9th century AD.
Prithivarman was a ruler of Gangas of Svetaka Mandala in modern day Chikriti in late 9th century AD.
Indravarman I was a ruler of Gangas of Svetaka Mandala in modern day Chikriti in early 10th century.
Indravarman II was a ruler of Gangas of Svetaka Mandala in modern day Chikriti in early 10th century AD.
Samantavarman was a ruler of Gangas of Svetaka Mandala in modern day Chikriti from AD 909 until AD 921.

Somavasmi Dynasty
The Soma or Kesari Dynasty originates in South Kosala, but by the reign of Yayati I, they controlled most of modern Orissa.
List of Rulers of Somavasmi Dynasty
Janmejaya I was a ruler of Somavasmi Dynasty in South Kosala from AD 882 until AD 922. He was not considered a ruler by his successors.
Yayati I was a ruler of Somavasmi Dynasty in South Kosala from AD 922 until AD 955.
Bhimaratha was a ruler of Somavasmi Dynasty in South Kosala from AD 955 until AD 980.
Dharmarstha was a ruler of Somavasmi Dynasty in South Kosala from AD 980 until AD 1005.
Nahusa was a ruler of Somavasmi Dynasty in South Kosala from AD 1005 until AD 1021.
Indranatha was a ruler of Somavasmi Dynasty in South Kosala from AD 1021 until AD 1025.
Yayati II was a ruler of Somavasmi Dynasty in South Kosala from AD 1025 until AD 1040.
Udyotakesari was a ruler of Somavasmi Dynasty in South Kosala from AD 1040 until AD 1065.
Janmejaya II was a ruler of Somavasmi Dynasty in South Kosala from AD 1065 until AD 1080. He was not considered a ruler by his successors, as he
captured the throne in a violent coup and soon-after lost it.
Puranjaya was a ruler of Somavasmi Dynasty in South Kosala from AD 1080 until AD 1090.
Karnadeva was a ruler of Somavasmi Dynasty in South Kosala from AD 1090 until AD 1110.

Bhoi Dynasty
Bhoi dynasty was short lived but during their reign Orissa came into conflicts with the invaders from Golconda.
List of Rulers of Bhoi Dynasty
Govinda Vidyadhara was a ruler of Bhoi Dynasty from 1541 until 1548.
Raghubhanja Chhotray was a ruler of Bhoai Dynasty around 1548.
Chakrapratap was a ruler of Bhoai Dynasty from 1548 until 1557.
Narasimha Jena was a ruler of Bhoai Dynasty around 1557.
Raghuram Jena was a ruler of Bhoai Dynasty around 1560.

Mukunda Deva
Mukunda Deva come to throne by a bloody coup but his reign was cut short by the armies of Sulaiman Khan Karrani which were led by Kalapahad.
Ramachandra Bhanja, a feudal lord of Sarangagarh of Kandhamal, took the opportunity to rebel.
List of Rulers in Kalinga
Mukunda Deva (155968) was a ruler in Kalinga from 1559 until 1568. Mukunda Deva come to throne by a bloody coup but his reign was cut short by the
armies of Sulaiman Khan Karrani which were led by Kalapahad. Ramachandra Bhanja, a feudal lord of Sarangagarh of Kandhamal, took the opportunity to
rebel.
Ramachandra Bhanja (1568) was a ruler in Kalinga in 1568.

Karrani dynasty
The Karrani dynasty was founded in 1564 by Taj Khan Karrani, an ethnic Pashtun from the Karlani Afghan tribe. It was the last dynasty to rule the Sultanate of
Bengal. Taj Khan was formerly an employee of the Afghan Emperor Sher Shah Suri. From 1562 to 1564, Taj Khan captured south-eastern Bihar and west
Bengal, and with his assassination of the last Muhammed Shahi ruler, he seized all of Bengal. The capital was at Sonargaon. Taj Khan was followed by Sulaiman
Khan Karrani, who shifted the seat of government from Gaurr to Tanda in 1565. In 1568, Sulaiman Khan annexed Orissa to the Karrani sultanate permanently.
Nominally he accepted sovereignty of the Mughal Emperor Akbar, and his prime minister Lodi Khan placated the Mughals with gifts and banqueting. Sulaiman
Khan's authority extended from Koch Bihar to Puri, and from Son River to Brahmaputra River. On September 25, 1574, the Mughal general Munim
Khan captured the Karrani capital Tanda. The Battle of Tukaroi fought on March 3, 1575 forced Daud Khan Karrani, the last Karrani ruler, to withdraw to
Orissa. The battle led to the Treaty of Katak in which Daud ceded the whole of Bengal and Bihar, retaining only Orissa. The treaty eventually failed after the
death of Munim Khan who died at the age of 80 in October 1575. Daud Khan took the opportunity and invaded Bengal, declaring independence from Akbar.
The Mughal onslaught against the Karrani sultanate ended with the battle of Rajmahal on July 12, 1576, led by the Mughal general Khan Jahan I. Daud Khan was
executed. However, the Afghans and the local landlords known as Baro Bhuyans led by Isa Khan continued to resist the Mughal invasion. Later in 1612 during
the reign of Jahangir, Bengal was finally integrated as a Mughal province.
List of Rulers of Karrani Dynasty
Taj Khan Karrani (died 1566) was the founder of the Karrani dynasty, an Afghan dynasty of Karlan-Pashtun origin that ruled Bengal, Orissa and parts of
Bihar from 1564 until his death in 1566. Taj was a former employee of the Afghan emperor Sher Shah Suri. He captured a vast region of south-eastern Bihar
and west Bengal. He assassinated the last Shah ruler and took total control of Bengal. Taj's younger brother, Sulaiman Khan Karrani, succeeded him.
Sulaiman Khan Karrani (died 1572) was a ruler of Bengal since the death of his elder brother Taj Khan Karrani 1566 until his death on October 11, 1572.
According to the Riyaz-us-Salatin, he shifted the seat of government from Gaur to Tanda.
[2]
Sulaiman, his brother Taj and Sulaiman's sons Bayazid and Daud
Khan Karrani ran a short-lived Afghan vassal state of Mughal emperor Akbar in Bengal. They dominated the area while Sulaiman paid homage to the Akbar.
The Afghans defeated by Akbar began to flock under his flag. The Afghans were not technically the rulers of Bengal, the post was primarily nominal. Sulaiman
Khan Karrani did not establish his own coinage during his reign, an act that would have been tantamount to declaring statehood to the ruling Mughals. He also
honored Akbar as the supreme ruler of Bengal by requiring that mosques read Akbar's name in the Khutbah, the sermon at the Friday congregational prayers in
Bengal. Historians cite these acts as keeping the diplomatic peace between Bengal and Mughal Empire during Akbar's lifetime. Though northern India and parts
of southern India were ruled by the Muslim rulers, they had not yet been able to conquer Orissa. In 1568 Sulaiman Khan sent his son Bayazid Khan Karrani and
the famous general Kala Pahar against the last Orissan Gajapati king Mukunda Deva. After a few major battles against the Orissans, and aided by civil
war elsewhere in Orissa, Sulaiman was able to bring the entire area under his rule. Kalapahar sacked the Jagannath temple and took Puri under control. Sulaiman
Karrani appointed Lodi Khan and Qutlu Khan Lohani governors of Orissa and Puri respectively. Sulaiman Khan Karrani then sent general Kala Pahar against
the Kamata (later Koch Bihar under the Mughals) king Vishwa Singha. Kala Pahar crossed the Brahmaputra River and advanced as far as Tejpur (modern-
day Dinajpur District, Bangladesh). Kala Pahar defeated and captured the Kamata general Shukladhwaja, third son of Bishwa Singha. After a tranquil and
peaceful ruling for seven years Sulaiman Karrani died on October 11, 1572, leaving his empire to his son, Bayazid Khan Karrani. Sulaiman was a
pious Muslim living a life observing all religious rituals. He built the Sona mosque in old Maldah.
Bayazid Karrani was the third ruler of the Karrani dynasty of Bengal in 1572. He ascended the throne after his father Sulaiman Khan Karranidied in
October 1572. After assuming power he broke allegiance with the Mughals and declared independence. He ruled for few month before he was betrayed and
killed by his cousin and brother-in-law, Hansu. Hansu was later dethroned by Sulaiman Khan's trusted nobles. Bayazid's younger brother, Daud Khan
Karrani eventually took the power.
Daud Khan Karrani (died 1576) was the fourth ruler of the Karrani dynasty of Bengal from 1572 until his death in 1576. He was the youngest son
of Sulaiman Khan Karrani. During his father's reign, he commanded a massive army of 40,000 cavalry, 3,600 elephants, 1,140,000 infantry and 20,000 cannons.
He invaded the southwestern regions of present-day India. Daud was not content with the sultanate of Bengal. He dreamt of being a second Sher Shah Suri and
to conquer the entire Indian subcontinent. But he had a formidable foe, Akbar the Great . When Akbar was busy with his warfare in Gujarat, Daud Khan
invaded Jamania near Ghazipur. The Afghan army razed the Jamania city to the ground and captured the Jamania fort.Akbar ordered the governor of Jaunpur,
Munim Khan, to proceed against Daud. Munim Khan met his friend Ludi Khan, the Prime Minister of Daud, in Patna and settled in peace. The agreement
pleased neither Akbar nor Daud. Ludi Khan was later punished to death by Daud. In 1573 Munim Khan attacked Bihar which forced Daud to retreat and take
shelter in Patna. Daud sent Katlu Lohani, Gujar Khan Karrani and Sri Hari against the Mughal army. Munim Khan along with Todar Mal and Mansingh made
the first attack in Hajipur. After a fierce battle the Afghans became at the verge of victory. Akbar then captured the neighboring fort of Hajipur which was the
source of rations for the Afghan army. The Afghans fell in a distress and retreated to Bengal. Akbar returned to the capital after appointingMunim Khan as the
governor of Bihar and Bengal. Todar Mal was also left to assist him. On March 3, 1575 a fierce battle was fought between the Mughals and the Afghans in
Tukaroi. The result was a draw and the Afghans retreated to Katak, Orissa. The Mughals captured Tanda, the Afghan capital of Bengal. Munim Khan
transferred the capital of Bengal from Tanda to Gaur. In the treaty of Katak, Daud ceded Bengal and Bihar to the Mughals. But he retained only Orissa as his
possession. Six months later there broke out a plague and Munim Khan suddenly died in October 1575. The Mughal army was repulsed from Eastern Bengal by
Kalapahar and Isa Khan. Daud marched from Orissa to successfully recapture Gaur. Akbar sent a new army under the command of Khan Jahan Quli. He
captured Teliagarhi and advanced towards Rajmahal. The two armies met in the battlefield of Rajmahal. The battle went on for many days. Akbar ordered the
governor of Bihar, Muzaffar Khan Turbati and other generals to join. On the other side Daud was accompanied by other principal Afghan leaders like Junaid,
Qutlu Khan and Kalapahar. After a fierce battle on July 12, 1576 Daud was finally defeated and executed. After his death, Bengal went under direct Mughal rule
as Subah with Subahdars being installed.

Khurda
Khurda was former state in Odisha, India. After 1592, the centre of power had shift from Katak to Khurda. It was the capital of Odisha from 1568 to 1803. It is
also known for its fort, often described as the "last independent fort". The commander who kept it free from British East India Company was ), Bakshi
Jagabandhu, popularly called 'Paika Bakshi'. The Savaras tribal group, who are still to be found in the district in some pockets, once heavily populated the area.
Khurda came into prominence when the first Rajas of the Khordha dynasty, Ramachandra Deva, made it the capital of his kingdom during the last part of the
16th century. Khurda suffered repeated onslaughts from Muslim andMaratha cavalry but its royal house retained independence till 1804, when the British East
India Companydispossessed Raja of his territory following the Second Anglo-Maratha War. Khurda occupies a distinct place in the historical map of Odisha.
Khurda was the capital of Odisha Kingdom from 1568. British government took Odisha under its rule in 1803. But it could not include Khurda in its territory till
1827. The strong protest from Paikas of Khurda shook the backbone of British rule in Odisha. Khurdagada is known as the "Last Independent Fort" of India.
Now the remains of this historic fort lies as an evidence of India's glorious past. Bhubaneswar, the capital of Odisha belongs to this district. During the reign of
Purusottam Deva, relations with the Mughal Subahdars soured. Khurda has a unique place in history as being the last kingdom to be conquered by the British in
1803. Khurda is famous for the Paika Bidroha/ (soldier revolution) of 1817, led by Jayee Rajguru and Bakshi Jagabandhu. Dalabehera of Tapanga Garha also
played a leading role during that time. Khurda is famous for Barunei temple atop the Barunei Hills. There are many villages in this district and some of them are
Gurujanga, Gadamanatri, Gangapada, Minchinpatna, Angarpada, Mahula, Majana, Karadapalli, Bajpur, Jhinkijhari and host of others. Gurujanga village is the
birthplace of Sachi Rautarai (specifically remembered for "Chhota mora gaan ti" poetry), Harikrushna Pradhan (another famous Sanskrit Pandit) and many more
good writers.
List of Rulers of Khurda
Ramachandra Deva I was a ruler of Khurda from ? until 1607.
Purusottam Deva was a ruler of Khurda from 1607 until 1622. During the reign of Purusottam Deva, relations with the Mughal Subahdars soured.
Narasimha Deva was a ruler of Khurda from 1622 until 1645.
Gangadhara Deva (died 1645) was a ruler of Khurda in 1645. He was nephew of Narasimha Deva and was murdered in 1645.
Balabhadra Deva was a ruler of Khurda from 1645 until 1655. He was brother of Narasimha Deva.
Mukunda Deva I was a ruler of Khurda from 1655 until 1690.
Dibysingha Deva I was a ruler of Khurda from around 1700 until 1720.
Harekrushna Deva was a ruler of Khurda from 1720 until 1725.
Gopinath was a ruler of Khurda from 1725 until 1732.
Ramachandra Deva II was a ruler of Khurda from 1732 until 1742/1743. He was forcibly converted to Islam, alias Hafiz Qadar Muhammad.
Bhagirathi Kumar was a ruler of Khurda during 1730s.
Padmanava Deva was a ruler of Khurda from 1736 until 1739.
Birakesari Deva was a ruler of Khurda from 1739 until ?.
Birakishore Deva was a ruler of Khurda from 1751 until 1780.
Dibyasingha Deva II was a ruler of Khurda from 1780 until 1795.
Mukundeva Deva II (died 1817) was a ruler of Khurda from 1795 until his death in 1817. Raja Mukunda Deva died a captive in November, 1817. He was
the last king of Khurda and after him his successor came to be known as the Raja of Puri, the title of Raja being only nominal, and he depended on a political
pension. The management of the Puri temple, however, remained in his hands.


Western Ganga Dynasty
Western Ganga was an important ruling dynasty of ancient Karnataka in India which lasted from about 350 to 1000 AD. They are known as Western Gangas to
distinguish them from the Eastern Gangas who in later centuries ruled over Kalinga (modern Odisha). The general belief is that the Western Gangas began their
rule during a time when multiple native clans asserted their freedom due to the weakening of the Pallava empire in South India, a geo-political event sometimes
attributed to the southern conquests of Samudra Gupta. The Western Ganga sovereignty lasted from about 350 to 550 AD, initially ruling from Kolar and later,
moving their capital to Talakad on the banks of the Kaveri River in modern Mysore district. After the rise of the imperial Chalukyas of Badami, the Gangas
accepted Chalukya overlordship and fought for the cause of their overlords against the Pallavas of Kanchi. The Chalukyas were replaced by the Rashtrakutas of
Manyakheta in 753 AD as the dominant power in the Deccan. After a century of struggle for autonomy, the Western Gangas finally accepted Rashtrakuta
overlordship and successfully fought alongside them against their foes, the Chola Dynasty of Tanjavur. In the late 10th century, north of Tungabhadra river, the
Rashtrakutas were replaced by the emerging Western Chalukya Empire and the Chola Dynasty saw renewed power south of the Kaveri river. The defeat of the
Western Gangas by Cholas around 1000 resulted in the end of the Ganga influence over the region. Though territorially a small kingdom, the Western Ganga
contribution to polity, culture and literature of the modern south Karnataka region is considered important. The Western Ganga kings showed benevolent
tolerance to all faiths but are most famous for their patronage toward Jainism resulting in the construction of monuments in places such as Shravanabelagola
andKambadahalli. The kings of this dynasty encouraged the fine arts due to which literature in Kannada and Sanskrit flourished. Chavundaraya's writing,
Chavundaraya Purana of 978, is an important work in Kannada prose. Many classics were written on various subjects ranging from religion to elephant
management.
List of Kings of Western Ganga Dynasty
Konganivarman Madhava was a King of Western Ganga Dynasty from 350 until 370. The founding king of the dynasty was Konganivarma Madhava who
made Kolar his capital around 350 and ruled for about twenty years.
Madhava was a King of Western Ganga Dynasty from 370 until 390.
Harivarman was a King of Western Ganga Dynasty from 390 until 410.
Vishnugopa was a King of Western Ganga Dynasty from 410 until 430.
Madhava III Tandangala was a King of Western Ganga Dynasty from 430 until 469.
Avinita was a King of Western Ganga Dynasty from 469 until 529.
Durvinita was a King of Western Ganga Dynasty from 529 until 579. Durvinita is seen as the most successful ruler of the Western Ganga Dynasty. Son of the
previous ruler, Avinita, Durvinita's accession to the throne was disputed by his brother, who had gained the support of the Pallavas and Kadambas. There are
Nallala and Kadagattur inscriptions that refer to this dispute. However, Durvinita managed to grab the throne by virtue of his valour. During Durvinita's rule, the
hostilities between the Pallavas and Gangas came to forefront and several pitched battles were fought by the two kingdoms. Durvinita defeated the Pallavas in the
battle of Anderi. Though the Pallavas sought the assistance of the Kadambas to the north to tame Durvinita, the Gummareddipura inscription hails that Durvinita
overcame his enemies at Alattur, Porulare and Pernagra. It is possible that these victories enabled him to extend his power over Kongudesa and
Tondaimandalam regions of Tamil country. He may have also made Kittur his capital. Durvinita was a clever king. In order to keep the Pallavas at bay, he gave
his daughter to Chalukya Vijayaditya or from the Nagara record to Pulakesi II, though the latter is unlikely owing to the difference in their eras. The Chalukyas
were an emerging power at this time. When the Pallavas attacked the Chalukyas, he fought on the Chalukya side and cemented a long lasting friendship with the
Chalukyas that lasted through the rule of both the Badami Chalukyas, Rashtrakutas and Kalyani Chalukyas, covering a period of over 600 years.The
Gummareddipura and the Uttanur plates describe Durvinita as the Lord of Punnata. The early Gangas were worshipers of the Hindu god Vishnu. However he
had a Jaina guru called Pujyapada and his court was adorned with several Jaina scholars. This tolarance was common among later Ganga kings, who actually took
to Jainism in the later centuries. Durvinita was an able warrior as well as a man of letter and the fine arts. Kavirajamarga, the AD 850 Kannada classic hails him as
one of the early writers in Kannada, though his Kannada writings are not available. The renowned Sanskrit poet Bharavi is known to have visited the Ganga court
during this period. Durvinita wrote a commentary on the fifteenth canto (chapter) of Bharavi's Kiratarjuniya. He translated into Sanskrit Vaddakatha or
Brihatkatha written originally by Gunadya in Prakrit. He also authored a work called Sabdavatara. His prowess in the battle field, knowledge of war instruments
and arms, political science, medicine, music and dance has been written about in the Nallala grant.
Mushkara was a King of Western Ganga Dynasty from 579 until 604.
Polavira was a King of Western Ganga Dynasty from 604 until 629.
Srivikrama was a King of Western Ganga Dynasty from 629 until 654.
Bhuvikarma was a King of Western Ganga Dynasty from 654 until 679.
Shivamara I was a King of Western Ganga Dynasty from 679 until 726.
Sripurusha was a King of Western Ganga Dynasty from 726 until 788. According to the Javali inscription Sripurusha ruled for 62 years. He had marital
relations with the Badami Chalukyas and used titles such as 'Muttarasa', Rajakesari, Bhimakopa and Ranabhajana. An able warrior and a scholar, he authored the
Sanskrit work Gajasastra. The rule of Sripurusha Muttarasa seems to have been filled with conflicts with the Pallavas of Kanchi, Pandyas, later
the Rashtrakutas who overthrew the Vatapi Chalukyas. The victory of Sripurusha over the Pallava Nandivarman is attested to by Dr. N.L. Rao when he assumed
a title Permanadi. He had good relations with Chalukyas and had helped them fight the Pallavas during the rule of Vikramaditya II and later he fought the
Pandyas during the rule of Chalukya Kirtivarman II but suffered reversal at Venbai. When the Rashtrakutas rose to power, though betrayed by the Nolambas,
Sripurusha had many victories against Krishna I and occupied some Ratta territories. This resistance to Rashtrakutas continued for some time before the Gangas
normalised their relationship with martial alliances.
Shivamara II was a King of Western Ganga Dynasty from 788 until 816. He was the son of Sripurusha. He was also a noted scholar in Kannada, Sanskrit and
Prakrit. He succeeded to the Ganga throne during a time when the Rashtrakuta were the empire on the rise in South India and the Deccan. The Rashtrakuta
monarch Dhruva Dharavarsha defeated Shivamara in Mudagunduru and took the Ganga king captive. The Rashtrakuta then took direct control of the Gangavadi
with the appointment of Kambharasa, son of Dhruva Dharavarsha as its governor. He was later released, only to be imprisoned again during the rule of Govinda
III when he refused to pay the Rashtrakuta tribute. Shivamara II again was released only to defy the Rashtrakuta yoke by waging wars. He died fighting them in
816. Manne near Bangalore was one of his capitals during this time. In spite of being imprisoned on multiple occasions and being at constant war he found the
time to write literary works, including Gajashtaka in Kannada, Gajamathakalpana inSanskrit and Sethubandha in Prakrit. According to historian Kamath, he is
considered to be one of the famous kings of the dynasty.
Rachamalla I was a King of Western Ganga Dynasty from 816 until 843.
Ereganga Neetimarga was a King of Western Ganga Dynasty from 843 until 870.
Rachamalla II was a King of Western Ganga Dynasty from 870 until 907.
Ereganga Neetimarga II was a King of Western Ganga Dynasty from 907 until 921.
Narasimha was a King of Western Ganga Dynasty from 921 until 933.
Rachamalla III was a King of Western Ganga Dynasty from 933 until 938.
Butuga II was a King of Western Ganga Dynasty from 938 until 961. He was elder brother Rachamalla III. In order to ascend the throne he had to first seek
help from the Rashtrakutas who were hitherto their arch enemies. Butuga II first helped Amoghavarsha III regain many lost territories and in turn was helped by
the Rashtrakuta ruler to overthrow Rachamalla III, the unpopular Ganga king at that time. This helped forge a strong relationship between the Gangas and the
Rashtrakutas, an alliance that lasted till the end of both kingdoms. Butuga II became the son-in-law of Amoghavarsha III by marrying his daughter
Revakanimmadi. He also helped the Rashtrakutas defeat the Cholas in c. 949 in the Battle of Takkolam when he killed the Chola monarch Rajaditya with a well
aimed arrow when the Chola was seated on his elephant. As a Rashtrakuta feudatory, he not only ruled Gangavadi but also many areas in the Malaprabha
River basin and the Krishna River-Tungabhadra doab. With his immense contribution to a Rashtrakuta victory over the Cholas, Butuga II also took charge of
the Banavasi region as a fief from Rashtrakuta King Krishna III. He was not only a valorous soldier but also a noted scholar. He is said to have a defeated
a Buddhist scholar in a religious discourse and the Kudlur record speaks of him as a noted poet.
Marulaganga Neetimarga was a King of Western Ganga Dynasty from 961 until 963.
Marasimha II Satyavakya was a King of Western Ganga Dynasty from 963 until 975.
Rachamalla IV Satyavakya was a King of Western Ganga Dynasty from 975 until 986.
Rachamalla V (Rakkasaganga) was a King of Western Ganga Dynasty from 986 until 999.
Neetimarga Permanadi was a King of Western Ganga Dynasty in 999.

Maitraka Dynasty
The Maitraka dynasty ruled Gujarat in western India from c. 475 to 767. The founder of the dynasty, Senapati (general) Bhatarka, was a military governor
of Saurashtra peninsula under Gupta Empire, who had established himself as the independent ruler of Gujarat approximately in the last quarter of 5th century.
The first two Maitraka rulers Bhatarka and Dharasena I used only the title of Senapati (general). The third ruler Dronasimha declared himself as the Maharaja.
King Guhasena stopped using the term Paramabhattaraka Padanudhyata along his name like his predecessors, which denotes the cessation of displaying of the
nominal allegiance to the Gupta overlords. He was succeeded by his son Dharasena II, who used the title ofMahadhiraja. His son, the next ruler Siladitya I,
Dharmaditya was described by Hiuen Tsang as a "monarch of great administrative ability and of rare kindness and compassion". Siladitya I was succeeded by his
younger brother Kharagraha I. Virdi copperplate grant (616 CE) of Kharagraha I proves that his territories included Ujjain. During the reign of the next ruler,
Dharasena III, north Gujarat was included in this kingdom. Dharasena II was succeeded by another son of Kharagraha I, Dhruvasena II, Baladitya. He married
the daughter of Harshavardhana. His son Dharasena IV assumed the imperial titles of Paramabhattaraka Mahrajadhiraja Parameshvara Chakravartin. Sanskrit
poet Bhatti was his court poet. The next powerful ruler of this dynasty was Siladitya III. During the reign of Siladitya V, Arabs probably invaded this kingdom.
The last known ruler of this dynasty was Siladitya VII. The Maitrakas ruled from their capital at Vallabhi. They came under the rule of Harsha in the mid-7th
century, but retained localautonomy, and regained their independence after Harsha's death. Maitraka rule ended with the sacking of Vallabhi by the barbariansin
524, according to James Tod and in second or third quarter of the 8th century by various other scholars. There is no agreement among the scholars as to who
these barbarians were.
List of Rulers of Maitraka Dynasty of Vallabchi
Bhatarka was a ruler of Maitraka Dynasty of Vallabhi of from around AD 470 until AD 492.
Dharasena I was a ruler of Maitraka Dynasty of Vallabhi from AD 493 until AD 499.
Dronasinha (also known as Maharaja) was a ruler of Maitraka Dynasty of Vallabhi from AD 500 until AD 520.
Dhruvasena I was a ruler of Maitraka Dynasty of Vallabhi from AD 520 until AD 550.
Dharapatta was a ruler of Maitraka Dynasty of Vallabhi from AD 550 until AD 556.
Guhasena was a ruler of Maitraka Dynasty of Vallabhi from AD 556 until AD 570.
Dharasena II was a ruler of Maitraka Dynasty of Vallabhi from AD 570 until AD 595.
Siladitya I (also known as Dharmaditya) was a ruler of Maitraka Dynasty of Vallabhi from AD 595 until AD 615.
Kharagraha I was a ruler of Maitraka Dynasty of Vallabhi from AD 615 until AD 626.
Dharasena III was a ruler of Maitraka Dynasty of Vallabhi from AD 626 until AD 640.
Dhruvasena II (also known as Baladitya) was a ruler of Maitraka Dynasty of Vallabhi from AD 640 until AD 644.
Dharasena IV (also known as Param Bhatarka, Maharajadhiraja, Parameshwara) was a ruler of Maitraka Dynasty of Vallabhi from AD 644 until AD 651.
Dhruvasena III was a ruler of Maitraka Dynasty of Vallabhi from AD 651 until AD 656.
Kharagraha II was a ruler of Maitraka Dynasty of Vallabhi from AD 656 until AD 662.
Siladitya II was a ruler of Maitraka Dynasty of Vallabhi from AD 662 until ?.
Siladitya III was a ruler of Maitraka Dynasty of Vallabhi in the second half 7th century.
Siladitya IV was a ruler of Maitraka Dynasty of Vallabhi in the first half 8th century.
Siladitya V was a ruler of Maitraka Dynasty of Vallabhi in the first half 8th century.
Siladitya VI was a ruler of Maitraka Dynasty of Vallabhi in the second half 8th century.
Siladitya VII was a ruler of Maitraka Dynasty of Vallabhi from AD 766 until AD 776.

Jessore Kingdom
Jessore was a medieval kingdom I present Bengal under the rule of Pratapaditya. Maharaja Pratap-Aditya (15611611 CE) was the Hindu Kayastha King of
Jessore and the most prominent of the Baro-Bhuyan of Bengal, who declared independence from the Mughals and established an independent Hindu state in
Bengal. His kingdom at its zenith encompassed the districts of Nadia, North 24 Parganas and South 24 Parganas in West Bengal, as well as extending into
modern-day Bangladesh from Kushtia district in north, Barisal in east and Sundarbans and Bay of Bengal to south. Pratapaditya's love for the Motherland, fierce
spirit of Hindu independence from Muslim yoke, and epic battles against the Mughal imperialists made him the most famous legendary hero for the Hindus in
Bengal. His bravery and heroism became the subject of many ballads, none grander than Annadamangal, the magnum opus of Bharat Chandra the greatest
medieval poet of Bengal. Pratapaditya Roy has been recognized as a national hero in several narratives of Hindu Nationalism where he has been placed
alongside Shivaji and Guru Govind Singh for his immortal deeds. His father Srihari (or Sridhar), was an influential officer in the service of Daud Khan Karrani,
the last independent Sultanate of Bengal.
King of Jessore Kingdom
Maharaja Pratap-Aditya (Bengali: ) (15611611) was the Hindu Kayastha King of Jessore and the most prominent of the Baro-Bhuyan
of Bengal, who declared independence from the Mughals and established an independent Hindu state in Bengal. His kingdom at its zenith encompassed the
districts of Nadia, North 24 Parganas and South 24 Parganas in West Bengal, as well as extending into modern-day Bangladesh from Kushtia district in north,
Barisal in east and Sundarbans and Bay of Bengal to south. Pratapaditya's love for the Motherland, fierce spirit of Hindu independence from Muslim yoke, and
epic battles against the Mughal imperialists made him the most famous legendary hero for the Hindus in Bengal. His bravery and heroism became the subject of
many ballads, none grander than Annadamangal, the magnum opus of Bharat Chandra the greatest medieval poet of Bengal. Pratapaditya Roy has been
recognized as a national hero in several narratives of Hindu Nationalism where he has been placed alongside Shivaji and Guru Govind Singh for his immortal
deeds. His father Srihari (or Sridhar), was an influential officer in the service of Daud Khan Karrani, the last independent Sultanate of Bengal. The latter had
bestowed upon Srihari the title of 'Vikramaditya' and the zamindari of one Chand Khan, (referred to as Chandecan by the Portuguese) who had deceased without
leaving any heir. On the fall of Daud Khan in 1576, Srihari declared independence and assumed the title of "Maharaja". Pratapaditya was born to Srihari in 1561.
Srihari divided his kingdom 5/8th to Pratapaditya and 3/8th to his brother Basanta Ray. At a very young age, as the Crown Prince of Jessore he fought many
naval battles against Portuguese and Magh (Portuguese of Arakan) pirates to protect his land and his people. He also fought and defeated his neighboring Muslim
Kings & Zamindars who were hostile to his dynasty and kingdom. Contemporary sources like the Baharistan-i-Ghaybi, travelogues of Abdul Latif and other
Europeans testify to the personal ability of Pratapaditya, his political pre-eminence, material resources and martial strength. At that time, the island of Sandwip
had gained strategic importance because of its salt produce, and because it was the most important gateway of trade in the Bay of Bengal & to Chittagong port. At
the turn of the 17th century, Sripur and Arakan had fought two battles over the control of Sandwip and both the times Kedar Ray, the king of Sripur had wrested
control over Sandwip, with the help of his Portuguese naval officer Domingos Carvalho. Kedar Ray had awarded the island to his able office as a recognition of
his service. But when the Arakanese successfully took control of the island in 1602, Carvalho fled to Jessore. It is said that Pratapaditya arrested, tried and
executed Carvalho and sent his severed head to the Arakan court at Mrauk U. The Jesuits arrived at Jessore in 1599. They were received most cordially by the
king and his Portuguese subjects, most of whom were in the naval services. The king granted them full permission to preach to his subjects and to baptise all
those who wished to become Christians. The first Jesuit church in Bengal was opened in January 1600. After 1602, the relationship between the Portuguese and
the king of Arakan turned hostile. The Jesuit fathers were imprisoned and the Christians were ill-treated in Arakan as well as Sripur and Jessore. In the latter, the
Jesuit church were razed to ground and the missionaries were expelled as they had started converting by deceit and insulting Hindu faith. After Jahangir ascended
the Mughal throne, Islam Khan was deputed as the governor of Bengal in 1608. With his base at Rajmahal, Islam Khan began to make preparations in order to
subdue the Bara Bhuiyans. Pratapaditya understood that the Mughals had arrived with much larger force this time, especially with a strong naval fleet and had
taken adequate precautions to deal with the hostile terrain and he therefore made a strategic move to forge an alliance with the Mughals against Musa Khan. A
prolonged battle against Musa Khan was bound to wear out the Mughal resources and the Mughals would have to retreat before long, which would give Jessore
ample time to regroup. When the battle between the Mughals and Musa Khan ensued, Pratapaditya chose not to join Islam Khan, instead he kept on
consolidating his resources for the ultimate showdown against the imperial forces. Unfortunately for Pratapaditya, Musa Khan failed to put up any major
challenge and was conquered by the Mughals rather easily. With that, Islam Khan turned his attention towards Jessore and given the resources Pratapaditya had,
a lengthy battle appeared certain. A large Mughal contingent consisting of 1,000 cavalry, 5,000 matchlock men and a number of tried and experienced officers,
such as Mirza Makki, son of Iftikhar Khan, Mirza Saifuddin, Shaikh Ismail Fathpuri, Shah Beg Khaksar and Lachhmi Rajput, and a fleet consisting of 300 men-
of-war, besides the war boats of new vassals like Musa Khan and Bahadur Ghazi, was selected for the war. The Mughal forces were under the command of Islam
Khan's brother Ghiyas Khan or Inayat Khan, while the fleet and artillery were under Mirza Nathan, son of Ihtimam Khan. Another force was sent against his son
in law Raja Ramchandra of Bakla at the same time, so that he might not come to the assistance of Jessore. By December, 1611 the Mughal forces had been
consolidated and they were proceeding towards Jessore along the Ichhamati and the Bhairab. Pratapaditya meanwhile equipped a strong army and fleet and
placed them under expert officers including Afghan dissidents (angered at loss of privilege to the foreign Mughals) and Portuguese (mostly mercenaries) and
prepared to personally defend the fortified capital at Dhumghat. He deputed Udayaditya to defend the fort at Salka, strategically located having natural barriers
on three sides. Udayaditya was assisted by Jamal Khan an Afghan, who commanded the cavalry and the elephants and Khwaja Kamal another Afghan tributary of
Pratap who commanded the fleet of 500 war boats. As the imperial fleet proceeded towards Salka, Udayaditya suddenly launched a vigorous attack and broke
into the enemy rank, leaving Jamal Khan in charge of the garrison at the fort, and Khwaja Kamal backing up with a strong contingent of powerful war boats and
ghurabs. With its overwhelming numbers the Jessore fleet managed to force the Mughals into backfoot, but steady artillery support from both the banks of
Ichhamati and Mirza Nathan's breaching the enemy ranks at the back led to capitulation of the Jessore fleet. Udayaditya managed to escape while Khwaja Kamal
was killed. Jamal Khan followed Udayaditya to Dhumghat. The Mughals sacked the fort and looted the valuables. Pratapaditya prepared himself to fight a second
time from a new base near the confluence of Kagarghat canal and the Jamuna. He made a big fort at a strategic point and gathered all his available forces there.
The Mughals began the battle by an attack on the Jessore fleet (Jan 1612) and compelled it to seek shelter beneath the fort. But their further advance was
checked by the heavy cannonade of the Jessore artillery. A sudden attack of the Mughals completely defeated the Jessore fleet and they fell upon the fort with the
elephants in front, thereby compelling Pratapaditya to evacuate the fort and retreat.His valiant army strategist Rudraditya was forced an exile after being captured
during this war. The second defeat sealed the fate of Pratapaditya. At end of Kagarghat battle the Mughals offered truce in spite of a marginal win, as both sides
were fatigued of fighting. He was treacherously captured by Ghiyas Khan after been called for a meeting on peace talks who personally escorted Pratapaditya to
Islam Khan at Dhaka. The Jessore king was put in chains and his kingdom was annexed. Pratapaditya was kept confined at Dhaka. There is a lack of available
authentic information regarding his last days, but per Mughal documents probably he fled at Benares while being transported to Delhi as a prisoner and died on
his way back to Bengal while returning. After the fall of Pratapaditya, the Mughal army sacked Jessore. Srish Chandra Basu quotes historian Tapan Kumar Ray
Choudhuri, Plunder and rape appear as the concomitants of Mughal campaigns, and even a sensible man like Mirza Nathan boasts of his ruthless exploits.
Udayaditya's (Pratapaditya's son) failure to satisfy this officer's lust for gold drew upon the head of the Jessore people a terrible vengeance. He threatened to show
what is meant by looting, and true to his words, wrought such a havoc that he became an object of terror to the people of the country. Yet, to be sure, Mirza
Nathan was more humane than his brother Murad who during a Jessore campaign bought as captives four thousand women, young and old, stripped of their
clothing. Pratapaditya was an able administrator. During his reign there was a complete restoration of law and order. Pratapaditya's kingdom included a greater
part of the undivided districts of 24 Parganas, Jessore and Khulna. It also included parts of present districts of Kushtia, Barisal and Bhola. Pratapaditya's capital
was at Dhumghat, a city situated a the confluence of Jamuna and Ichhamati. Pratapaditya built several forts. The principal fourteen of them were at Jessore,
Dhumghat, Raigarh, Kamalpur, Vedkashi, Shibsha, Pratapnagar, Shalikha, Matla, Haidargarh, Araikaki, Mani, Raimangal and Chaksri. There were seven forts
built by Pratapaditya in and around present day Kolkata. They were at Matla, Raigarh, Tala, Behala, Salkia, Chitpur and Mulajor. Apart from these Pratapaditya
had built a fort near present day Jagatdal. Pratapaditya's army was divided into six divisions infantry, cavalry, artillery, archers and elephant division. The infantry
consisted of the Dhali and Raibeshe soldiers, under the command of Kalidas Ray and Madan Malla. According to Bharatchandra, Pratapadaitya had 52,000
Dhalis under his command. There were many Kuki soldiers in his army and the Kuki regiment was under the command of Raghu. A cavalry of 10,000 were
commanded by Pratapsingha Dutta, assisted by Mahiuddin and Nurullah. The archers were led by Sundar and Dhulian Baig. There were 1,600 elephants trained
for war. Apart from these Pratapaditya had a network of spies, under the command of Sukha. The majority of Pratapaditya's army are Bengali Kaysthas, Rajputs,
Portuguese Sailors and Afghan Muslims. There was a sizable number of Kuki and Arakaneese soldiers in his army. Also Patapaditya had several Afghan officers
in his service, including Jamal Khan, the son of Katlu Khan and Khwaja Kamal.His chief of strategic warfare was a Brahmin called Rudraditya Upadhyaya.
Rudraditya was married to Pratapaditya's niece Baisakhi Devi. The frontiers of the capital were managed by Rudraditya. He also employed many Portuguese
officers during his battles against Mughals. Being quite familiar with the terrain of his kingdom and the frequent raids by the Portuguese and Arakanese pirates
along the coast of the Bay of Bengal, a military genius of the like of Pratapaditya could have ignored the need of a strong naval fleet only at his own peril. Most of
the Bara Bhuiyans of the time were well equipped in naval warfare and Pratapaditya was no exception. Historian Radhakumud Mookerjee observed thus: But
by far the most important seat of Hindu maritime power of the times in Bengal was that established at Chandikhan or Saugor island by the constructive genius of
Pratapaditya, the redoubtable ruler of Jessore. Numbers of men-of-war were always to be found ready for battle and in a seaworthy condition at that naval station.
There were also three other places where Pratap built his shipyards and dockyards: these were Dudhali, Jahajaghata and Chakasri, where his ships were built
repaired and kept. These men-of-wars were usually made of timber, abundant in the mangroves of Sundarbans. Some of these vessels had more than 64 oars
and most of them were equipped with artillery. There were several classes of vessels in the fleet, namely, Piara, Mahalgiri, Ghurab, Pal, Machoya, Pashat, Dingi,
Gachhadi, Balam, Palwar and Kocha. According to Abdul Latif's travelogue the Jessore fleet consisted of hundreds of war boats. According to Dutch historian
Jos Gommans, the Mughal fleet consisted of, at maximum about 500 boats, whereas the fleet of Raja Pratapaditya had twice as many.The fleet was initially under
the command of Bengali officers, but later Portuguese officers were entrusted with the duty. Pratapaditya was as much known as a benevolent monarch as much
as he was known for his military exploits. The patron deity of Jessore was Jashoreshwari. According to popular legend, one morning a general of the king,
discovered a ray of light emanating from a nearby forest. When he was informed, he went to investigate the source of the light rays. Deep inside the jungle he
found an idol of Mother Kali, that was emitting the light. He at once realized that it was the idol of the patron deity, the protector of his kingdom and his people.
So he brought the idol to his capital and constructed a temple so that she may be worshiped by the faithful. Pratapaditya built a bath at Bangshipur. It was six
domed structure two big and four small domes called hammamkhana. At that time the mangroves of the Sundarbans constituted a much larger area than what
it is now. When Srihari's father Bhabananda founded Jessore, forest land had to be reclaimed for fortification and human settlement. But during Pratapaditya
forest land was successfully reclaimed for agriculture as well. Indigenous communities like the Mundas and the Bawalis were settled in the Sunderbans. He also
invited eligible Brahmins, Kayasthas and Vaidyas to settle in Jessore. Shibnath Shastri's ancestors who hailed from South India were invited by the king to settle in
the kingdom.Pratapaditya was a patron of literature, music and fine arts. He patronized many artists, poets and learned men in his court. The Dhali or 'shield
dance' is a folk dance that originated and developed during the reign of Pratapaditya. It is believed that after winning a grueling battle, the fatigued soldiers of the
king's army began dancing with their swords in the spirit of contentment, and to prepare themselves for the next war.

Bhurshut
Bhurshut was an ancient and medieval kingdom spread across what are now Howrah and Hooghlydistricts in the Indian state of West Bengal.
[1]
Bhurshut
kingdom grew up in the southern parts of Rarh region. It had a high concentration of Bhurisresthis, a community of traders and as such came to be called
Bhurshut. However, it was possibly the main centre of Rarhi Brahmins. It could have been ruled by a Sur king during the period when the Pala Empire was a
rising force. Different feudatory kings may have ruled over the kingdom. At a later time there is mention in folklore of a Dhibar dynasty, possibly in the 14th
15th century. Subsequently the area came to be ruled by a Brahmin family. Shanibhangar, the last Dhibar king of Burshut, was defeated by Chaturanan Neogi of
Garh Bhawanipur. Chaturanans grandson (by his daughter) Krishna Roy of the Mukhti royal family of Phulia took over the reins and established the Brahmin
dynasty of Bhurshut. Krishna Roy ruled in 158384, at a time when Akbar was the Mughal emperor. Krishna Roys great-grandson Pratap Narayan Roy (ruled
around 16521684) was the greatest of Bhurshut kings. There is mention about the exemplary bravery of a lady of the family, popularly referred to as Roy
Baghini, but it is difficult to identify the person. She is probably named Bhabashankari. In Ain-i-Akbari it is mentioned that amongst the thirty-one mahals under
Sirkar Suleimanabad, the highest revenue was earned by Basandhari pargana, followed by Bhurshut. No other pargana under Sirkar Satgaon or Sirkar Mandaran
earned so much revenue. Bhurshut was conquered by Kirtichand Rai of Bardhaman in the 18th century. Bhushut kingdom had three forts at Garh Bhabanipur,
Pandua (Pedo or Pedo Basantapur) and Rajbalhat. There is hardly any trace of these forts, There still is a place called Dihi Bhurshut in Howrah district, across
the Damodar from Rajbalhat. Bharatchandra Ray, Raygunakar, 18th-century Bengali poet, hailed from Pedo Bhurshut and possibly belonged to the ruling
family of Bhurshut kingdom.
List of Kings of Bhurishrestha (Burshut)
Shanibhangar was the last Dhibar king of Burshut in late 15th century. He was defeated by Chaturanan Neogi of Garh Bhawanipur.
Shivanarayan was the ruler of Bhurishrestha in the first half 16th century.
Rudranarayan was the ruler of Bhurishrestha in the second half 16th century, who consolidated and expanded the kingdom and converted it into one of the
most powerful Hindu kingdoms of the time. He broke the traditional alliance with the Pathan sultans ofGaur and struck new alliance with the Hindu kingdom
of Orissa and accounted for the downfall of the Pathan regime in Bengal. Rudranaryanborn was the only child of Maharaja Shivanarayan. Rudranarayan was a
supremely skilled swordsman. While a prince, he used to assist his father in managing the affairs of the State. Maharaja Shivanarayan entrusted the royal duties to
his able successor and engaged himself in spiritual activities. After his father died, he acceded the throne of Bhurishrestha. As a ruler he first united the two
houses of Pendo and Dogachhia. After that Rudranarayan concentrated on consolidating his control over south western Bengal and large parts of it were brought
under the flag of Bhurishrestha. The domain of the kingdom included the present districts of Howrah, Hooghly, East Midnapore, major part of West Midnapore
and south western part of Burdwan. He organized the navy. Several men-of-war were stationed in Damodar and Ron. He had garrisoned troops at Tamluk,
Amta, Uluberia, Khanakul, Chhaunapur and Naskardanga. After consolidating his position, he concentrated on consolidating a Hindu confederacy to counter
the rising Pathan sultanate of Gaur and approached the Hindu kingdoms of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa then under Gajapati Mukundadeva. He struck an alliance
with Gajapati Mukunda Deva, the ruler of the Kalinga (Odisha, Andhra,Bihar and southern Bengal). In 1565, Mukunda Deva accepted the suzerainty
of Akbar and agreed to attack Sulaiman Karrani, the Pathanler of Gaur, in case he revolted against the Mughal emperor. The combined forces of Bhurishrestha
and Orissa, met the Pathan forces at Tribeni. A heavy battle ensued and the Pathan forces were completely routed. Rajiv Lochan Ray, the general of Gajapati
Mukundadeva and the commander-in-chief, of the combined forces showed remarkable valour and bravery. He had literally annihilated the Moslem army.
Owing to this victory Gajapati Mukundadeva wrested the control of Saptagram. He built a temple at Tribeni at a ghat at Gajagiri on the banks of Ganga. After the
defeat in the Battle of Tribeni, Sulaiman Karrani was forced to make peace. He realized that he would never be able to conquer Bhurishrestha unless he could
defeat Rajiv Lochan Ray, the general of Gajapati Mukundadeva in the battlefield, which was next to impossible. So he invited him to his palace and trapped him
into a love affair with his daughter. He offered Rajiv Lochan Ray to convert to Islam to which the wily general conuter-offered to convert his daughter
to Hinduism and marry her. However, Gajapati Mukunda Deva was opposed to such a matrimonial alliance and in accordance to the prevailing practices of
Hinduism, decreed that neither Rajiv nor his sons would be allowed to enter the premises of Puri Jagannath temple. Enraged, Rajiv Lochan Ray vowed to take
revenge of this insult and destroy the Jagannath temple at Puri. Hence he converted and married Karrani's daughter taking the name ofKalapahad (Black Hill).
He led the Moslem Afghan army and attacked Orissa defeated Mukundadeva and sacked major towns and religious places including Hijli, Cuttack, Jajpur,
Sambalpur, Konark, Ekamrakhsetra, Puri etc. in 1568. Legend has it that ultimately Kalapahad was drowned in the river by Devi Samaleshwari in Sambalpur,
Orissa. In reality, not much is known as to the real reasons for the death of Kalapahad. He may have been killed by certain remnants of the Gajapati's army while
returning to Suleiman Karrani. On account of Kalapahad's conversion, Rudranarayan broke Bhurishrestha's traditional alliance with the Sultanate of Gaur. After
the demise of Sulaiman Karrani, Daud Khan Karranipersuaded Rudranarayan for help against the Mughals, but in vain. After him, Kotlu Khan once again
approached him for help, but he refused. At this Kotlu Khan decided to attack Bhurishrestha. But intimidated by the might of Bhurishrestha's army and navy, he
decided to attack the kingdom from the west. When the news reached Akbar, that the Pathan forces were marching towards Bengal, he dispatched an army of
5000 cavalry under the leadership of Jagat Singh, the son of Man Singh. He sent emissaries to the courts of Bhurishrestha and Bishnupur inviting an alliance.
Kotlu Khan first tried to intimidate the Garhnayak of Mandaran and win him to his side. When he failed, he attacked the fort. Jagat Singh, who had arrived
in Jehanabad, attacked Kotlu Khan from the west. The troops of Bishnupur attacked from the north and the soldiers of Bhurishrestha attacked from the east. In
the battle, the commander of the fort and Kotlu Khan was killed. Jagat Singh was severely injured. He was saved from Pathan general Osman Khan and carried
to Bishnupur and nursed. Osman Khan the Pathan general fled with his troops to Orissa.
Krishna Roy was the king of Burshut around 1583/1584. He was from Mukhti royal family of Phulia and took over the reins and established the Brahmin
dynasty of Bhurshut. Krishna Roy ruled in 158384, at a time when Akbar was the Mughal emperor. Krishna Roys great-grandson Pratap Narayan Roy (ruled
around 16521684) was the greatest of Bhurshut kings.
Bhavashankari was the ruler of Bhurishrestha Kingdom in late 16th century and early 17th century, who defeated the Pathan resurgence in Bengal and again
established Hindu sovereignty. Bhavashankari in her reign brought power, prosperity and grandeur to Bhurishrestha (Bhurshut). Bhavashankari came from
a Brahmin family. Her father Dinanath Chaudhuri was a Nayak under the commander of the Pendo fort. Dinanath was a tall and well-built soldier, supremely
skilled in the art of warfare. He himself commanded a troop of more than thousand soldiers. He held a huge estate and encouraged his subjects to get themselves
trained in warfare. Dinanath was considered among the respected nobilities of Bhurishrestha. Bhavashankari was born in Pendo, the first of two children of
Dinanath. When she was young, her mother died while giving birth to her younger brother. While her brother was brought up by a foster mother, she spent her
girlhood in the company of her father. From an early age, her father began to train her in horse riding, swordsmanship and archery. She was also dressed up in
military armour and accompany her father on horseback. She grew up into a brave young soldier of Bhurishrestha. Then she took lessons in war, diplomacy,
politics, sociology,philosophy and theology. In her youth Bhavashankari used to go for hunting in the forest adjoining Damodar and Ron. Once while hunting a
deer, she was attacked by wild bisons and she single handedly killed them. At that time the Rudranarayan, the king of Bhurishrestha was passing by in a sip along
the Damodar towards Kasthasangara. The sight of a young woman killing a wild buffalo with a spear enthralled him. The royal marriage between Rudranarayan
and Bhavashankari was fixed by royal priest Haridev Bhattacharya. Bhavashankari had initially resolved that, she would marry him who would defeat her
in swordfight. However, as it was not possible for the king to engage in a mock swordfight with a commoner, she had to change her resolve. She proposed that the
king shall have tosacrifice a pair of water buffaloes and a sheep in a single stroke in front of Rajballavi, the patron deity of Bhurishrestha along with
her.Rajbalhat the old capital was named after the Hindu Goddess - Rajbalhavi Devi. After marriage, Bhavashankari moved to the newly built palace on Damodar,
just outside the fort of Garh Bhawanipur. As the king's consort, she began to assist in the king in his royal duties. She took special interest in the military
administration of the State. She regularly paid visits to the trainee soldiers and made arrangements for upgradation and modernization of the military
infrastructures. She began to encourage each and every subject to undergo military training. Gradually she made conscription compulsory in Bhurishrestha. She
built new garrison fortresses along the boundaries of Bhurishrestha and renovated the existing ones. The kuladevata of the Bharadwaj dynasty of Bhurishrestha
was Rajvallabhi, an incarnation of Chandi and her statue was made ofashtadhatu. Bhavashankari used to worship her and once made a wish that no man would
ever be able to defeat her in a battle. After fasting for two days, her prayer was finally heard on the third day and her wish was granted. Jayadurga blessed her with
her own strength and gave her a sword that lay at the bottom of the lake near the royal palace at Garh Bhawanipur. Full of devotion, Bhavashankari accepted the
sword while taking a bath in the lake. Bhavashankari's Kuldevi Chandi is now the patron Goddess of entire Howrah district as Melai Chandi of Amta & Betai
Chandi of Betai (Betor) in Howrah. She built a temple just outside the bordering moat of the fortress at Chhaunapur, near Tarakeshwar. The temple was
connected to the adjoiningfort by an underground tunnel. Apart from serving as an escape route it served as her temporary residence when she made
administrative visits to the fort. She also built a Bhavani temple in the village of Bashuri. During this period, Bhurishrestha began to prosper in agriculture and
trade. Indigenous industries like handloom textiles and metal works flourished. She also built the Temples of Devi Chandi at Amta, now the patron Goddess of
entire Howrah district where Amta is situated. Soon Bhavashankari gave birth to prince Pratapnarayan. King Rudranarayan granted land and gold to the scholars
and silvers, garments and food. Rudranarayan, however, died when Pratapnarayan was only five. Bhavashankari attempted to commit sati, but she was persuaded
by the royal priest to act otherwise. However, she took a break from the affairs of the State to lead a life of a brahmacharini, for a period of three months. The
Kingdom of Bhurishrestha was mostly neutral during rule of the Pathan Nawabs of Gaur & Pandua. However, on account of the conversion of Kalapahad by
the Karranis, Rudranarayan started making extensive war preparations in anticipation of a possible invasion. After being defeated by the Mughals, the Pathans of
Bengal took refuge in Orissa. From their base in Orissa, the Pathans under the leadership of Osman Khan were planning to invade Bengal once again.
Bhavashankari entrusted the affairs of the State with Durlabh Dutta, the revenue minister and Chaturbhuj Chakravarti, the commander-in-chief of the armed
forces and left for the Shiva temple at Kastasangrah along with prince Pratapnarayan, accompanied with her most trusted femalebodyguards. She however used to
remain in clad in war attire throughout most part of the day and carried her sword and firearm with her. At the temple, the Lord was being worshipped every
day; Brahmins, monks and beggars were being fed and Shiva kirtan was being held every evening. Bhavashankari used to engage herself in Shiva sadhana every
night, when she meditated alone inside the temple, with only a handful ofbodyguards outside. In the meanwhile, Chaturbhuj Chakravarti entered into a secret
pact with Pathan general Osman Khan, where he along with his forces would join the Pathan forces in a battle against the Mughals and upon the Pathan victory
he would become the new ruler of Bhurishrestha. The Pathan forces, fed with intelligence inputs from Chaturbhuj Chakravarti, set out to capture Bhavashankari
and her son alive. Osman Khan himself, along with twelve of his well trained, experienced and most trusted soldiers infiltrated into the territory of Bhurishrestha
in the guise of Hindu monks. Another contingent of 200 Pathan soldiers would follow them in disguise. However, Osman's advanced forces were spotted
at Amta and as the news reached the queen, she summoned a detachment of 200 guards from the nearest garrison. At nightfall, she put on svetapatta over her
armoured attire and engaged herself in worship. Her female bodyguards took guard outside the temple and the soldiers spread themselves along the jungles. The
battle ensued when one of the Pathan soldier tried to enter the temple complex by breaching the security. The female bodyguards swung into action and
a swordfight ensued. Soon the royal guards joined the fight. The Pathans were miserably defeated and as they tried to escape, the royal guards chased and killed
them. The second detachment of Pathan mercenaries were killed by the warrior monks of the Shaiva akhara in the nearby jungles in the wee hours. Osman fled.
Bhavashankari returned to the capital early next morning and assumed control of the affairs of the State. In absence of hard evidence, she couldn't try Chaturbhuj
Chakravarti, she instead demoted him in the pretext of security breach. Raja Bhupati Krishna Ray, the commander of the Pendo fort, was promoted to the post
of Sarbadhinayak, the commander-in-chief of the armed forces. Apart from that she took immediate steps to strengthen the army in terms of numbers as well as
infrastructure. She herself took the responsibility of their training. At that time Bhavashankari frequently visited the Chhaunapur fort named after Chhauni or
Cantonment. During her visits she used to visit the Bhavani temple at the nearby Bashuri village at least once. Her official coronation was also to be held at the
temple according to Tantric rites. Golok Chattopadhayay, an eminent practitioner of Tantra was to preside over the coronation ceremony. In the meanwhile,
the Pathans regrouped and once again bought Chaturbhuj. The latter declined to directly join the Pathan forces against the Queen, but assured of sabotage.
Osman Khan and Chaturbhuj conspired to capture Bhavashankari on the night of her coronation, when she would be guarded only by a few of her
female bodyguards. Accordingly, Osman led a contingent of five hundred Pathan soldiers andinfiltrated into Bhurishrestha territory. After travelling throughout
the night, they camped in a jungle near Khanakul on the morning of the D-Day. The Pathan army was spotted in the jungle by Kalu Chandal, a hunter, who
reported it to the police at Khanakul. The officer in duty immediately dispatched a Dandanayak with the news to Garh Bhawanipur. At that time Raja Bhupati
Krishna Ray was away at Pendo fort, and the acting commander Chaturbhuj dismissed the incident as a false alarm. The Dandanayak not impressed with
Chaturbhuj's complacency, dispatched the news to Pendo. In the afternoon, Chaturbhuj advanced with his forces towards Khanakul. In the evening he sent a
message to Osman Khan, suggesting him to launch the attack towards the end of the night. The Pathans emboldened by Chaturbhuj's support started moving
towards Bashuri, crossing the Damodar near Pursurah. After the coronation ceremony was over, she received a message from Raja Bhupati Krishna Ray,
updating her on the recent developments. She immediately deployed the troops from Chhaunapur, Basdingagarh, Lashkardanga and the female battalion. An
elephant brigade of 100, a cavalry of 500 and an infantry of 500 readied for the battle. The royal advisor Haridev Bhattacharya arranged irregulars from the
local Bagdi and Chandal population. On the other hand Raja Bhupati Krishna Ray led the troops from Pendo and Dogachhia to confront the renegade battalion
of Chaturbhuj Chakravarti. As the Pathan forces approached they were cornered into a battle ground surrounded with trenches on the three sides. The Pathan
forces initially mistook the Bhurishrestha army as the renegade army of Chaturbhuj. In the resulting confusion, they lost the initial edge. Osman tried desperately
to turn on the tables but in vain. Bhavashankari herself led the battle atop an elephant, and armed with her hand cannon Rudragnishakti she accounted for a
sizeable Pathan casualty. The superior warfare skills of Bhurishrestha soldiers coupled with the strategic advantage, led them to victory. Osman Khan, wounded
and defeated, fled the battle ground. After a lot of hardship he reached Orissa in the guise of afakir. Mughal emperor Akbar, who was always wary of a Pathan
resurgence in Bengal, decided to strengthen the alliance with Bhurishrestha. He sent Man Singh, the then governor ofBengal to the court of Bhurishrestha as the
representative of the Mughal Empire. Man Singh arrived at Garh Bhawanipur with the Mughal seal. In a special ceremony, the charter of alliance was signed
between the Kingdom of Bhurishrestha and the Mughal Empire. Through this treaty, the sovereignty of Bhurishrestha was formally accepted by the Mughal
empire. The treaty required the former to send a gold coin, a goat and a blanket to the latter as a token of alliance. Maharani Bhavashankari was bestowed with
the title ofRaybaghini and the Mughals never ever interfered with her Kingdom of Bhurshut.
[6]
Two years after prince and heir apparent Pratapnarayan's marriage,
the queen abdicated her throne in favour of the prince. She however, acted as the supervisor and mentor to her successor son. Few years later when
Pratapnarayan began to prove his ability as a ruler, she handed over to him all the other royal duties and retired to a spiritual life. She left forKashi and spent the
rest of her life there. Maharani Bhavashankari became famous by her title Raibaghini, who gradually came to denote a courageous or sometimes rebellious
woman and became a part of Bengali proverb. Her story of valour became a part of folklore and were immortalized by ballads and village poets.
Pratapnarayan (Bengali: ) was the king of Bhurishrestha in the first half 17th century who patronized literature and art. His mostly
peaceful reign was devoted towards the welfare of his subjects. Bhurishrestha once again flourished in arts & culture and trade & commerce. Pratapnarayan was
the only child of Rudranarayan and Bhavashankari. His father died when he was just five years of age. Pratapnarayan's initial task was to unite the houses of
Pendo and Dogachhia. These forts were under the command of two branches of the royal family. He acquired much of their estates and reduced some of their
powers. Under a new agreement, they were required to pay a fourth of their income as revenue.
[1]
By the beginning of the 17th century, Saptagram had lost its
importance and Hooghly emerged as the new centre of trade and commerce. The Portuguese traders based in Hooghly had become so much influential that they
began to interfere in the external trade of Bhurishrestha. Pratapnarayan, however, didn't allow them trading rights within the kingdom. During his reign,
Lakshman Sinha, an ambitious Sadgop acquired the estate of Bhanjabhum in Medinipurbhukta. But his brother Shyam Sinha conspired with the Pathans, killed
his brother and usurped the throne. At that time the grandsons of Lakshman Sinha, namely Chhattu Ray, Raghunath Ray and Durgadas Ray approached
Pratapnarayan for help. They enrolled in the armed forces and by their dedication and hard work, rose to high ranks. Then with the help of the army, they
recovered their estate from the tyrant Shyam Sinha. He entrusted the daily worship of Rudreshwar (Shiva) with a Brahmin named Nigamananda Chakravarti,
who was selected by the royal priest. An estate of 100 bighas were granted for the upkeep of the temple. Apart from this he granted numerous brahmottar estates
to the Brahmins in the presents districts of Howrah, Hooghly and Burdwan. According to his mother's last wishes, Pratapnarayan established the temple of
Kashinath or Vishwanath (Shiva). Later he also established Bhuvaneshwari and Abhaya, both incarnations of Chandi and both according to Tantric traditions.
According to Vaishnava tradition he established Gajalakshmi. Later he erected a two-storeyed temple in Rekh Deul style and housed the idols established by the
royal family within the sanctum sanctorum of the temple. He is also credited with starting the annual Durga Puja in the kingdom. Pratapnarayan was a patron of
art and culture. Bharat Mallik, the 17th century grammarian and commentator used to adorn his court. He composed Ratnaprabha and Chandraprabha. His
commentaries include those on Kalidas's Raghuvamsa and Meghaduta. Ramdas Adak composed the epic Anadimangal. Pratapnarayan established a Sanskrit
school at Krishnanagar near Khanakul. Later it became a centre for the studies on Nyaya. The village of Pratapnarayanpur in present Howrah district bears the
legacy of his peaceful and prosperous rule.
Naranarayan (Bengali: ) was the king of Bhurishrestha from 1652 until around 1684 who maintained the integrity and sovereignty of the
kingdom by diplomatically averting the occupation of the kingdom by the Mughal forces. Naranarayan ascended the throne of Bhurishrestha when he was well
past his prime. At that time Aurangzeb was the Mughal emperorand Shaista Khan was the governor of Bengal. At that time the British East India Company was
making heavy inroads into the delta and Naranarayan's first task was to strengthen the security of the kingdom. He erected temporary forts on both sides of
the Damodar, near the confluence of Damodar and Bhagirathi, and garrisoned his troops there.
[1]
He enhanced the patrol at the watch towers erected by
Pratapnarayan. Prince Lakshminarayan assumed the role of the commander-in-chief of the armed forces of Bhurishrestha. TheMughal governor Shaista
Khan approached Naranarayan for help against the British. Naranarayan agreed and temporary Mughaloutposts and watch towers were established at Bargachhia,
Krishnanagar near Khanakul and Dilakash, on the Ron. Bhurishrestha, however, remained unaffected during the course of the Mughal-British conflict. In the
meanwhile, Krishnaram Ray, a Punjabi Khatri merchant obtained the zamindari of Burdwan and few other estates in 1689. But he began to forcefully
collect taxes from the northern regions of Bhurishrestha. Naranarayan sent him an official warning regarding the infringement upon the sovereignty of
Bhurishrestha. When the warning went unheeded, Naranarayan dispatched the army under the command of prince Lakshminarayan to subdue Krishnaram. In
the ensuing battle Krishnaram not only lost much of his resources including men and money, he was forced pay a huge indemnity. Like his father, Naranarayan
too was a charitable ruler. He grants huge brahmottar properties to the branch of the royal family based at Pendo. In 1684, he granted Maniray Giri Goswami,
the priest of the Maninath Shiva temple a debatra of 101 bighas. During hisdeeksha, he granted the royal guru, the village of Senpur as pranami and more than
50 bighas of tax free lands. He made a total of more than hundred debottar and brahmottar grants.
[4]
Naranarayan, like his illustrious father, too was a patron of
art and culture. Under his patronage a commentary on Virata Parva and the story of Nachiketa as mentioned in the Katha Upanishad of Krishna Yajurveda were
compiled and rewritten. These two works were significant because they were required during the sraddha ceremony. The other works composed during his times
were few smritis andagamas.
Lakshminarayan (Bengali: ) was the last ruler of Bhurishrestha from 1690s until 1712. When he was the prince, he had defeated and
humiliated Krishnaram Ray, the ruler of Bardhaman in a battle. The latter was subsequently killed by a rebellious feudatory called Shobha Singh, who killed
most of Krishnaram's family as well. However one of his grandsons Kirtichand Ray later rose into prominence and earned the favour of Murshid Quli Khan.
With the latter's active patronage he conspired to annex Bhurishresthawhile Lakshminarayan was away from the capital. Lakshminarayan returned to fight
valiantly against Kirtichand, but failed to maintain the sovereignty of the kingdom due to sabotage from within. While he was a young prince he rose to the
position of commander-in-chief of the armed forces. He was a great soldier and a skilled archer. When Krishnaram Ray infringed upon the territory
of Bhurishrestha, he led the royal forces against him. He showed remarkable bravery in the battle and defeated Krishnaram Ray. Lakshminarayan ascended the
throne of Bhurishrestha some time between 1690 and 1695, after Naranarayan died. The Mughal empire was on the decline, the law and order situation in the
province of Bengal was worsening under the governorship of Ibrahim Khan. Taking advantage of the situation in the mid of 1695, Shobha Singh, the zamindar of
Chetua-Borda revolted against the Mughal empire and began to annex the neighbouring estates. He became so powerful, that he decided to attack Bardhaman.
Krishnaram, sensing danger, pleaded Lakshminarayan for help. But the latter, irritated with Krisharam's activities and allegiance to the Mughals refused any kind
of help and instead allowed Shobha Singh to pass through the Bhurishrestha territory and attack Burdwan. Krishnaram was killed in the conflict. Shobha Singh
sacked Bardhaman and took Krishnaram's family members as hostages. After Murshid Quli Khan became the Naib Nazim of Bengal, he adopted a policy of
expansion by which he planned to bring the independent Hindu states like Bhurishrestha and Bishnupur under the standard of Islam. Kirtichand Ray, the
successor to Krishnaram's son Jagatram was close to Murshid Quli Khan and he was entrusted with the conquest of Bhurishrestha. Kirtichand conspired with
Rajvallabh, the younger brother of Sadashiva, the garhnayak of Pendo to overthrow the kingdom. Rajvallabh managed to get the diwanRadhavallabh Datta on his
side with promises of promotions and other benefits. They were waiting for the opportune moment to wreck the kingdom with a sabotage from within. Soon,
Lakshminarayan made plan to perform puja at the Bargabhima temple at Tamluk along with his wife. At that time Rajavallabh engineered a rumour that a band
of Bargis were approaching Bhurishrestha and were joined by ferocious dacoits from Telengana. Lakshminarayan deployed his troops to Tamluk leaving the
capital under the command of Radhavallabh. In the meantime, Rajvallabh led the forces of Kritichand into the kingdom accompanied by the forces of the
Mughalfaujdar of Hooghly. After capturing the forts of Chhaunapur and Naskardanga, their combined troops surrounded Garh Bhavanipur. Bamacharan
Paladhi, the kotwal held the fort for two days before being killed by an insider. His wife Veermati manned the defence after his death, before being martyred.
Lakshminarayan returned with the troops and a heavy battle ensued. Kirtichand's forces had taken control of most of the fort and drove the advantage to victory.
Lakshminarayan fled with the royal family to Chandrakona. Lakshminarayan like his father was a patron of art and culture. In 1705, he erected the temple of
Gopinath Jiu in Garh Bhavanipur. He granted the village of Bally to the royal priest Ram Kishor. The village of Lakshminarayanpur in Howrah bears the legacy
of his rule.

Kingdom of Sitaram
Kingdom of Sitaram was short-lived sovereign Hindu dominion in Bengal. Kingdom of Sitaram was founded Raja Sitaram Ray (Bengali: )
(16581714) autonomous king, a vassal to the Mughal Empire, who revolted against the Empire and established a short-lived sovereign Hindu dominion
in Bengal. Sitaram's kingdom extended from the northern banks of Padma to the Bay of Bengal in the south. The kingdom constituted of two distinct regions
the densely populated urbansettlements to the north of the Bhairab River and the sparsely populated agricultural estates to the south of the Bhairab. The
northern portion extended from Pabna in the north to Bhairab in the south and from Mahmudshahi pargana in the west to Telihati pargana in the east. The
southern portion extended from Bhairab in the north to Bay of Bengal in the south, and from river Pashar in the west to Barisal in the east. The kingdom
consisted of 44 parganas and its annual revenue amount to more than one crore. When Azim-us-Shan became the subahdar of Bengal, he made his close relative
Mir Abu Torap the faujdar of Bhusna. Although his primary duty was to keep Sitaram under check, he unleashed a reign of terror upon arriving at Bhusna. He
forced the tax defaulters to convert to Islam. When Sitaram learned of such punitive measures, he resolved not to pay a penny to the Mughal treasury. Abu
Torap sent a contemptful reminder explaining to him the consequences.
King of Sitaram Kingdom
Raja Sitaram Ray (Bengali: ) (16581714) was an autonomous king of Naldi, Satair and the Bhati region of lower Bengal from 1688 until
his death on October 1714, a vassal to the Mughal Empire, who revolted against the Empire and established a short-lived sovereign Hindu dominion in Bengal.
Sitaram came from the Kashyap Das clan, one of the nine clans that constitute the Uttar Rarhi Kayasthas. The clan was settled in the Fatehsingh region
of Murshidabad. Ramdas Khan Gajdani, who became famous in the early 15th century by donating a golden elephantat his mother's sraddha, belonged to this
family. His son, Anantaram Das, was an official in Delhi. After him, the next few generations fell into penury. The family rose again when Sriram Das gained the
title of Khas Biswas from Man Singh, the then Mughal governor of Bengal. His son, Harish Chandra Das, rose to further prominence and obtained the title
of Rai Raiyan from the Mughals. Harish Chandra's son Udaynarayan, the father of Sitaram rose to the post of a tehsildar under the faujdar of Bhusna. When
Udaynarayan was posted at the Rajmahal, the capital of Bengal, he married Dayamayi, the daughter of a Kayastha Ghosh family of Mahipatipur in Katwa. Sitaram
was born in Mahipatipur, the first child of Udaynarayan and Dayamayi in 1658, some time beforeAurangzeb ascended to the throne at Delhi. Sitaram's mother
was a brave woman. In her girlhood, she had fended off a band of dacoitswith a khadga. When Mir Jumla transferred the capital back to Dhaka in 1660,
Udaynarayan also moved to Dhaka. At that time, he did not bring his family with him. Shaista Khan became the governor of Bengal in 1664. At that time,
Udaynarayan rose to the post of tehsildar and shifted to Bhusna. After a few years, he built a residence at Hariharanagar near the banks of Madhumati and
brought his family there. Sitaram spent his childhood at his maternal uncle's home at Katwa. At school, he learned Sanskrit and, though Bengali was not taught at
the chatuspathis, he studied it at home. He could recite Chandidas and Jaydev, and had very good handwriting. As he began to grow up, he had to learn Persian,
the official language of the Mughal Empire. Later, when he arrived at Bhusna, he picked up Urdu, during interactions with the Muslims. In his childhood, he also
learned how to wield a lathi, and learned horse riding and fencing after arriving at Hariharanagar. While he was growing up, Sitaram used to frequent Dhaka,
the provincial capital of Bengal. Shaista Khan was very impressed with his courage and work. At that time, a Pathan rebel named Karim Khan was wreaking
havoc in the pargana of Satair. The Mughal faujdarhad failed to suppress him and Shaista Khan wondered how to crush the rebellion. When Sitaram came
forward to subdue the rebel, the governor sent him on the mission with a few thousand infantry and cavalry. Sitaram fought valiantly and Karim Khan was
killed.Shaista Khan, very impressed with the success, rewarded Sitaram with the jagir of Naldi pargana. After obtaining the jagir, Sitaram concentrated on building
an army. At Dhaka, he became acquainted with a soldier of fortune named Ramrup Ghosh, who accompanied him on the mission against Karim Khan. Ramrup
was not only a great soldier, but also an accomplished strongman, well versed in wrestling. He was popularly known as Mena Hati, for he had killed a small
elephant with his bare hands. Ramrup became the chief of Sitaram's army. Two other generals were Rupchand Dhali and Fakira Machhkata. Bakhtar Khan,
a Pathan dacoit, and Amal Baig, aMughal soldier, also joined his ranks. After the death of Shah Jahan, the Mughal battle for succession left the province in
turmoil. Lawlessness was rampant. Naldi was infested with dacoits and Sitaram had overcome them in order to restore order to the troubled pargana. Soon,
the dacoity was suppressed and Sitaram became the saviour of the masses, after which he began to be compared to the village deity Nishanath. Sitaram built his
residence in the village of Suryakunda, where the erstwhile revenue office was also located. Garrisons were set up both at Suryakunda and Hariharanagar. His
father was still stationed at Bhusna and he visited him regularly. At this time, he added some talukas of Satair to his jagir. Around 1684, Sitaram's parents died in
quick succession. After the sraddha, he went on a pilgrimage to Gaya. His secretary, Muniram Ray, and principal aide, Ramrup Ghosh, accompanied him. The
affairs of the jagir were entrusted to his younger brother Lakshmi Narayan. After completing the ceremonial rites at Gaya, he travelled to the Mughal court at
Delhi and made a plea for vassal rule under the empire. In 1688, he was granted the title of Raja and additionally granted the right of Southern Bengal extending
into the Sunderbans. In the same year, Sitaram was ceremonially sworn in as the king of Naldi, Satair and the Bhati region of lower Bengal. Although he had
become a king, he had no capital. Therefore, he constructed a fortified capital at Mohammadpur, near Suryakunda. Mohammadpur was guarded on three sides
by bils and on the east by Madhumati. The fort was square, with each side not less than 1,300 feet (400 m), built of earthen bricks and surrounded by a moat.
Beyond the fort were natural and artificial water bodies for protection. To the north and east was the Kaliganga River. To the west were the bils and Chhatravati
river. To the east was Madhumati. In the south, Sitaram constructed a moat extending from east to west, measuring almost a mile in length and 200 feet (61 m) in
width. Inside the fort, Sitaram set up garrisons and built residences, temples and tanks. He encouraged craftsmen and merchants to set up businesses
at Mohammadpur, and soon it became a thriving metropolis abuzz with trade and commerce. Sitaram added new recruits to the army and added
an artillery division. His two famous cannons, Kale Khan and Jhumjhum Khan, were commissioned during this time. After the demise of Satrajit Ray, the son of
Mukundaram Ray and one of the Bara Bhuiyans of Bengal in 1636, the royal family diminished in stature. Kalinarayan Ray, the son of Satrajit, was a zamindar of
the small parganas of Rupapat, Poktani, Rukanpur & Kachuberia taraf of Naldi pargana under the chakla of Bhusna. During Sitaram's reign, the minor sons of
Kalinarayan's grandson Krishna Prasad were the zamindars. Sitaram annexed this small feudatory into his kingdom. To the west of Satrajitpur lay the pargana of
Mahmudshahi, at the time under the zamindari of Naldanga. When Sitaram invaded Mahamudshahi, Ramdev, the zamindar of Naldanga, was forced to cede the
pargana to Sitaram. Later, when Sachipati Majumdar, the zamindar of Nanduali revolted against Ramdev and stopped paying taxes, Sitaram supported him and
made a treaty with him. Sitaram annexed the small zamindars in the north up to the Padma, and even some portions to the north of Padma in the district
of Pabna. Most of these zamindars were underPathan rule. To the north of Satair lay the jagir of a Pathan named Daulat Khan. After his demise, the estate broke
into four parganas Nasibshahi, Nusratshahi, Mahimshahi & Belgachhi. Sitaram invaded Nasibshahi when the battle for succession was taking place among the
sons of Daulat Khan. Sitaram defeated Nasibshahi in the battle of Malanchigram and the battle of Kalikapur. After defeating the other sons of Daulat Khan,
Sitaram annexed all four parganas into his kingdom. The conquest of these Pathan feudatories took place between 1702 and 1704. When Sitaram was away
from Mohammadpur, Manohar Ray, the zamindar of Chanchra, conspired with the Nurullah Khan, the Mughal faujdar of Mirzanagar, to attackMohammadpur.
At that time, the capital was entrusted with his diwan Jadunath Majumdar. The combined forces of Manohar Ray and Nurullah Khan camped at Bunagati.
Jadunath connected the streams of Chitra and Phatki by a canal to check their further advancement and garrisoned his troops and artillery. Manohar Ray, sensing
defeat, made peace with Jadunath and retreated. When Sitaram received the news, he immediately invaded the Ishafpur pargana of Chanchra and advanced with
his troops to Nilganj. Manohar was forced to accept the suzerainty of Sitaram and pay revenue to him. In the Sundarbans, Sitaram's domain lay to the east
of Shibsha river, corresponding to the modern district of Bagerhat. In 1710, when the peasants revolted and stopped paying taxes, he advanced with his troops in
vessels like sip and palwar along the Madhumati towards the south. In the battle of Rampal, he defeated the rebels and annexed the parganas of Churulia and
Madhudiya. Sitaram's kingdom extended from the northern banks of Padma to the Bay of Bengal in the south. The kingdom constituted of two distinct regions
the densely populated urbansettlements to the north of the Bhairab River and the sparsely populated agricultural estates to the south of the Bhairab. The
northern portion extended from Pabna in the north to Bhairab in the south and from Mahmudshahi pargana in the west to Telihati pargana in the east. The
southern portion extended from Bhairab in the north to Bay of Bengal in the south, and from river Pashar in the west to Barisal in the east. The kingdom
consisted of 44 parganas and its annual revenue amount to more than one crore. When Azim-us-Shan became the subahdar of Bengal, he made his close relative
Mir Abu Torap the faujdar of Bhusna. Although his primary duty was to keep Sitaram under check, he unleashed a reign of terror upon arriving at Bhusna. He
forced the tax defaulters to convert to Islam. When Sitaram learned of such punitive measures, he resolved not to pay a penny to the Mughal treasury. Abu
Torap sent a contemptful reminder explaining to him the consequences. Abu Torap, however, did not have a warm relation with Murshid Quli Khan,
the Diwan of Bengal, and Sitaram knew that well. Azim-us-Shan, the subahdar was away in Delhi. His sonFarrukhsiyar the acting governor was more interested in
the developments at Delhi than the affairs of Bengal. The capital of the province was relocated from Dhaka to Patna, so it was difficult for Abu Torap to get any
direct support either from the Diwan or the Subahdar. Therefore, he decided to act on his own. Abu Torap was only a faujdar and, therefore, he had limited
resources at his disposal. Whenever he sent his forces to subdue Sitaram, they were confronted with the archers andRajbangshi soldiers who manned the borders
of Sitaram's kingdom. In 1713, Murshid Quli Khan became the subahdar of Bengal and Abu Torap approached him for help, which he ignored. Abu Torap sent
his troops once again, but Sitaram opted for guerrilla tactics and frustrated the Mughal army in the unfriendly terrain. Unwilling to give up, Abu Torap deputed
his commander-in-chief Pir Khan, a Pathan to subdue Sitaram. The latter had set up his artillery along the banks of Madhumati and garrisoned his troops in the
jungles in the tract between Madhumati and Barasia. Sitaram's troops met the Mughal army in the banks of Barasia. During the battle, the Mughal army was
defeated, and Mir Abu Torap was killed by Mena Hati. Sitaram's army marched forward and captured the fort of Bhusna. Sitaram stationed a section of his army
at Bhusna and put himself at the command of the fort. The Mohammadpur fort was put under the command of Mena Hati. The rest of the army was garrisoned
along the Madhumati. Sitaram knew that the clash with the Mughals was inevitable. Sitaram, therefore, began to strengthen his army and reinforce his artillery. As
the news of Abu Torap's death reached Murshidabad, Murshid Quli Khan immediately appointed his own brother-in-law Bux Ali Khan as the new faujdar of
Bhusna. He notified all the zamindars to assist the faujdar in subduing Sitaram. Bux Ali Khan was accompanied to Bhusna by Sangram Singh the commander-in-
chief of the provincial army of Bengal. Dayaram Ray, the principal aide of Raghunandan, the founder of the Natore estate, followed them with the zamindar's
army under his command. Bux Ali Khan and Sangram Singh went along the Padma and embarked near Faridpur and then marched to Bhusna. Sitaram too
marched forward with his troops and in the ensuing battle the Mughals were defeated. The Mughal army surrounded the fort of Bhusna and Sitaram sensed that
it would be difficult to hold on to both the forts at Bhusna and Mohammadpur. In the meantime, Dayaram had marched to Mohammadpur with his forces.
Knowing that it would not be easy for him to capture the fort in a direct battle, he conspired and had Mena Hati killed by sabotage, sending his severed head to
Murshidabad. On receiving the news of Mena Hati's death, Sitaram retreated to Mohammadpur with most of his troops. Bux Ali Khan, too, followed him
to Mohammadpur. Sitaram evacuated most of the civilian population from the fort and sent his family to Kolkata. Dayaram and Bux Ali Khan attacked the fort
from the east and the south. After defending the fort for a long time, Sitaram was captured and Mohammadpur fell. Dayaram escorted him in chains to
Murshidabad. At the trial, Sitaram was sentenced to death by Murshid Quli Khan and his relatives were imprisoned for life. His final rites were performed at the
banks of Ganges in Murshidabad. Sitaram constructed a number of water reservoirs in the capital to meet the need of drinking water for the fort, city and the
adjacent villages. The most famous of them was the Ram Sagar, a rectangular lake measuring 2,400 feet (730 m) by 900 feet (270 m). It had a depth of about 20
feet (6.1 m). Even in the summer, it sustained a water level of at least 12 feet (3.7 m). The reservoir was treated to prevent against any algal bloom. Towards the
west of the fort, in the village of Harekrishnapur, Sitaram constructed another lake called Krishna Sagar, measuring 1000 ft by 350 ft. The excavated earth was
used to raise earthen embankments at some clearance around the lake in order to prevent the flood water from contaminating the tank. To the west of Ram
Sagar, towards the beels, Sitaram constructed another tank named Sukh Sagar. It was squarish in shape, with each side about 375 feet (114 m). At the centre,
there was a three-story luxurious palace, which served as the summer retreat for the royal family. Mayurpankhi boats ferried them to the palace in the middle of
the lake. Sitaram came from a Shakta family, and was initiated into Shaktism in his early life. After setting up the capital at Mohammadpur, he erected
a Dashabhuja Temple there. When he visited his father in Bhusna, he used to frequent the Gopinath Jiu akhada. Gradually, he became attracted to Vaishnavism,
becoming a disciple of Krishna Vallabh Goswami ofMurshidabad, who initiated him to the faith. Sitaram erected a pancharatna temple dedicated to Hare
Krishna in the village of Kanainagar to the west of the fort at Mohammadpur. Sitaram married the daughter of a Kayastha resident of Edilpore in Bhusna. She
did not have any children, and very little is known about her. After obtaining the jagir of Naldi, Sitaram married Kamala, the daughter of a Kulin Kayastha, Saral
Khan Ghosh, a resident of Das Palsha village in the district of Birbhum.
[2]
Kamala became his principal wife and, when Sitaram became king, she became the
king's consort. She bore him two sons, Shyamsundar and Surnarayan. Sitaram's third wife came from the village of Patuli, presently under Katwa sub-division
of Burdwan district. Though her name is not known, she bore him two sons, Bamdev and Jaydev. Both sons died in childhood.



Bishnupur Kingdom
Bhishnapur Kingdom was medivial state in present India.From around 7th century AD till around the advent of British rule, for around a millennium, history of
Bankura district is identical with the rise and fall of the Hindu Rajas of Bishnupur. Romesh Chunder Dutt wrote in the late 19th century, The ancient Rajas of
Bishnupur trace back their history to a time when Hindus were still reigning in Delhi, and the name of the Musalmans was not yet heard in India. Indeed, they
could already count five centuries of rule over the western frontier tracts of Bengal before Bakhtiyar Khilji wrested the province from the Hindus. The Musalman
conquest of Bengal, however, made no difference to the Bishnupur princes these jungle kings were little known to the Musalman rulers of the fertile portions of
Bengal, and were never interfered with. For long centuries, therefore, the kings of Bishnupur were supreme within their extensive territories. At a later period of
Musalman rule, and when the Mughal power extended and consolidated itself on all sides, a Mughal army sometimes made its appearance near Bishnupur with
claims of tribute, and tribute was probably sometimes paid. Nevertheless, the Subahdars of Murshidabad, never had that firm hold over the Rajas of Bishnupur
which they had over the closer and more recent Rajaships of Burdwan and Birbhum. As the Burdwan Raj grew in power, the Bishnupur family fell into
decay; Maharaja Kirti Chand of Burdwan attacked and added to his zamindari large slices of his neighbours territories. The Marathas completed the ruin of the
Bishnupur house, which is an impoverished zamindari in the present day. The origins of the Rajas of Bishnupur is somewhat clouded in mystery. All through
the centuries they were acknowledged as the kings of Bagdis. However, the Rajas of Bishnupur and many of their followers have laid claims to their
being Kshatriyas linked to the Kshatriya clans of northern India. The claims seem to have originated or gathered momentum at a later period when assimilation
of the region with the Proto-Indo-Europeans gained firm roots. The Rajas of Bishnupur were also known as Malla kings. Malla is a Sanskrit word
meaning wrestler but there could be some links with the Mal tribes of the area, who had intimate connection with the Bagdis. The area around Bishnupur was
called Mallabhum The core area would cover present day Bankura police station area (excluding Chhatna), Onda, Bishnupur, Kotulpur and Indas. In olden days
the term was used for a much larger area, which probably was the furthest extent of the Bishnupur kingdom. In the north it stretched from Damin-i-
koh in Santhal Parganas to Midnapore in the south. It included the eastern part of Bardhaman and parts of Chota Nagpur in the west. Portions of the district
appear to have been originally the homes of aboriginal tribes, who were gradually subdued. The Khatra region was Dhalbhum, the Raipur region was Tungbhum,
and the Chhatna region was Samantabhum. They were eventually overshadowed by the Malla kings of Bishnupur. There also are references in old scripts to
Varahabhumi or Varabhumi (present day Barabhum) on whose borders run Darikesi river, and Sekhara mountain (probably present day Pareshnath).
List of Kings of the Malla Dynasty of Bishnupur Kingdom
Adi Malla was the founder of the Malla dynasty of Bishnupur Kingdom who reigned from AD 695 until AD 728. There is a story associated with his
beginning. In AD 695, a prince of one of the royal families of northern India made a pilgrimage with his wife to the Jagannath temple at Puri. He halted in the
midst of a great forest at Laugram, 8.4 kilometres (5.2 mi) from Kotulpur. He left his wife who was about to give birth to a child in the care of a Brahmin. The
wife gave birth to a son and they remained back in Laugram. When the child was around 7 years old, he started working as a cowherd. The child started showing
signs of greatness and was ultimately trained as a warrior. When he was 15 years old he had no equal as a wrestler in the territory all around. It was this that
earned him the sobriquet of Adi Malla, the original or unique wrestler. He became a chieftain by the grace of Raja of Padampur, near modern Joypur, 12.8
kilometres (8.0 mi) from Laugram. The Raja made him a grant of Laugram and some villages around it. The veracity of this story is questioned and there are
other versions of this story to back up the Kshatriya links of the Bishnupur kings. Adi Malla ruled in Laugram for 33 years and has been known as the Bagdi
Raja. He was succeeded by his son, Jay Malla, who invaded Padampur and captured the fort, then the power-centre. Jay Malla extended his domains and shifted
his capital to Bishnupur. The subsequent kings steadily extended their kingdom. Among the more renowned are: Kalu Malla, the fourth in line, Kau Malla, the
sixth in line, Jhau Malla, the seventh in line, and Sur Malla, the eighth in line, who defeated the Raja of Bagri, a place now in northern Midnapore. He was
followed by 40 other kings, all of whom were known as Mallas or Mallabaninath, which means lords of Mallabhum or Mallabani. Family records show that they
were independent of foreign powers.
Jay Malla was a King of the Malla Dynasty of Bishnupur Kingdom. He was extended his domains and shifted his capital to Bishnupur. The subsequent kings
steadily extended their kingdom.
Kalu Malla was a King of the Malla Dynasty of Bishnupur Kingdom.
Kau Malla was a King of the Malla Dynasty of Bishnupur Kingdom.
Jhau Malla was a King of the Malla Dynasty of Bishnupur Kingdom.
Sur Malla was a King of the Malla Dynasty of the Bishnupur Kingdom. He was defeated the Raja of Bagri, a place now in northern Midnapore. He was
followed by 40 other kings, all of whom were known as Mallas or Mallabaninath, which means lords of Mallabhum or Mallabani. Family records show that they
were independent of foreign powers.
Veer Hambir, also known as Bir Hambir, was a King of Malla Dynasty of Bishnupur Kingdom in south-western Bengal from 1586 until 1620. He
adopted Vaishnavism as the primary religious sect of his realm. Hambir was the 49th ruler of the Malla dynasty who flourished around 1586 and ruled in 16th-
17th century, and was a contemporary of the Mughal emperor Akbar the Great. He fought on the side of Akbar against the Afghans and paid an annual tribute to
the Muslim viceroys of Bengal and thus acknowledged their suzerainty. Bir Hambir was a pious man who converted to Vaishnavism. A story in two Vaishnava
works (Prem-vilasa of Nityananda Das (alias Balaram Das) and Bhakti Ratnakara of Narahari Chakrabarti) recounts the manner in which Srinivasa and other
devotees were robbed by Bir Hambir while travelling from Vrindavan to Gaur with a number of Vaishanava manuscripts. However, Bir Hambir was so moved by
Srinivasas reading of Bhagavata that he converted to Vaishnavism and gave Srinivasa a rich endowment of land and money. He introduced the worship of Madan
Mohan to Bishnupur.
Raghunath Singh was a King of Malla Dynasty of Bishnupur Kingdom in south-western Bengal from around 1620 until 1656. Raghunath Singh, who
followed Bir Hambir, was the first Bishnupur Raja to use the Kshatriya title Singh. It is said that he was conferred upon with this title by the Nawab of
Murshidabad. Bishnupur kingdom had entered its golden age. With exquisite palaces and temples built during the period that followed Bishnupur was reputed
to be the most renowned city in the world, more beautiful than the house of Indra in heaven. However, it has also been recorded that while these royal patrons of
Hindu art and religion were busy building temples they had lost much of their independence and sunk to the position of tributary princes. Raghunath Singh built
the temples of Shyam Rai, Jor Bangla and Kalachand from 1643 until 1656.
Bir Singh was a King of Malla Dynasty of Bishnupur Kingdom in south-western Bengal in the second half 17th century. Bir Singh built the present fort, the
temple of Lalji in 1658, and seven big lakes named Lalbandh, Krishnabandh, Gantatbandh, Jamunabandh, Kalindibandh, Shyambandh and Pokabandh. His
queen, Siromani or Chudamani, built the temples of Madan Mohan and Murali Mohan in 1665. He walled up alive all his sons, eighteen in number. The
youngest, Durjan, alone escaped, having been kept in hiding by the servants.
Durjan Singh was a King of Malla Dynasty of Bishnupur Kingdom in south-western Bengal in late 17th century and the first half 18th century. Durjan Singh
built the Madan Mohan temple in 1694. According to family records, the kings of Bishnupur continued to pay tribute to the Muslim rulers but they were free to
do things internally. There was no interference by the Muslim rulers in the internal affairs of Bishnupur. This is also confirmed by Muslim historians. The status
of the Raja of Bishnupur was that of a tributary prince, exempted from personal attendance at the court at Murshidabad, and represented there by a resident.
Gopal Singh was a King of Malla Dynasty of Bishnupur Kingdom in south-western Bengal from 1730 until 1745. He was a pious king but was not fit to cope
with the difficulties that faced his kingdom. He issued an edict that people of Mallabhum should count their beads and chant Harinam (name of God) every
evening at sunset. In 1742, when the Marathas, under Bhaskar Rao, attacked Bishnupur, the troops put up a spirited defence but then Gopal Singh retreated
within the fort and ordered the troops and citizens to pray to Madan Mohan to save the city. It is believed that Madan Mohan responded and the cannons were
fired without human assistance. The truth probably is that the Maratha cavalry were unable to pierce the strong fortifications and retired. While they failed to take
the fort and pillage the treasury, the Marathas harried the less protected parts of the kingdom. The Maratha chief, Sheobhat, made Bishnupur his headquarters in
1760 during the invasion of Shah Alam. The Marathas fell with their heaviest weight on border principalities such as Bishnupur and Birbhum. Exactions of a
hundred sorts reduced the once powerful kingdom to poverty. The tenants fled and the country became desolate.
Chaitanya Singh was a King of Malla Dynasty of Bishnupur Kingdom in south-western Bengal in the second half 18th century. He was another pious ruler
unfit to face the difficulties. As he was too involved in religious matters he did not have time for administrative matters. He faced internal feuds. Damodar Singh,
a cousin of his, tried to gain power. He was able to convince the court at Murshidabad about his capabilities. Initially, Siraj ud-Daulah lent him forces but he was
unable to capture Bishnupur. Later, after the British defeated Siraj, Mir Jafar lent him stronger forces. He succeeded in taking Bishnupur, and Chaitanya Singh
escaped to Kolkata with the idol of Madan Gopal, but the British restored the latter to power. However, intrigue and litigation continued for many years.
Litigation ruined the Bishnupur Raj family and eventually in 1806, the estate was sold for arrears of land revenue and bought up by the Maharaja of Burdwan.

Krishnagar
Krishnagar was short lived state in present West Bengal. India.
King of Krishnagar
Krishnchandra (1710-1783) was a king of Krishnagar, Nadia, West Bengal, India in the second half 18th century. His father was Raghuram Roy.
Krishnachandra Roy was proficient in Bengali, Sanskrit andPersian. Krishnachandra was a patron of literature. Bharatchandra Ray, one of the famous poets of
the 18th century, was his court poet. Gopal Bhar was a legendary jester in his court. The Royal family of Nadia descends from Bhattanarayan (Rarheya Brahmin
of Sandilya gotra).During the reign of new Mughal Emperor at Agra , Nur-ud-din Muhammad Jehangir Padshash Gazi, Bhavananda Bandyopadhyay acquired
the title of (Raja- Roy- Majumdar) and vast jagirdari spread across fourteen parganas. Bhavananda Majumdar went on to find the Nadia Raj, which would reach
great heights during the regime of Maharaja Krishnachandra Ray in the mid-eighteenth century, the most illustrious ruler of this family. Krishnachandra was also
known for his many public welfare activities. In 1762 he established a large Shiv temple at Shivnibash. He was the first to introduce Jagaddhatri Puja in Bengal. It
was at his initiative and encouragement that some reputed potters from Natore moved to Krishnanagar.

Musunuri Nayaks
The Musunuri Nayaks were warrior chieftains in the Kakatiya army, who regained Andhradesa (present day Telangana) in 1326 from the Delhi Sultanate in the
aftermath of the Kakatiya defeat. Prominent among them were Musunuri Prolaneedu and Kaapaneedu. Some sources shows that, the 'Musunuri Nayaks' were
from the Durjaya clan of Musunuru family belongs to 'Kamma' caste. The conquest of South India (Deccan) by the Delhi Sultanate started in 1296 when
Alauddin Khilji, the son-in-law and commander of the Sultan Jalaluddin raided and plundered Devagiri (Maharashtra). Khilji subsequently murdered the Sultan
and took over the reins of the Sultanate. The glory and wealth of the Kakatiya kingdom attracted the attention of Khilji. The first foray into the Telugu kingdom
was made in 1303 by the Sultans armies led by Malik Fakruddin. It was a disaster because of the valiant resistance of the Kakatiya army in the battle at
Upparapalli (Karimnagar District). The second attempt was made in 1309 by Malik Kafur who managed to capture the Siripur and Hanumakonda forts.
Warangal Fort was taken after a prolonged seize. Malik Kafur indulged in murder and mayhem around the fort which prompted King Pratapa Rudra to make a
pact and offer an enormous amount of tribute. Pratapa Rudra asserted his independence in 1320 when there was a change of power in Delhi. The Khilji
dynasty ended and Ghiyazuddin Tughlaq ascended theDelhi throne. Tughlaq sent his son Ulugh Khan in 1323 to defeat the defiant Kakatiya king. Ulugh Khans
raid was repulsed but he returned in a month with a larger and determined army. The unprepared and battle-weary army of Warangal was finally defeated. The
loot, plunder and destruction of Warangal continued for months. Loads of gold, diamonds, pearls and ivory were carried away to Delhion 20,000 horses,
100 elephants and camels. The Kohinoor diamond was part of the booty. The vandalism and atrocities of the invading army demoralized the common people
who were unfamiliar with the methods adopted by the invaders. King Pratapa Rudra was taken prisoner. He committed suicide by drowning himself in the
river Narmada while being taken to Delhi.
List of Chiefs of Musunuri Nayaks
Musunuri Prolaneedu was the chosen leader of the confederacy of several sovereign Telugu nobles who united to liberate Telugu country from Muslim
rule and protect Hindu dharma. He ruled Warangal (modern-day Andhra Pradesh)and Telangana from 1327 to 1370. The Telugu country was in great turmoil
and ferment. Two patriotic souls, Annaya Mantri and Kolani Rudradeva united the Nayak chieftains. They instilled a sense of unity and sacrifice to protect the
Telugu country. A dynamic Nayak by name Musunuri Prolaneedu was chosen as their leader. He was the son of Pochinayaka who had three brothers namely
Devanayaka, Kammanayaka and Rajanayaka. The son of Devanayaka was Kapayanayaka (Kaapaaneedu) who was the right hand man of Prolaya. Battles were
fought at all levels and independence was achieved after many a sacrifice. Kaluvacheru inscriptions mention that fifty-seven Nayaks had sworn their allegiance to
him. The Nayak armies liberated Warangal by 1326. The cousins strengthened the forts, rebuilt temples, restored village grants to Brahmins and encouraged arts
and literature. The ageing Prolaya retired to Rekapalli fort (East Godavari district) after vesting the power with Kaapaya.
Musunuri Kaapaaneedu, also known as 'Kaapaya Nayak', Krishna Nayak or Kanya Nayak, was the chosen leader of the
confederacy of several sovereign Telugu nobles who united to liberate Telugu country from Muslim rule and protect Hindu dharma. He
ruled Warangal (modern-day Andhra Pradesh)and Telangana from 1327 to 1370. Musunuri Kaapaneedu was one of the few, successful
kings who revolted against Muslim rule and liberated their region from them. Although short-lived, the reign of Kaapaaneedu inspired
the founding of the Vijayanagar Empire, thus protecting Hinduism in south Indiafor over three centuries. Kaapaaneedu had the
titles Managanti Puravaradheeswara, Kaanchirakshapalaka, Vishamadaadi Panchala, Iruvetthuganda, Gandagopala, and Moorurayaj
agadala, probably given by the Kakatiya emperor in recognition of his services. He was a devotee of Visweswara. The forays of
Muslims into south India commenced from the time of Ala-ud-din Khilji who occupied Devagiri (Daulatabad) in1296. The conquest
of south India was completed when Ulugh Khan ascended the Delhi throne under the name Muhammad bin Tughluq and sent Malik
Kafur to subdue the south (Deccan). Warangal was captured in 1323 and King Prataparudra was taken prisoner. The following years witnessed all round misery
and plunder. The Telugu country was in great turmoil and ferment. Two patriotic souls, Annaya Mantri and Kolani Rudradeva united the Nayak chieftains. They
instilled a sense of unity and sacrifice to protect the Telugu country. A dynamic Nayak by name Musunuri Prolaneedu was chosen as their leader. He was the son
of Pochinayaka who had three brothers namely Devanayaka, Kammanayaka and Rajanayaka. The son of Devanayaka was Kapayanayaka (Kaapaaneedu) who was
the right hand man of Prolaya. Battles were fought at all levels and independence was achieved after many a sacrifice. Kaluvacheru inscriptions mention that fifty-
seven Nayaks had sworn their allegiance to him. The Nayak armies liberated Warangal by 1326. The cousins strengthened the forts, rebuilt temples, restored
village grants to Brahmins and encouraged arts and literature. The ageing Prolaya retired to Rekapalli fort (East Godavari district) after vesting the power with
Kaapaya. The undaunted sultan led a huge army southward in 1327 but had to make a hasty retreat. Kaapaya utilized the opportunity to liberate the whole
of Telangana including Bidar. He sought the help of the Hoysala king in this endeavour. Kaapaya succeeded in capturing the Warangal fort and
liberating Telangana from the invaders. The flag of Andhradesa was unfurled on the Warangal fort. Kaapaya was given the titles Andhradesaadheeswara and
Andhrasuratraana. The Telugu empire extended from Srikakulam to Bidar and Siripur toKanchi. Kaapaya actively encouraged other Hindu kingdoms
(Kampili, Dwarasamudram and Hoysala) to unite and help each other against the Sultanate. Vema Reddy of Addankimarched in defence of Kampili and
repulsed the Sultans attack. Kaapaya and Vema Reddy helped Somadeva of Araveedu to liberate many forts in the Krishna-Tungabhadra region. Kaapaya was
always wary of attacks by the Sultans armies from the north. A new and bigger threat loomed on the horizon. A revolt by a group of Muslim nobles
againstMuhammad bin Tughluq that began in Devagiri in 1345 culminated in the foundation of the Bahmani kingdom by Hasan Gangu. He assumed the name
Alauddin Bahman Shah and moved his capital to the more centrally located Gulbarga in 1347. The unity fostered by the Musunuri cousins among the Nayaks
started showing strains, fuelled by envy. The Recherla Velama Nayaks led by Singama Nayaka raided Addankiwhich was under the control of Vema Reddy.
Vema Reddy sought the help of Kaapaya who intervened and forced Singama to accept the confederation. Singama was unable to reconcile to this act. Singama
and his sons induced Alauddin to interfere in the affairs of Warangal. The Bahmani king was only too eager to oblige. Telangana was invaded in 1350. Kaapayas
army fought an unexpected but heroic battle, in vain. He concluded a treaty with Alauddin and surrendered the Kaulas fort. The death of Muhammad bin
Tughluq in 1351 emboldened Alauddin to achieve his goal of expanding his kingdom in Deccan. He marched into Telangana in 1355 and captured many forts
including Bhuvanagiri. Mohammed Shah succeeded Alauddin. At this time Kaapaya sent his son Vinayaka Deva to liberate Kaulas and Bhuvanagiri from
the Bahmanis. TheVijayanagar king Bukka Raya actively assisted him in this campaign. Vinayaka Deva had initial successes but was eventually defeated, captured
and killed, in a cruel and ghastly manner. Kaapaya along with Bukka Raya planned a great expedition against the Bahmanis. Mohammed Shah got enraged and
invaded Telangana again. Golconda and Warangal were subdued. Bukka Raya died during this time. Lack of support from Vijayanagar and non-cooperation
from the Devarakonda and Rachakonda Velama chiefs also contributed to the fall of Warangal. Historians feel that the Velama chiefs surreptitiously helped the
Bahmani king. Golconda was chosen as the border between the Bahmani and Warangal kingdoms in 1365. Kaapaya had to present the turquoise throne and
large amounts of tribute to Mohammed Shah. Singama Nayaka's sons took advantage of the situation and declared independence. Singama's sons Anapota
Nayaka and Rao Madhanedu marched against Warangal ruled by a weakened Kaapaya. Kaapaya met Anapota Nayakas army at Bhimavaram .The armies
clashed fiercely, Kaapaya met Anapota in a personal combat and became a martyr. Thus ended the short but glorious reign (13261370) of the great patriot
Kapaaneedu. After the demise of Kaapaya Nayak there was an en masse migration of Nayaks to the Vijayanagara Empire. These Nayaks formed the bulwark of
the Vijayanagar empire and defended South India and the Hindu religion. Kaapaya's territories were occupied by Recherla Velama chiefs but the relatives of
Kaapaya such as Mummadi and Anavota briefly controlled small areas in the coastal districts which were eventually absorbed into the Reddy kingdom.

Sayapaneni Nayaks
Sayapaneni Nayaks, a Kamma clan ruled a small region of Telugu country called Dupati Seema during the transition period between Aravidu dynasty
of Vijayanagar kingdom andGolkonda regime. Many Kamma clans worked as military commanders in Vijayanagar kingdom. Among them, Sayapaneni clan is
noteworthy. The history of the clan starts with the donation which the great king Krishna Deva Raya gave to Shayappa Nayudu an amaram tenure of the village
Gudipadu near Srisailam. The principality (Dupatiseema comprising 533 villages) was consolidated by his son and grandson, Vengala Nayudu and Venkatadri
Nayudu. After the downfall of Vijayanagar, the clan went through many travails poignantly described in Dupaati Kaifiyat by a village Karanam. The principality
was merged by Thomas Monro in 1802 with the British ruled areas. Gangayya Nayudu (1564) ruled during the time of Rama Raya. His son Venkatadri (1589)
was the contemporary of Venkatapati Raya II. Venkatadri was also a poet. His work Sakalajanasajivanamu was a well-acclaimed Prabandha in Telugu
literature. Venkatadris wife Venkatamba was a sister of Pemmasani Thimma Nayudu, ruler of Gandikota. By the time Gangappa took over in 1626 the
Golkonda Sultanate consolidated its control over Rayalaseema. Sayapaneni Nayaks rule underwent many trials and tribulations and continued till 1802 when
Dupatiseema was taken over by the British East India Company from the Nawab of Golkonda.
List of Chiefs of Syapaneni Nayaks
Shayappa Nayudu was the Chief of Sayapaneni Nayaks in early 16th century. The history of the clan starts with the donation which the Emperor of
the Vijayanagara Empire Krishna Deva Raya gave to Shayappa Nayudu an amaram tenure of the village Gudipadu near Srisailam. The principality (Dupatiseema
comprising 533 villages) was consolidated by his son and grandson, Vengala Nayudu and Venkatadri Nayudu.
Vengala Nayudu was the Chief of Sayapaneni Nayaks in the first half 16th century.
Gangayya Nayudu was the Chief of Sayapaneni Nayaks during 1560s and 1570s.
Venkatadri Nayudu was the Chief of Sayapaneni Nayaks during 1570s and 1580s. Venkatadri was the contemporary of Venkatapati Raya II. Venkatadri was
also a poet. His work Sakalajanasajivanamu was a well-acclaimed Prabandha in Telugu literature. Venkatadris wife Venkatamba was a sister of Pemmasani
Thimma Nayudu, ruler of Gandikota.
Gangappa Nayudu was the Chief of Sayapaneni Nayaks in the first half 17th century. By the time Gangappa took over in 1626 the Golkonda Sultanate
consolidated its control over Rayalaseema.

Vasireddy Clan
Vasireddy Clan was a ruling Kamma clan in the state of Andhra Pradesh, south India. The Vijayanagara Empire was destroyed in Tallikota war of 1565 AD,
when Muslim states (Golconda, Bijapur, Ahmednagar, and Bidar) came together against the empire. Various tributary kingdoms that were under Vijayanagara
Empire came under the control of Sultans of Golconda and Bijapur. These Golconda and Bijapur Sultans employed Velama, Kamma and Reddy kings as the
rulers of various kingdoms and had them to paythe tribute and collected revenue. Thus many more of these kingdoms/provinces, also known as Samsthanamus
or Zamindaris, came into existence. The first historical record of the Vasireddy clan can be traced from 1413 CE inscription of Pothineedu at Pithapuram (East
Godavari district) in the state of Andhra Pradesh in India. Pothineedu ruled A small region around Pithapuram subsequent to the downfall of Musunuri
Nayaks at Warangal. Pothineedu constructed a number of temples in Godavari delta. He planted 460,000 Palm (Taadi) trees and extolled their importance in his
inscriptions. He also built many temples in Godavari delta. There was a gap of 100 years and the next available record was that of Mallikarjuna who ruled from
1500-1527 AD. Mallikarjunas refusal to pay taxes to Golkonda Nawab (Kuli Qutb Shah) led to a battle with the commander Haider Jung. Both Mallikarjuna and
Haider Jung died in the battle. Mallikarjunas wife committed Sati. Two year old son Sadasiva Rayawas brought up by Kodali Ramabhupati, a wealthy relative in
the Nutakki village of Guntur district. The principality of Chintapalli on the bank of Krishna River was the domain of a series of Vasireddy rulers starting from
Sadasiva Raya.
List of Rulers of Vasireddu Clan
Pothineedu was a ruler of Vasireddy Clan in the first half 15th century. The first historical record of the Vasireddy clan can be traced from 1413 inscription
of Pothineedu at Pithapuram (East Godavari district) in the state of Andhra Pradesh in India. Pothineedu ruled A small region around Pithapuram subsequent to
the downfall of Musunuri Nayaks at Warangal. Pothineedu constructed a number of temples in Godavari delta. He planted 460,000 Palm (Taadi) trees and
extolled their importance in his inscriptions. He also built many temples in Godavari delta.
Mallikarjuna (died 1527) was a ruler of Vasireddy Clan from 1500 until his death in 1527. Mallikarjunas refusal to pay taxes to Golkonda Nawab (Kuli Qutb
Shah) led to a battle with the commander Haider Jung. Both Mallikarjuna and Haider Jung died in the battle. Mallikarjunas wife committed Sati.
Vasireddu Sadasiva Nayudu was a ruler of Vasireddy Clan from 1550 until 1581. He was granted the paragana by Ibrahim Qutb Shah of Golkonda. His
great grand sons Gangineedu, Gurivineedu, Chinavenkatadri and Madineedu ruled during the period 1600-1670 CE.
Gangineedu was a ruler of Vasireddy Clan in the first half 17th century.
Gurivineedu was a ruler of Vasireddy Clan in the first half 17th century.
Chinavenkatadri was a ruler of Vasireddy Clan around middle 17th century.
Madineedu was a ruler of Vasireddy Clan in the second half 17th century.
Chinapadmanabha Ramanna Nayudu was a ruler of Vasireddy Clan from 1680s until 1710. Chinapadmanabha Ramanna Nayudu got a grant of 500
villages from Tanisha in 1685 (Krishna district Manual). During a visit to Golkonda, Ramanna found that the Sultan (Abul Hassan Tanisha) was engrossed in a
problem of taming his stubborn horse. Rammana rode the horse with aplomb and the pleased king gave as reward Sardeshamukhi of 500 villages such
as Nandigama, Kammamettu (Khammam), Vinukonda and Kondavidu. He built a fort at Chintapalli and ruled till 1710. His successors Buchiraghava,
Pedanarasanna, Chinanarsanna, Chinaramalinga, Chandramouli, Rajamouli and Lakshmipati ruled till 1760.
Buchiraghava Nayudu was a ruler of Vasireddy Clan in the first half 18th century.
Pedanarasanna Nayudu was a ruler of Vasireddy Clan in the first half 18th century.
Chinanarsanna Nayudu was a ruler of Vasireddy Clan in the first half 18th century.
Chinaramalinga Nayudu was a ruler of Vasireddy Clan in the first half 18th century.
Chandramouli Nayudu was a ruler of Vasireddy Clan in the first half 18th century.
Rajamouli Nayudu was a ruler of Vasireddy Clan during 1750s.
Lakshmipati Nayudu was a ruler of Vasireddy Clan during 1750s.
Jaggayya Nayudu (died 1771) was a ruler of Vasireddy Clan from 1763 until his death in 1771. During this period French and British were trying to gain
control of the Andhra country. Jaggayya ruled Chintapalli from 1763. He was killed by French troops sent by Basalat Jung, brother of Golkonda Nawab in 1771.
Jaggayyas wife Acchamma committed suicide (sati). Jaggayyas son Venkatadri recovered Chintapalii in 1777 and earned fame as a benevolent and illustrious
ruler.
Venkatadri Nayudu was a ruler of Vasireddy Clan from 1783 until1816. His father Jaggayya Nayudu was killed by French troops sent by Basalat Jung,
brother of Golkonda Nawab in 1771. His mother Acchamma committed suicide (Sati). He was the last king of the Vasireddy Clan that ruled parts of
coastal Andhra Pradesh from 1413 until the advent of the British. He was popularly known as the first king who revolted against British in India. The original seat
of power was Chintapalli in present-day Krishna district. Venkatadri Nayudu shifted his capital to Dharanikota/Amaravati across the Krishna river in Guntur
district. He was most famous for his benign rule, patronage of the arts and literature, and as a builder of numerous temples in the Krishna river delta. He
renovated the ancient temples at Amaravati, Chebrolu, Mangalagiri, and Ponnuru. Nayudu kept a retinue of several thousand men, 300 horses, 80 elephants, 50
camels and uncounted bullock carts. The magnificence of his palaces at Amaravati, Chebrolu, Chintapalli and his town-house in Guntur became subjects of
folklore. He built temples and repaired the lofty gopuram (Temple gate) at Mangalagiri. Over a hundred richly gilt brass pillars, over 30 feet high were erected in
his name at various shrines. He fed daily hundreds of Purohits. Often he distributed shawls, gold and jewels among learned sadhus. The sums he spent on
festivals, sacrifices, fire offerings and marriages became legendary. Several times, he divided his own weight on gold or silver among Brahmans. Colin Mckenzee
who visited Amaravati 1797 praised the glory of Nayudus's palaces in Asiatic Journal. Venkatadri successfully eliminated Pindaris who were robbing the people
in Guntur region. Legend has it that during his reign, Chenchus (forest tribe) were raiding villages aroundAmaravati. Venkatadri invited about 600 of the
Chenchu men to a luncheon and ordered them to be chopped and killed. The villages where this incident took place is today called Narukulapadu ('Naruku'
in Telugu language means 'to axe' or 'to chop') and Chavupadu ('Chavu' means death in Telugu). After this incident the Rajah became repentant and came
toAmaravati and devoted his entire life, time and revenues to building temples to Lord Siva. He renovated the Amareswaraswamy temple here, got nine learned
archakas to be brought for the daily archana of the Lord, and provided them with all the needs of livelihood, including 12 acres (49,000 m
2
) of land to each. The
temple as it stands now owes much to him. Venkatadri was assisted by a very able minister and poet Mulugu Papayaradhya. There were several poets and
scholars in the court of Venkatadri.

Pemmasani Nayaks
Pemmasani Nayaks were a martial clan in the south Indian state of Andhra Pradesh. They came into prominence during Vijayanagar times as rulers
of Gandikota. The Pemmasani warriors were one among the Kamma clans previously serving Kakatiya dynasty as army commanders and migrated to Vijayanagar
in 1370 CE after the downfall ofMusunuri Nayaks in Warangal. The hard earned independence of Telugu land came to an end in fifty years with the martyrdom
of Musunuri Kaapaaneedu in 1370 A.D at the hands of Velamas who colluded withBahmani sultan (Musunuri Nayaks). A large number of remaining Nayaks
who served under Kaapaaneedu migrated to Vijayanagar and sworn allegiance to Bukka Raya, a close associate of Kapaneedu in protecting the Hindu dharma in
Dakshnapatha (Deccan). Among them, Pemmasani clan which earned laurels for their bravery and defense of Vijayanagar Empire in the coming four centuries
was the most illustrious. Generations of Pemmasani clan were commanders for various dynasties of Vijayanagar Empire. The Pemmasani lineage can be traced
from PemmasaniVenkatapati Nayudu, father of Timma Nayudu. Proudha Devaraya gifted the Yadaki Paragana to Timma Nayudu in 1431 as recognition of his
valour in many a battle with Muslims. Timma was instrumental for the victory in the battle of Gulbarga in which Proudha Devaraya defeated Ahmed Shah. The
forts of Yadaki, Gutti and Gandikota are the symbols of Pemmasani Nayaks. During the heyday, their control extended from Krishna up to Anantapur districts.
The annual income was twenty five lakhs of rupees out of which nine lakhs of rupees were paid as tribute to the Vijayanagar kings. The ancestors
of Pemmasani clan (Gothram: Musunulla) belonged to Bellamkonda in ancient Kammanadu. A branch of Pemmasani clan belong to Musunulla gothram which
point out their origin from the village Musunuru in Krishna district and their possible relation to the Great Musunuri Kamma Nayaks.
List of Rulers of Pemassani Nayaks of Gandikota
Pemmasani Timmanayudu was the ruler of Gandikota in Kadapa district of Andhra Pradesh from late 14th century and first half 15th century. He was a
satrap of the Vijayanagar kings. Pemmasani rulers came into prominence during the Vijayanagar period. The Pemmasani warriors were previously serving
the Kakatiya dynasty as army commanders and migrated to Vijayanagar in 1370 CE after the downfall of the Musunuri Nayaks. The ancestors of the Pemmasani
clan (Gothram: Musunulla) belonged to Bellamkonda in ancient Kammanadu. Timma Nayudu was a commander in the army of Proudha Devaraya (1420-
1448), also known as Devaraya II. The Vijayanagar King granted Yadaki paragana in 1422 CE to Timma after his victory over Ahmed Shah in the battle of
Kalubarige (Gulbarga). He ruled Gutthi (Gooty) and Gandikota regions and used to pay an annual tribute of nine lakh rupees to the Vijayanagar king. He
developed Gandikota as an impregnable fort. Timma minted his own coins with Veerabhadras icon. During his long rule, he constructed many temples and
tanks and brought recognition to Gandikota. Timma had 25,000 infantry, 15,000 horsemen and 40 elephants. The annual income of Gandikota was about 25
lakhs (2.5 million) rupees. He commanded an army contingent of 8000 soldiers during the battle of Kalubarige (Gulbarga). A property of 1240 kuntas in the city
of Vijayanagar served as a camp for the Pemmasani warriors. He built many villages, tanks and temples in the Yadaki paragana. The village Venkatapuram was
built in the memory of his mother Venkatamma. He had a minister by name Chennama Raju, son of Mahabashyam Mahadeva Bhatta. His son Veerathimma
ruled Gandikota after him.
Thimma Nayudu was the ruler Pemassani Nayaks of Gandikota in Kadapa district of Andhra Pradesh in the 15th century. Thimma was a commander in the
army of Proudha Devaraya (1420- 1448) who granted Yadaki paragana in 1422 CE after Thimma's victory over Ahmed Shah in the battle of Kalubarige. He
ruled Gutthi and Gandikota regions and used pay an annual tribute of nine lakhs of rupees to the Vijayanagar king. He developed Gandikota as an impregnable
fort. Thimma minted his own coins with Veerabhadras icon. He ruled for a long time, constructed many temples and tanks and brought recognition to
Gandikota. His son Veerathimma ruled Gandikota after him.
Ramalinga Nayudu was the ruler Pemassani Nayaks of Gandikota in Kadapa district of Andhra Pradesh from 1509 until 1530.Veerathimma had a son by
name Chennappa who had two sons Ramalinga and Pedathimma. Ramalinga ruled Gandikota during the time of Emperor of the Vijayanagara Empire Krishna
Deva Raya. Ramalinga had 80,000 soldiers under him and he played a major role in the victory of Krishna Deva Raya over the combined armies of Kalubarige,
Golkonda andAhmednagar. He became the most favorite commander of Krishna Deva Raya and played a pivotal role in the battle of Raichur. His exploits in the
battle were extolled by many Telugu poets. He was most feared by the Muslim Generals of Bijapur, Ahmednagar and Golconda. Ramalinga constructed many
temples in Anantapur region.
Pedathimma Nayudu was the ruler Pemassani Nayaks of Gandikota in Kadapa district of Andhra Pradesh in the first half 16th century. Pedathimma led the
Vijayanagar army to victory in many battles. He became famous for the slaying of Dastur Khan. He had three sons, Narasimha, Balichinna and Chinathimma.
Thimma Nayudu II was the ruler Pemassani Nayaks of Gandikota in Kadapa district of Andhra Pradesh in the first half 16th century. He was participated
in the expeditions of Krishna Deva Raya and captured Udayagiri, Addanki, Kondapalli, Rajahmundry and Katakam (Cuttack). He also played a crucial role in the
conquest of Ummattur.
Bangaru Thimma (Arathimma) Nayudu was the ruler Pemassani Nayaks of Gandikota in Kadapa district of Andhra Pradesh in the first half 16th
century.After the death of Krishna Deva Raya in 1529 CE his son-in-law Rama Raya took control of the kingdom. Bahamani sultan colluded with Salakam
Timmaraja and raided Vijayanagar. Ramaraya took refuge in Gandikota. Bangaru Thimma vanquished Bahamanis in a fierce battle at Komali, killed Salakam
Timmaraja and restored the throne to Ramaraya.
Pedaveera Nayudu was the ruler Pemassani Nayaks of Gandikota in Kadapa district of Andhra Pradesh around middle 16h century. He was the
contemporary of Srirangaraya and Venkatapatiraya.
Bojja Thimma Nayudu was the ruler Pemassani Nayaks of Gandikota in Kadapa district of Andhra Pradesh in the second half 16th century.
Venkatagiri Nayudu was the ruler Pemassani Nayaks of Gandikota in Kadapa district of Andhra Pradesh in the second half 16th century.
Chinna Thimma Nayudu, Gothram Musunulla was the ruler Pemassani Nayaks of Gandikota in Kadapa district of Andhra Pradesh in late 16th century.
At the behest of the minister Podila Linganna, Mir Jumla, the General of Golkonda Nawab raided Gandikota in 1594. There was stiff resistance. The fort was
captured only after Linganna plotted and poisoned Chinna Thimma. Pinnayya Nayudu, son of Chinna Thimma and still very young, was saved and taken to
Mysore by his relatives.



Velanati Chodas
Velanati Chodas (also known as Velanadu Chodas or Velanadu Cholas) were one of the Telugu Choda families who ruled over parts of theAndhra Pradesh in
12th century. They were Vassals of Later Cholas and Western Chalukyas and ruled over the Velanadu region in modern Gunturdistrict. The chieftains who
ruled over Velanadu came to be known as the Velanati Chodas. One of them, Rajendra Choda II had even assumed the title Durjayakulaprakara. These Velanati
chiefs were the subordinate allies of the Chalukya Cholas of the south. They were entrusted with the responsibility of the governance of the Andhra region, which
formed a part of the Chola kingdom in the twelfth century. Their capital was Dhanadapura or Sanaduprolu, the modern Chandolu in the Guntur district initially
then later they ruled from Vengi in West Godavari and Pithpuram in East Godavari Districts.

The Velanati Chiefs rose to prominence among the vassals of the
Chalukyas of Vengi during the early days of Kulothunga Chola I and served as the Chalukya Chola viceroys faithfully as their trusted lieutenants and generals.
Finding his dominion dwindling, due to the ascendency of the Kalyani Chalukyas in the Vengi country, Kulothunga Chola lent support to his loyal chieftains of
Velanadu to bring the situation under control and rule over Vengi as his vassals. Evidence is available to the effect that five chieftains of Velanadu ruled over the
country after which it was overrun by the Kakatiyas and became a part of their kingdom.
List of Telugu Kings of Velanati Chodas
Gonka I was a Telugu king and the first of Velanati Chodas who ruled from 1076 until 1108. Gonka I ruled as a vassal to Kulottunga I of Chalukya Cholas of
Gangaikonda Cholapuram, and his son Mammadi Varma, viceroy of Vengi. He fought as general in the battles against Kalyani Chalukyas and also against
refractory vassals, Kalinga and Chakrakuta, who joined with Kalyani Chalukyas. He assumed the title Chola Mula Stambha(The pillar of Chola empire). His
kingdom included the region from Gundlakamma in south to Tripurantakam in West.
Rajendra Choda I was a Telugu king and the second of Velanati Chodas who ruled from 1108 until 1132. Rajendra Choda I succeeded his father Gonka
I as the chieftain and continued his allegiance to Chalukya Cholas. He was defeated by Anantapalaya, the general of Vikramaditya VI of Kalyani Chalukyas in
1115 AD. Rajendra Choda I was forced to accept the suzarinty of Kalyani Chalukyas. Kalyani Chalukyas continued their victory and started winning most of the
Telugu country including Bezawada, Kondapalli and Jananatapura and they marched till Kanchi and ransacked it. Someswara III succeeded his father
Vikramaditya VI in Kalyani in 1126 and Rajendra Choda I continued their legience to Kalyani Chalukyas. Malla Bhupati of Vengi recovered some regions on the
banks of Krishna, but Velanti Chodas remained as subjects of Someswara II in these battles. However in 1132, he fought along the side of Chalukya Cholas.
Vikrama Chola sent his army under his son Kulottunga II to Vengi. Many chieftains including Velandu Chodas joined hands with him and helped in driving out
Kalyani Chalukyas in the battle of Manneru.
Gonka II was a Telugu king and the third of Velanati Chodas who ruled from 1132 until 1161. Gonka II succeeded his father Rajendra Choda I. He was
regarded as greatest among of all Chodas and also fought as general in earlier battles during his father reign. He accompanied Kulottunga II in many battles like
famous Godavari battle that resulted in recovering all regions from Kalyani Chalukyas. He crushed many rebel chieftains like Nellore Chodas and Konidena
Chodas. His kingdom included the region between Mahendragiri in north and Srisailam in south. Prola II of Kakatiyas attacked his kingdom in 1158.
Chodayaraja, chief of Gonaka II killed Prola II and annexed lost regions. Gonaka II assumed many titles like Chalukyarajya MulaStambha.
Rajendra Choda II was a Telugu king and the fourth of Velanati Chodas who ruled from 1161 until 1181. He succeeded his father Gonka II and his reign
was full of rebellions from Nellore Chodas, Pottapi Chodas and Pakanadu Chodas. He lost to Rudradeva of Kakatiyas. Their kingdom weakened during his
period.
Gonka III (died 1186) was a Telugu king and the fifth of Velanati Chodas who ruled from 1181 until his death 1186. He succeeded his father Rajendra Choda
II and he lost to Rudradeva II of kakatiya and also to his rebel Kota Chieftain Ketaraja II. He was killed in 1186 in a battle with Kakatiyas. Velanadu chiefs lost
their capital and most parts of the Velanadu kingdom.
Prithviswara II (died 1207) was a Telugu king of Velanati Chodas who ruled from 1186 until his death in 1207. He was the last important ruler of the
kingdom and he stayed at Pithapuram. He made several vain attempts to win the lost prestige. When Kakatiyaswere fighting Yadavas, he seized the opportunity
and reoccupied Verlanadu including places like Chandolu and Vengi. However he lost to Kakatiyas and Nellore Chodas starting from 1201 until 1207. He was
slain in a battle with Ganapatideva of Kakatiyas in 1207 AD. His son Rajendra Choda III made further attempts and lost entire kingdom to Ganapatideva.
Rajendra Choda III was a Telugu king of Velanati Chodas from 1207 until 1216.

Nellore Chodas
Nellore Chodas (also known as Nellore Cholas) were one of the Telugu Choda families who ruled over parts of Andhra Pradesh in 11th and 12h centuries. They
were chieftains toKakatiyas and Kalyani Chalukyas and ruled over the Nellore region. These Chodas claimed their descent from the famous Karikala Chola.
They ruled over their kingdom consisting of the Nellore, Cuddapah, Chittoor and Chengalput districts with Vikramasimhapuri(modern Nellore) as their capital.
List of Chiefs of Nellore Chodas
Chola Bijjana was the first important chief in the Nellore Choda clan in the second half 11th century. As a feudatory of Someswara I of Western Chalukyas,
he took part in the wars of the Chalukyas andChalukya Cholas. In recognition of the loyalty and services of his descendants to the Chalukyas of
Kalyani, Vikramadiya II appointed them as rulers of Pakanadu.
Later Tikka (died 1248) was the chief in the Nellore Choda clan from 1223 until his death in 1248. He was the father of the famous Manumasiddhi II,
extended his kingdom to as far south as the river Kaveri. He owed nominal allegiance to the already crippled Chalukya Chola. Along with the Hoysala Vira
Narasimha, he helped the Chalukya Chola ruler Rajaraja Chola III in restoring him back to his throne by repulsing the attacks of Aniyanka
Bhima, Kopperunchinga II and the Pandyas. Subsequently, whan the Hoyasala Vira Narasimha's successor Somesvara, desirous of making the Chalukya Chola
ruler a puppet in his hands, joined hands with the Pandyas and attacked Rajendra IIl, Choda TiKka came to the rescue of the Chola emperor. He defeated both
the Hoyasala and the Pandyan forces and got thereby the Tondaimandalam region for himself. He even assumed the title Cholasthapanacharya. During the reign
of Tikka's son and successor Manumasiddhi II (12481263), the power of the Nellore Cholas was at its low ebb.
Manumasiddhi II (died 1263) was the chief in the Nellore Choda clan from 1248 until his death in 1263. About the year 1260, a dangerous feud broke out
between Manumasiddhi and Katamaraju, the chief of Erragaddapadu in Kanigiri region. The feud was on the issue of the rights of the two princes to use certain
wide meadows as grazing grounds for their flocks of cattle. It led to the fierce engagement of the two sides and the bloody battle was fought at Panchalingala on
the Paleru river. Manumasiddhi's forces led by Khadga Tikkana, the cousin of poet Tikkana won the battle, but the leader perished. This feud and the
consequent battle formed the theme of the popular ballad entitled "Katamaraju Katha". Shortly after this disastrous battle, Manumasiddhi died. With the death of
Manumasiddhi II, the Nellore kingdom lost its individuality, became a battle ground between the Kakatiyas and the Pandyas and changed hands frequently. In
the reign of Kakatiya Prataparudra II, the Nellore region became part and parcel of the Kakatiya empire and lost its political significance.

Konidena Cholas
The Konidena Cholas were also a branch of the Renadu Cholas. Their capital was Konidena (also called as Kotyadona) near Narasaraopeta in the Guntur
district. They ruled over parts of Palanadu in 11th and 12th centuries. Early kings Kannara Choda and Kama Choda were independent. Tribhuvana Malla
Choda, son of Kama Choda, was a chieftain to Gonka II of Velanati Chodas. Nanni Choda, son of Tribhuvana Malla Choda declared independence again, but
was soon was defeated and forced to be vassals again by Gonka II. After the fall of Velanadu Cholas, they are forced to suzerainty by Ganapatideva of Kakatiyas.
List of Rulers of Konidena Cholas
Kannara Choda was a ruler of Konidena Cholas in the first half 11th century.
Kama Choda was a ruler of Konidena Cholas in the second half 11th century.
Tribhuvana Malla Choda was a ruler of Konidena Cholas in the late 11th century and early 12th century. He was son of Kama Choda, was a chieftain to
Gonka II of Velanati Chodas.
Nanni Choda was a ruler of Konidena Cholas in the first half 12th century. He was son of Tribhuvana Malla Choda declared independence again, but was
soon was defeated and forced to be vassals again by Gonka II. After the fall of Velanadu Cholas, they are forced to suzerainty by Ganapatideva of Kakatiyas.

Thanjavur Nayak Kingdom
Thanjavur Nayak Kingdom or Thanjavur Nayak dynasty were the rulers of Thanjavur principality of Tamil Nadu between the 16th to the 17th century. The
Nayaks were appointed as provincial governors by the Vijayanagar Emperor who divided the Tamil country into three Nayakships viz., Madurai, Tanjore and
Gingi. Thanjavur Nayaks were notable for their patronage of literature and the arts. A few indicators point out the affiliation of the Tanjore Nayaks to
the Balija social group. A translation from Sources (p. 284) on Raghunathabhyudayam, says this about Timma, the father of Sevappa Nayak, the founder of the
Tanjore Nayak line:In the Shudra caste born from the feet of Vishnu was born a king called Timma. The Mannaru (Vishnu) of the Mannarguditemple was
their kula daivam (family deity).
List of Rulers of Thanjavur Nayak Kingdom
Sevappa Nayak (died 1560) was a feudatory of the Vijayanagar Empire and the governor of Thanjavur who founded the Thanjavur Nayak kingdom from
1532 until his death in 1560.

Sevappa was the successor of Vira Narasingaraya, also known as Sellappa. His father was a Thimappa Nayak, also called
Thimmabhupathi. The family hailed from Nedungunramnear Thiruvannamalai. Sevappa is also believed to be a co-brother of the Vijayanagar Emperor, Achyuta
Deva Raya, the younger brother Krishnadeva Raya for the Telugu histories Tanjavuri Andhra Rajula Charitramu and Tanjavuri Vari Charitram claim that
Sevappa got Thanjavur as stri-danaor dowry. However, this opinion is not universally held by scholars. Records indicate that Sevappa was a loyal vassal of the
Vijayanagar kings and assisted them in their campaigns. Sevappa was the honorary "betel-bearer" (Adappam in Tamil andTambula Karandavahin in Sanskrit) of
Achyuta Deva Raya. Sevappa's epigraphs are very few and there exist scarcely any record of his reign or campaigns outside the Chola country. One of the earliest
events of his reign was the transfer forTiruchirappalli to the Madurai Nayak kingdom in exchange for Vallam. When the Vijayanagar general Ramaraja Vithala
stationed himself and his army in Tiruchirappalli during his wars against the king of Tiruvadi and the Paravas of the south in 1545, Sevappa provided him with
men and support. Sevappa constructed a number of Hindu temples, repaired tanks and endowed agraharas. Sevappa repaired the outer walls of
the Brihadeeswarar Temple in Thanjavur and ensured regular supply of water to the neighbouring Sivaganga Tank (now within the premises of the Sivaganga
Park). In 1572, Sevappa Nayak constructed the gopuraof the Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram and embellished the temples at Thirumala and Srisailam with gold.
He also granted seven velis of land to the Samusarupalli mosque near Nanjikottai in 1550 and a village to the Madhva saint Vijayendra Tirtha in 1574. In 1579,
he grant vast lands to the Buddhist temple at Thiruvilandurai. Sevappa also patronized Portuguese merchants. A biography of Francis Xavier from Nagapattinam
says that the Portuguese "were greatly favoured by the lord of the country who is a very powerful captain of the king of Bisnaga". In his later days, Sevappa
appointed his son Achuthappa Nayak as co-ruler. In about 1563, Sevappa handed over authority in administrative matters to him and concentrated on acts of
charity. Sevappa died in 1580 and was succeeded by Achuthappa.
Achuthappa Nayak (died 1614) was the Thanjavur Nayak king who ruled from 1560 until his death in 1614. From 1560 to 1580, he was co-monarch along
with his father and from 1580 to 1614, he ruled on his own. His reign is generally regarded as one of peace and stability. Achuthappa Nayak was the eldest son
of Sevappa Nayak, the Vijayanagar feudatory of Arcot who founded the Thanjavur Nayak dynasty. His principal queen was Murtimamba. Achuthappa Nayak was
named by Sevappa Nayak after the Vijayanagar Emperor Achyuta Deva Raya. During his lifetime, Achuthappa Nayak was also known as Chinna Seva Achyutha
and Sevappa Achyutha. Achuthappa ruled for a total of 54 years during which Thanjavur experienced architectural and cultural development. While the earlier
part of his reign was peaceful, there was warfare with Muslim and Portuguese invaders towards the end. He maintained peaceful relations with the Vijayanagar
kings and assisted them in their campaigns. Achuthappa was assisted by his minister, the legendary Govinda Dikshitar. In 1579, the Madurai Nayak king Virappa
Nayak declared his independence from Vijayanagar. Achuthappa fought Virappa along with the Vijayanagar Emperor Venkata II at Vallamprakara (the present-
day Vallam near Thanjavur) and defeated him. This battle is not mentioned in any of Achuthappa's own inscriptions and the only references to this war are found
in the Pudukkottai plates of Adivirarama Srivallabha and Varathungarama, both dated 1583. The validity of these plates have since been questioned as
Venkatapathi did not ascend the throne until 1586. The Sahityaratnakara describe Achuthappa's victory over Parasikas at Nagapattinam. Ramabadramba too
refers to the campaign but names Achuthappa's enemies as "Parangi", the Tamil word used for colonial Europeans. During the early 17th century, the Portuguese
were waging a concentrated campaign to conquer Jaffna and Achuthappa's attack on Nagapattinam might have been launched to assist the king of Jaffna. To
supplant the Portuguese, Achuthappa also maintained friendly relations with the Dutch towards the end of his reign. On the whole, however, the kingdom
progressed during Achuthappa's reign. Achuthappa built the Thiraikattuvar Mandapam in the Vilanagar temple in 1608 and made generous land grants to
the Margasahayeshwara Temple at Muvalur near Mayiladuthurai, Thirumulasthana Temple at Chidambaram and Panaipakkam Temple. The Sangitha
Sudha says that Achuthappa Nayak was an ardent devotee of the Hindu god Ranganatha right from his boyhood. Achuthappa constructed the golden
vimana and gopuras around theRanganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam and constructed the flight of steps leading to the Cauvery. He constructed
Pushyamantapas to feed poor Brahmins in the towns ofMayiladuthurai, Thiruvidaimarudur, Kumbakonam and Tiruvadi. He also constructed a dam across the
Cauvery near the town of Tiruvadi in order to facilitate irrigation and endowedagraharas all over the kingdom. Literature flourished during his reign. The
works Sahityaratnakara and Raghunathabyudayam give a detailed picture of life in the Thanjavur Nayak kingdom. They describe the whole kingdom as a "paddy
forest" (Salivanam). According to sources, Achuthappa abdicated following the death of the Vijayanagar Emperor Venkatapathi in 1614 and anointed his
son Raghunatha Nayak as the next ruler. According to the Sahityaratnakara, Achuthappa retired to Srirangam upon abdication spending the rest of his life
discoursing with Hindu scholars. The Raghunathabyudayam says that Raghunatha Nayak approached Achuthappa to seek his blessings after the Battle of
Toppur in 1617. It is assumed that Achuthappa must have died after that date.
Raghunatha Nayak (died 1634) was the third ruler of Thanjavur from the Nayak dynasty from 1600 until his death in 1634 and is considered to be the
greatest of the Thanjavur Nayak kings. His reign is noted for the attainments of Thanjavur in literature, art and Carnatic music. Raghunatha Nayak was the eldest
son of Achuthappa Nayak and was born after intense penance by his father. The Raghunathabhyudayam and Sahityanatyakara give a detailed account of his
childhood. As a boy, Raghunatha was taught the shastras, the art of warfare and administration. He had multiple queens, chiefly Kalavati, who is referred to in
theRaghunathabhyudayam as Pattampurani. Ramabhadramba, who wrote a history of the Thanjavur Nayak dynasty, was one of his concubines. In his early days
Raghunatha won acclaim fighting the Golconda Sultanate. Raghunatha ascended the throne in 1600 and ruled with his father from 1600 to 1614 and as sole
monarch from 1614 to 1634. In 1614, Sriranga II, the Raja of Vijayanagar, was killed by a rival claimant, Jaggaraya. Raghunatha proceeded against Jaggaraya to
avenge the murder. Different accounts give varying versions of the events. According to Ramabhadramba, Raghunatha first fought a rebellious regional chieftain
called Solaga, pursuing him to Kumbakonam and then besieging him in his island-fortress on the Kollidam before turning his attention to the Portuguese and
attacking Jaffna. After his victory over the Portuguese, Ramabhadramba claims, Raghunatha returned to the Indian mainland, where he pursued Jaggaraya to
Toppur and defeated him. He later constructed a pillar of victory and took possession of Bhuvanagirinear Chidambaram. According to Yagnanarayana Dikshita,
the campaign was preceded by a council held by Achuthappa Nayak in which Raghunatha, Govinda Dikshita and the exiled king of Jaffna participated. The
whole campaign against Jaggaraya and the Solaga was the outcome of this conference. The Battle of Toppur was dated to 12 December 1616 based on
the Raghunathabyudayam, which states that Raghunatha was camping at Pazhamaneri in August 1616. Portuguese chroniclers dated Raghunatha's victories in
Jaffna to the beginning of 1616. The campaign against the Solaga must have also taken place at this time. The Raghunathabyudayam says that Solaga was the ruler
of an island (Antaripagataha) and a feudatory of Krishnappa Nayak of Gingee. He is described as a highwayman who attacked passers-by and stole their
belongings. Raghunatha's campaign was a punitive expedition to put an end to his activities. Raghunatha attacked Solaga's headquarters near Kumbakonam.
Supported by Krishnappa Nayak, the Portuguese and Muslim mercenaries, Solaga put up stiff resistance but was finally defeated by Raghunatha's artillery. He was
captured and imprisoned along with his family. Following the victory over Solaga, Raghunatha attacked Jaffna, possibly to punish the Portuguese, who had aided
Solaga in the war against him. While according to Nayak chronicles, Raghunatha himself led the expedition, according to Portuguese records, the campaign was
led by one Khem Nayak, a general in service of Raghunatha. The Thanjavur Nayak forces were victorious and the Portuguese were evicted from Jaffna. Cankili
II of the Aryachakravarti Dynasty was placed on the throne. However, Cankili II ruled for barely two years before being overthrown and killed in 1619. On his
return to India, Raghunatha Nayak personally led an army against Jaggaraya, who had usurped the throne of Vijayanagar after killing Sriranga II. Jaggaraya was
assisted by the Nayak of Madurai. Yagnanarayana Dikshita mentions that Jaggaraya was supported by Yavanas and Parasikas, whose identities remain unclear.
Raghunatha's army consisted of strong infantry and cavalry divisions, elephant corps and gunmen. The Vijayanagar claimant Rama Deva Raya fought alongside
him. The two armies met at Toppur. Raghunatha was completely victorious; Jaggaraya was captured and killed and Rama Deva Raya was placed on the throne.
Raghunatha also conducted minor campaigns. Though he was not able to prevent the Aryachakravarti dynasty from being overthrown, he kept up pressure
against the Portuguese by supporting rebellions. The Karaiyarsa class of fishermen along the Gulf of Mannarmade six attempts between 1620 and 1621 to
overthrow Portuguese rule. Raghunatha, himself, sent five armies between 1619 and 1621 to conquer Jaffna, but all of them ended in failure. Raghunatha
patronized Carnatic music in his kingdom. The Nayak himself composed a number of Yakshaganas and was a good veena player. Kshetrayya, the composer
from Muvva, visited Thanjavur and composed padas during his reign. Raghunatha also renovated a number of Vaishnavite temples. He constructed
the Ramaswamy Temple in Kumbakonam, the popular Saraswathi Mahal Library in Thanjavur and the gopura of the Adi Kumbeswarar Temple in
Kumbakonam. He expanded the Uppiliappan Templeand the Rajagopalaswamy Temple, Mannargudi. The car festivals of Thiruvaiyaru and Pasupatikoil were
conducted on a lavish scale. Raghunatha changed the structure of the veena and invented the raga Jayantasena and the tala Ramananda.
[12][13][14]
He also composed
a number of kavyas in Telugu, important ones being Parijatapaharanamu, Valmikicharitram,Rukminiparinaya Yakshaganam and Ramayanam. He wrote the
Sanskrit plays Sangita Sudha and Bharatha Sudha. The Telugu poets Ramabhadramba, Madhuravani, Chemakura Venkataraju and Krishnadhwari were active
during his reign. Raghunatha was also an expert sword-fighter and horse rider. Raghunatha's biographies note his generosity towards Brahmins. Raghunatha
constructed a number of agraharas and gave costly gifts to poor Brahmins and the disabled. A 1604 inscription from Narattampoondi records Raghunatha's gift of
the village of Kailasapuram for the upkeep of the Srirangam temple. He also gave lavish gifts to the Madhva pontiff,Vijayindra Tirtha, and the Sri Mutt in
Kumbakonam. Raghunatha maintained cordial relations with the Danes and the English. The Portuguese had established factories at San Thome and
Nagapattinam on the eastern coast prior to the accession of Raghunatha, while the Dutch founded a settlement at Tegnapatnam in 1610. South Indian rulers
patronized and supported the Dutch in order to neutralize the belligerent Portuguese. The Danes under Ove Gjedde founded the settlement of Tranquebar on
November 19, 1620. Following a visit to Raghunatha's court, the English captain John Johnson and Brockedon, the President of the English settlements, tried to
convince the directors of the East India Company to send a mission to Thanjavur. Johnson wrote home: ... the Great Naik demands of men what the reason is
that the English do not desire to trade in his land as well as the Portugal, saying they shall have the pepper and anything the land doth afford and likewise buy the
commodities that they do bring with them as tin, lead, iron and red cloth is well sold. Little does our nation know how they are expected all this land, thus the
Danes do trade under the name of the English and are marvellous well used. Johnson's proposal was approved; a mission landed at Karaikal on May 23, 1624
and proceeded inland to Thanjavur to seek an audience with the king, reaching the capital in June. Raghunatha received the visitors warmly and granted them
permits to trade freely in Karaikal. However, Raghunatha later withdrew his concessions and demanded an annual rent of 7,000 riyals. This volte-face has been
attributed to pressure from the Portuguese and the Danes. Nevertheless, Johnson rejected the Nayak's offer and returned to England, where his action was
severely censured. The English also tried to get Pondicherry from the Gingee Nayaks and failed. Raghunatha's empire extended far beyond the confines of
Thanjavur district. His inscriptions have been found in Thirukkoshtiyur in Ramanathapuram district, Lalgudi in Tiruchirappalli district, Govindavadi in
Kanchipuram district, and Nedugunram and Narattampoondi in Vellore district.
Vijaya Raghava Nayak (1590s - 1673) was the fourth and last king of Sevappa Nayak's line from 1634 until his death in 1673. In 1673, Vijaya Raghava
Nayak was defeated in battle by the Madurai Nayak king Chokkanatha Nayak who captured and beheaded him. Vijaya Raghava Nayak was the eldest son
of Raghunatha Nayak. He held the titles "Mannaru Dasa" and "Sahitya Raya". He ascended the throne in 1634 on the death of his father and predecessor. Like his
father Raghunatha Nayak, Vijaya Raghava Nayak was also a patron of art and music. He composed the work Raghunathabyudayam on his father's life. The end
of the Thanjavur Nayak dynasty was brought on by Chokkanatha Nayak, the Nayak of Madurai. The dispute was due to the refusal of Vijaya Ragava to give his
daughter in marriage to Chokkanatha Nayak. Chokkantha determined to fetch the maiden by force back into their capital, successfully stormed the Thanjavur
palace in 1673 after flattening much of the fort walls by cannons. But Chokkanatha was thwarted in his attempts by Vijaya Ragava, when he, in a gruesome act of
defiance, blew up his daughter and all the other ladies of the palace. He then charged at the attacking army with his son and his body-guard. He was captured
after a brief fight, and was beheaded by the Madurai General Samukham Venkata Krishnappa Nayadu.
Alagiri Nayak was the last Nayak king of Thanjavur and the younger brother of the Madurai Nayak king Chokkanatha Nayak. In 1675, Thanjavur was
conquered by Ekoji I, the half-brother of Shivaji who founded the Thanjavur Maratha kingdom from 1673 until 1675.

Golconda Sultanate
The Qutb Shahi dynasty (Persian: ) was a Shia Muslim Turkman dynasty of Kara Koyunlu origin that initially patronized Persianate culture. Its
members were collectively called the Qutub Shahis and were the ruling family of the kingdom of Golkonda in modern-day Andhra Pradesh, India. The
Golconda sultanate was constantly in conflict with the Adil Shahis and Nizam Shahis. In 1636, Shah Jahan forced the Qutb Shahis to recognize Mughal
suzerainty, which lasted until 1687 when the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb conquered the Golcondan sultanate.
List of Sultans of Golconda Sultanate
Quli Qutb Shah (Persian: ) (also transliterated in different ways, died 1543), a Turkmen from Hamadan, was the founder of the Qutb
Shahi dynasty, which ruled the Sultanate of Golconda in southern India from 1518 until his death in in 1543. A Kara Koyunlu Shia Muslim, Quli Qutb Shah
migrated to Delhi with some of his relatives and friends in the beginning of the 16th century. Later he migrated south to Deccan and served Bahmani sultan.
After the disintegration of the Bahmani Sultanate into the five Deccan sultanates, he declared independence and took title Qutb Shah, and established Qutb
Shahi dynasty of Golconda.Quli Qutb Shah was a contemporary of Krishana Deva Raya and his younger brother Achyuta Deva Raya of the Vijayanagara empire.
Quli extended his rule by capturing forts atWarangal, Kondapalli, Eluru, and Rajamundry, while Krishnadevaraya was busy fighting the ruler of Odisha. He
defeated Sitapati Raju (known as Shitab Khan), the ruler ofKhammam, and captured the fort. He forced Odisha's ruler to surrender all the territories between the
mouths of Krishna and Godavari rivers. He was able to occupy Eluru,Rajamundry and Machilipatnam extending his rule to Coastal Andhra. Quli's campaign
against Krishnadevaraya continued until Timmarusu, the Prime Minister of Krishnadevaraya, defeated the Golconda army. Sultan Quli Qutb Shah died in 1543.
His younger son, Jamsheed Quli Qutb Shah, assassinated him while he was offering his prayers. Jamsheed also blinded Quli's elder son and heir, Kutbuddeen
and assumed the throne. His other son Ibrahim Quli Qutub Shah fled to Vijayanagar.
Jamsheed Quli Qutb Shah (also transliterated in different ways) (Urdu: , died January 22, 1550) was the second ruler of the
Sultanate ofGolkonda under the Qutb Shahi dynasty from 1543 until his death on January 22, 1550. His father, Sultan Quli Qutb-ul-Mulk, had established the
dynasty and had become the first Muslim to rule over the entire Telugu region. In 1543, Jamsheed Quli Qutb Shah assassinated his father, blinded his older
brother, the heir to the throne, and forced his other brother, Ibrahim Quli to flee to Vijayanagar. Following his father's death, he did not proclaim himself sultan,
but forced local chiefs to accept his suzerainty, while gaining some forts from the Baridis.
[1]
Little is known of Jamsheed's reign, but he is remembered as having
been cruel. He died in 1550 from cancer.
Subhan Quli Qutb Shah (1543-1550) (Urdu: ) was a ruler of the kingdom of Golconda in southern India in 1550.was 7 years old,
when he became Sultan of Golconda, after the death of his father Jamsheed Quli Qutb Shah, in 1550. Saif Khan, also known as Ainul Mulk, was sent
from Ahmednagar for the performance of duties of regent during the boy's development. But Jamsheed's younger brother Ibrahim Quli Qutb Shah returned
from Vijayanagara to Golconda, and ascended the throne. Subhan was deposed, and died of illness or was murdered in the same year.
Ibrahim Qutb Shah Wali (1518-1580) (Urdu: ) was a ruler of the kingdom of Golconda in southern India from 1550 until his death
in 1580. He was the first of the Qutb Shahi dynasty to use the title "Sultan". Ibrahim's brother, Jamsheed Quli Qutb Shah, killed their own father and blinded
their eldest brother, taking the throne in 1543. Ibrahim ran away and lived in exile as an honored guest of the powerful patriarch of Vijayanagara, Aliya Rama
Raya. There, he developed a love for the Telugu language, which he patronized and encouraged during his reign. Ibrahim employed Hindus for administrative,
diplomatic and military purposes within his sultanate. When Jamsheed and a little later Jamsheed's infant son Subhan throned, Ibrahim returned
to Golconda and took the throne. Following the battle of Talikota in 1565, Ibrahim was able to take the hill forts of Adoni and Udayagiri. A patron of the arts,
Ibrahim sponsored many court poets, such as Singanacharyudu, Addanki Gangadharudu, and Kandukuru Rudrakavi. There were Telugu poets, in a break from
tradition, as well as Arabic and Persian poets in his court. He is also known in Telugu literature as, Malki Bharama. He took keen interest in the welfare of his
people. He also repaired and fortified Golconda Fortand developed the Hussain Sagar lake and Ibrahim Bagh. He is described in one of the inscriptions on the
"Makki Darwaza" in the fort as "The Greatest of Sovereigns". After a short illness Ibrahim died in 1580.

Madras Presidency
The Madras Presidency, headquartered in Fort St. George, was a province of British India that comprised present day Tamil Nadu, the Malabar region of
North Kerala, the coastal and Rayalaseema regions of Andhra Pradesh, and the Bellary, Dakshina Kannada, and Udupi districts ofKarnataka. It was established
in 1653 to be the headquarters of the English settlements on the Coromandel Coast. The territory under the presidency initially comprised only Madraspatnam
and surrounding regions. But, after the Anglo-French wars and the consequent alliance between the English East India Company and the Nawab of Arcot, it
expanded to comprise the region from Northern Circarsto Cape Comorin. Alongside, the governance structure also evolved from a modest secretariat with a
single secretary for the Public Department in 1670 to six departments overseen by a Chief Secretary by 1920. With the enactment of Government of India Act
1919, the first legislature was formed in 1920 after general elections. The term of the legislative council was three years. It had 132 members of whom 34 were
nominated by the Governor and the rest were elected. Under the Government of India Act 1935, a bicameral legislature was set up with a legislative assembly
consisting of 215 members and a legislative council having 56 members. The first legislative assembly under this act was constituted in July 1937. The legislative
council was a permanent body with a third of its members retiring every three years. In 1939, the British government declared India's entrance into World War
II without consulting provincial governments. Congress protested by asking all its elected representatives to resign from the governments. Congress came back to
power in 1946 after new provincial elections.
List of Chiefs Ministers of Madras Presidency
Agaram Subbarayalu Reddiar (October 15, 1855 - November, 1921) was a landlord, Justice Party leader and Chief Minister or Premier of Madras
Presidency from December 17, 1920 to July 11, 1921. Subbarayalu Reddiar was born in a Reddiar family of South Arcot in 1855. He studied law in the West.
On his return to India, Subbarayalu Reddiar involved himself in district politics of South Arcot and served as a district board president. Initially, he joined
theIndian National Congress but left the party in 1916 to join the Justice Party. When the Justice Party was elected to power in the Madras Presidency in the first
general elections in November 1920, Subbarayalu Reddiar was chosen as Chief Minister. Thus, Subbarayalu Reddiar is the first Chief Minister of Madras
Presidency. Subbarayalu Reddiar served as Chief Minister till July 11, 1921 when he resigned on grounds of health. He died soon afterwards. Agaram
Subbarayalu Reddiar was born in a Telugu Reddi family domiciled in South Arcot district of Madras Presidency on October 15, 1855.
[3]
His parents were well-to-
do farmers. He studied in Presidency College, Chennai along with Theagaroya Chetty. Later he studied law in the United Kingdom. Subbarayalu Reddiar served
as the President of Cuddalore taluk Board in 1912. In 1917 he became the chair of South Arcot District Board. He later became the first Chief Minister
of Madras Presidency, present-day state of Tamil Nadu. At the end of November 1920, the first general elections were held to the Madras Legislative Assembly
as per the Montford Reforms. The Indian National Congress, a part of its policy during the Non-Cooperation Movement boycotted the elections. As a result, the
Justice Party swept to power winning 63 of the 98 Assembly seats to which elections were conducted. Among the nominated members, it had a strength of 18
adding up to a total of 81 members in a chamber of 127. Following the success of the Justice Party in the 1920 elections, Lord Willingdon invited Sir Theagaroya
Chetty to form the Government.
[
However, he passed on the mantle to Subbarayalu Reddiar. Subbarayalu Reddiar assumed office as Chief Minister on
December 17, 1920 and held the portfolios of education, public works, excise and registration in the new government. The first session of the assembly was
inaugurated by Duke of Connaught on January 13, 1921. On February 14, 1921, three new Council Secretaries were appointed by the Justice party Government.
However, Subbarayalu Reddiar resigned soon afterwards on grounds of health. Subbarayalu Reddiar died in November 1921.
Panaganti Ramarayaningar, KCIE (July 9, 1866 December 16, 1928), also known as the Raja of Panagal, was a zamindar of
Kalahasti, a Justice Party leader and the Chief Minister or Premier of Madras Presidency from July 11, 1921 until December 3, 1926.
Ramarayaningar was born in Kalahasti on July 9, 1866. He was educated in Madras and obtained degrees in Sanskrit, law, philosophy and
Dravidian languages before entering politics. He was one of the founder-members of the Justice Party and served as its President from 1925
until 1928. From December 17, 1920 until July 11, 1921, Ramarayaningar served as the Minister of Local Self-Government in the first
Justice Party government led by A. Subbarayalu Reddiar. He served as the Chief Minister of Madras Presidency from July 11, 1921 until
December 3, 1926. He introduced a number of reforms during his tenure. The Theagaroya Nagar locality in Chennai was developed
during his Chief-Ministership. Ramarayaningar resigned as Chief Minister in 1926 when the Justice Party failed to obtain a majority in the
1926 elections to the Madras Legislative Council. He, however, continued to remain active in politics and served as the President of the
Justice Party until his death on December 1928. Ramarayaningar was regarded as an advocate of democracy and a staunch supporter of
empowerment of the depressed classes. Historians generally attribute the decline of the Justice Party in the mid-1930s to the absence of charismatic leaders in the
Justice Party following his death. Ramarayaningar was born in a family of landlords. He belonged to a Velama family that claimed to be the earliest Kshatriyas to
settle in the Telugu country. Ramarayaningar's family, in particular, patronised Brahmins and the Raja had his early education in the household of Calamur
Sundara Sastri, the father-in-law of C. P. Ramaswami Iyer. He completed his schooling from Triplicane High School in 1886[3] and graduated in Sanskrit from
the Presidency College in 1893 with Advanced Chemistry as his optional subject. He graduated in BL and M.A. (Philosophy and Dravidian Languages) in 1899.
In 1919, he was appointed a fellow of the Presidency College. Ramarayaningar got his first taste of politics when he was appointed to the district board of North
Arcot. In 1912, he was nominated to the Imperial Legislative Council of India and represented the landlords and zamindars of South India. He served as a
legislator until 1915. During this period, Ramarayaningar earned the praise of the Viceroy, Lord Hardinge. He actively supported reforms in the Hindu society.
In 1914, Ramarayaningar moved legislation for the creation of separate Provincial departments for the welfare of depressed classes. In 1915, he was elected
President of the Third Andhra Congress. In 1914, the Madras Dravidian Association was established by C. Natesa Mudaliar. Ramarayaningar was elected as the
first President of the Association. On July 19, 1917, at a conference in Coimbatore presided over by the Ramarayaningar, the four different non-Brahmin
associations got together to form the South Indian Liberal Federation, unofficially known as the Justice Party. In 1921, Ramarayaningar was sent along with
Kurma Venkata Reddy Naidu and Koka Appa Rao Naidu to lobby on behalf of the Justice Party before the authorities in England. Ramarayaningar was also
active in the All-India Non-Brahmin movement. He was a friend of Shahu Maharaj and was closely associated with the former's Satya Shodhak Samaj. He
attended the All India Non-Brahmin Conference held at Belgaum on December 26, 1924 and presided over the Second All-India Non-Brahmin Conference
held at Victoria Hall, Madras on May 25, 1925. When the Government of India Act was passed in 1919, provisions were made to hold elections in the Madras
Presidency for the first time in history. The Justice Party unanimously decided to contest the elections and was elected to power in the province. A. Subbarayalu
Reddiar became the first Chief Minister of the Madras Presidency. Ramarayaningar served as Minister of Local Self-Government in the Subbarayalu Reddiar
Government. When Subbarayalu Reddiar resigned, citing health reasons, Ramarayaningar was appointed Chief Minister. Ramarayaningar served as the Chief
Minister of Madras from July 11, 1921 until December 3, 1926. A. P. Patro of Berhampur was appointed to fill the vacancy caused by Subbarayalu Reddiar's
resignation, and he took the portfolio of education. In 1921, a labour strike erupted in the Buckingham and Carnatic Mills in Madras. This strike was led by V.
Kalyanasundara Mudaliar, a leader of the Indian National Congress. The strike lasted for over six months during which around 10,000 workers struck work. A
crackdown was ordered. Eventually, two factions emerged; one group of workers desired to return to work while another wished to continue the strike. Violent
riots broke out when striking workers prevented the others from returning to work. The riots began to assume communal colours as the workers who wished to
continue the strike were mostly caste Hindus while those who desired to end it were largely untouchables or Dalits. Ministers in the Madras government and
ruling party members supported the strike. On August 29, 1921, the police opened fire killing six of the workers on the spot. Top Justice Party leaders like O.
Thanikachalam Chetti severely censured the police for the measures they adopted. The main reason was the fact that the police was under the control of the
Governor and the government was looking for an opportunity to harass the executive.Another probable reason was that the striking workers had the caste
sympathies of the Justice Party Government whose ministers and chief whips were caste Hindus like themselves. The Justice Party leaders were extremely
vociferous in their attacks on Dalits and the Labour Department. Their views were endorsed by the Raja of Panagal who joined Thanickachalam Chetti in
admonishing the Dalits. The party's organ Justice blamed the riots on the "pampering" of Dalits by the Labour Department. M. C. Rajah, the leader of the Dalits
in the Justice Party, in turn, retorted by describing the criticism of Dalits by Justice Party members as "the high-handed poisonous action of members of a party
who after inflicting all known and unknown injury on our community shed crocodile tears and pose as friends of the Depressed classes". Though the B & C mills
strike was eventually settled through the mediation of C. Natesa Mudaliar, the communal riots which had accompanied it estranged Dalits from the Justice Party
and was one of the reasons for Rajah quitting the party at a later stage. Polling for the second general elections in the Madras Presidency began on September 11,
1923. However, owing to heavy rains, polling was not completed until November 10, 1923. Though the Justice Party returned to power, its majority had been
considerably reduced. Observers attribute this decline in performance to the rift between the Tamil and Telugu members of the Justice party. Ramarayaningar
assumed office as Chief Minister on November 19, 1923 and retained the same Cabinet with one change K. V. Reddi Naidu, the Minister of Development was
replaced with T. N. Sivagnanam Pillai. In 1923, the British government bestowed upon Ramarayaningar, the honorific title of "Raja of Panagal" In 1923, a few
prominent members of the Justice Party broke off to form the United Nationalist Party and projected themselves as "Democrats". The dissidents were led by C.
R. Reddy, a leader of the Justice Party, who complained of the dictatorial rule of the Raja and his insensitive, unimaginative policies. On November 27, 1923, a
no-confidence motion was introduced against the government of the Raja of Panagal. The no-confidence motion was defeated by a margin of 65 votes to 44.
Ramarayaningar introduced a number of reforms during his tenure as Chief Minister. In 1921, the Raja of Panagal introduced the Hindu Religious Endowments
Bill. As per this bill, trusts were established to maintain temple funds and given complete power over the administration of temples. This act evoked severe
protests from some sections of the assembly which felt that this was an intrusion in the religious affairs of the populace. However, the Shankaracharya of Kanchi
gave his support to the bill even while expressing his concern over some of its provisions. In 1922, the Madras State Aid to Industries Act was passed. Through
this act, the government made it a state policy to advance loans to developing industries. It received less opposition in the assembly. This eventually became
Madras Act V of 1923. The Madras University Act was passed in the year 1923. The bill was introduced by Education Minister Sir A. P. Patro. As per the
provisions of this bill, the governing body of the Madras University was completely reorganised on democratic lines. The bill asserted that the governing body
would henceforth be headed by a Chancellor who would be assisted by a pro-Chancellor who was usually the Minister of Education. Apart from the Chancellor
and the pro-Chancellor who were elected, there was to be a Vice-Chancellor appointed by the Chancellor. In 1925, the Andhra University Act was passed which
included similar reforms in Andhra University. However, the tenure of the Justice Party government of the Raja of Panagal is largely remembered for the
introduction of caste-based reservations in 1921. In August 1921, the First communal Government Order (G.O. No.613) was passed. As per the order, 44
percent of jobs were reserved for non-Brahmins, 16 percent for Brahmins, 16 percent for Muslims, 16 percent for Anglo-Indians and Christians and eight
percent for the Scheduled Castes.In 1923, M. C. Rajah, a Justice Party leader from the Dalit community protested against the government order arguing that the
act did not guarantee adequate representation of Dalits who he felt deserved 30% reservation in the administration and the services. When the Justice Party failed
to respond, he resigned from the primary membership of the party. Dr. Gour's Bill, introduced in 1921, brought about an amendment in the Special Marriages
Act, sanctioning the legal validity of inter-caste marriages.The rapid growth of the population of Madras necessitated the expansion of the city and the creation of
more residential colonies. To fulfill this requirement, the Madras Town Planning Act of 1920 had been passed on 7 September 1920 before the dyarchy was
established. As per the provisions of this Act, numerous town planning measures were taken during the tenure of the Raja of Panagal. The 5 km (3.1 mi) long
and 2 km (1.2 mi) broad Long Tank, which extended from Nungambakkam to Saidapet, forming an arc along the city's western frontier, was drained out in 1923.
The development of the tract to the west of the Long Tank had been initiated by the British Government in 1911 with the construction of a railway station at the
village of Marmalan or Mambalam. Following the draining out of the Long Tank, the Justice Party government of the Raja of Panagal conceived the creation of a
residential colony adjoining this little village. The residential colony was named Theagaroya Nagar after Justice Party stalwart Sir Pitti Theagaroya Chetty, who had
died shortly before the township was inaugurated, and was centred around a park named Panagal Park after the Raja of Panagal. The streets in this new locality
were named after prominent members of the Justice Party or officials in the municipal administration. The Raja of Panagal reorganised the Public Works
Department in the Presidency, improved medical facilities, water supply and communications in rural areas and patronised Siddha medicine. Sir Muhammed
Usman, later minister in the government of the Raja of Bobbili was appointed Secretary of the Committee on siddha medicine. He also sponsored endowments
to the University of Madras to produce scientific literature in Telugu. Theagaroya Chetty, the founder-President of the Justice Party died in 1925 and the Raja,
then Chief Minister of Madras succeeded Chetty as the second President of the Justice Party. The Raja served as the President of the party until his death in
1928. Ramarayaningar was made a Knight Commander of the Order of the Indian Empire on June 5, 1926. In the Assembly elections which took place on
November 8, 1926, no party was able to get a clean majority. The Swarajya Party won 41 of the 98 seats and emerged as the single largest party while the Justice
party won 21. The Raja resigned as the Chief Minister of the Presidency as the popular verdict appeared to be against the Justice Party. As no party had a clean
majority and the Swarajya Party which was the single largest party in the assembly was reluctant to form the government, the Governor appointed P. Subbarayan
as the independent Chief Minister and nominated 34 members to the Council to support him. In 1927, the Simon Commission which was appointed to report
on the working of the progress of the Montagu-Chelmsford reforms landed in India. The Swarajya Party moved a resolution to boycott the Commission and this
was passed 61 to 50 with 12 remaining neutral. The Justice Party and the Swarajists supported the resolution while the Chief Minister P. Subbarayan opposed it
and requested his ministers to resign. However, Lord Goschen, the Governor, was able to obtain the support of the Raja of Panagal by making a Justice Party
member, M. Krishnan Nair, a Cabinet minister. Led by the Raja of Panagal, the Justice Party switched sides and lent its support to the Subbarayan government.
Soon afterwards, the Justice Party passed a resolution welcoming the Simon Commission. The Simon Commission visited Madras on February 28, 1928 and
February 18, 1929 and was boycotted by the Swarajya Party and the Indian National Congress. However, the Justicites and the Subbarayan Government accorded
the Commission a warm reception.Panagal Maaligai or Panagal Building, formerly Chingleput Collectorate, and currently, District Revenue Office, is named after
the Raja of Panagal Ramarayaningar died on December 16, 1928 of influenza. He was succeeded as the President of the Justice Party by P. Munuswamy Naidu.
On his death, leading newspapers and magazines poured accolades on him. S. Srinivasa Iyengar, a political opponent of the Raja, said of him: The Rajah Sahib
had singular gifts to leadership, tact and of high diplomacy. He had not only led his party with remarkable success but he fought the bureaucracy with even greater
skill and courage. The Hindu paid rich tributes to the Raja: Essentially a conservative by instinct and training, he showed remarkable ability to perceive the trend
of the popular upheaval in our province no less in social than in political matters and he showed consummate strategy and great ability in maintaining the
influence and integrity of his party, when the mantle of leadership fell on him after the death of Sir P. Theagaraya Chetti a few years ago. In many respects he was
a contrast to the other leader who was frank, outspoken and vehement in his lift and conduct. The Rajah Saheb was, on the other hand, reserved and restrained,
tactful and polished to a degree and his courtesy and consideration to friends and opponents alike has always been marked. The Justice Party began to decline
with the death of the Raja of Panagal. The lack of efficient leadership in the party is regarded as the main reason for its decline.Despite his aristocratic birth,
Ramarayaningar was known for his egalitarian views. Despite the fact that he was regarded as a communalist and anti-Brahmin, he nominated a Brahmin, T.
Sadasiva Iyer as the Commissioner of the Hindu Religious Endowment Board. Ramarayaningar, however, strongly opposed what he perceived as the
monopolisation of education by Brahmins. On being interviewed by Katherine Mayo, he responded: What did the Brahmans do for our education in the five
thousand years before Britain came? I remind you: They asserted their right to pour hot lead into the ears of the low-caste man who should dare to study books.
All learning belonged to them, they said. When the Muhammadans swarmed in and took us, even that was an improvement on the old Hindu rgime. But only
in Britain's day did education become the right of all, with state schools, colleges, and universities accessible o all castes, communities, and peoples.
Paramasiva Subbarayan (September 11, 1889 October 6, 1962) was an Indian politician, freedom fighter and diplomat and was
the Chief Minister of Madras Presidency from December 4, 1927 until October 27, 1930, India's ambassador to Indonesia and Union
Minister of Transport and Communications inJawaharlal Nehru's government. He is the father of General P. P. Kumaramangalam who
served as India's Chief of Army staff and politician Mohan Kumaramangalam. He is also the grandfather of Indian National
Congress and BJP politician and Union MinisterRangarajan Kumaramangalam. Subbarayan was born on September 11, 1889 in the
family estate at Kumaramangalam, Salem district and had his education atPresidency College, Madras, University of Dublin,
the University of London and Christ Church, Oxford. In 1922, he was nominated to theMadras Legislative Council. He served as the
Chief Minister of Madras Presidency from December 4, 1926 until October 27, 1930. In 1933, Subbarayan joined the Indian National
Congress and served as the Minister of Law and Education in Rajaji's cabinet and the Minister of Police and Home in Ramaswamy
Reddiar's cabinet. Subbarayan participated and was imprisoned in the Quit India Movement. He served as independent India's
ambassador to Indonesia and as Union Minister from 1959 to 1962. Subbarayan died on 6 October 1962 at the age of 73. He was
the Governor of Maharashtra at the time of his death. Subbarayan was born to Paramasiva Gounder in the family estate of Kumaramangalam near
Tiruchengode, Namakkal district on September 11, 1889. He belonged to the family of Zamindars. He graduated from the Presidency College, Madras and
obtained his M.A.and LLD from the Christ Church, Oxford

and the University of Dublin respectively. He started practising as anadvocate of the Madras High
Court in 1918. In 1922, Subbarayan was nominated to the Madras Legislative Council as an independent candidate representing the landowners of the South-
Central division of the Madras Presidency and served as a Council Secretary. He took the side of C. R. Reddy and theSwarajists and voted against the Raja of
Panagal during the no-confidence motion of 1923.

In the Assembly elections which took place on November 8, 1926, no party was able to get a clean
majority.The Swaraj Party won 41 of the 98 seats and emerged as the single largest party while the Justice Party won 21. It was a setback for the Justice Party and
its incumbent Chief Minister, the Raja of Panagal. However, none of the parties could form the Government as they did not have a clean majority. The Governor
invited the Swarajya Party to take the lead in forming a coalition government but the latter refused. The Justice Party did not have enough seats. Hence, the
Governor chose Subbarayan, who was not affiliated to either of these parties, to form the Government and nominated 34 new members to the Madras Legislative
Council to support him. An independent ministry was formed with A. Ranganatha Mudaliar and R. N. Arogyaswamy Mudaliar as the second and third ministers.
The Justice Party took the place of an opposition.

Because of the fact that Subbarayan's regime was appointed and largely controlled by the Governor, it became
the target of strong criticism both from the Justicites as well as the Swarajists.

In March 1927, P. Munuswamy Naidu of the Justice Party passed a motion
recommending salary cuts for Government ministers. However, they were defeated by a margin of 41 votes. A no-confidence motion was passed on August 23,
1927, but was defeated 56 to 67 with the support of the Governor and the members nominated by him. The Simon Commission was appointed by the British
Parliament in 1927 to report on the working of the progress of the Montagu-Chelmsford reforms.The Swarajya Party moved a resolution to boycott the
Commission and this was passed 61 to 50 with 12 remaining neutral. Subbarayan opposed the resolution but his cabinet ministers Ranganatha Mudaliar and
Arogyaswamy Mudaliar supported it.

Subbarayan resigned as Chief Mnister, but at the same time, he also compelled his ministers to submit their
resignations. Fearing the possibility of the formation of a Swarajya Party-Justice Party coalition Government, the Governor stepped in to foster discord amongst
the opposition. In order to obtain the support of the Raja of Panagal,he appointed Krishnan Nair, a leading member of the Justice Party as his Law Member. Led
by the Raja of Panagal, the Justice Party switched sides and lent its support to the Subbarayan government. Soon afterwards, the Justice Party passed a resolution
welcoming the Simon Commission. The Simon Commission visited Madras on 28 February 1928 and February 18, 1929 and was boycotted by the Swarajya
Party and the Indian National Congress. However, the Justicites and the Subbarayan Government accorded the Commission a warm reception. In the 1930
elections, due to the non-participation of the Indian National Congress and the Swarajya Party, the Justice Party won an overwhelming majority and was voted to
power. Subbarayan was succeeded as Chief Minister by Munuswamy Naidu.

The Raja of Panagal government had introduced the Communal Government Order
(G. O. No. 613) in 1921 which introduced reservations in the Presidency. However, the provisions of this act were not implemented till 1927. The Subbarayan
government, therefore, introduced the Communal G. O. Ms No. 1021 to implement the 1921 order. The act was introduced by S. Muthiah Mudaliar, the
Education Minister in Subbarayan's cabinet on April 11, 1927. This act, it is believed, introduced provisions for reservations for Dalits and increased
representation for Indian Christians and Muslims.At the same time, it reduced the reservations for Brahmins from 22% to 16% and non-Brahmins from 48% to
42%. This act was in effect till India's independence on August 15, 1947. Subbarayan introduced the Madras District Municipalities Act and Local Boards Act
during his tenure. The Annamalai University, founded by Rajah Sir Annamalai Chettiar was opened by Subbarayan in Chettinad in 1929. The Annamalai
University is the first residential university in Madras Presidency. Subbarayan was re-elected as an independent to the Madras Legislative Council in 1930. As a
member of the legislature, Subbarayan was instrumental in introducing prohibition in Salem district in 1930. Prohibition was enforced in Salem till 1943 when it
was scrapped by the British. In 1932, C. S. Ranga Iyer passed the Untouchability Abolition Bill in the Imperial Legislative Council. On November 1, 1932,
Subbarayan proposed the Temple Entry Bill which permitted low-caste Hindus and Dalits enter Hindu temples and made their prohibition illegal and
punishable. He also passed a copy of the resolution and the proceedings of the Council to Mahatma Gandhi who was in jail. The Viceroy, however, refused
permission explaining that temple entry was an all-India problem and should not be dealt with in a provincial basis even while clearing Ranga Iyer's bill.

The
Temple Entry Bill was not passed until the Indian National Congress came to power in 1937. Subbarayan had been a follower of Mahatma Gandhi from his early
days

and he officially joined the Indian National Congress in 1933. He also served as the President of the Tamil Nadu Harijan Sevak Sangh.

Subbarayan was an
admirer of Indian National Congress leader Chakravarti Rajagopalachari (Rajaji) right from his early days.

Rajaji had been his personal lawyer in property cases.
In 1937, when the Indian National Congress swept to power in the Madras Presidency and Rajaji took over as the Chief Minister of the Presidency, he appointed
Subbarayan the Minister of Law and Education.

Subbarayan resigned along with other members of the Rajaji cabinet when war was declared in 1939. Subbarayan
also served as the President of the Board of Control for Cricket in India from 193738 to 194546. Subbarayan actively participated in the Quit India
Movement and was arrested along with other Congress leaders as Sathyamurthy and M. Bakthavatsalam. In 1947, he served as a Minister for Home and Police in
the Ramaswamy Reddiar Cabinet in Madras and was a member of the Constituent Assembly of India. He served as a member of the Provincial COnstitution
Committee. From 1949 to 1951, Subbarayan served as independent India's first ambassador to Indonesia. He was instrumental in the signing of a mutual treaty of
friendship with the Indonesian Foreign Minister Mohammed Roem on 3 March 1951. Subbarayan's tenure came to an end in 1951 and he was succeeded by
Alagappan.On his return to India, Subbarayan was elected President of the Tamil Nadu Congress Committee (TNCC). Subbarayan also served as a member
of Rajya Sabha from 1954 to 1957. In 1957, Subbarayan was elected to the Lok Sabha from Tiruchengode and served as a member till 1962. He was elected
again in 1962 but was instead made Governor of Maharashtra. Subbarayan was a member of the First Official Language Commission constituted by Prime
Minister Nehru on June 7, 1955, under the chairmanship of B. G. Kher. The commission delivered its report on July 31, 1956. It recommended a number of
steps to eventually replace English with Hindi as the sole official language of India. Subbarayan and another member Suniti Kumar Chatterji from West
Bengal did not agree with its findings and added dissenting notes to the report. Later when the Indian President Rajendra Prasad sought his opinion on making
Hindi as the sole official language, Subbarayan advised against it.

Subbarayan served as the Minister of Transport and Communications in the Government of
India union cabinet from 1959 until 1962.Subbarayan took a keen interest in sports during his lifetime. He wrote numerous articles on cricket and was the
Founder-President of the Indian Cricket Federation, the first association in the Madras Presidency to represent Indian cricketing interests. He also served as the
President of the Board of Control for Cricket in India during the Second World War.

He also served as the President of the Madras Olympic Association and
the Madras Hockey Association.

Subbarayan died at the age of 73 on October 6, 1962.Subbarayan married Kailash Radhabai Kulmud, a Mangalorean
Brahmo of Brahmin parentage, who was his colleague in Presidency College, Madras, by Brahmo rites despite opposition from family members. Radhabai
Subbarayan was an active campaigner for women's rights and served as a member of the Indian parliament. Subbarayan's eldest son Mohan Kumaramangalam
was a minister in Indira Gandhis cabinet. His second son, General P. P. Kumaramangalam was a Second World Warveteran and served as India's Chief of
Army staff. A third son Gopal Kumaramangalam headed important public sector undertakings. Mohan's son and Subbarayan's grandsonRangarajan Kumara
mangalam was a minister in Indian National Congress and NDA governments. Subbarayan's daughter Parvathi Krishnan was a politician belonging to
theCommunist Party of India. She was a Member of the Rajya Sabha from 1954 to 1957 and represented Coimbatore in the Lok Sabha three times. A portrait of
Subbarayan was unveiled in the central hall of the Indian Parliament on October 16, 1989.



Bollini Munuswamy Naidu (1885 1935) was the Chief Minister of Madras Presidency from October 27, 1930 to November
4, 1932. He was conferred 'Diwan Bahadur' by British Government. Munuswamy Naidu was born in Tiruttani, Madras Presidency
in 1885 in a family of agriculturists. He studied law and worked as a lawyer and businessman. He was one of the early members of
the Justice Party. On the death of the Raja of Panagal in 1928, Munuswamy Naidu was appointed President of the Justice Party.
Munuswamy Naidu served as the President of the Justice Party from 1928 to 1932. Under his leadership, the Justice Party won the
1930 Madras Assembly elections and Munuswamy Naidu served as Chief Minister or Premier from 1930 to 1932. During Naidu's
tenure, Madras was engulfed in a financial crisis arising out of the Great Depression. His tenure is also remembered for his clash
with zamindars and his rivalry with the Raja of Bobbili. Naidu resigned in 1932 sensing serious opposition in party ranks. He lost the leadership of the party to
the Raja of Bobbili and eventually retired from active politics. Munuswamy Naidu died in 1935. Munuswamy Naidu was a close associate of N. G. Ranga. Naidu's
leadership is also remembered for his efforts to remove restrictions on Brahmins joining the party. Munuswamy Naidu was born in 1885 in Velanjeri
in Tiruttani, Chittoor district to a Kamma Naidu family of farmers. He was the first Chief Minister from the Justice Party with an agriculturist background.
Munuswamy Naidu had his early education at Madras Christian College and graduated in law and practised as a lawyer. He was also a moneylender, farmer and
businessman and owned a mill in Chittoor district. The Raja of Panagal, President of the South Indian Liberal Federation, died on December 18, 1928.
Munuswamy Naidu was nominated to succeed him. Munuswamy Naidu led the Justice Party throughout its period in opposition between 1928 and 1930. He
also led the party during the assembly elections held in 1930. In the elections held in October 1930 in Madras Presidency, the Justice Party fielded 45 candidates
and was in an alliance with the Ministerialists. As the Tamil Nadu Congress Committee did not participate in the elections, the Justice Party swept to power
without encountering any serious opposition. The Justice Party secured an overwhelming majority in the districts of Vizagapatam, Chingleput, West
Godavari, Bellary, Trichinopoly and Tinnevely. It claimed to have won nearly 70% of the total number of votes polled. P. Munuswamy Naidu, the leader of the
Justice Party, formed a government on October 27, 1930. Munuswamy Naidu took office as Chief Minister on October 27, 1930 and served till November 4,
1932. Munuswamy Naidu's tenure as Chief Minister was afflicted by controversies. He assumed the Chief Ministership at a critical juncture. The Great
Depression was at its height and the economy was crumbling. Moreover, the southern districts of the Presidency had been afflicted by floods. The government
was, therefore, compelled to increase the land tax in order to compensate for the fall in prices. Soon after Munuswamy Naidu formed the government, the
Justice Party was torn apart by factionalism. The Zamindars who had supported the Justice Party were disgruntled at the fact that two of the foremost landlords of
the Presidency, the Raja of Bobbili and the Kumara Raja of Venkatagiri had not been included in the Cabinet. Under the leadership of M. A. Muthiah Chettiar,
the disgruntled Zamindars organized a "ginger group" in November 1930. This "ginger group" accused Munuswamy Naidu of having a soft corner for the Indian
National Congress and Swarajists. Moreover, Munuswamy Naidu was also close toN. G. Ranga, the leader of the Ministerialists who were opposed to the
Zamindars. Munuswamy Naidu gave his explanation: I did not provide a place in the ministry for a zamindar. I had no prejudice against any one, but in choosing
my colleagues I had to be guided by the feeling in the party as a whole...The choice that I eventually made was not agreeable to the Hon. the Raja of Bobbili and
some of his friends and consequently they began giving trouble in the party. When two of his ministers, P. T. Rajan and S. Kumaraswami Reddiar resigned their
posts, Munuswamy Naidu began to fear a no-confidence motion. He resigned before such a motion could be brought forth. Munuswamy Naidu was succeeded
by the Raja of Bobbili as Chief Minister. The Twelfth Annual Confederation of the Justice Party was held at Tanjore on October 10 and October 11, 1932. The
Raja of Bobbili was chosen to preside over it. However, a facton supporting Munuswamy Naidu (then the Chief Minister) refused to allow the proceedings to
continue. An eyewitness records that furniture and shoes were hurled around by members of opposing factions. However, the Raja of Bobbili prevailed and
eventually assumed the leadership. This marked the end of Munuswamy Naidu's influence in the party and he gradually faded from limelight. After his removal
from power, Munuswamy Naidu formed a separate party with his supporters. It was called Justice Democratic Party and had the support of 20 opposition
members in the legislative council. He died in 1935 and his supporters rejoined the Justice party. A road in K. K. Nagar, Chennai has been named after him as
Munuswamy Salai. (The caste suffix "Naidu" was dropped when caste suffixes were dropped from names of public places).A Bridge in the
village Penamaluru in Krishna District of Andhra Pradesh was named after him. Munuswamy Naidu was a staunch supporter of the Justice Party and the non-
Brahmin movement. At the same time, he also supported the admission of Brahmins in the party. At a tripartite conference between the Justice Party,
Ministerialists and Constitutionalists in Madras in 1929 a resolution was adopted recommending the removal of restrictions on Brahmins joining the
organization. The Executive Committee of the party drafted a resolution to this effect and placed it before the Eleventh Confederation of the party at Nellore, for
approval. At this Confederation, Munuswamy Naidu spoke: So long as we exclude one community, we cannot as a political speak on behalf of or claim to
represent all the people of our presidency. If, as we hope, provincial autonomy is given to the provinces as a result of the reforms that may be granted, it should
be essential that our Federation should be in a position to claim to be a truly representative body of all communities. What objection can there be to admit such
Brahmins as are willing to subscribe to the aims and objects of our Federation? It may be that the Brahmins may not join even if the ban is removed. But surely
our Federation will not thereafter be open to objection on the ground that it is an exclusive organization. However, the resolution faced strong opposition and was
eventually withdrawn.
Ravu Svetachalupati Ramakrishna Ranga Rao, KCIE (February 20, 1901 March 10, 1978) was an Indian politician and zamindar
who served as the Chief Minister of Madras Presidency from November 5, 1932 until April 4, 1936 and August 24, 1936 until April 1, 1937.
Ramakrishna Ranga Rao was born in the royal family of Bobbili zamindari in 1901. He succeeded his father Venkata Kumar Krishna to the
throne of Bobbili and ruled as zamindar from 1921 to 1948 and as the titular "Raja of Bobbili" from 1948 to 1978. He set up trusts and
patronized sports and education. Ramakrishna Ranga Rao joined the Justice Party in 1930 and was elected to the Madras Legislative Assembly.
He served as the Chief Minister or Premier of Madras Presidency from 1932 to 1936 and 1937. He resigned as Chief Minister in 1937 when the
Justice Party lost the elections. From 1946 to 1951, he served as a member of the Constituent Assembly of India which framed India's
Constitution. In his later years, he also served a term as a member of the Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly for the Bobbili assembly
constituency. Ramakrishna Ranga Rao married Lakshmi Subhadrayamma in 1921. He had a son Venkata Gopala Krishna Rao who succeeded
him as Raja in 1978. Ramakrishna Ranga Rao is mostly remembered for his contribution towards framing India's constitution and for his service
to society in establishing colleges. He is also held responsible by analysts for the defeat of the Justice Party in the 1937 assembly elections which is
blamed upon his despotism and anti-people measures. Ramakrishna Ranga Rao was born in Bobbili in Madras Presidency (now a part of
the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh) in the Bobbili royal family. The royal family belonged to the Velamacommunity. He was the son of the heir-
apparent, Venkata Kumar Krishna Ranga Rao and the grandson of Raja Venkata Ranga Rao of the Bobbili zamindari. He had an elder sister
Victoria Venkata Ramanamma, born on October 10, 1899. In his childhood, he was tutored by H.C. Leclare, D. Gordon, F.H.J. Wilkinson and
Ramalingaswamy. He used to play badminton and billiards in the palace. Ramakrishna married Lakshmi Subhadrayamma, a princess of the Tallaprole
Zamindari in 1921. He succeeded to the throne as the 13th Raja of Bobbili. Ramakrishna Ranga Rao made his entry into politics when he was nominated a
member of theCouncil of State, the upper house of the Imperial Legislative Assembly of India in 1925. He served as a member of the assembly till 1927.
Ramakrishna Ranga Rao contested the Madras general elections of 1930 from the Vizagapatam constituency as a Justice Party (India) candidate against the
Nationalist Party nominee, C.V.S. Narasimha Raju, and polled 28,000 more votes than his opponent. He also attended the second Round Table
Conference held in London in 1931 as a representative of the Indian landholders. Bobbili rapidly rose in power and position during the tenure of B.
Munuswamy Naidu. As Naidu began to alienate the zamindars by omitting eminent and powerful people like Muthiah Chettiar from his cabinet, these
disgruntled zamindars favoured the Raja of Bobbili as an acceptable alternative. Gradually, the leadership of the party passed on from Naidu to Bobbili. When
both his ministers in the cabinet resigned, Naidu was forced to step down as Chief minister. Subsequently, the Raja of Bobbili took oath as Chief Minister on
November 5, 1932. During this period, the Raja's personal secretary was C. N. Annadurai who later served as the Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu from 1967 to
1969. The Raja of Bobbili became the Chief Minister on November 5, 1932 at the age of 31 and except for a short span of 4 months when he was on a trip to
England, served as Chief Minister until April 1, 1937. During his tenure, Madras was in the grips of the Great Depression. The Raja did introduce some
measures in order to relieve the burden on the poor peasant. But by and large, the rapid depreciation of the economy remained unchecked and the government
showed little concern towards the plight of the poor peasant. The Justice Party lost badly in the 1937 elections. The Raja's policies are believed to be the main
reason. The Mayoralty of Madras came into existence when the Corporation of Madras was established in 1688. The first mayor was Nathaniel Higginson, who
resigned after a period of six months to take over as Governor of Madras. The post of mayor was abolished in 1801. The post of mayor was revived by the Raja
of Bobbili government on January 17, 1933, by the City Municipal Act. The first mayor after its revival was the prominent Justice Party Leader, L. Sriramulu
Naidu who was followed by Raja Sir Annamalai Chettiar. In August 1933, despite the vehement opposition of zamindars in the Madras Presidency, the Raja of
Bobbili passed an amendment to the Estates Land Act of 1908 which safeguarded the rights of the cultivators and freed them from the bondage of middlemen
or inamdars. However, despite this legislation and a few others benefitting the cultivator, his regime was regarded as one which largely supported the interests
of zamindars. The term of the legislature expired on November 5, 1933. However, the elections to the Madras Legislative Council were delayed by an year.
Meanwhile, the Indian National Congress had decided to participate in the elections at a meeting in Patna in May 1934 and hence, when the elections took place
in November 1934, the Justice Party lost miserably. However, the Raja of Bobbili adopted contingency measures by immediately convening a meeting and
conducting negotiations between the different factions of the party. The Swarajya Party which won a majority in the Assembly once again refused to form the
government in accordance with its policy of wrecking the dyarchy. So, the Raja of Bobbili was elected Chief Minister for a second term though he did not
command the majority of the house. Justice Party stalwarts R. K. Shanmukham Chetty and Arcot Ramasamy Mudaliar had lost their seats as the chief whip of the
party Muthiah Chettiar withdrew his support for their candidature.
[10]
Ramakrishna Ranga Rao responded by dismissing Muthiah Chettiar as the leader of the
party in the Assembly. Muthiah moved a no-confidence motion against the ministry but the motion was defeated. However, the differences between the Raja of
Bobbili and Muthiah Chettiar was soon patched up and the Raja made the latter a minister in the cabinet. Kumaraswami Reddiar resigned his ministry post due
to ill-health in 1936 and he was replaced with Muthiah Chettiar in a move to wipe out differences in the party. With the permission of the Governor, the Raja
also created a new Ministry of Home in order to accommodate disgruntled factions in the party. Mohammad Usman served as the first Minister of Home
followed by Sir A. T. Paneerselvam. On April 1, 1936, the Ganjam district was separated from Madras Presidency and constituted in the newly created province
of Orissa. The Great Depression struck the province at the fag end of P. Subbarayan's tenure and lasted the whole span of the Munuswamy Naidu and Bobbili
governments. The policy of the Raja of Bobbili during the Depression was alleged to be one of the indifference to plight of the peasants and the poor. The
government expressed its complete solidarity with the Governor and his executive council. As a result, while the Government endorsed the measures taken by
the governor it did not criticize those that were detrimental to the common man. The ministry is alleged to have done little for the financial relief of the common
man apart from making recommendations or expressing sympathy and grief. Moreover, the affluent lifestyle led by the ministers at the height of the Great
Depression were sharply criticized. Madras ministers drew a salary of Rs. 4,333.60 per month as opposed to Rs. 2,250 per month that ministers in the Central
Provinces received as salary. This invoked the ire of the Madras press. The newspaper India wrote: Is not Rs. 2,000 enough for Madras ministers, who were only
second-rate vakils in the mufassal (rural areas)? When the poor are suffering for want ot money, they are drawing fat salaries? What an injustice? In 1933, the
Indian National Congress, represented by the Swarajya Party, brought forth a resolution demanding a decrease of 12.5% in land revenue in non-Zamindari
areas. The Justice Party voted against the resolution. Angered by the stand of the Justice Party, the Congress declared that November 26, 1933 be observed as
Land Revenue Reduction Day. Protests were organized all over the province. At a meeting organized on the Madras beach, Congress
leader Sathyamurthy demanded that the land tax be reduced by 33.3 percent. These demands were backed by the peasants in the province. However, these
demands went unheeded. On the eve of the 1937 elections, the South Indian Federation of Peasants passed a resolution: This federation resolves that in the
coming Assembly elections the proper and class-wise course for peasants to follow is to vote for the Congress candidates in general and to utlize all their
organizational and other resources to strengthen those Congress candidates who give their unequivocal assurance of support for implementing of the peasant's
charter of minimum demands through their work both within and without the Legislatures. Individual Congressmen launched agitations for the abolition
of zamindaris. The Raja of Bobbili was against the movement as being a zamindar himself, he had pro-zamindar sympathies. He, therefore, considered it to be a
law and order issue and order a crackdown leading to police firing in some areas. Lord Erskine, the Governor of Madras wrote to the Secretary of State for
India, Lord Zetland in February 1937 that the peasants in South India were fed up with the Justice Party. Bobbili's rule was autocratic and he was highly
inaccessible to party members. The success of every previous government in the Presidency had been due to the support of the district boards. However, the
Raja of Bobbili, instead of appeasing the district-level politicians tried to destroy their power and influence. The Suthanthira Sangu, in its issue dated February
26, 1935: The Local Boards Act has been recently amended, taluk boards have been abolished, a district board has been bifurcated and attempts have been
made to bifurcate other boards, which are hostile to him... He is superseding municipalities, which do not bow to his authority, removing chairmen not liked by
him and trying to forfeit the liberty of these bodies by the appointment of Commissioners. The Madras Mail noted in its editorial dated June 1, 1935: if the
Justice Party is really determined upon reorganisation, it should be one of its first proclamations that, so far as it is concerned the spoils system must go This,
along with Bobbili's autocratic rule and factionalism within the party, had disastrous effects for the fortunes of the Justice party. The Justice Party contested the
1937 provincial assembly elections, the first according to the Government of India Act 1935, under the Raja's leadership and lost badly, winning just 18 out of
215 assembly seats and 7 out of 46 council seats. The Raja, himself, lost his seat to Indian National Congress candidate V. V. Giri by over 6,000 votes, almost
triggering the end of his political career. Other prominent losers in the election were P. T. Rajan, Kumarraja of Venkatagiri and A. P. Patro. The Justice Party
ceased to be a major force and remained so until it was revived by E. V. Ramasami during the 1938 Madras Anti-Hindi agitations. The Raja led a much-
weakened Justice Party until 1938, when he bowed out of politics. Meanwhile, the Justice Party's opponents the Indian National Congress had decided to contest
the elections at a rally in 1935. It was at this rally that the Swarajya Party formally merged with the Indian National Congress when Congress resolved to
participate in the elections. The united Indian National Congress led by Chakravarti Rajagopalachari captured power in the province and ruled until the
declaration of war in 1939. P. Rajaraman sums up the factors as follows "internal dissension, ineffective organization, inertia and lack of proper leadership led to
the Justice Party along the path of decline".Following the defeat of the Justice Party in the 1937 elections, the Raja's participation in politics drastically decreased
until the anti-Hindi agitations, when E. V. Ramasami was elected President of the Justice Party. The Raja temporarily bowed out of politics and devoted himself
to social service and other public activities. In 1946, the Raja was elected to the Constituent Assembly of India and was part of the team which wrote India's
Constitution. In 1948, following India's independence from British rule, Ramakrishna Ranga Rao lost his administrative rights over Bobbili and was reduced to
the status of a titular "Raja" with some exclusive privileges. The Raja was a great sportsman and his main interests were horse racing and polo. He had imported
many fine breeds of horses from the United Kingdom, France and Pakistan. He had won a number of cups in horse racing. He was an expert polo player and
often played in the Dasara sports at Mysore and Jeypore besides Bobbili. He also contributed to Andhra University and Shantiniketan. The Raja served as the
Chancellor of Andhra University in 1930. The Rajah R.S.R.K. Ranga Rao College was inaugurated at Bobbili on the occasion of his sixtieth birthday in 1961.
The Raja briefly returned to politics in his later years and contested as an independent from Bobbili assembly constituency in the 1967 elections to the Andhra
Pradesh Legislative Assembly at the age of 66. He was subsequently elected by a margin of 28,561 votes over his nearest rival, L. Thentu of the Indian National
Congress. The Raja served as a member of the Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly from 1967 to 1972. He did not stand for a re-election when his term came
to an end in 1972. Ramakrishna Ranga Rao died on March 10, 1978 at the age of 77. Ramakrishna Ranga Rao was succeeded as the titular Raja of Bobbili by his
son Venkata Gopala Krishna Ranga Rao. The incumbent Raja of Bobbili is Ravu Venkata Gopala Krishna Ranga Rao, son of Ramakrishna Ranga Rao. He was
elected to the 3rd Lok Sabha from Bobbili (Lok Sabha constituency) in 1962. Ramakrishna Ranga Rao's grandson Venkata Sujay Krishna Ranga Rao is the heir-
apparent. Sujay Krishna Ranga Rao also stood in the 2004 Andhra Pradesh Assembly elections as a candidate of the Indian National Congress and was elected to
the Andhra Pradesh Assembly from Bobbili.
Ponnambala Thiaga Rajan (1892 1974) was the Chief Minister of Madras Presidency from April 4 until August 24, 1936. He
was also the last President of the Justice Party. P. T. Rajan was born in 1892 in Uthamapalayam (Theni District) and educated at The
Leys School, Cambridge and Jesus College, Oxford. He graduated in history and law and practised as an advocate for some time before
joining the Justice Party. Rajan was elected to the Madras Legislative Council as a Justice Party candidate in 1920 and served as a
legislator till his defeat in 1937. He held various offices such as the Minister of Public Works and then, the Chief Minister of Madras
Presidency. From 1939 to 1944, Rajan supported Periyar but broke off and headed the rebel Justice Party till 1957. Rajan was elected to
the Madras Legislative Assembly in 1952 and served as a legislator from 1952 to 1957. Rajan died in 1974 at the age of 82. A road in K.
K. Nagar, Chennai has been named in his memory as "Sir P.T. Rajan Road". Rajan's son Palanivel Rajan served as a minister of
the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam and speaker of the Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly from 1996 to 2001. Ponnambala Thyaga Rajan
was born in 1892 in Madurai. He was educated at Ley's School, Cambridge and graduated in history from Jesus College, Oxford
University in 1915. He later studied law and was called to Bar in 1917 and practised as an advocate before joining the Justice Party in
the early 1920s. Rajan stood as a Justice Party candidate in the 1920 elections and was elected as a member of the Madras Legislative
Council. He was also instrumental in getting W. P. A. Soundrapandian Nadar nominated to the Madras Legislative Council as a Justice Party nominee. In 1930,
when the Justice Party returned to power after a gap of 4 years, Rajan was appointed Minister of Public Works. He served as a Minister in the governments of P.
Munuswamy Naidu and the Raja of Bobbili. On April 4, 1936, he succeeded the Raja of Bobbili was the Chief Minister of Madras Presidency and held the post
till August 24, 1936, when the Raja of Bobbili once again became the Chief Minister. He was knighted on 1 February 1937. In 1939, he joined Periyar and
wholeheartedly supported his demand for secession from India. However, he broke off with a few others in 1944 when Periyar renamed the Justice Party
as Dravidar Kazhagam and converted the political party into a non-political social organization. Rajan along with a few dissidents floated a new Justice Party and
claimed that their organisation was the original Justice Party. B. Ramachandra Reddi, who was President of the Madras Legislative Council between 1930 and
1937 was tentatively elected Party President but resigned in 1945 and was succeeded by Rajan. The Justice Party did not contest in the 1946 Assembly
elections but participated in the 1951 elections, the first as a part of independent India. The Justice Party contested nine seats as an unrecognised state-level party
of which the party won one. Rajan stood from Madurai North as well as Cumbum. While Rajan lost badly from Madurai North winning only 11% of the total
votes polled and finished third, he won by a margin of 11,359 votes from Cumbum. The Justice Party did not contest in the 1957 Assembly elections and was
eventually dissolved. Rajan contested as an independent from Uthamapalayam in the 1957 Assembly elections and polled 24,256 votes losing to K. Pandiaraj of
the Indian National Congress by a margin of 6,303 votes. Rajan did not contest any more elections after the defeat. P. T. Rajan, as a leading non-Brahmin leader,
supported the appointment of non-Brahmin trustess to temples in Tamil Nadu. In the early 1950s, through his efforts, the present panchaloha idol of Lord
Iyappan was installed at Sabarimalai and a procession was taken all over Madras state. P. T. Rajan's uncle M. T. Subramania Mudaliar of Uthamapalayam was a
member of the Dravidian Association and one of the early leaders of the Non-Brahmin Movement. He was always consulted with regard to the choice of
Ministers by early Chief Ministers such as the Raja of Panagal. P. T. Rajan's son Palanivel Rajan was a politician of the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam. He served
as the Speaker of the Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly from 1996 to 2001and In 2006, he served as the Minister for Hindu Religious and Charitable
Endowments in the Government of M. Karunanidhi briefly before his death on May 20, 2006. Rajan's lavish spendings as Minister for Development under the
Munuswamy Naidu regime at the height of the Great Depression along with those of others, invited the wrath of themedia. The newspaper India reported in the
March 25, 1932 edition: When the country is on fire, when the axe of retrenchment has fallen on the poor and when the people are experiencing intense
suffering under the heavy burden of taxation, the Madras ministers have started on their tours immediately after passing of the Budget. The tour of Honourable
Mr. P. T. Rajan causes us heart-burning. We have to feel sorry that the Ministers have been reduced to such a deplorable state. Mr. Rajan is going to Hindupur
today which is at a distance of 400 miles from Madras for laying the foundation stone for a Taluk Board School. For this trivial affair, the Minister is squandering
the money of the poor tax payer.
Kurma Venkata Reddy Naidu, KCSI (1875 - 1942) was an Indian lawyer, professor, politician and Justice Party leader who served as
the Chief Minister of Madras Presidency from April 1 until July 14, 1937. He was the last Chief Minister of Madras Presidency from the
Justice Party. Kurma Venkata Reddy Naidu hailed from the Eluru, Godavari district of Madras Presidency. He graduated
from Rajahmundry Arts College, the Madras Christian College, Madras Law College and Madras University and served as the Professor of
Physics at Rajahmundry Arts College. Reddy Naidu joined the Justice Party in 1919-1920 and was a part of T. M. Nair's delegation to the
United Kingdom. Later, when a Justice Party government was formed in Madras, Reddy Naidu served under A. Subbarayalu Reddiar and
the Raja of Panagal as Minister of Development. In 1923, the Raja of Panagal replaced Reddy Naidu as Minister of Development with T. N.
Sivagnanam Pillai. Reddy Naidu served as India's agent to the Union of South Africa from 1929 to 1932 and acted as the Governor of
Madras from 18 June 1936 to 1 October 1936. He was selected as Chief Minister on April 1, 1937 and served in this capacity until July 14,
1937. He also served as the Vice-Chancellor of Annamalai University in 1940. Kurma Venkata Reddy Naidu died in 1942. Reddy Naidu was
a native of Eluru in Madras Presidency and belongs to a prominent Telaga Naidu Family, who served as Commander-in-Chief in Indian
Army. His mother tongue was Telugu. He seems to have had a varied education, attending the Government Arts College in Rajahmundry,
the Madras Christian College, the Madras Law College and the Madras University. Before joining the Bar in 1900, he was a Professor of Physics at the
Government Arts College, Rajahmundry . After serving on various local and district boards between 1901 and 1919, he entered the national political arena in
1919 - 1920. Kurma Venkata Reddy Naidu hailed from the Eluru district of Madras Presidency. He graduated from Rajahmundry Arts College, theMadras
Christian College, Madras Law College and Madras University and served as the Professor of Physics at Rajahmundry Arts College. Reddy Naidu joined
the Justice Party in 1919-1920 and was a part of T. M. Nair's delegation to the United Kingdom. Later, when a Justice Party government was formed in Madras,
Reddy Naidu served under A. Subbarayalu Reddiar and the Raja of Panagal as Minister of Development. In 1923, the Raja of Panagal replaced Reddy Naidu as
Minister of Development with T. N. Sivagnanam Pillai. Reddy Naidu served as India's agent to the Union of South Africa from 1929 to 1932 and acted as
the Governor of Madras from June 18 until October 1, 1936. He was selected as Chief Minister on April 1, 1937 and served in this capacity until July 14, 1937.
He also served as the Vice-Chancellor of Annamalai University in 1940. Kurma Venkata Reddy Naidu died in 1942. Naidu was a member of the Justice
Party right from its inception. He was a member of the delegation to England along with Dr. T. M. Nair and Arcot Ramasamy Mudaliar in July 1918. In 1919, he
led the non-Brahmin deputation to the Joint Parliamentary Committee on Constitutional Reforms. Reddy Naidu was an active partyman and when the Montagu
Chelmsford Reforms were passed in 1919, Reddy Naidu formulated a set of activities that the Justice Party should follow. Social legislation has to be undertaken
and inequitious laws that, for ages, maintained an invidious distinction between Brahmins and non-Brahmins, with regard to marriage, adoption and inheritance
nd the like, must be altered. Outside the sphere of politics, the work before us is equally onerous. Social reconstruction must be taken in hand at once. Social
equality must be established. The strain of untouchability shall be removed. The dictates of priestcraft must be silenced. Paracheries must be
purified.Agraharams must be humanized. The hold of humiliating customs and rituals must be unloosed. The partals of temples must be thrown broad open.
The contents of sealed scriptures should be brought to light. In December 1920, when the Justice Party was elected to power in Madras Presidency, Naidu won a
set in the Madras Legislative Council and served as the Minister of Development. He also served as the Minister of Industries in the government of the Raja of
Panagal from 1921 to 1923, when he was dropped in favor of T. N. Sivagnanam Pillai. He remained neutral when a vote of no-confidence was passed against the
government of the Raja of Panagal. In 1924, when the Muddiman Committee came to India to assess the implementation and progress of dyarchy, K. V. Reddy
Naidu explained its progress thus: I was a Minister of Development without the forests. I was a Minister of Agriculture minus Irrigation. As a Minister of
Agriculture I had nothing to do with the Madras Agriculturists Loan Act or the Madras Land Improvement Loans Act... The efficacy and efficiency of a Minister
of Agriculture without having anything to do with irrigation, agricultural loans, land improvement loans and famine relief, may better be imagined than described.
Then again, I was Minister of Industries without factories, boilers, electricity and water power, mines or labor, all of which are reserved subjects. In 1928, Reddy
Naidu was a member of the Indian delegation to the League of Nations, Geneva. In January 1929, Naidu succeeded V. S. Srinivasa Sastri as British India's agent
to the Union of South Africa. In January 1930, he came under severe criticism from the South African Indian Congress (SAIC) for not having done enough to
protect the interests of the Indians migrants. In February 1930, the first reading of the TALT (Amendment) Bill was passed. The South African Indian Congress
was severely opposed to the Bill and Reddy Naidu spoke at a meeting of the SAIC in October 1930 expressing his outrage. He was a member of the delegation
which participated in the Second Round Table Conference with the representatives of the South African Government on January 4, 1932. Reddy Naidu's term
came to an end on August 1932 and he was succeeded by Kunwar Maharaj Singh. On leaving South Africa, he took up various positions in the Indian
Government. He became a member of the Council of State from 19331934, and a member of the Governor's Executive Council, Madras, 1934 -1937. In
between, he was Acting Governor of Madras from JuneOctober 1936,

Naidu was the Chief Minister of Madras Presidency from April 1 until July 14,
1937. The 1937 assembly elections were held and the results declared in February 1937. Despite being the majority party in the Assembly and the Council,
the Indian National Congress was hesitant to form a Government because of the veto powers given to the governor. The Governor of Madras, Lord Erskine,
decided to form an interim provisional Government with non-members and opposition members of the Legislative Assembly. V. S. Srinivasa Sastri was first
offered the Chief Ministership of the interim government but he refused to accept it. Then Erskine formed an interim government with Kurma Venkata Reddy
Naidu as Chief Minister on April 1, 1937. However the ministry was short lived as the Congress was persuaded to form the government. On July 14, 1937 Naidu
resigned and Rajajibecame Chief Minister. He was also the Vice-Chancellor of Annamalai University from 1940. Annamalai University offers a prize every year
in his name as The Kurma Venkata Reddy Naidu Prize.
Chakravarti Rajagopalachari (December 10, 1878 December 25, 1972), informally called Rajaji or C.R., was an Indian
lawyer,independence activist, politician, writer and statesman. Rajagopalachari was the last Governor-General of India from June
21, 1948 until January 26, 1950. He also served as leader of the Indian National Congress, Chief Minister of the Madras
Presidency from July 14, 1937 until October 9, 1939, Governor of West Bengal from August 15, 1947 until June 21, 1948,
Minister for Home Affairs of the Indian Union from December 26, 1950 until October 25, 1951 and Chief Minister of Madras
state from April 10, 1952 until Aprl 13, 1954. Rajagopalachari founded the Swatantra Party and was one of the first recipients of
India's highest civilian award, the Bharat Ratna. He vehemently opposed the use of nuclear weapons and was a proponent of
world peace and disarmament. During his lifetime, he also acquired the nickname 'Mango of Salem'. Rajagopalachari was born in the village of Thorapalli in
the Salem district of the Madras Presidency (now the Krishnagiri district of Tamil Nadu) and educated at Central College, Bangalore, and Presidency College,
Madras. In 1900 he started a legal practice that in time became prosperous. On entering politics, he became a member and later President of
the Salem municipality. He joined the Indian National Congress and participated in the agitations against the Rowlatt Act, joining the Non-Cooperation
movement, the Vaikom Satyagraha, and the Civil Disobedience movement. In 1930, Rajagopalachari risked imprisonment when he led the Vedaranyam Salt
Satyagraha in response to the Dandi March. In 1937, Rajagopalachari was elected Premier of the Madras Presidency and served until 1940, when he resigned
due to Britain's declaration of war on Germany. He later advocated co-operation over Britain's war effort and opposed the Quit India Movement. He favoured
talks with both Muhammad Ali Jinnah and the Muslim League and proposed what later came to be known as the C. R. Formula. In 1946, Rajagopalachari was
appointed Minister of Industry, Supply, Education and Finance in the Interim Government of India, and then as the Governor of West Bengal from 1947 to
1948, Governor-General of India from 1948 to 1950, Union Home Minister from 1951 to 1952 and as Chief Minister of Madras state from 1952 to 1954. In
1959, he resigned from the Indian National Congress and founded the Swatantra Party, which stood against the Congress in the 1962, 1967 and 1972 elections.
Rajagopalachari was instrumental in setting up a united Anti-Congress front in Madras state under C. N. Annadurai, which swept the 1967 elections.
Rajagopalachari was an accomplished writer who made lasting contributions to Indian English literature and is also credited with composition of the song Kurai
Onrum Illai set to Carnatic music. He pioneered temperance and temple entry movements in India and advocated Dalit upliftment. He has been criticised for
introducing the compulsory study of Hindi and the controversial Madras Scheme of Elementary Education in Madras State. Critics have often attributed his pre-
eminence in politics to his standing as a favourite of bothMahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru. Rajagopalachari was described by Gandhi as the "keeper of my
conscience". Rajagopalachari was born to Chakravarti Venkatarya Iyengar, munsiff of Thorapalli Village and Singaramma on December 10, 1878 into a
devout Iyengar family of Thorapalli in the Madras Presidency. The couple already had two sons, Narasimhachari and Srinivasa. According to popular folklore,
while Rajagopalachari was a child, an astrologer told his parents that he would have the "fortunes of a king, a guru, an exile and an outcaste. The people will
worship him; they will also reject him. He will sit on an emperor's throne; he will live in a poor man's hut." A weak and sickly child, Rajagopalachari was a
constant worry to his parents who feared that he might not live long. As a young child, he was admitted to a village school in Thorapalli then at the age of five
moved with his family to Hosur where Rajagopalachari enrolled at Hosur R.V.Government Boys Hr sec School. He passed his matriculation examinations in
1891 and graduated in arts from Central College, Bangalore in 1894. Rajagopalachari also studied law at the Presidency College, Madras, from where he
graduated in 1897. Rajagopalachari married Alamelu Mangamma in 1897 and the couple had five children three sons and two daughters. Mangamma died in
1916 whereupon Rajagopalachari took sole responsibility for the care of his children. His son C. R. Narasimhan was elected to the Lok Sabha
from Krishnagiri in the 1952 and 1957 elections and served as a member of parliament for Krishnagiri from 1952 to 1962. He later wrote a biography of his
father. Rajagopalachari's daughter Lakshmi married Devdas Gandhi, son of Mahatma Gandhi while his grandsons include biographer Rajmohan Gandhi,
philosopher Ramchandra Gandhi and former governor of West Bengal Gopalkrishna Gandhi. Rajagopalachari's interest in public affairs and politics began
when he commenced his legal practice in Salem in 1900. Inspired by Indian independence activist Bal Gangadhar Tilak in the early 1900s, he later became a
member of the Salem municipality in 1911. In 1917, Rajagopalachari was elected Chairman of the municipality and served from 1917 to 1919 during which time
he was responsible for the election of the first Dalit member of the Salem municipality. Rajagopalachari joined the Indian National Congress and participated as a
delegate in the 1906Calcutta session and the 1907 Surat session. In 1917, he defended Indian independence activist P. Varadarajulu Naidu against charges of
sedition and two years later participated in the agitations against the Rowlatt Act. Rajagopalachari was a close friend of the founder of Swadeshi Steam Navigation
Company V. O. Chidambaram Pillai as well as greatly admired by Indian independence activists Annie Besant and C. Vijayaraghavachariar. After Mahatma
Gandhi joined the Indian independence movement in 1919, Rajagopalachari became one of his followers. He participated in the Non-Cooperation movement
and gave up his law practice. In 1921, he was elected to the Congress Working Committee and served as the General Secretary of the party before making his
first major breakthrough as a leader during the 1922 Indian National Congress session at Gaya when he strongly opposed collaboration with the colonial
administration and participation in thediarchial legislatures established by the Government of India Act 1919. While Gandhi was in prison, Rajagopalachari led
the group of "No-Changers", individuals against contesting elections for the Imperial Legislative Council and other provincial legislative councils, in opposition to
the "Pro-changers" who advocated council entry. When the motion was put to the vote, the "No-changers" won by 1,748 to 890 votes resulting in the resignation of
important Congress leaders including Pandit Motilal Nehru and C. R. Das, the President of the Indian National Congress. When the Indian National Congress
split in 1923, Rajagopalachari was a member of the Civil Disobedience Enquiry Committee. He was also involved in the Vaikom Satyagraha movement
against untouchability during 192425. In the early 1930s, Rajagopalachari emerged as one of the major leaders of the Tamil Nadu Congress. When Gandhi
organised the Dandi march in 1930, Rajagopalachari broke the salt laws at Vedaranyam, near Nagapattinam, along with Indian independence activist Sardar
Vedaratnam and was afterwards imprisoned by the British. He was subsequently elected President of the Tamil Nadu Congress Committee. Following enactment
of the Government of India Act in 1935, Rajagopalachari was instrumental in getting the Indian National Congress to participate in the 1937 general elections.
The Indian National Congress first came to power in the Madras Presidency (also called Madras Province by the British), following the Madras elections of 1937.
Except for a six-year period when Madras was under the Governor's direct rule, the Congress administered the Presidency until India became independent on
August 15, 1947. Rajagopalachari was the first Premier of the Madras Presidency from the Congress party. Rajagopalachari issued the Temple Entry
Authorization and Indemnity Act 1939, under which restrictions were removed on Dalits and Shanarsentering Hindu temples. In the same year, the Meenakshi
temple at Madurai was also opened to the Dalits and Shanars. In March 1938 Rajagopalachari introduced the Agricultural Debt Relief Act, to ease the burden of
debt on the province's peasant population. He also introduced prohibition, along with a sales tax to compensate for the loss of government revenue that resulted
from the ban on alcohol. As a result of the revenue decline resulting from prohibition, the Provincial Government shut down hundreds of government-run
primary schools, a decision that Rajagopalachari's political opponents alleged deprived many low-caste and Dalit students of their education. His opponents also
attributed casteist motives to his government's implementation of Gandhi's Nai Talim scheme into the education system. Rajagopalachari's tenure as Chief
Minister of Madras is largely remembered for the compulsory introduction of Hindi in educational institutions, which made him highly unpopular. This measure
sparked off widespread anti-Hindi protests, which led to violence in some places and the jailing of over 1,200 men, women and children who took part in the
unrest. Two protesters, Thalamuthu Nadar and Natarasan, were killed during the protests. In 1940, Congress ministers resigned in protest over the declaration of
war on Germany without their consent, leaving the Governor to take over the reins of the administration. On February 21, 1940 the unpopular new law on the
use of Hindi was quickly repealed by the Governor of Madras. Despite its numerous shortcomings, Madras under Rajagopalachari was still considered by
political historians as the best administered province in British India. Some months after the outbreak of the Second World War, Rajagopalachari resigned as
Premier along with other members of his cabinet in protest at the declaration of war by the Viceroy of India. Rajagopalachari was arrested in December 1940, in
accordance with the Defence of India rules, and sentenced to one-year in prison. However, subsequently, Rajagopalachari differed in opposition to the British
war effort. He also opposed the Quit India Movement and instead advocated dialogue with the British. He reasoned that passivity and neutrality would be
harmful to India's interests at a time when the country was threatened with invasion. He also advocated dialogue with the Muslim League, which was demanding
the partition of India. He subsequently resigned from the party and the assembly following differences over resolutions passed by the Madras Congress legislative
party and disagreements with the leader of the Madras provincial Congress K. Kamaraj. Following the end of the war in 1945, elections followed in the Madras
Presidency in 1946. Kamaraj, President of the Tamil Nadu Congress Committee, backed Tanguturi Prakasam as Chief Ministerial candidate to prevent
Rajagopalachari from winning. However, Rajagopalachari did not contest the elections, and Prakasam was elected. During the last years of the war,
Rajagopalachari was instrumental in initiating negotiations between Gandhi and Jinnah. In 1944, he proposed a solution to the Indian Constitutional tangle. In the
same year, he proposed an "absolute majority" threshold of 55 per cent when deciding whether a district should become part of India or Pakistan, triggering a
huge controversy among nationalists. From 1946 to 1947, Rajagopalachari served as the Minister for Industry, Supply, Education and Finance in the Interim
Government headed by Jawaharlal Nehru. When India and Pakistan attained independence on August 15, 1947, the British province of Bengal was partitioned
into two, with West Bengal becoming part of India and East Bengal part of Pakistan. Supported by Jawaharlal Nehru, Rajagopalachari was appointed
first Governor of West Bengal. Disliked by Bengalis for his criticism of the Bengali revolutionary Subhas Chandra Bose during the 1938 Tripuri Congress
session, Rajagopalachari's appointment was unsuccessfully opposed by Bose's brother Sarat Chandra Bose. During his tenure as Governor, Rajagopalachari's
priorities were to deal with refugees and to bring peace and stability in the aftermath of the Calcutta riots. He declared his commitment to neutrality and justice at
a meeting of Muslim businessmen: "Whatever may be my defects or lapses, let me assure you that I shall never disfigure my life with any deliberate acts of
injustice to any community whatsoever." Rajagopalachari was also strongly opposed to proposals to include areas from Bihar and Odisha as part of the province
of West Bengal. One such proposal by the editor of an important newspaper led to the reply: "I see that you are not able to restrain the policy of agitation over
inter-provincial boundaries. It is easy to yield to current pressure of opinion and it is difficult to impose on enthusiastic people any policy of restraint. But I
earnestly plead that we should do all we can to prevent ill-will from hardening into a chronic disorder. We have enough ill-will and prejudice to cope with. Must
we hasten to create further fissiparous forces?" Despite the general attitude of the Bengalis, Rajagopalachari was highly regarded and respected by Chief
Minister Prafulla Chandra Ghosh and the state cabinet. From November 10 until 24, 1947, Rajagopalachari served as Acting Governor-General of India in the
absence of the Governor-General Lord Mountbatten, who was on leave in England to attend the marriage of Princess Elizabeth to Mountbatten's nephewPrince
Philip. Rajagopalachari led a very simple life in the viceregal palace, washing his own clothes and polishing his own shoes. Impressed with his abilities,
Mountbatten made Rajagopalachari his second choice to succeed him after Vallabhbhai Patel, when he was to leave India in June 1948. Rajagopalachari was
eventually chosen as the Governor-General when Nehru disagreed with Mountbatten's first choice, as did Patel himself. He was initially hesitant but accepted
when Nehru wrote to him, "I hope you will not disappoint us. We want you to help us in many ways. The burden on some of us is more than we can carry."
Rajagopalachari then served as Governor-General of India from June 1948 until January 26, 1950, and was not only the last Governor-General of India, but the
only Indian national ever to hold the office. By the end of 1949, an assumption was made that Rajagopalachari, already Governor-General, would continue as
president. Backed by Nehru, Rajagopalachari wanted to stand for the presidential election but later withdrew, due to the opposition of a section of the Indian
National Congress mostly made up of North Indians who were concerned about Rajagopalachari's non-participation during the Quit India Movement. At
Nehru's invitation, in 1950 Rajagopalachari joined the Union Cabinet as Minister without Porfolio where he served as a buffer between Nehru and Home
Minister Sardar Pateland on occasion offered to mediate between the two. Following Patel's death on December 15, 1950, Rajagopalachari was finally
made Home Affairs Minister and went on to serve for nearly 10 months. As had his predecessor, he warned Nehru about the expansionist designs of China and
expressed regret over the Tibet problem. He also expressed concern over demands for new linguistically based states, arguing that they would generate
differences amongst the people. By the end of 1951, the differences between Nehru and Rajagopalachari came to the fore. While Nehru perceived the Hindu
Mahasabha to be the greatest threat to the nascent republic, Rajagopalachari held the opinion that the Communists posed the greatest danger. He also adamantly
opposed Nehru's decision to commute the death sentences passed on those involved in the Telengana uprising and his strong pro-Soviet leanings. Tired of being
persistently over-ruled by Nehru with regard to critical decisions, Rajagopalachari submitted his resignation on the "grounds of ill-health" and returned to Madras.
In the 1952 Madras elections, the Indian National Congress was reduced to a minority in the state assembly with a coalition led by the Communist Party of
India winning most of the seats. Though he did not participate, Madras governor Sri Prakasa appointed Rajagopalachari Chief Minister after nominating him to
the Madras Legislative Council without consulting either the Indian Prime Minister Nehru or the ministers in the Madras state cabinet. Rajagopalachari was then
able to prove that he had a majority in the assembly by luring MLAs from opposition parties to join the Indian National Congress. Nehru was furious and wrote
to Rajagopalachari saying "the one thing we must avoid giving is the impression that we stick to office and we want to keep others out at all costs." Rajagopalachari,
however, refused to contest a by-election and remained an as unelected member of the legislative council. During Rajagopalachari's tenure as Chief Minister, a
powerful movement for a separate Andhra State, comprising the Telugu-speaking districts of the Madras State, gained a foothold. On October 19, 1952, an
Indian independence activist and social worker from Madras named Potti Sriramulu embarked on a hunger strike reiterating the demands of the separatists and
calling for the inclusion of Madras city within the proposed state. Rajagopalachari remained unmoved by Sriramulu's action and refused to intervene. After fasting
for days, Sriramulu eventually died on December 15, 1952, triggering riots in Madras city and the Telugu-speaking districts of the state. Initially, both
Rajagopalachari and Prime Minister Nehru were against the creation of linguistically demarcated states but as the law and order situation in the state deteriorated,
both were forced to accept the demands. Andhra State was thus created on October 1, 1953 from the Telugu-speaking districts of Madras, with its capital
at Kurnool. However, the boundaries of the new state were determined by a commission which decided against the inclusion of Madras city. Though the
commission's report suggested the option of having Madras as the temporary capital of Andhra State to allow smooth partitioning of the assets and the secretariat,
Rajagopalachari refused to allow Andhra State to have Madras even for a day. On May 31, 1952, Rajagopalachari put an end to sugar rationing

and followed up
by abolishing control over food supplies on June 5, 1952. He also introduced measures to regulate the running of universities in the state. In 1953, he introduced
a new education scheme known as the "Modified System of Elementary Education", which reduced schooling for elementary school students to three hours per
day with students expected to learn the family vocation at home during the remainder of the day. The plan came in for sharp criticism and evoked strong protests
from the Dravidian parties. The Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam dubbed the schemeKula Kalvi Thittam or Hereditary Education Policy and attempted to organise
massive demonstrations outside Rajagopalachari's house on July 13 and 14, 1953. The rising unpopularity of his government forced K. Kamaraj to withdraw his
support for Rajagopalachari and on March 26, 1954, he resigned as President of the Madras Legislature Congress Party thereby precipitating new elections.
During the subsequent poll held on March 31, 1954, Rajagopalachari fielded C. Subramaniam against Kamaraj. But Subramaniam could garner only 41 votes to
Kamaraj's 93 and lost the elections. Rajagopalachari eventually resigned as Chief Minister on April 13, 1954, attributing the decision to poor health. Following his
resignation as Chief Minister, Rajagopalachari took a temporary break from active politics and instead devoted his time to literary pursuits. He wrote a Tamil re-
telling of the Sanskrit epic Ramayana which appeared as a serial in the Tamil magazine Kalki from May 23, 1954 until November 6, 1955. The episodes were
later collected and published as Chakravarthi Thirumagan, a book which won Rajagopalachari the 1958 Sahitya Academy award in Tamil language. On Republic
Day 1955, Rajagopalachari was honoured with India's highest civilian award, the Bharat Ratna. Rajagopalachari tendered his official resignation from the Indian
National Congress and along with a number of other dissidents organised the Congress Reform Committee (CRC) in January 1957. K. S. Venkatakrishna
Reddiar was elected president and the party fielded candidates in 55 constituencies in the 1957 state assembly elections, to emerge as the second largest party in
Madras state with 13 seats in the legislative assembly. The Congress Reform Committee also contested 12 Lok Sabha seats during the 1957 Indian elections. The
committee became a fully-fledged political party and was renamed the Indian National Democratic Congress at a state conference held in Madurai on
September 2829, 1957. On June 4, 1959, shortly after the Nagpur session of the Indian National Congress, Rajagopalachari, along with Murari Vaidya of the
newly established Forum of Free Enterprise (FFE) and Minoo Masani, a classical liberal and critic of socialist Nehru, announced the formation of the
new Swatantra Party at a meeting in Madras. Conceived by disgruntled heads of former princely states such as the Raja of Ramgarh, the Maharaja of Kalahandi
and the Maharajadhiraja of Darbhanga, the party was conservative in character. Later, N. G. Ranga, K. M. Munshi, Field Marshal K. M. Cariappa and the
Maharaja of Patiala joined the effort. Rajagopalachari, Masani and Ranga also tried but failed to involve Jayaprakash Narayan in the initiative. In his short essay
"Our Democracy", Rajagopalachari explained the necessity for a right-wing alternative to the Congress by saying: since... the Congress Party has swung to the Left,
what is wanted is not an ultra or outer-Left [viz. the CPI or the Praja Socialist Party, PSP], but a strong and articulate Right. Rajagopalachari also insisted that the
opposition must: operate not privately and behind the closed doors of the party meeting, but openly and periodically through the electorate. He outlined the
goals of the Swatantra Party through twenty one "fundamental principles" in the foundation document. The party stood for equality and opposed government
control over the private sector. Rajagopalachari sharply criticised the bureaucracy and coined the term "license-permit Raj" to describe Nehru's elaborate system of
permissions and licenses required for an individual to set up a private enterprise. Rajagopalachari's personality became a rallying point for the party.
Rajagopalachari's efforts to build an anti-Congress front led to a patch up with his former adversary C. N. Annadurai of the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam. During
the late 1950s and early 1960s, Annadurai grew close to Rajagopalachari and sought an alliance with the Swatantra Party for the 1962 Madras legislative assembly
elections. Although there were occasional electoral pacts between the Swatantra Party and the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK), Rajagopalachari remained
non-committal on a formal tie-up with the DMK due to its existing alliance with Communists whom he dreaded. The Swatantra Party contested 94 seats in the
Madras state assembly elections and won six as well as won 18 parliamentary seats in the 1962 Lok Sabha elections. India's use of military force against
Portugal to capture the Portuguese enclave of Goa was criticised by Rajagopalachari who said of the operation and subsequent acts of international diplomacy,
"India has totally lost the moral power to raise her voice against the use of military power." On January 26, 1950, the Government of India adopted Hindi as the
official language of the country, but because of objections in non-Hindi-speaking areas, it introduced a provision tentatively making English the second official
language on a par with Hindi for a stipulated fifteen-year period to facilitate a switch to Hindi in non-Hindi speaking states. From January 26, 1965 onwards,
Hindi was to become the sole official language of the Indian Union and people in non-Hindi speaking regions were compelled to learn Hindi. This led to
vehement opposition and just before Republic Day, severe anti-Hindi protests broke out in Madras State. Rajagopalachari had earlier been sharply critical of the
recommendations made by the Official Languages Commission in 1957. On January 28, 1956, Rajagopalachari signed a resolution along with Annadurai and
Periyar endorsing the continuation of English as the official language. At an All-India Language Conference held on March 8, 1958, he declared: "Hindi is as
much foreign to non-Hindi speaking people as English [is] to the protagonists of Hindi". When the Anti-Hindi agitations broke out in 1965, Rajagopalachari
completely reversed his 1938 support for the introduction of Hindi and took a strongly anti-Hindi stand in support of the protests, On January 17, 1965, he
convened the Madras state Anti-Hindi conference in Tiruchirapalli. angrily declaring that Part XVII of the Constitution of India which declared that Hindi was
the official language should "be heaved and thrown into the Arabian Sea." The fourth elections to the Madras Legislative assembly were held in February
1967. At the age of 88, Rajagopalachari worked to forge a united opposition to the Indian National Congress through a tripartite alliance between the Dravida
Munnetra Kazhagam, the Swatantra Party and the Forward Bloc. The Congress party was defeated in Madras for the first time in 30 years and the coalition led by
Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam came to power. C. N. Annadurai served as Chief Minister from 6 March 1967 till his death on February 3, 1969. Rajagopalachari
delivered a moving eulogy to Annadurai at his funeral. The Swatantra party also did well in elections in other states and to the Lok Sabha, the directly
elected lower house of theParliament of India. It won 45 Lok Sabha seats in the 1967 general elections and emerged as the single largest opposition party. The
principal opposition party in the states of Rajasthan and Gujarat, it also formed a coalition government in Odisha and had a significant presence in Andhra
Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Bihar. In 1971, Annadurai's successor M. Karunanidhi relaxed prohibition laws in Tamil Nadu due to the poor financial situation of
the state. Rajagopalachari pleaded with him not to repeal prohibition but to no avail and as a result, the Swatantra Party withdrew its support for the state
government and instead allied with the Congress, a breakaway faction of the Indian National Congress led by Kamaraj. In January 1971, a three-party anti-
Congress coalition was established by the Congress (O), Jan Sangh and the Samyukta Socialist Party then on January 8, 1971 the national executive of the
Swatantra Party took the unanimous decision to join the coalition. The dissident parties formed an alliance called the National Democratic Front and fought
against the Indian National Congress led by Indira Gandhi in the 1971 Indian general elections. However, the alliance fared badly. The Swatantra Party's tally was
reduced to 8 seats from 23 in the 1967 elections. The decline of the Swatantra Party was also visible in the 1971 Tamil Nadu Legislative assembly elections in
which it won just 19 seats down from 27 in the 1967 elections. By November 1972, Rajagopalachari's health had begun to decline and on December 17 the same
year, a week after his 94th birthday, he was admitted to the Government Hospital, Madras suffering from uraemia, dehydration and a urinary infection. In the
hospital, he was visited by Chief Minister M. Karunanidhi, V. R. Nedunchezhiyan, V. V. Giri, Periyar and other state and national leaders. Rajagopalachari's
condition deteriorated in the following days as he frequently lost consciousness and he died at 5:44 pm on December 25, 1972 at the age of 94. His son, C. R.
Narasimhan, was at his bedside at the time of his death reading him verses from a Hindu holy book. An accomplished writer both in his mother tongue Tamil as
well as English, Rajagopalachari was the founder of the Salem Literary Society and regularly participated in its meetings. In 1922, he published Siraiyil
Tavam (Meditation in jail), a day-to-day account of his first imprisonment by the British from December 21, 1921 to March 20, 1922. Rajagopalachari started the
Tamil Scientific Terms Society in 1916, a group that coined new words in Tamil for terms connected to botany, chemistry, physics, astronomy and
mathematics. At about the same time, he called for Tamil to be introduced as the medium of instruction in schools. In 1951, he wrote an abridged retelling of
the Mahabharata in English, followed by one of the Ramayana in 1957. Earlier, in 1961, he had translated Kambar's Tamil Ramayana into English. In 1965, he
translated the Thirukkural into English and also wrote books on the Bhagavad Gita and the Upanishads in English as well as works onSocrates, and Marcus
Aurelius in Tamil. Rajagopalachari often regarded his literary works as the best service he had rendered to the people. In 1958, he was awarded theSahitya
Akademi Award for works in the Tamil language for his retelling of the Ramayana Chakravarti Thirumagan. He was also one of the founders of the Bharatiya
Vidya Bhavan, an organisation dedicated to the promotion of education and Indian culture. In 1959 the Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan published his book: "Hinduism:
Doctrine and Way of Life". Apart from his literary works, Rajagopalachari also composed a devotional song Kurai Onrum Illai devoted to Lord Venkateshwara, a
song set to music and a regular at Carnaticconcerts. Rajagopalachari composed a benediction hymn sung by M. S. Subbulakshmi at the United Nations General
Assembly in 1967. In 1954, during US Vice-President Richard Nixon's nineteen country Asian tour, he was lectured by Rajagopalachari on the consuming
emotional quality of nuclear weapons. The pair discussed spiritual life, particularly reincarnation and predestination. Nixon wrote three pages of notes recording
Rajagopalachari's words, claiming in his memoirs thirty-six years later that the afternoon "had such a dramatic effect on me that I used many of his thoughts in my
speeches over the next several years." While on a tour to the United States of America as a member of the Gandhi Peace Foundation delegation, in September
1962 Rajagopalachari visited American President John F. Kennedy at the White House. Rajagopalachari warned Kennedy of the dangers of embarking on an
arms race, even one which the US could win. At the end of the meeting Kennedy remarked "This meeting had the most civilizing influence on me. Seldom have
I heard a case presented with such precision, clarity and elegance of language".On May 1, 1955, Rajagopalachari appealed to the Government of India to cancel
receipt of aid from America if the country continued with its nuclear tests. E. M. S. Namboodiripad, a prominent Communist Party leader, once remarked that
Rajagopalachari was the Congress leader he respected the most despite the fact he was also someone with whom he had the most differences. Of Rajagopalachari,
Periyar, one of his foremost political rivals remarked "he was a leader unique and unequalled, who lived and worked for high ideals". On his death, condolences
poured in from all corners of the country. Indira Gandhi, the then Prime Minister of India commented: Mr. Rajagopalachari was one of the makers of new India,
a sincere patriot, a man whose penetrating intellect and moral sense added depth to national affairs. His analysis, his anticipation, his administrative acumen and
his courage to steer an unpopular course if he felt the need, marked him as a statesman and made an impact on the national history at several crucial junctures.
He had held the highest positions and lent distinction to every office. Regarded as a pioneer of social reform, Rajagopalachari issued temple entry proclamations
in the Madras Presidency and worked towards the upliftment of Dalits. He played a pivotal role in the conclusion of the Poona Pact between B. R.
Ambedkar and the Indian National Congress and spearheaded the Mahabal Temple Entry program in 1938. He was a staunch advocate of prohibition and was
elected Secretary of the Prohibition League of India in 1930. On assuming the premiership of the Madras Presidency, he introduced prohibition throughout the
province where it remained in vogue until its removal by M. Karunanidhi over thirty years later. Rajagopalachari was also an active member of the All India
Spinners Association. and a strong opponent of "linguistic states", which he felt would bring anarchy to India. He is also remembered for his literary
contributions, some of which are considered modern-day classics. He frequently wrote articles for Kalki and his own journal Swarajya, of whichPhilip Spratt was
editor. Richard Casey, Governor of Bengal from 1944 to 1946, regarded Rajagopalachari as the wisest man in India. The best possible tribute to Rajagopalachari
was from Mahatma Gandhi who referred to him as the "keeper of my conscience".Today, his private papers are part of the Archives at the Nehru Memorial
Museum & Library, at Teen Murti House, Delhi. Even though Rajagopalachari was considered one of the most able statesmen in the national arena, his
provincial and later his state administrations are seen as having fared badly. Critics opine that he completely failed to gauge the thoughts and feelings of the
masses his introduction of Hindi and the Madras Scheme of Elementary Education have both been extensively criticised while his pacifist stance during the
Quit India Movement and his "C. R. Formula" angered the majority of his colleagues in the Indian National Congress. P. C. Alexander, a former governor of
Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra, once wrote: The most conspicuous case of constitutional impropriety by the Governor in the exercise of discretion to choose the
Chief Minister, took place in 1952 when the then Governor of Madras, Sri Prakasa, invited Rajagopalachari to form the government in the composite State.
Referring to Rajagopalachari, Sarojini Naidu, who was never on good terms with him, remarked that 'the Madras fox was a dry logical Adi Shankaracharya while
Nehru was the noble, compassionate Buddha'. Although his popularity at the regional level fluctuated greatly, it is believed that

Rajagopalachari was able to
exercise his stranglehold over provincial politics mainly because he was favoured by national leaders such as Gandhi, Patel and Nehru. Critics feel that when the
President of the Tamil Nadu Congress Committee K. Kamaraj and a majority of the provincial leaders turned against him in the 1940s, Rajagopalachari clung on
to a position of influence in regional politics through support from his colleagues at the centre. Rajagopalachari was always an archetypal Tamil
Brahmin nemesis of the Dravidian movement. Deeply religious, a pious Hindu and a follower of the Vedas and Upanishads, he was accused of being pro-
Sanskrit and pro-Hindi, a stigma which Rajagopalachari found difficult to erase despite his vehement protests against the imposition of Hindi during the Madras
Anti-Hindi agitations of 1965. He was also accused of attempting to heavily sanskritise Tamil vocabulary through the inclusion of a large number of Sanskrit
words in his writings. His vocational education policy was seen as an attempt to reinforce the Varnashrama dharma of the caste system, while his Indian
nationalist and anti-secessionist leanings formed the inspiration for Periyar's coining of the term "Brahmin-Bania combine".
Tanguturi Prakasam Pantulu (August 23, 1872 May 20, 1957) was an Indian politician, Freedom Fighter and Chief Minister of
the Madras Presidency from April 30, 1946 until March 23, 1947. He was also the first Chief Minister of the Indian province Andhra
state from October 1, 1953 until November 15, 1954. He was also known as Andhra Kesari (literally, the Lion of Andhra). He was born
to Subbamma and Gopala krishnaya, in a Niyogi Telugu Brahmin family in a village called Vinodarayuni Palem (or Vinoda Rayudu
Palem) 26 km from Ongole in Prakasam District Andhra Pradesh. When he was 11, his father died and his mother had to run a
boarding house at Ongole, a profession that was looked down upon at the time. When E. Hanumantha Rao Naidu, his teacher at
school, shifted to Rajahmundry, he took Prakasam along with him as that place had better opportunities for education. He enacted
in Gayopakhyanam of Chilakamarthi Lakshmi Narasimham in 1890 along with his teacher. He was interested in becoming a lawyer
since childhood, Prakasam failed his matriculation examination. He however managed to go to Madras and become a second-grade
pleader. Returning to Rajahmundry, he eventually became a successful lawyer. He was elected as Municipal Chairman of Rajahmundry in 1904 when he was 31
years old. This election was a tough one at that point in time. During one of his professional visits to Madras on a court case, a barrister was impressed with his
legal acumen and suggested that he become a barrister. As a second-grade pleader, Prakasam could not argue cases at higher courts as only barristers were
allowed to do so. Prakasam took the idea to his heart and decided to go to England to pursue legal studies. It was considered a sacrilege to cross the seas during
those days. However, as Mohandas K. Gandhi had done before him, Prakasam made a promise to his mother that he would abstain from eating non-vegetarian
food, smoking and drinking. He reached England in 1904. In England, he joined the India Society and worked for the election of Dadabhai Naoroji to
the House of Commons. After completing the barrister course with a certificate of honour in London, Prakasam relocated to Madras high court. He was one of
the prominent Telugu barrister to be successful; until then, most of the successful lawyers were either Europeans or Tamilians. He dealt with both civil and
criminal cases. Of the latter, one of the important cases was the Ash murder case. Ash was the Collector ofTirunelveli and was shot dead in 1907. This was at a
time when Bipin Chandra Pal, the nationalist leader from Bengal was touring the region, making fiery speeches on nationalism. Prakasam defended one of the
accused and ensured that he got away with a light sentence. Prakasam also edited Law times, a legal magazine. The same year he presided over Bipin Chandra
Pals lecture at Madras when others were afraid to come forward, given that the government of the day considered Pals speeches to border on sedition. He
started attending the Congress Party sessions regularly after the Lucknow pact and signed the Satyagraha pledge in October 1921. He gave up his lucrative law
practice. He also started and was the working editor of a newspaper Swarajya (literally self-rule). Swarajya was published simultaneously in English, Telugu and
Tamil. He also ran a national school and a Khadi production centre. He was elected the general secretary of the Congress Party in December 1921 at
the Ahmedabad session. Whenever there was unrest or strife such as a riot, he tried to be there so as to comfort people. He visited Punjab during Akali
Satyagraha and the Hindu-Muslim riots in Multan. He touredKerala during the Moplah rebellion despite a ban on visitors from outside the area and had his
property at Ooty attached by the government as a consequence. In 1922, during theNon-cooperation Movement, he organised a demonstration by 30,000
Congress volunteers at Guntur. In 1926, he was elected to the Central Legislative Assembly on a Congress Party ticket. When the Simon Commission
visited India, the congress party decided to boycott it with the slogan "Simon, go back". There were a host of reasons for this boycott, the most important being
that the commission did not have a single Indian in its ranks. The commission was greeted with demonstration of black flags wherever it went. When the
commission visited Madras on 3 February 1928, the police did not allow protests in some sensitive areas of Madras. Nevertheless, the crowd grew large and
restive near the Madras High Court at Parry's Corner and the police resorted to firing with a view to control it. However, a young man, named, Pardha Saradhi
was killed on the spot. The police warned the people that they would shoot if anyone tried to come near the body. At this, Prakasam grew enraged and tore open
his shirt, baring his chest and daring the police to shoot at him. Understanding the situation, the police gave way to him and other supporters. After this incident,
people respected him with the epithet of "Andhra Kesari" (Lion of Andhra). In 1930, when the Congress wanted all the legislators to resign, he did so but was not
convinced about its alternative programme and hence contested and won the by-election. He joined the Congress Party led by Madan Mohan Malaviya but
resigned from it as well and persuaded others to do so after Mahatma Gandhi and the Congress Party decided to break the salt tax law with the Dandi March.
Prakasam also resigned as a legislator and was at the forefront in breaking the tax law at Madras. In the meantime, he had to suspend the publication
of Swarajya due to the high deposit demanded by the government. It was revived after the Gandhi-Irwin pact of 1931 but it had to be suspended again due to cash
flow problems. Unsuccessful attempts were made to restart it again in 1935. In 1937, Congress Party contested the provincial elections and achieved majority
in Madras province, among others. Though Prakasam was in the running for Chief Ministers post, he made way for Rajaji, who returned to active politics as per
the wishes of the Congress Working Committee. Prakasam became the revenue minister his major contribution was the founding and chairing of
the Zamindari Enquiry Committee which looked at the structural distortions in agriculture perpetrated due to the Zamindari system followed by the British
Government. With the onset of World War II, the Congress ministries resigned from office as they were not consulted by the government about Indias
participation. Prakasam was the first prominent leader from South India to offer individual Satyagraha against the war effort in 1941. He was arrested for more
than three years for participating in the Quit India movement of 1942. After his release in 1945, he toured South India to get back in touch with the masses. In
1946, after the Congress' victory in elections in Madras Presidency Prakasam became the chief minister on April 30, 1946, as he and Kamaraj, a Tamil leader,
were against Rajaji the choice of leaders such as Gandhi and Nehru becoming the chief minister. However, the government lasted for only 11 months, as it
was felt that Prakasam was not accommodating enough to various varying interests. During his tenure as Premier, Prakasam publicly declared his intention to
scrap all textile industries in the province and replace them with khadi manufacturing and weaving units. In February 1947, Communists broke into a full-scale
revolt. On Vallabhbhai Patel's advice, Prakasam responded with widespread arrests and tough crackdown on arsonists. He visited Hyderabad state in 1948, while
the Nizam was still in power, although Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru warned against doing so because of concern for his personal safety. He met Qasim Rizvi,
the leader of the Razakars and warned him about pushing his luck too far. The Razakars were impressed by his courage and accorded him a march of honour. In
1952, he formed the Hyderabad State Praja Party (Hyderabad State Peoples party) and ensured that all the sitting ministers of the Congress Party were defeated.
However, Praja party could not come into power by its own and the coalition that he cobbled up collapsed even before a show of strength could be
contemplated. Meanwhile, in December 1952, Potti Sriramulu died fasting for the cause of a separate state for the Telugu-speaking people. On October 1, 1953,
the state of Andhra was created and Prakasam was unanimous choice for Chief minister for the new state.He was a not only party's choice but peoples choice too.
However, due to opposition from the communistsand halting support from the socialists, the government fell after a year. Mid-term elections were held in 1955
by which time Prakasam had more or less retired from active politics. On 1 November 1956, Telugu speaking parts of the erstwhile Hyderabad state were
merged in the Andhra state to form Andhra Pradesh. Marathi speaking parts (Aurangabad region) of the Hyderabad state were merged with Bombay State (which
later split into Gujarat and Maharashtra) and Kannada speaking parts (Gulbarga region) were merged with Mysore State. Neelam Sanjiva Reddy, a
future President of India and a staunch follower of Prakasam became the chief minister. Prakasam was active in touring the state promoting Harijan issues (Dalit
issues). On one such visit to a Harijanwada near Ongole, he suffered from severe sunstroke. He was admitted in a Hyderabad hospital and died on May 20,
1957.He died as a poor man and a hungry man.His Grandson is a bachelor class V employee in Ongole even today and stays with his mother, Annapurnamma
(Prakasam's youngest son's wife). The autobiography of Prakasham was titled as "Naa Jeevitha Yathra"(My life's Journey) published by Telugu Samithi. This book
is actually divided into four parts first two are about his early life and his involvement in freedom fighting in India. third part is about getting independence and
government formation in Andhrapradesh. Fourth actually written by Tenneti Viswanadham explaining about his political career and changes he brought to
Andhra.

Gansu Uyghur Kingdom
The Gansu Uyghur Kingdom was established around c.848, by the Uyghurs, after the fall of the Uyghur Khaganate in 840.
[1]
The kingdom lasted from 848 to
1036; during that time, many of Gansu's residents converted to Buddhism. The Gansu area was, traditionally, a Chinese inroad into Asia. By the ninth century
the Uyghurs had come to dominate the area, taking over (according to some scholars) from the Tibetans who previously ruled, or (according to thers) from the
Chinese. The area had become a "commercially critical region", making the Uyghur wealthy and cosmopolitan. By the early 11th century, they were in turn
conquered by the Tanguts. The modern day descendants of the Gansu Uyghur kingdom are known as Yellow Uyghurs.
List of Rulers of Gansu Uyghur Kingdom
Yngy Khan was a ruler of Gansu Uyghur Kingdom from ? until 924.
Rn y was a ruler of Gansu Uyghur Kingdom from 924 until 959.
Jng qing was a ruler of Gansu Uyghur Kingdom from 959 until 979.
Y lu hm l was a ruler of Gansu Uyghur Kingdom from 980 until 998.
Zhngshn was a ruler of Gansu Uyghur Kingdom from 998 until 1003.
Y lu g gu hu was a ruler of Gansu Uyghur Kingdom from 1003 until 1016.
Hui Khan was a ruler of Gansu Uyghur Kingdom from 1003 until 1016.
Y lu g tngshn was a ruler of Gansu Uyghur Kingdom from 1023 until 1028.
Y l g ly s was a ruler of Gansu Uyghur Kingdom from 1028 until 1036.




Kingdom of Qocho
The Kingdom of Qocho, also called the Idiqut state ("Holy Wealth, Glory"), was an Uyghur state created during AD 856866, based in the cities of Qocho (also
called Kara-Khoja) near Turpan, Beshbalik, Kumul, and Kucha. Qocho serves as the winter capital with Beshbalik its summer capital. It was also
called Uyghuristan in its later period. The kingdom was a Buddhist state, with state-sponsored Buddhism and Manichaeism, and it can be considered the center
of Uyghur culture. The Uyghurs sponsored the construction of many of the temple caves in nearby Bezeklik. They abandoned their old alphabet and adopted
the scripts of the local population, which later came to be known as the Uyghur script. The Idiquts (title of the Karakhoja rulers) ruled independently until they
become a vassal state of the Kara-Khitans. In 1209, the Kara-Khoja ruler Idiqut Barchuq declared his allegiance to the Mongols under Genghis Khan, and the
kingdom existed as a vassal state until 1335. After submitting to the Mongols, the Uyghurs went into the service of the Mongol rulers as bureaucrats, providing the
expertise that the initially illiterate nomads lacked. Qocho was finally conquered by the Chaghataid Mongols in the 1390s.
List of Rulers of Kingdom of Qocho (Idiqut state)
Sungulug Qaghan was a ruler of Kingdom of Qocho (Idiqut state) in 981and in 984.
Tngri ilig was a ruler of Kingdom of Qocho (Idiqut state) from 996 until 1007.
Alp Arsla Qutlugh Kul Bilga, Tngri Khan was a ruler of Kingdom of Qocho (Idiqut state) from 1007 until 1019/1024.
Tngrikhan was a ruler of Kingdom of Qocho (Idiqut state) around 1019/1024.
Arslan Tngri Uighur Tarkan was a ruler of Kingdom of Qocho (Idiqut state) around 1068.
Bilga was a ruler of Kingdom of Qocho (Idiqut state) around 1123.
Tinur was a ruler of Kingdom of Qocho (Idiqut state) around 1229.
Barchuq-Art was a ruler of Kingdom of Qocho (Idiqut state) from 1229 until 1241.
Kesmez was a ruler of Kingdom of Qocho (Idiqut state) from 1242 until 1246.
Tigin was a ruler of Kingdom of Qocho (Idiqut state) from ? until 1253.
Ogrunch Tigin was a ruler of Kingdom of Qocho (Idiqut state) in 1253 until 1257.
Mamuraq Tigin was a ruler of Kingdom of Qocho (Idiqut state) from 1257 until 1265.
Qosqar Tigin was a ruler of Kingdom of Qocho (Idiqut state) from 1266 until 1280.
Neguril Tigin was a ruler of Kingdom of Qocho (Idiqut state) from 1280 until 1318.
Tamir Buqa was a ruler of Kingdom of Qocho (Idiqut state) from 1322 until 1330.
Senggi was a ruler of Kingdom of Qocho (Idiqut state) from 1330 until 1332.
Taipindu was a ruler of Kingdom of Qocho (Idiqut state) from 1332 until 1352.
Kirasiz was a ruler of Kingdom of Qocho (Idiqut state) from ? until 1309/1318.
Koncok was a ruler of Kingdom of Qocho (Idiqut state) from 1309/1318 until 1326/1334.
Ching Timur was a ruler of Kingdom of Qocho (Idiqut state) around 1348/1360.

Kalabhras dynasty
The Kalabhras dynasty ruled over the entire Ancient Tamil country between the 3rd and the 7th century in an era of South Indian history called
the Kalabhra interregnum. The Kalabhras, possibly Buddhists, displaced the kingdoms of the early Cholas, early Pandyas and Chera dynasties by a revolt. The
Kalabhras put an end to the brahmanadeya rights granted to the brahmans in numerous villages across southern India. Information about the origin and reign of
the Kalabhras is scarce. They left neither artifacts nor monuments, and the only sources of information are scattered mentions in Buddhist and Jain literature.
The Kalabhras were defeated by the joint efforts of the Pallavas, Pandyas and Chalukyas Badami.
List of known Rulers of Kalabhras Dynasty
Achchutavikranta was a King of Kalabhras Dynasty in the 5th century. The history of Cholas of Uraiyur (Tiruchirappalli) is exceedingly obscure from fourth
to the ninth century, chiefly owing to the occupation of their country by the Kalabhras.Buddhadatta, the great writer in Pali, belonged to Uraiyur. He mentions
his contemporary, King Achchutavikranta of the Kalabharakula, as ruling over the Chola country fromKaveripattinam. He was a Buddhist. Tamil literary
tradition refers to an Achchuta who kept the Chera, Chola and Pandya rulers in captivity. On the basis of the contemporaneity of Buddhadatta
with Buddhaghosha, Achchuta may be assigned to the fifth century. Thus, after the Sangam age, the Cholas were forced into obscurity by the Kalabhras, who
disturbed the placid political conditions of the Tamil country.
Tiraiyan of Pavattiri was a King of Kalabhras probably in 6th century. The identification of the Kalabhras is difficult. The chieftains of this tribe mentioned
in Sangam literature are Tiraiyan of Pavattiri and Pulli of Vengadam or Tirupati.
Pulli of Vengadam Tirupati was a King of Kalabhras probably in 6th century. The identification of the Kalabhras is difficult. The chieftains of this tribe
mentioned in Sangam literature are Tiraiyan of Pavattiri and Pulli of Vengadam or Tirupati.

Kathiri State of Seiyun in Hadhramaut
Kathiri (Arabic: al-Kathr, officially the Kathiri State of Seiyun in Hadhramaut (Arabic: - - al-Salanah al-Kathryah -
Sayn - aramawt) was a sultanate in the Hadhramaut region of the southern Arabian Peninsula, in what is now part of Yemen and the Dhofar region
of Oman. The Kathiris once ruled much of Hadhramaut but their power was truncated by the rival Qu'aitis in the 19th century. The Kathiris were eventually
restricted to a small inland portion of Hadhramaut with their capital at Seiyun (Say'un). The sultanate entered into treaty relations with the British in the late 19th
century and became a part of the Aden Protectorate. The Kathiri State declined to join the Federation of South Arabia but remained under British protection as
part of the Protectorate of South Arabia. Al Husayn ibn Ali, Kathiri sultan since 1949 was overthrown in October 1967 and, the following month, the former
sultanate became part of newly independent South Yemen. South Yemen united with North Yemen in 1990 to become the Republic of Yemen, but local sheikhs
in Yemen are reported to still wield large de facto authority. The first Prime Minister in the history of East Timor, Mari Alkatiri (mar' al-Kathr,), is a third
generation descendant of immigrants from Kathiri, part of a significant migration of Hadhramis to Southeast Asia in the 19th and 20th centuries. This is reflected
in his name (Alkatiri). The Indonesian human rights activist Munir Said Thalib is also a descendant of immigrants from Kathiri.
List of Rulers (Sheiks) of the Kathiri State of Seiyun in Hadhramaut
Mohammed ibn Bedar ibn Omar Al Kathiri was a ruler (Sheik) of the Kathiri State of Seiyun in Hadhramaut from 1395 until 1430.
Muhammad ibn 'Ali Al Kathiri was a ruler (Sheik) of the Kathiri State of Seiyun in Hadhramaut from around 1430 until 1450.
Djaffar ibn 'Abdallah Al Kathiri was a ruler (Sheik) of the Kathiri State of Seiyun in Hadhramaut from around 1493.
Badr ibn 'Abdallah Al Kathiri was a ruler (Sheik) of the Kathiri State of Seiyun in Hadhramaut from around 1516 until 1565.
Jafar ibn Abd Allah Al Kathiri was a ruler (Sheik) of the Kathiri State of Seiyun in Hadhramaut from 1670 until 1690.
Badr ibn Jafar Al Kathiri was a ruler (Sheik) of the Kathiri State of Seiyun in Hadhramaut from 1690 until 1707.
Abd Allah ibn Badr Al Kathiri was a ruler (Sheik) of the Kathiri State of Seiyun in Hadhramaut from 1707 until 1725.
Amr ibn Badr Al Kathiri was a ruler (Sheik) of the Kathiri State of Seiyun in Hadhramaut from 1725 until 1760.
Ahmad ibn Amr Al Kathiri was a ruler (Sheik) of the Kathiri State of Seiyun in Hadhramaut from 1760 until 1800.
Husein bin Muhsin Al Kathiri was a ruler (Sheik) of the Kathiri State of Seiyun in Hadhramaut in the first half 19th century, He left to Saudi Arabia
Ghalib ibn Mohammed Al Kathiri was a ruler (Sheik) of the Kathiri State of Seiyun in Hadhramaut from around 1848 until 1894.
Mansur ibn Ghalib Al Kathiri was a ruler (Sheik) of the Kathiri State of Seiyun in Hadhramaut from 1894 until 1929.
'Ali ibn al-Mansur Al Kathiri was a ruler (Sheik) of the Kathiri State of Seiyun in Hadhramaut from 1929 until 1938.
Djaffar ibn al-Mansur Al Kathiri was a ruler (Sheik) of the Kathiri State of Seiyun in Hadhramaut from1938 until 1949.
al-Husayn ibn 'Ali Al Kathiri was a ruler (Sheik) of the Kathiri State of Seiyun in Hadhramaut from 1949 until 1967. Al Husayn ibn Ali, Kathiri sultan
since 1949 was overthrown in October 1967 and, the following month, the former sultanate became part of newly independent South Yemen.
List of Rulers (Sheiks) of the Kathiri State of Tarim
Muhsin ibn Ghalib was a ruler (Sheik) of the Kathiri State of Tarim from 1880 until 1920.
Sayyid Abu Bakr ibn Shaykh al-Kaf was de facto ruler (Sheik) of the Kathiri State of Tarim in late 19th century and early 20th century.
Muhammad ibn Muhsin was a ruler (Sheik) of the Kathiri State of Tarim from 1920 until 1935.
Sayyid Ali al-Kaf was de facto ruler (Sheik) of the Kathiri State of Tarim from 1920s until early 1940s.
Abd Allah ibn Muhammad Ghalib was a ruler (Sheik) of the Kathiri State of Tarim from 1935 until 1945.
Abd Allah ibn Said was de facto ruler (Sheik) of the Kathiri State of Tarim from early 1940s until 1945.

Kolathundu
Kolattundu (Kola Swarupam, as Kingdom of Cannanore in foreign accounts, Chirakkal (Chericul) in later times) was one of the three most powerful feudal
kingdoms on the Malabar Coast during the arrival Portuguese Armadas to India, the others being Zamorin's Calicut and Quilon. Kolattundu had its capital
at Ezhimalai and was ruled by Kolattiri Royal Family and roughly comprised the whole northern districts of Kerala state and parts of Karnataka in India.
Traditionally, Kolattundu is described as the land lying between Perumba river in the north and Putupattanam river in the south. The ruling house of
Kolathundu, which was known as Kolattunau, was one of the major political powers which sprang up in Kerala after the disappearance of the Cheras of
Mahodayapuram by the 12th century AD. Kolattiris traces their ancestry back to the ancient Mushika kingdom (Ezhimalai kingdom, Eli-nadu) of the Tamil
Sangam Age. After king Nannan of Mushika dynasty was killed in a battle against the Cheras, the history of the dynasty is obscure. However, it is generally agreed
among the scholars that Kolattiris are the descendents of king Nannan, and later literary works point towards kings such as Vikramaraman, Jayamani, Valabhan
and Srikandan from Mushika dynasty. Kolathunad was the northernmost province of the Later Chera kingdom and had considerable autonomy during 12th
century.
List of known Rulers of Kolathundu
Cunhi Homo was the Prince Regent of Kolathundu during 1720s and 1740s. He was approaches the British for succour in return for the privileges and
factory granted to them by his uncle the Kolathiri. Chief of Thalassery informs the Prince Regent that it is the policy of the Bombay Presidency to supply local
potentates with ammunition to wage wars at their own expense. Chief of Thalassery, Adams, was recalled to Bombay and Prince regent asks for military assistance
from Dutch at Cochin. The Dutch demanded the port of Dharmapatanam in return. The East India Company fearing Dutch influence supplied Kolathund
with 20,000 fanams of military stores and Ali Rj was silenced. The British in return were given exclusive permission over other Europeans to buy spices in
Kolathundu by Prince Udaya Varman. Kanarese invaded North Malabar in 1732 at the invitation of the Arackal Raja. Under the command of Gopalaji, 30,000
strong Kanarese soldiers easily overran Cunhi Homos forts in northern Kolathund. Early in 1734 the Kanarese soldiers captured Kudali and Dharmapatanam
In 1736 Kanarese army was driven out of the whole of North with assistance from the British but the Prince Regent incurs a huge debt with the factors at
Tellichery as a result 1737: Nayaks of Bednur plan another attack on Kolathundu. Prince Cunhi Homo agreed to sign a peace treaty with the Kanarese which
fixed the northern border of Kolathund on theMadday. The factors of Tellicherry also signed their own treaty with the Nayak of Bedanur which guaranteed the
integrity of British trading concessions in Malabar in the event of future conflicts between the Kanarese and the rulers of Kolathund. Prince Ockoo, a French
supported adversary of the Prince regent and his followers were killed by the factors of Tellichery. Prince regent asked his vassals, the Achanmrs of
Randuthara to contribute 30,000 fanams towards defraying state debt. The Achanmrs refused. Prince Regents threatened to assume the collection of tribute
in Randuthara unless the Achanmrs agreed. the British arranged to pay the Prince Regent the sum of 30,000 fanams on behalf of the Achanmrs in exchange
for the land revenue collection of Randuthara. Thus The debt trap was an important instrument which the British used to secure the monopoly of trade in
Malabar. The direct relations which the factors of Tellicherry were cultivating with the vassals of Kolathund, however, tended to alienate the Kolattiri. The
Prince Regent of Kolathund accused the factors of Tellicherry of interfering too much in the government of his country. The disintegration of the Kolathiri's
dominion had started and the English fanned dissensions in the royal family. The British started taking control of more and more area by purchasing land
through consorts of the royal family. On succession due to Prince Cunhi Homos death, Prince Cunhi Raman tried to ambition to reaffirm his authority upon his
Vassals to the East India Company concern. Having consolidated his authority, Prince Cunhi Raman embarked on a policy of centralizing the administration of
Kolathund so as to acquire more power over his vassals. He expressed the desire to collect the land revenue of Randuthara because he felt that the Achanmr
no longer obeyed him.
Cunhi Raman (died 1756) was the Prince Regent of Kolathundu from around 1747 until his death in 1756. On succession due to Prince Cunhi
Homos death, Prince Cunhi Raman tried to ambition to reaffirm his authority upon his Vassals to the East India Company concern. Having consolidated his
authority, Prince Cunhi Raman embarked on a policy of centralizing the administration of Kolathund so as to acquire more power over his vassals. He
expressed the desire to collect the land revenue of Randuthara because he felt that the Achanmr no longer obeyed him. He was threatened to appoint his own
sons to administer the taluks of Iruvalinad and Kadattanad. In the same year, however, the Boyanore cut the last links of Vassalage with the Kolathund palace
and declared himself Rj of Kadattanad. The Nambirs of Iruvalind threatened to follow suit. The Achanmr of Randuthara appealed to the British for more
protection. Kolathund was being dismembered. The Kolattiri and his Prince Regent were being forced to withdraw to Kolathund proper and so restrict their
authority to what was to become the taluk of Chirakkal. Following the Boyanores assumption of the title of Rj, Prince Cunhi Raman declared war on
Kadattanad, Iruvalinad where the East India Company had acquired the monopoly of buying pepper . Following many discussions, the factors managed to
convince the Kolattiri (the Senior Rj of Kolathund) to dismiss Prince Kunhi Raman and appointed Ambu Tamban as Prince Regent in the presence
of Thomas Derryl of the East India Company at Thalassery. In October 1751 Prince Cunhi Raman allowed the French to fortify Mount Delli so as to disrupt the
British rice trade between Mangalore and Tellicherry. In January 1752 Rj of Cotiote mediated for a settlement between Tellicherry and Kolathund. Prince
Cunhi Raman died in 1756 and success by Prince Rama Varma
Rama Varma (died 1760) was the Prince Regent of Kolathundu from 1756 until his death in 1760.
Unanamen Tamban was the Prince Regent of Kolathundu during 1760s.

Mushika Kingdom
Mushika Kingdom (also called Ezhimalai Kingdom, Puzhinadu, or Mushaka Rajya) was an ancient kingdom of the Tamil Sangam age in present day
northern Kerala, India ruled by the Royal dynasty of the same name. They ruled the strip of land between Mangalore in the north and Vadagara in the south. It
was one of the three kingdom of Sangam Age Kerala, along with the Chera kingdom and the Ay kingdom. Ezhimalai Nannan was the most powerful ruler of
Ezhimalai, he expanded the kingdom to Wynad, Gudallore and to parts of Coimbatore. With the death of Nannan in a battle against the Cheras, the kingdom
dissolved in the Chera kingdom. Mushika Kingdom is referred to in the Mahabharata epic. Over the millennia, they have also been known as the Kulyas, Kolis
and Kolwas as also the Velirs, Ezhimala (also spelled as Ezhimalai), and the Nannans. Later they were better known as the Kolathiri or the Chirakkal Royal
Family of Northern Kerala. Their last and erstwhile capital was in the town of Chirakkal to which they moved around 850. The word 'Mushika' also means
Mouse inSanskrit. Ezhimala, where they had their capital earlier to Taliparamba and Chirakkal, literally means Rat Hill in the local Malayalam language as well as
in Tamil.
List of Rulers of the Mushika Kingdom
Rama Ghata Mushaka was a South Indian ruler of the Mushika kingdom in late 8th century. According to the Mushika Vamsa, Rama Ghata Mushaka
established the lineage of Kola Swarupam.
[
Whatever may have been the authority for the Mushika Vamsa, inscriptional evidence from at least the 8th century
AD seems to support the existence of the Mushaka dynasty.
Vikrama Rama was a South Indian ruler of the Mushika kingdom in the first half 10th century.
Udaya Warma was a South Indian ruler of the Mushika kingdomin the second half 10th century, he mentions in inscription from 10th century as cheftain,
who bore the title "Rama Ghata Muvar" an epithet used by the Mushaka kings.
Jayamani was a South Indian ruler of the Mushika kingdom in the first half 11th century. An inscription from the Tiruvattur temple mentions an Eraman
Chemani (Rama Jayamani) who is identifiable with the king who appears as the 109th ruler in the Mushika Vamsa.
Vallabha II was a South Indian ruler of the Mushika kingdom in the second half 11th century. King Vikrama Rama is said to have saved the famous Buddhist
vihara of Sri Mulavasa from a terrible sea erosion on the Malabar Coast. Prince Vallabha II was despatched by King Jayamani to assist the Chera forces during
the invasion of the Chola ruler Kulottunga. However, before he could join with the Chera army, he heard the death of his father and he returned to the capital to
prevent the usurpation of the Mushaka throne by his enemies. On reaching the capital, he defeated his rivals and ascended the throne. Vallabha II also founded
the port of Marahi (Madayi) at the mouth of Killa river and port of Valabha Pattanam (Valiaptam). The city of Valabha Pattanam was protected with lofty towers
and high walls. He also annexed Laccadive, Minicoy and Amindivi islands of Arabian sea. Srikantha (also known as Raja Dharma), his younger brother
succeeded Vallabha II.
Srikantha was a South Indian ruler of the Mushika kingdom who ruled towards the end of 11th century AD.

Sultanate of Lahej
Lahej (Arabic: Laij), the Sultanate of Lahej (Arabic: Salanat Laij), or, sometimes, the Abdali Sultanate(Arabic: Salanat al-
Abdal), Was a Sheikdom based in Lahej in Southern Yemen. The Sheikdom was officially abolished in 1967. Lahej was sultanate of the 'Abdali dynasty . In
1740 the 'Abdali sultan became independent. The Sultanate of Lahej became an independent entity, from 1728 to 1839. The Sultanate of Lahej lost its
independence to the British, after the Royal Navy Aden Expedition attack in 1839. The Sultan signed several treaties with the British. The 1863 opening of
the Suez Canal caused the formation of the Aden Protectorate The sultanate was one of the original "Nine Cantons" that signed individual
British protectorate agreements with Great Britain, that in 1869 were joined together to become the Aden Protectorate. The Suez Canal also opened in 1869.
During World War I, the Ottoman Empire maintained control.
[1]
Lahej typically enjoyed good relations with the British, despite the accidental killing
of Sultan Fadhl ibn Ali al Abdali by British troops in 1918 who mistook him for an enemy Ottoman Turk soldier. In 1948, the Subayhi tribal area was absorbed
into their sultanate. However, in 1958, Britain was worried that the sultan at the time, Ali bin Abd al Karim al Abdali, an Arab nationalist, would refuse to join the
British-sponsored Federation of Arab Emirates of the South, and had him deposed. Lahej ended up joining the Federation and later the Federation of South
Arabia in 1963. In 1967 the new Communist regime expelled the Sultan. The Sultanate of Lahej was abolished with the founding of theSocialist state of People's
Democratic Republic of Yemen (1967 - 1990). The former territory has been within the Republic of Yemen since its unification in 1990
List of Sultans of Sultanate of Lahej
Fadhl I ibn Ali al - Sally was a Sultan of Sultanate of Lahej from 1728 until 1742.
Abd I al-Karim ibn Fadhl was a Sultan of Sultanate of Lahej from 1742 until 1753.
Abd al-Hadi ibn Abd al-Karim was a Sultan of Sultanate of Lahej from 1753 until 1777.
Fadhl II ibn Abd al-Karim was a Sultan of Sultanate of Lahej from 1777 until 1791.
Ahmad I ibn Abd al-Karim was a Sultan of Sultanate of Lahej from 1791 until 1827.
Fadhl ibn Muhsin was a Sultan of Sultanate of Lahej from 1827 until November 1839, from December 1839 until August 1846 and from September 1846
until November 1847.
Ahmad II ibn Muhsin was a Sultan of Sultanate of Lahej from November until December 1739 and from December 1847 until January 1849.
Syed Ismail ibn Hasan al - Husaini was a Sultan of Sultanate of Lahej from August until September 1846.
Ali I ibn Muhsin was a Sultan of Sultanate of Lahej from March 1849 until April 1863.
Fadhl ibn Ali III was a Sultan of Sultanate of Lahej in 1863.
Fadhl ibn Muhsin IV was a Sultan of Sultanate of Lahej from 1863 until 1874.
Fadhl ibn Ali III was a Sultan of Sultanate of Lahej from 1874 until April 1898.
Fadhl ibn Ali Abdali (died 1918) was a Sultan of Sultanate of Lahej from 1898 until his death in 1918. He was killed by British troops in 1918 who mistook
him for an enemy Ottoman Turk soldier.
Ali bin Abd al Karim al Abdali was a Sultan of Sultanate of Lahej from the first half 20th century until 1967. In 1958, Britain was worried that the sultan
at the time, Ali bin Abd al Karim al Abdali, an Arab nationalist, would refuse to join the British-sponsored Federation of Arab Emirates of the South, and had
him deposed. Lahej ended up joining the Federation and later the Federation of South Arabia in 1963. In 1967 the new Communist regime expelled the Sultan.
The Sultanate of Lahej was abolished with the founding of theSocialist state of People's Democratic Republic of Yemen (1967 - 1990).

Sultanate of Lower Jafa
Lower Yafa, Lower Yafa'i (Arabic: Yfi al-Sufl), or the Sultanate of Lower Yafa (Arabic: Salanat Yfi al-Sufl), was a state
in the British Aden Protectorate. Lower Yafa was ruled by the Al Afifi dynasty and its capital was at Jaar. This former sultanate is now part of the Republic
ofYemen. Yafa was the seat of the ancient Himyarite dynasty, which lasted from 110 BC to AD 632 when it was fully integrated into theRashidun Caliphate. The
Yafai tribe was traditionally divided into 10 branches or sheikhdoms of which 5 are in Lower Yafa and the other 5 are in Upper Yafa. These sheikhdoms are
broken down to many smaller branches and extended families. A treaty of Protection was signed between the British and the Sultan of Lower Yafa in 1895.
Lower Yafa included some fertile areas of Abyan belonging to the sheikhdoms of Al Saadi, Yaher, Kalad, Thi Nakheb, and Yazidi. Its capital was the former
residence of the Ban Aff Sultans. There was a second capital in Al Qara where a picturesque palace, the mountain retreat of the Sultan, was located. The
Lower Yafa Sultanate was a founding member of the Federation of Arab Emirates of the South in 1959 and its successor, the Federation of South Arabia, in
1963. Its last sultan, Mahmd ibn Aidrs Al Affi, was deposed and his state abolished in 1967 upon the founding of the People's Republic of South Yemen.
Eventually South Yemen united with North Yemen in 1990 to form the Republic of Yemen.
List of Sultanate of Lower Jafa
`Afif was a Sultan of Sultanate of Lower Jafa from 1681 until around 1700.
Qahtan ibn - `Afifi was a Sultan of Sultanate of Lower Jafa from 1700 until1720.
Sayf ibn Qahtan al -`Afifi was a Sultan of Sultanate of Lower Jafa from 1730 until 1740.
Ma`awda ibn Sayf al -`Afifi was a Sultan of Sultanate of Lower Jafa from 1740 until 1760.
Ghalib ibn Ma`awda al -`Afifi was a Sultan of Sultanate of Lower Jafa from 1760 until 1780.
`Abd al-Karim ibn Ghalib was a Sultan of Sultanate of Lower Jafa from 1780 until 1800.
`Ali ibn Ghalib al-`Afifi (died December 14, 1841) was a Sultan of Sultanate of Lower Jafa from 1800 until his death on December 14, 1841.
Ahmad ibn `Ali al-`Afifi (died September 28, 1873) was a Sultan of Sultanate of Lower Jafa from December 1841 until his death on September 28, 1873.
`Ali ibn Ahmad al-`Afifi (died May 26, 1885) was a Sultan of Sultanate of Lower Jafa from 1873 until his death on May 26, 1885.
Muhsin ibn Ahmad al-`Afifi (died June 19, 1891) was a Sultan of Sultanate of Lower Jafa from 1885 until his death on June 19, 1891.
Ahmad ibn `Ali al-`Afifi was a Sultan of Sultanate of Lower Jafa from 1891 until 1893.
Abu Bakr ibn Sha'if al-`Afifi was a Sultan of Sultanate of Lower Jafa from 1893 until 1899.
`Abd Allah ibn Muhsin al-`Afifi was a Sultan of Sultanate of Lower Jafa from 1899 until 1916.
Muhsin ibn `Ali al-`Afifi was a Sultan of Sultanate of Lower Jafa from 1916 until 1925.
Aydarus ibn Muhsin al-`Afifi was a Sultan of Sultanate of Lower Jafa from 1925 until 1958.
Mahmud ibn `Aydarus al-`Afifi was a Sultan of Sultanate of Lower Jafa from 1958 until 1967.

Mahra Sultanate of Qishrn and Socotra
The Mahra Sultanate of Qishn and Socotra (Arabic: Salanat Mahrah f Qishn wa Suqurah) or sometimes the Mahra Sultanate of
Ghayda and Socotra (Arabic: Salanat Mahrah f-l Ghay wa Suqurah) was a sultanate that included both the historical
region of Mahra and the Indian Ocean island of Socotra in what is now eastern Yemen. It was ruled by the Banu Afrar (Arabic: Ban Afrr, also
known as ) dynasty and is sometimes called Mahra State in English. The last sultan was Issa Bin Ali Bin Salim Banu Afrar" The capitals of the Mahra
Sultanate were Qishn in Mahra and Tamrida (Hadibu) on Socotra. During 1886, the sultanate became a British protectorate and later became a part of the Aden
Protectorate. In the 1960s, Mahra declined to join the Federation of South Arabia but remained under British protection as part of the Protectorate of South
Arabia. In 1967, the sultanate was abolished and Mahra became part of newly independent South Yemen which united with North Yemen in 1990 to become
the Republic of Yemen. Today the Mahra area (without Socotra) is the Al Mahrah Governorate of Yemen. In addition to Arabic, Mehri, a Modern South
Arabian language is spoken in Mahra. Mahra shares with the neighbouring Dhofar in Oman cultural traits such as the modern South Arabian language spoken
and the importance offrankincense, These regions also share geographic and climatic ties, which distinguish them from the surrounding desert terrain, mostly due
to the beneficial action of the khareef monsoon. The Mahra and Socotra last Sultan was Issa Bin Ali al Afrar in 1967 after that Mahra became part of newly
independent (South Yemen) which united.
List of Rulers of Mahra Sultanate of Qishin and Socotra
Said Ibn Abd Allah was a ruler of Mahra Sultanate of Qishn and Socotra in the second half 16th century.
Afrar al-Mahri was a ruler of Mahra Sultanate of Qishn and Socotra from 1750 until 1780.
Tawari ibn Afrar al-Mahri was a ruler of Mahra Sultanate of Qishn and Socotra from 1780 until 1800.
Sad ibn Tawari Ibn Afrar al-Mahri was a ruler of Mahra Sultanate of Qishn and Socotra from 1800 until 1820.
Sultan ibn Amr was a ruler of Mahra Sultanate of Socotra around 1834.
Ahmad ibn Sultan was a ruler of Mahra Sultanate of Qishn around 1834.
Amr ibn Sad ibn Tawari Afrar al-Mahri was a ruler of Mahra Sultanate of Qishn and Socotra from 1835 until 1845.
Tawari ibn Ali Afrar al-Mahri was a ruler of Mahra Sultanate of Qishn and Socotra from 1845 until ?.
Ahmad ibn Sa`d Afrar al-Mahri was a ruler of Mahra Sultanate of Qishn and Socotra in the second half 19th century.
Abd Allah ibn Sad Afrar al-Mahri was a ruler of Mahra Sultanate of Qishn and Socotra in the second half 19th century.
Abd Allah ibn Salim Afrar al-Mahri was a ruler of Mahra Sultanate of Qishn and Socotra from ? until 1875.
Ali ibn Abd Allah Afrar al-Mahri was a ruler of Mahra Sultanate of Qishn and Socotra from 1875 until 1907.
Abd Allah ibn Isa Afrar al-Mahri was a ruler of Mahra Sultanate of Qishn and Socotra from 1907 until 1946.
Ahmad ibn Abd Allah Afrar al-Mahri was a ruler of Mahra Sultanate of Qishn and Socotra from 1946 until 1952.
Isa ibn `Ali ibn Salim Afrar al-Mahri was a ruler of Mahra Sultanate of Qishn and Socotra from 1952 until 1966.
Abd Allah ibn Ashur Afrar al-Mahri was a ruler of Mahra Sultanate of Qishn and Socotra from 1966 until 1967.

Maukhari Dynasty
The Maukhari Dynasty, classically called the Megar Dynasty, was a royal Indian dynasty that controlled vast areas ofNorthern India for over six generations. They
earlier served as vassals of the Guptas as well as related to Harsha and his short-lived Vardhan dynasty. The Maukhari's established their independence
at Kannauj, during the sixth century. The dynasty ruled over much of Uttar Pradesh and Magadha, however, around 606 A.D. large areas of their empire was
reconquered by the later Guptas.
List of Rulers of Maukhari Dynasty
Yagna Varman was a ruler of Maukhari Dynasty in 6th century.
Isana Varman was a ruler of Maukhari Dynasty in early 7th century.

Mountainous Armenia
Mountainous Armenia (Armenian: Lenahayastan), officially the Republic of Mountainous Armenia(Armenian:
Lenahayastani Hanrapetutyun), and also known as the Second Republic of Armenia (Armenian:
Yerkrord Hayastani Hanrapetutyun), was an anti-BolshevikArmenian state roughly corresponding with the territory that is now the
present-day Armenian provinces of Vayots Dzor andSyunik, and some parts of the present-day Republic of Azerbaijan (Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic in the
west and the de facto Nagorno-Karabakh Republic in the east). Mountainous Armenia was established by the Armenian Revolutionary Federation forces under
command of Garegin Nzhdeh, after the suppression of the February Uprising in April 1921. It existed until mid-July.
Leader of Republic of Mountainous Armenia
Garegin Ter-Harutyunyan (Armenian: -) better known by his nome de guerre Garegin Nzhdeh
(Armenian: ) ( January 1, 1886 December 21, 1955) was an Armenian statesman and military strategist. He was
leader of Republic of Mountainous Armenia from April 26 until July 13, 1921. As a member of the Armenian Revolutionary Federation,
he was involved in national liberation struggle and revolutionary activities during the First Balkan War and World War I. Garegin
Nzhdeh was one of the key political and military leaders of the First Republic of Armenia (1918-1921), and is widely admired as a
charismatic national hero by Armenians. In 1921, he instrumented the establishment of the Republic of Mountainous Armenia, an anti-
Bolshevik state that became a key factor that led to the inclusion of the province of Syunik into Soviet Armenia. Garegin Ter-
Harutyunyan was born on 1 January 1886 in the village of Kznut, Nakhchivan. He was the youngest of four children born to a local
village priest. He lost his father, Priest Yeghishe, in his childhood. Nzhdeh got his early education at a Russian school in Nakhichevan
City. He continued his higher education at the Tiflis Russian Gymnasium school. At the age of 17 he joined the Armenian liberal
movement. The word nzhdeh in Armenian means pilgrim. Shortly after, he moved to St. Petersburg to continue his education in the local university. After two
years of studying at the Faculty of Law, he left the St. Petersburg University and returned to the Caucasus in order to participate in the Armenian national
movements against the Russian and the Ottoman Empires. In 1906, Nzhdeh moved to Bulgaria, where he completed his education at the military college in
1907. In the same year he returned to Armenia. In 1908 he joined the Armenian Revolutionary Federation and participated in the Iranian revolution along
with Yeprem Khan and Murad of Sebastia. In 1909, upon his return to the Caucasus, Nzhdeh was arrested by the Russian authorities and spent 3 years in
prison. In 1912, together with General Andranik Ozanian, he formed an Armenian battalion within Macedonian-Adrianopolitan Volunteer Corps of the
Bulgarian Army to fight against the Ottoman Empire in the Balkan wars, for the liberation of Thrace and Macedonia. During theSecond Balkan war he was
wounded. For the brave and extraordinary performance of the Armenian fighters, Bulgarian military authorities honoured Nzhdeh with the "Cross of Bravery".
Prior to World War I, after an amnesty granted by the Russian authorities in 1914, Nzhdeh returned to the Caucasus to prepare the formation of the Armenian
volunteer units within the Russian army to fight against the Ottoman Empire. During the first stage of the war, in 1915, he was appointed as an assistant-
commander to Drastamat Kanayan of the 2nd Armenian unit. Later on, in 1916, he commanded the special Armenian-Yezidi military unit. After the Russian
Revolution and the withdrawal of the Russian army, Nzhdeh fought in the skirmishes of Alajay (near Ani, spring 1918), allowing a secure passage for the retreated
Armenian volunteer forces intoAlexandrapol. After clashing with Turkish forces in Alexandrapol, today known as Gyumri, the Armenian fighters led by Nzhdeh
dug-in and built fortifications in Karakilisa. Nzhdeh played a key role in organizing the troops for the defense of Karakilisa in May 1918. He managed to mobilize
a population of despaired and hopeless locals and refugees for the coming fight through his inspiring speech in the Dilijan church yard, where he called the
Armenians to a sacred battle: "Straight to the frontline, our salvation is there". Nzhdeh was wounded in the ensuing clash and, after a violent battle of 4 days, both
sides had serious casualties. The Armenians ran out of ammunition and had to withdraw. Although the Ottoman army managed to invade Karakilisa itself, they
had no more resources to continue deeper into Armenian territory. After the declaration of the independent First Republic of Armenia, Nzhdeh was appointed
governor of Nakhichevan, and later on, in August 1919, commander of the southern corps of the Armenian army. The Soviet 11th Red Army's invasion of the
First Republic of Armenia started on November 29, 1920. Following the sovietization of Armenian on December 2, 1920, the Soviets pledged to take steps to
rebuild the army, to protect the Armenians and not to persecute non-communists, although the final condition of this pledge was reneged when the Dashnaks
were forced out of the country. The Soviet Government proposed that the regions of Nagorno-Karabagh and Zangezur should be part to the Soviet Azerbaijan.
This step was strongly rejected by Nzhdeh. A convinced anti-Bolshevik, he led the defense of Syunik against the rising Bolshevik movement, who declared
Syunik as a self-governing region in December 1920. In January 1921 Drastamat Kanayan sent a telegram to Nzhdeh, suggesting allowing the sovietization of
Syunik, through which they could gain the support of the Bolshevik government in solving the problems of the Armenian lands. As a response, Nzhdeh did not
depart from Syunik and continued his struggle against the Red Army and Soviet Azerbaijan, struggling to maintain the independence of the region. On February
18, 1921, the Dashnaks led an anti-Soviet rebellion in Yerevan and seized power. The ARF controlled Yerevan and the surrounding regions for almost 42 days
before being defeated by the numerically superior Red Army troops later in April 1921. The leaders of the rebellion then retreated into the Syunik region. The
2nd Pan-Zangezurian congress, held in Tatev, announced on 26 April 1921 the independence of the self-governing regions of Daralakyaz (Vayots Dzor),
Zangezur, and Mountainous Artsakh, under the name of the Republic of Mountainous Armenia (Lernahaystani Hanrapetutyun). Following the declaration of
independence of the Republic of the Mountainous Armenia from Soviet Armenia, he was proclaimed Prime Minister and Minister of Defense. Between April
and July 1921, the Red Army conducted massive military operations in the region, attacking Syunik from north and the east. After months of fierce battles with
the Red Army, the Republic of Mountainous Armenia capitulated in July 1921 following Soviet Russia's promises to keep the mountainous region as a part of
Soviet Armenia. After losing the battle, Nzhdeh, his soldiers, and many prominent Armenian intellectuals, including leaders of the first Independent Republic of
Armenia, crossed the border into neighboring Persian city of Tabriz. After leaving Syunik, Nzhdeh spent four months in the Persian city of Tabriz. Soon after, he
moved to Sofia, Bulgaria where he started a family by marrying Epime, a local Armenian girl and establishing in Bulgaria. He was a great Armenian Fedayi who
fought in the Armenian Genocide against Turkey. Nzhdeh was involved in organizational activities in Bulgaria, Romania and the United States through his
frequent visits to Plovdiv,Bucharest and Boston. In 1933, by the decision of ARF Dashnaktsutyun, Nzhdeh moved to USA along with his partisan, Kopernik
Tanterjian. This movement led to the foundation of the Armenian Youth Federation, the youth organization of the Armenian Revolutionary Federation,
in Boston,Massachusetts. He visited several states and provinces in America and Canada, inspiring the Armenian communities that had established themselves
there, and founding an Armenian Youth movement called Tseghakron (Armenian: ), which later renamed itselft the "Armenian Youth Federation".
In 1937, he was back in Plovdiv, Bulgaria, where he began to publish the "Razmig" Armenian newspaper. At the end of 1930s, along with a group of Armenian
intellectuals in Sofia, he founded the Taron Nationalist Movement and published its organ "Taroni Artsiv" paper. During his life in Bulgaria, Nzhdeh maintained
close contacts with revolutionary organizations of Macedonian Bulgarians and BulgarianSymbolist poet Theodore Trayanov. During World War II Nzhdeh
suggested support to the Axis powers if the latter takes a decision to attack Turkey. Operation Gertrud, joint German-Bulgarian project about attacking Turkey in
case if Ankara joins the allies, was largely discussed in Berlin. The Armenian military unit, which was supposed to be used against Turkey was sent to the Eastern
front, to the Crimean peninsula, in 1943. Nzhdeh requested the detachment's return, and terminated his connections with Nazi Germany. On September 9, 1944
Nzhdeh wrote a letter to Stalin suggesting his support in case if the Soviet leadership attacks Turkey. A Soviet plan to invade Turkey in order to punish Ankara
for collaboration with the Nazis and also for returning the occupied Western Armenia territories was intensely discussed by the Soviet leadership in 1945-1947.
The Soviet military commanders told Nzhdeh that the idea of collaboration is interesting but in order to be able to discuss it in more details, Nzhdeh would need
to travel to Moscow. He was transferred to Bucharest and later to Moscow, where he was arrested and held in the Lubyanka prison. After his arrest, Nzhdeh's
wife and son were sent to exile from Sofia to Pavlikeni. In November 1946, Nzhdeh was sent to Yerevan, Armenia, awaiting trial. At the end of his trial, on April
24, 1948, Nzhdeh was sentenced to 25 years of imprisonment (to begin in 1944). In 1947 Nzhdeh proposed an initiative to the Soviet government. It would call
for the foundation of a pan-Armenian military and political organization in the Armenian diaspora for the liberation of Western Armenia from Turkish control
and its unification to Soviet Armenia. Despite the reputed great interest shown by the communist leaders to this initiative, the proposal was eventually refused.
From 1948 to 1952 Nzhdeh was kept in Vladimir prison, then until the summer of 1953 in a secret prison in Yerevan. According to his prison fellow Hovhannes
Devedjian, Nzhdeh's transfer to Yerevan prison was related to an attempt to mediate between the Dashnaks and the Soviet leaders to create a collaborative
atmosphere between the two sides. After long negotiations with the state security service of Soviet Armenia, Nzhdeh and Devejian prepared a letter in Yerevan
prison (1953) addressed to the ARF leader Simon Vratsian, calling him for co-operation with the Soviets regarding the issue of the Armenian struggle
against Turkey. However, the communist leaders in Moscow refused to send the letter and it only remained a latent document. After receiving a telegram from
the Soviet authorities, announcing his death, Nzhdeh's brother Levon left Yerevan for Vladimir to take care of his burial service. He received Nzhdeh's watch and
clothing but was not allowed to take his personal writings. The authorities also did not allow the transfer of his body to Armenia. Levon Ter-Harutiunian
conducted Nzhdeh's burial in Vladimir and wrote on his tombstone in Russian "Ter-Harutiunian Garegin Eghishevich (1886-1955)". On August 31, 1983,
Nzhdeh's remains were secretly transferred from Vladimir to rest in Soviet Armenia. The process was fulfilled through the direct efforts of Pavel Ananyan; the
husband of Nzhdeh's granddaughter, with the help of professor-linguist Varag Arakelyan and others including Gurgen Armaghanyan, Garegin Mkhitaryan,
Artsakh Buniatyan and Zhora Barseghyan. On October 7, 1983, the right hand of Nzhdeh's body was placed on the slopes of Mount Khustup near the Kozni
fountain, as Nzhdeh had mentioned in his will that he "would like to be buried on the slopes of Mount Khustup". According to the participants of the funeral, the
rest of Nzhdeh's body was kept in the cellar of Varag Arakelyan's house in Kotayk village until May 9, 1987, when it was secretly transferred to Vayots Dzor and
buried in the yard of the 14th-century Spitakavor Surb Astvatsatsin Church near Yeghegnadzor. The tombstone of Nzhdeh's grave was erected by the efforts
of Paruyr Hayrikyan and Movses Gorgisyan on June 17, 1989, a day that had later turned into an annual pilgrimage day to the monastery's graveyard. Decades
after his death, on March 30, 1992, Nzhdeh was rehabilitated by the supreme court of the newly independent Republic of Armenia. On April 26, 2005 during
the celebration of the 84th anniversary of the Republic of Mountainous Armenia, parts of Nzhdeh's body were taken from Spitakavor church to Khustup. Thus,
Nzhdeh was reburied for the third time, finally to rest on the slopes of Mount Khustup near Nzhdeh's memorial in Kapan. In March 2010, Nzhdeh was selected
as the "National pride and the most outstanding figure"of the Armenians throughout the history, by the voters of "We are Armenians" TV project launched by
"Hay TV" and broadcast as well by the Public Television of Armenia (H1). An avenue, a large square and a nearby metro station in Yerevan are named after
Garegin Nzhdeh. A village in the southern Syunik Province of Armenia is named after Nzhdeh. Nzhdeh with his inspiring character as a soldier, thinker, orator
and politician, is considered one of the most outstanding figures in the history of the Armenian nation. He had five honours and awards: Order of Bravery,
Cross of St. George, 3rd class, Cross of St. George, 2nd class, Order of St. Vladimir and Order of St. Anna.. He had following works: "The Pantheon of
Dashnaktsutyun", Alexandrapol 1917, "Calls of Khustup", Goris 1921, "My Speech - Why I Fought against the Soviet Army", Bucharest 1923, "Some Pages from
my Diary", Cairo 1924, "Open Letters to the Armenian Intelligentsia", Sofia 1926 and Beirut 1929, "The Struggle of Sons against Fathers", Thessaloniki 1927,
"The Motive of the Soul of the Nation", Sofia 1932, "The American Armenians - The Tribe and its Gutter", Sofia 1935, "My Answer", Sofia 1937 and
"Autobiography", Sofia 1944 and "Thoughts - Notes from Jail", Yerevan 1993. He was portrayal with following Books: "The Battle of Lernahayastan", by Vartan
Kevorkian, Bucharest 1923, "Nzhdeh", by Avo, Beirut 1968, "The Memories of a Prisoner", by Armen Sevan (Hovhannes Devedjian), Buenos Aires 1970,
"Garegin Nzhdeh", published in the memory of his 110th anniversary, Yerevan 1996, "Garegin Nzhdeh: Analecta", contains Nzhdeh's ideologies, thoughts, letters,
speeches and other writings, Yerevan 2006, "Nzhdeh: The Complete Biography", by Rafael Hambardzumian, Yerevan 2007 and Selected Works of Garegin
Nzhdeh" English Translation and Commentaries by Eduard Danielyan, Doctor of History; Publisher: "Nakhijevan" Institute of Canada, Montreal, 2011. Two
Films was producted about his life "The Path of the Eternal" by Arthur Babyan and Armen Tevanian and Garegin Nzhdeh premiered on January 28, 2013
in Yerevan's Moscow Cinema.


Nakhon Si Thammarat Kingdom (Kingdom of Ligor)
Nakhon Si Thammarat Kingdom (Kingdom of Ligor) ( RTGS: Anachak Nakhon Si Thammarat) was one of the major constituent city states (mueang) of
the Siamese kingdoms of Sukhothai and later Ayutthaya and controlled a big part of theMalay peninsula. Thai histories record a Negara Sri Dharmaraja
kingdom. Most historians identify the Tambralinga kingdom of Chinese records with a precursor of Nakhon Si Thammarat. The somewhat
controversial Ramkhamhaeng stele of 1283 (or 1292) lists Nakhon Si Thammarat as one of the tributary kingdoms of Sukhothai. In the Palatinate law of
King Trailok dated 1468 Nakhon Si Thammarat was listed as one of 8 great cities (phraya maha nakhon) belonging to the Ayutthaya. Under king Naresuan it
became instead a first class province (mueang ek). After the fall of Ayutthaya Nakhon Si Thammarat enjoyed a short period of independence, but was quickly
subdued by Taksin on his mission to reunite Siam. With the thesaphiban reform of Prince Damrong Rajanubhab at the end of the 19th century the kingdom was
finally fully absorbed into Siam. A new administrative entity named monthon (circle) was created, each supervising several provinces.Monthon Nakhon Si
Thammarat, established 1896, covered those areas on the east coast of the peninsula, i.e. the provincesSongkhla, Nakhon Si Thammarat and Phatthalung.
Founder of Nakhon Si Thammarat Kingdom
Sri Thammasokaraj (Thai language: or sometimes called ) was the founder and 1st king of Nakhon Si Thammarat
Kingdom or Ligor City.


Naraka dynasty
The Naraka dynasty is a mythological dynasty of Assam that has been sourced to mentions in the Ramayana, theMahabharata, the Kalika Purana, the Yogini
Tantra and local lore. There are no indications when they might have ruled, but they are probably true rulers whose accounts have been greatly exaggerated. At
the very least, the local lore and the incorporation in various texts indicate they were powerful rulers from the past. The dynasty was established by Narakasura by
removing the Kirata chief Ghatak, the last of the Danava dynasty of Pragjotisha. The exploits of the king Naraka take place over a wide mythological period, and
in many differing contexts. Thus it is possible that Naraka might refer to different historical persons. The last ruler, Suparua, was killed by his ministers.
List of Kings of Pragjyotisha
Narakasura (Narkhw) was a King of Pragjyotisha. Narakasura and his kingdom, Pragjyotisha, find mention in both the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, in the
sections which were written not before the first century. His son, Bhagadatta, is said to have fought for the Kauravas in the Mahabharata battle. Though the
boar Prajapati finds mention as early as the Satapatha Brahmana, that the contact with Bhumi engendered a son is first mentioned in the Harivamsa which is
assigned to the fifth century. This theme, that of the son Naraka, is further expanded in the later Vishnu Purana. The Naraka myth gets the most extensive
elaboration in the Upapurana called Kalika Purana (10th century), which was composed in Assam itself. Here the legend of Janaka of Videha, the father of Sita,
is embellished and added to the legend of Naraka. Once Naraka, motivated by his carnal desire, wanted to marry Devi Kamakhya. When proposed, the Goddess
playfully put a condition before him that if he would be able to build a staircase from the bottom of the Nilachal Hill to the temple within one night before the
cock crows to indicate Dawn, then she would surely marry him. Naraka took it as a challenge and tried all with his might to do this huge task. He was almost
about to accomplish the job before it was dawn. When Kamakhya Devi got this news, panic-stricken she strangled a cock and made it crow untimely to give the
impression of Dawn to Naraka. Duped by the trick even Naraka thought that it was a futile job and left it half way through. Later he chased the cock and killed it.
Now the place is known as Kukurakata situated in the district of Darrang. The incomplete staircase is known as Mekhelauja Path.
Bhagadatta was a King of Pragjyotisha.
Vajradatta was a King of Pragjyotisha.
Vajrapani was a King of Pragjyotisha.
Subahu was a King of Pragjyotisha.
Suparua was a King of Pragjyotisha.

Kingdom of Hiran
The Kingdom of Hiran or of Ngoenyang (Thai: ) was an early Tai Yuan kingdom in existence from the 7th through 13th centuries AD and was
originally centered on Hiran (formerly Vieng Preuksa ) near today's Amphoe Mae Sai inChiangrai and later on Ngoenyang or Chiang Saen, in modern-
day Thailand. Ngoenyang was the successor to the Yonokkingdom and was the predecessor of the Lanna kingdom as Mangrai, the 17th king of Ngoenyang, went
on to found Lanna. In contrast to most contemporary Tai civilizations, Ngoenyang was mentioned in local chronicles which provide some information about its
history. In 545 AD, an earthquake destroyed the city of Naknakorn and thus the Yonok kingdom. The Tai Yuan then gathered together at Vieng Prueksa and an
elective monarchy (Prueksa means 'to discuss') was established there. After 93 years of elective monarchy, however, King Kalavarnadit of Lavo forced Vieng
Prueksa to accept Lavachakkraj as their king in 638. Lavachakkaraj was hypothesized to be a tribal chief in the area who gained the support of the Lavo kingdom.
The Lavachakkaraj or Lao dynasty would rule the area for 700 years. Lavachakkaraj renamed Vieng Prueksa as Hiran. Laokiang, the ninth king of Hiran,
founded the city of Ngoenyang (modern Chiang Saen) around 850 AD, moved the capital there, and thus became the first king of Ngoenyang. The territorial
claims of the Ngoenyang kingdom extended from Chiang Saen in the west through parts of modern Laos north of Luang Prabang to Thaeng (modern Dien Bien
Phu in Vietnam). Ngoenyang fell under the dominion of the Heokam kingdom of the Tai Lue people in the north around 1250, and remained within that orbit
until the Mongol invasions again shifted power in the area. The religion of Ngoenyang kingdom was heavily influenced by the Theravada Buddhism of
the Haripunchai kingdom to the south. Around 1250, Laomeng the 16th king of Ngoenyang founded Chiangrai and his son, Mangrai, moved the capital to
Chiangrai when he was crowned as the king of Ngoenyang in 1262. In 1281, Mangrai invaded Haripunchai and captured the capital (modern Lamphun).
List of Rulers of Hiran Kingdom
Phraya Lavachakkaraj was a ruler of Hiran (Ngoenyang) Kingdom from 638 until ?. After 93 years of elective monarchy, however, King Kalavarnadit of
Lavo forced Vieng Prueksa to accept Lavachakkraj as their king in 638. Lavachakkaraj was hypothesized to be a tribal chief in the area who gained the support of
the Lavo kingdom.
Phraya LaoKhao KaewMahMueng was a ruler of Hiran (Ngoenyang) Kingdom in the second half 7th century.
Phraya LaoSao was a ruler of Hiran (Ngoenyang) Kingdom in the second half 7th century.
Phraya LaoTang was a ruler of Hiran (Ngoenyang) Kingdom in the first half 8th century.
Phraya LaoGhrom was a ruler of Hiran (Ngoenyang) Kingdom in the first half 8th century.
Phraya LaoLheaw was a ruler of Hiran (Ngoenyang) Kingdom in the second half 8th century.
Phraya LaoGab was a ruler of Hiran (Ngoenyang) Kingdom in the second half 8th century.
Phraya LaoKim was a ruler of Hiran (Ngoenyang) Kingdom in the first half 9th century.
Phraya LaoKiang Laokiang was a ruler of Hiran (Ngoenyang) Kingdom around middle 9th century. He was founded the city of Ngoenyang (modern
Chiang Saen) around 850, moved the capital there, and thus became the first king of Ngoenyang.
Phraya LaoKiw was a ruler of Hiran (Ngoenyang) Kingdom in the second half 10th century.
Phraya LaoTerng was a ruler of Hiran (Ngoenyang) Kingdom in the second half 10th century.
Phraya LaoTueng was a ruler of Hiran (Ngoenyang) Kingdom in the first half 11th century.
Phraya LaoKhon was a ruler of Hiran (Ngoenyang) Kingdom in the first half 11th century.
Phraya LaoSom was a ruler of Hiran (Ngoenyang) Kingdom in the second half 11th century.
Phraya LaoGuak was a ruler of Hiran (Ngoenyang) Kingdom in the second half 11th century.
Phraya LaoGiw was a ruler of Hiran (Ngoenyang) Kingdom in the first half 12th century.
Phraya LaoJong was a ruler of Hiran (Ngoenyang) Kingdom in the first half 12th century.
Phraya JomPha Rueng was a ruler of Hiran (Ngoenyang) Kingdom in the second half 12th century.
Phraya LaoJerng was a ruler of Hiran (Ngoenyang) Kingdom from 1123 until 1166.
Phraya Lao NgernRueng was a ruler of Hiran (Ngoenyang) Kingdom in the second half 12th century.
Phraya LaoTsin was a ruler of Hiran (Ngoenyang) Kingdom in the first half 13th century.
Phraya LaoMing was a ruler of Hiran (Ngoenyang) Kingdom in the first half 13th century.
Phraya LaoMueng was a ruler of Hiran (Ngoenyang) Kingdom around middle 13th century.


Kururath-Indrapath Kingdom
Kururath-Indrapath Kingdom was the kingdom in present Myanmar. Due to a disaster, Samantaraja of Pataliputra obliged all his people to follow him to the
region of Bodhisaanluang. He built the city of Indrapath which he surrounded with a stone wall. His daughter married Kuruvamsa, the grandson of Samantarajas
minister, who built the nearby city of Kururath. When the king of Bodhisaanluang learned of the new settlements in his territory, he declared war against them,
but eventually he was defeated. Kuruvamsa began to reign and promoted both cities, KururathIndrapath as the capital of the new kingdom. Three other kings
succeeded him: Sirivamsa, Indravamsa, and Indrapathom. The royal counselor of King Indrapathom, Aya-Uparaja, who was also the king's uncle and father-in-
law, had resigned from his position. King Indrapathom assigned Bahira-Brahmin to be his new royal counselor. Afterward Bahira-Brahmin was dishonest, and so
was banished from the capital. He then went to ask for help from Suvarnamugadavaan of Suvarnagomgum City, who let him come to build the new city at the
source of the Kok River, named the city of Umongasela.
List of known Kings of Kururath Indrapath Kingdom
Samantaraja of Pataliputra was the founder of Kururath-Indrapath Kingdom. He was obliged all his people to follow him to the region of Bodhisaanluang.
He built the city of Indrapath which he surrounded with a stone wall. His daughter married Kuruvamsa, the grandson of Samantarajas minister, who built the
nearby city of Kururath.
Sirivamsa was the King of Kururath-Indrapath Kingdom.
Indravamsa was the King of Kururath-Indrapath Kingdom. The royal counselor of King Indrapathom, Aya-Uparaja, who was also the king's uncle and father-
in-law, had resigned from his position. King Indrapathom assigned Bahira-Brahmin to be his new royal counselor. Afterward Bahira-Brahmin was dishonest, and
so was banished from the capital. He then went to ask for help from Suvarnamugadavaan of Suvarnagomgum City, who let him come to build the new city at the
source of the Kok River, named the city of Umongasela.
Indrapathom was the King of Kururath-Indrapath Kingdom.

Singhanavati kingdom
Singhanavati Kingdom was the kingdom in present Myanmar. Around 757, Khun Saiphong, one of the sons of Khun Borom of Tai-desa, obliged his people to
follow him from northern Myanmar across the Salawin River to this region. The title "Khun" before his name marks his status as a ruler of a fortified town and its
surrounding villages, together called a mueang. After his period of rule ended, there was no successor. Therefore his uncle, Sinhanavati came in 773 and built the
city named Nagabundhu-Singhanavatinagorn, due to the support given him by the Naga. The new city was located near to the submerged Suvarnagomgum City,
and forty-five other kings succeeded him. Singhanavati Kingdom subjugated Umongasela City, which was then ruled by the Khmer, and other nearby states to
extend its territory. Sometimes it was defeated, for example in the reign of Pra-ong Pung the royal seat was removed to the nearby city of Paan-gum, a city seated
on Sai River (Chiangrai northernmost district), but it always eventually restored its independence. The last king of Singhanavati Kingdom was named
Phramahajaijana. In his reign, Singhanavatinagorn was submerged into the Chiangsaen Lake due to the earthquake. The survivors went east to inhabit Wieng
Prueksha, led by Khun Lung. For 93 years, they selected their ruler from among the leaders of their 14 villages to rule the region. After this period, the record
mentions the development of high land communities, led by Lavachakaraj, which later were the beginning of the Lanna Kingdom and continued through the
founding of Chiangmai City at the end of the 13th century. M. Simon de la Loubre's record refers to the first King as named Pathomsuriyadhep (Singhanavati).
The chief place where he kept his Court was called Jayaprakaan Mahanagorn (Nagabundhu-Singhanavatinagorn, Chiangrai Province), and he began to reign in
1300. Ten other kings succeeded him, the last of whom, named Dipayasoondorndhep, removed his royal seat to the city of Dhatu Nagornluang (Nan) which he
had built, the location of which is also uncertain. The 22nd king after him, whose name was Boromjayasiri, obliged all his people in 1188 to follow him
toNakhon Thai (Pitshanulok). But this Prince did not always reside at Nakhon Thai, for he came, built, and inhabited the city of Pipeli (Petchaburi). Four other
kings succeeded him; of which Ramadhiboti, the last of the four, began to build the city of Thailand (Ayudhya) in 1351, and there established his Court.
List of known Kings of Singhanavati Kingdom
Khun Saiphong was the King of Singhanavati Kingdom around middle 8th century. Around 757 Khun Saiphong, one of the sons of Khun Borom of Tai-
desa, obliged his people to follow him from northern Myanmar across the Salawin River to this region. The title "Khun" before his name marks his status as a
ruler of a fortified town and its surrounding villages, together called a mueang. After his period of rule ended, there was no successor.
Sinhanavati was the King of Singhanavati Kingdom from 773 until ?. Therefore his uncle, Sinhanavati came in 773 and built the city named Nagabundhu-
Singhanavatinagorn, due to the support given him by the Naga. The new city was located near to the submerged Suvarnagomgum City, and forty-five other kings
succeeded him.
Phramahajaijana was the last king of Singhanavati Kingdom in late 9th century. In his reign, Singhanavatinagorn was submerged into the Chiangsaen Lake
due to the earthquake.

Phayao Kingdom (Pukamyao Kingdom)
The Phayao Kingdom (Pukamyao Kingdom) was a period in the history of Phayao in Northern Thailand. It began with a revolt against the Chiang Rai rulingship
in the northern Thailand. Phayao legend began with one lord titled Lord Sri Jomtham, son of Lord LaoHgern ruler of the Hiran Ngoenyang Kingdom. During
the late reigning period of LaoHgern, he have divided his power to 2 sons, Lord Sri Jomtham and his brother Lord Shin. Lord Shin became the new ruler of
Hiran Ngoenyang while Sri Jomtham gathered an army and citizens to build a new territory. At the age of 25 Sri Jomtham brought his troops down to Chiang
Man area. In the myth, Sri Jomtham have founded found a deserted town on the end of the Mountain Range. Sri Jomtham took a risk to build his city, the
construction ended on 1094. He named his Kingdom PukamYao. Sri Jomtham's dynasty ruled Pukamyao over 9 generations until the last Pukamyao King gave
the throne to his son-in-law, Phraya NgumMueng. Ngum Mueng led his Kingdom to it greatest period and renamed it to Kingdom of Phayao.
List known kings of Phayao Kingdom (Pukamyao Kingdom)
Sri Jomtham was the founder of Pukamayo Kingdom around 1094. He was son of Lord LaoHgern ruler of the Hiran Ngoenyang Kingdom. During the late
reigning period of LaoHgern, he have divided his power to 2 sons, Lord Sri Jomtham and his brother Lord Shin. Lord Shin became the new ruler of Hiran
Ngoenyang while Sri Jomtham gathered an army and citizens to build a new territory. At the age of 25 Sri Jomtham brought his troops down to Chiang Man area.
In the myth, Sri Jomtham have founded found a deserted town on the end of the Mountain Range. Sri Jomtham took a risk to build his city, the construction
ended on 1094. He named his Kingdom PukamYao. Sri Jomtham's dynasty ruled Pukamyao over 9 generations until the last Pukamyao King gave the throne to
his son-in-law, Phraya NgumMueng. Ngum Mueng led his Kingdom to it greatest period and renamed it to Kingdom of Phayao.
Phraya NgumMueng was the last King of Phayao Kingdom (Pukamyao Kingdom) in the first half 14th century. Ngum Mueng led his Kingdom to it greatest
period and renamed it to Kingdom of Phayao.

Qu'aiti
Qu'aiti (Arabic: al-Quay), officially the Qu'aiti State in Hadhramaut (Arabic: ( ) or the Qu'aiti Sultanate of Shihr and
Mukalla (Arabic: al-Salanah al-Quayyah f-l Shihr wa al-Mukall), was a sultanate in the Hadhramaut region of the southern Arabian
Peninsula, in what is now Yemen. Its capital was Al Mukalla and it was divided into six provinces including Al Mukalla -including Ash Shihr, Shibam, Du'an, the
Western Province and Hajr.
List of Rulers of Qu'aiti State in Hadhramaut
Abdullah bin Omer Al Quaiti was a ruler of Qu'aiti State in Hadhramaut from November 10, 1881 until November 25, 1888.
Awadh I bin Omar Al Qu'aiti (died December 1910) was a ruler of Qu'aiti State in Hadhramaut from November 25, 1888 until his death
in December 1910.

Ghalib I bin Awadh Al Qu'aiti (died June 1922) was a ruler of Qu'aiti State in Hadhramaut from December 1910 until his death in
June 1922.


Omar bin Awadh Al Qu'aiti (died March 6, 1936) was a ruler of Qu'aiti State in Hadhramaut from June 1922 until his death on March 6,
1936.


Saleh bin Ghalib Al Qu'aiti, KCMG (died May 27, 1956) was a ruler of Qu'aiti State in Hadhramaut from 1936 until his death on May 27,
1956.

Ghalib II bin Awadh al-Qu'aiti (born January 7, 1948 in London, United Kingdom) was a ruler of Qu'aiti State in Hadhramaut from 1956
until 1966. He was current head of the al-Qu'aiti household. He reigned from 10 October 1966 until the monarchy was ousted by communists on
September 17, 1967. Ghalib is the eldest son of his predecessor, Sultan Awadh bin SalehHis coronation took place 10 June 1967.After his forced
abdication, Ghalib married Sultana Rashid Ahmed on June 1975, with whom he has fathered one son, Saleh (born 1977) and two daughters,
Fatima and Muzna (born 1979 and 1980 respectively).During his later years, he has authored a number of papers and books on Islam and Arab
history, including The Holy Cities, the Pilgrimage and the World of Islam (2008).


Kingdom of Samal
Kingdom of Samal (in Aramaic Yaidi) was a middle power of the Middle-East in the first half of the 1st millennium BC. It was near the Nur Mountains. Sam'al
was the capital of the country. Royal steles and stone tablets from the period, of Kilamuva and Panamuva II, are the main sources for historical data about this
timeperiod. It became a middle power at the end of the 10th century BC. Previously it was a city state. It had expanded and gained territories from Carchemish,
around Adana from Quw and remained independent. It didnt become part of Cilicia. In 859 BC Alimus was saved successfully with the help of Hajja, king of
Sam'al. He didnt participate in the Battle of Qarqar in 853 BC, but Assyria had been blocked in the Western area. Though the campaign of Assyria in 825 BC
occupied the vital territories of Sam'al, Quw had been defeated, but it had been reorganised as Denyen. After the death of Shalmaneser III, Sam'al again
became independent. Some rulers of Sam'al had aggressive expansionist politics; others acceeded to one of the anti-Asyrian Syrian coalition. Assyrian sources are
unreliable regarding Sam'al. Sam'al was one of Assyrias satellite states in the calendars of Shalmaneser III. Though around 830 BC Azitawadda, king of Denyen,
states Sam'al is his satellite country at the same time, Kilamuwa mentions on his stela that he hired Assyria against Denyen. Other sources from the same period
mention Sam'al as a satellite state of Denyen and Assyria wanted to occupy this territory. Kilamuva might offer for Deyen to be a satellite state. Before this, he
should defeat his greatest foe, Azitawadda. Assyrians won over Denyen and Sam'al in 825 BC. Sam'al became independent after the death of Shalmaneser III.
Theres an alternate opinion which states Sam'al fought against Assyrians at Alimus in 859 BC, and in 853 BC it became a member of the Assyrian alliance. This
makes clear why Shalmaneser III had listed Sam'al as a satellite state. The Kingdom of Sam'al would like to open a corridor between Assyria and Denyen. It was
prevented by the unified Syrian forces. This unity had been dissolved in 825 BC. As a result Sam'al became a winner. After the death of Shalmanezer III, it
became an independent state and Denyen couldnt occupy it. At the end, in 717 BC, Assyria occupied the country under the rule of Sargon II.
List of Kings of Sam'al Kingdom
Gabbaru was the founder of the dynasty of Sam'al and would therefore around 920 BC. He himself has left no known written records, but he is mentioned in a
later inscription of his descendants Kilamuwa.
Bamah was the King of Sam'al Kingdom around 860 BC. He was son of Gabbaru founder of Sam'al Kingdom.
ajanu was the King of Sam'al Kingdom from 860 BC until 850 BC. He was son of Bamah King of Sam'al Kingdom.
a'l was the King of Sam'al Kingdom from 850 BC until 840 BC. He was son of Hajanu King of Sam'al Kingdom.
Kilam - muwa was the King of Sam'al Kingdom from 840 BC until 830 BC. He was son of Hajanu King of Sam'al Kingdom.
Panam muwa I (also Bar -Sur) was the King of Sam'al Kingdom in the second half 8th century BC. From him an Aramaic inscription on a statue for the
weather god is preserved. According to an inscription of his grandson Bar - Rakib he came during a family feud died.
Asarja was the King of Sam'al Kingdom in 8th century BC.
Panam muwa II was the King of Sam'al Kingdom from 739 BC until 733 BC. He was son of Panam muwa I (also Bar -Sur) King of Sam'al Kingdom. One
inscription of his son Bar - Rakib according to which he barely survived a feud, which his father Bar -Sur fell victim. The reason for this may have been an escape
into exile in Assyria, and later return to power takeover.
Bar - Rakib was the King of Sam'al Kingdom from 733 BC until 713 BC. He was the son of Panam muwa II King of Sam'al Kingdom
and was set by Tukulti - apil - Earra III.auf the throne. The duration of his reign is not known because of him, however, numerous
buildings and monuments were erected behind with inscriptions, this must have been sufficiently long. This report documents among
other things about his family history, where it is known that his grandfather was murdered Panam muwa I. as part of a family feud.


Sambuvarayar Dynasty
Sambuvarayar dynasty is an ancient ruling dynasty in Tondai mandalam.The most important king was Ethirili Chola Sambuvarayar, a vassal under Rajadhiraja
Chola II and Kulothunga Chola III who ruled the northern part of Thondaimandalam, now comprising the districts of Vellore, Tiruvannamalai, Kancheepuram
and Thiruvallur. Ethirili Chola Sambuvarayar, hailing from the Sengeni family was the son of Sengeni Ammaiyappan Kannudaiya Peruman Vikrama Chola
Sambuvarayar. His titles were Virasani, Viruchola and Pallavandan. Madura Vijayam, a Telugu poetical work by Gangamma mahadevi about vijayanagar prince,
Kumara Kampanna Udayar or Kumara Kampanna II, the second son of Bukka Raya I quotes thus "Bukka advised his son to march against the Sambuvaraya
chieftain who "is the leader of the Vanniyar and he is preparing for war. If you subdue the Vanniyar ruler, it would be easy for you to break the power of the
Muslims at Madura". The vassal had constructed the hill fort to watch and control the movements of the northern enemies. The fort has four gates in four
directions. The northern gate was now called as Santhagate. The other gates were damaged. While the eastern gate was in a dilapidated condition, the western
gate on which was found the inscription has been completely damaged. This gate was named after Puvandai alias Cholakon. He was one of the Mudalis in the
military service of Ethirilichola Sambuvarayar. One hero stone has been erected on the plains, north of the Santhagate. The fort was constructed with granite with
a perimeter extending to two km. This fort once had residences and `pandals' for warriors who were posted for duties. Holes had been made on the rock surface
in such a way as to erect round tents. One could see nine tent areas on the top of the hill. Besides, four water tanks had been created to provide drinking water.
Two natural water ponds were also available in the fort. Near the big tank a mortar with one foot depth and one foot diameter was dug and used. The area also
revealed clear traces of a Siva and Pillaiyar temples. Stone blocks, bricks each measuring 10 inches x 7 inches, lime mortar and sand were used in the
construction of the fort walls.
List of Rulers of Sambuvaraya Dynasty
Raja Kambeera Sambuvarayar was the ruler of Sambuvaraya Dynasty from 1236 until 1268.
Mankonda Sambuvarayar was the ruler of Sambuvaraya Dynasty from 1322 until 1337.
Rajanarayana Sambuvarayar was the ruler of Sambuvaraya Dynasty from 1337 until 1373.
Rajanarayana Sambuvarayar III was the ruler of Sambuvaraya Dynasty from 1356 until 1375.

Misl
Misl (Punjabi: from the Persian word "misl" meaning "similar" or "alike") generally refers to the twelve sovereign states in the Sikh Confederacy. The states formed
a commonwealth that was described by Antoine Polier as an "aristocratic republic". Although the misls were unequal in strength, and each misl attempted to
expand its territory and resources at the expense of others, they acted in unison in relation to other states. The misls held biannual meetings of their legislature,
the Sarbat Khalsa in Amritsar.
Philkian Dynasty
The Phulkian (or Phoolkian) sardars were monarchs and aristocrats of the Punjab in India tracing their genealogy from the 12th century King of Jaisalmer, Rawal
Jaisal and Yadu Bhatti Rajput of the Chandra Vanshi clan. The Phulka family had descended from the eponymous group, the Phul, from whom descended the
rulers of Patiala, Jind, Nabha as well as the chiefs of Bhadaur, Malaudh and Badrukhan and the Sardars of Juindan, Laudhgarh, Dyalpura, Rampura and Kot
Duna. The early progenitors of the Phulka House were scions of the Rajput family of Jaisalmer who left their desert homes around the time of Rai Pithora and
established themselves in Hisar, Sirsa and Bhatner. Maharaja Ala Singh of Patiala descended from Phul and to his genius must be ascribed the remarkable and
rapid rise of the family in the first stages of its history.
List of Rulers of Phulkian Dynasty
Raja Guj (Gaja) was a ruler of Phulkian Dynasty. He was occupied Ghazni, Afghanistan making it his stronghold. He was married Hansavati, daughter of
Judbhan. Erected a huge fortress amidst the mountains and called it Gujni after himself as foretold by the Guardian Goddess of the Yadu race. He was lost
Ghazni to Khorasan who held it for sometime.Fought a fierce battle with Shah of Khorasan Shah Mamraiz and Sekander Roomi resulting in the destruction of
thirty two thousand men. He was conquered all the countries to the west. Invaded Kandrupkel in Kashmir and later married the daughter of its Prince by whom
he had a son, Salbahan.
Salivahan was a ruler of Phulkian Dynasty. He was driven out from Ghazni by Mamnenez, King of Khorasan. Married daughter of Jaipal Tuar of Delhi. Had
fifteen sons; all went on to be rajas and set up their own Kingdoms. Conquered Punjab and established his capital at Sialkot. Expelled from Kabul but returned to
defeat the Indo-Scythians in a decisive battle at Kohror near Multan and regained Ghazni.Established the Saka era from the date of battle and assumed title of
Sakari (foe-of-the-Sakas)Founded city of Salabhana near Lahore in S.V.72. His eldest son was Baland.
Bal Band (Baland) was a ruler of Phulkian Dynasty. He was left Ghazni to the charge of his grandson, Chakito who later became King of Baloch Bukhara
from whom descended the Chakito Mughals. Shifted his capital to Salbahanpur and had issue seven sons. Invaded by the Kings of Syria and Khorasan but
repulsed their attacks. Kullar, his third son had eight sons most of whom embraced Islam. Jinj, his fourth son had seven sons.
Bhatti Rao was a ruler of Phulkian Dynasty. He was succeeded his father Baland. Changed the patronymic of Yadu to Bhatti and thenceforth known as Bhatti
or Bhati Rajputs. Conquered fourteen Princes around his Kingdom and added to his fortunes. He had issue two sons: Mangal Rao and Musur Rao.
Mangal Rao was a ruler of Phulkian Dynasty. He was pushed back by King of Ghazni, Dhundi. He was moved to Mer with his tribe (in the Great Indian Thar
Desert). He had six sons: Majam Rao, Kulursi, Moolraj, Seoraj, Bhul and Kewala.
Majam Rao was a ruler of Phulkian Dynasty. He was solemnized marriage with daughter of Soda prince of Amerkote. Laid the foundation of a castle across
the Sutlej and named it Tannote after Tunna Mata but died before its completion. He had three sons: Kehar, Moolraj and Gogli.
Kehar Rao was a ruler of Phulkian Dynasty in the first half 8th century. He was married daughter of Allansi Deora of Jhallore. Renowned for his exploits. He
was invaded the Barahas in 730. In 731 completed the construction of fort at Tanote making it his capital. He had five sons: Tunno, Otirao, Chunnur, Kafrio and
Thaem
Tunno Rao (died 787) was a ruler of Phulkian Dynasty in the second half 8th century. He was found hidden treasure and erected a fortress naming it Bijnot in
AD 757 in Cholistan Desert.
Rao Biji Bhatti was a ruler of Phulkian Dynasty in the first half 9th century. He was succeeded Tunno and engaged in continual feud with the Langahas and
Barahas whom he plundered. Biji Bhatti with his eight hundred Clan massacred by his enemies.
Rawal Deoraj (died 908) was a ruler of Phulkian Dynasty from 853 until his death in 908. He was escaped to Boota, his maternal abode after the carnage. He
was founded Hanumangarh (then Bhatner in Rajasthan). He was the first to take the title of Rawal (King) Founded the city of Dera Rawal and Derawar Fort in
853. He was conquered Lodorva from Lodra Rajputs in 9th century (Rajasthan). He was excavated several lakes in Khadal including Tunnosirr and Deosirr. He
was slain by Choona Rajputs while on a hunt having reigned for fifty five years. He had two sons: Mundh and Chedu.
Rawal Mundh (Munda, died 979) was a ruler of Phulkian Dynasty from 908 until his death in 979. He had son Rawal Bacheraj (Bachera).
Rawal Bacheraj (Bachera, died 1044) was a ruler of Phulkian Dynasty from 979 until his death in 1044. He was married daughter of Raja Vallabh Sen
Solanki of Patan in 1011 AD. He was founded Bhatinda in 965 (then known as Tabarhindh). He had five sons: Doosaj, Singh, Bapirao, Ankho and Malpasao.
Rawal Doosaji (died 1123) was a ruler of Phulkian Dynasty and King of Laudorva (Rajahstan) from 1044 until his death in 1123. He had son Rawal Bijairaj
II.
Rawal Bijairaj II (died 1148) was a ruler of Phulkian Dynasty from 1123 until his death in 1148. He had two sons: Jaisal and Vijayraj (Lanjha).
Maharawal Jaisal Ji (died 1168) was a ruler of Phulkian Dynasty from 1153 until his death in 1168. He was founded the Golden City of Jaisalmer in 1156,
fulfilling the prophecy of Lord Krishna, the head of Yadav Clan, who foretold Arjuna that his descendent would build his kingdom atop the Trikuta Hill. He was
later driven from his kingdom by a rebellion and wandered northwards to settle near Hissar. He had four sons: Rawal Salvahan crowned in 1168, Jaisalmer State
(Bhatti) throne usurped by his son Bijil, Rawal Kalhan crowned in 1190, Rai Hemhal (Hemraj) and Pem.
Rai Hemhal (Hemraj, died 1219) was a ruler of Phulkian Dynasty from 1168 until his death in 1219. He was sacked Hisar in 1180. He was supported
Mohammed of Ghor when he invaded India. He was sacked and overran the country up to Delhi, but was repulsed by Altamash. Subsequently, in 1212, he
made Governor of Sirsa and Bhatinda country by Shams-Ud-Din Altamash, the third Tartar King of Delhi. He was ousted the Panwar Rajputs from the area of
Muktsar. He was died in 1219.
Jaidrath (Jandra) was a ruler of Phulkian Dynasty in the first half 13th century. He had twenty one sons; Pate Rao (Batera) being the eldest.
Pate Rao (Batera) was a ruler of Phulkian Dynasty in the first half 13th century. He had son Mangal Rao (Manjalrab).
Mangal Rao (Manjalrab) was a ruler of Phulkian Dynasty in the first half 13th century. He was rebelled against the Muslim sovereign of Delhi. He was
beheaded at Jaisalmer.
Anand Rao (Undra) was a ruler of Phulkian Dynasty in the around middle 13th century.
Khiwa Rai (Kot) was a ruler of Phulkian Dynasty in the second half 13th century. He was built Khiva Khota. He was sank to the status of a Jat by contracting
marriage with Saro-Basehr lady from Neli Dulkot of ordinary class. He had son Sidhu.
Sidhu was a ruler of Phulkian Dynasty in the second half 13th century. He was also ancestor of Sidhu Jats. Fell into poverty and obscurity. He had four sons:
Dhar (Debi) Kaithal Jhumba Bhaika Arnauli Sadhowal, Bhur, Sur and Rupach.
Bhur was a ruler of Phulkian Dynasty in the second half 13th century. He had son Bir.
Bir was a ruler of Phulkian Dynasty in the first half 14th century. He had two sons: Sidtilkara became an ascetic and Satrach (Satra).
Satrach (Satra) was a ruler of Phulkian Dynasty in the first half 14th century. He had two sons: Jertha and Lakumba Lakumba who had one son Hari who is the
ancestor of Attari and Harike families.
Jertha (Charta) was a ruler of Phulkian Dynasty in the first half 14th century. He had son Mahi (Maho).
Mahi (Maho) was a ruler of Phulkian Dynasty in the first half 14th century. He had son Kala (Gala).
Kala (Gala) was a ruler of Phulkian Dynasty around middle 14th century. He had son Mehra.
Mehra was a ruler of Phulkian Dynasty in the second half 14th century. He had son Hambir (Hamira).
Hambir (Hamira) was a ruler of Phulkian Dynasty in the second half 14th century. He had son Rao Brar.
Rao Brar was a ruler of Phulkian Dynasty from late 14th century until his death in 1415. He was also ancestor of Brar Jats. He was regained Bathinda after
defeating the Bhattis. He also rebelled against the Delhi government.Made Bidowali in Bathinda his stronghold. He and his men attacked Timur near Tohana
during Timur's terrible raid on Northern India in 1398 AD resulting in heavy losses. He was died 1415 in Bidowali. He had two sons: Paur and Dhul ancestor of
Faridkot Royal family.
Paur was a ruler of Phulkian Dynasty in the first half 15th century. He had son Bairath (Bairi).
Bairath (Bairi) was a ruler of Phulkian Dynasty in the first half 15th century. He had son Kayen (Kao).
Kayen (Kao) was a ruler of Phulkian Dynasty in the second half 15th century. He had three sons: Baho, Mehna and Kilja.
Baho was a ruler of Phulkian Dynasty in the second half 15th century. He had son Sanghar.
Sanghar (died April 21, 1526) was a ruler of Phulkian Dynasty in the first half 16th century. He was entered the service of Emperor Babar with his followers.
He was killed on April 21, 1526 in Battle of Panipat when Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodhi. He had son Bariyam (Beeram).
Bariyam (Beeram, died 1560) was a ruler of Phulkian Dynasty from 1526 until his death in 1560. He had granted the title of Chaudhary by Emperor Babar in
1526 and Chaudhriyat of the waste country south-west of Delhi which was reconfirmed by Emperor Humyn in 1554. He was helped Humy in his final
victory against Sikandar Shh Sur in 1555. He was fell fighting the Muslim Bhattis, their traditional foes along with Suttoh, his grandson and only son of Mehraj.
He was died in 1560. He had two sons: Mehraj (Maharaj) and Geraj.
Mehraj (Maharaj) was a ruler of Phulkian Dynasty in 1560. He was succeeded his father Bariyam as Chaudhary and engaged in warfare with the Bhattis.
Suttoh (Satu) was a ruler of Phulkian Dynasty in 1560. He had three sons: Pukhoh (Pakhu), Lukho and Chaha.
Pukkoh (Pakhu) was a ruler of Phulkian Dynasty in the second half 16th century. He was killed fighting at Bhidowal. He had two sons: Mohan and Habbal.
Mohan (died 1618) was a ruler of Phulkian Dynasty in the first half 17th century. He was fell into arrears with the Government and compelled to flee to Hansi
and Hisar. He was returned with a considerable force and defeated the Bhattis at Bhidowal. He was founded Mehraj on the advice of Sixth Guru Hargobind
naming it after his great-grandfather. He was killed along with his son Rup Chand in a skirmish with Bhattis in 1618. He had two sons: Rup Chand and Kala.
Rup Chand (died 1618) was a ruler of Phulkian Dynasty in the first half 17th century. He was killed by the Bhattis. He had two sons: Phul and Sandali Kala.
He was succeeded to the Chaudriyat after the death of his brother and became the guardian of his two sons Phul and Sandali.
Phul (Phul, died 1652) was a ruler of Phulkian Dynasty from 1618 until his death in 1652. He was fought for Sixth Guru Hargobind against Muslim Delhi
Sovereign in War of Gurusar 1635 and emerged victorious. The Guru blessed Phul and is said to have told him that he would make a King. The Guru Har Rai
also blessed him and proclaimed that his descendants shall rule the entire area between the Yamuna and Sutlej. He was founded Rampura Phul in 1627 (now in
Distt.Bhatinda). He was often in conflict with local chiefs which enraged the Governor of Sirhind who summoned him and put him behind bars. Received royal
firman from Emperor Shah Jahan and Prophecy of Guru was to be fulfilled. He was killed by accident after feigning death in funeral pyre to escape
imprisonment in 1652. He had six sons.
Tiloka (died 1705) was a ruler of Phulkian Dynasty from the second half 17th century until his death in 1705. He was ancestor of Nabha, Jind and Badrukhan.
Rama (died 1714) was a ruler of Phulkian Dynasty from the second half 17th century until his death in 1714. He was ancestor of Bhadaur, Patiala, Malaudh
and Kot Duna. He was successfully raided the Bhattis and others including Hassan Khan and Muslim chief of Kot and Bhatn. He was obtained the intendancy
of the Jangal tract from Mohameddan Governor of Sirhind. Choudhary Ram Singh founded Bhai Rupa in 1680 and built Rampur. Rama and Tiloka were
baptized with Khande da amrit at the hands of the Tenth Sikh Guru, Guru Gobind Singh at Damdama Sahib. Guru Gobind Singh in a self written Hukamnama
addressed to the two sons of Phul, Rama and Tiloka on August 2, 1696 called upon them for help in his fight with the Hill rajas proclaiming tera ghar mera
asey. Rama and Tiloka later helped Band Singh Bahdur with men and money in his early exploits (171016), Rama was killed at Maler Kotla in 1714. He was
married Sabi daughter of Bhuttar zamindar of Nanun who bore him six sons.
Dunna (1676-1726) was a ruler of Phulkian Dynasty from 1714 until his death in 1726. He was founded Kot Duna. He was appointed as Imperial Chaudhary
of Sangrur, Dhanaula, Bhadaur, Hadaya, and other districts. He was ancestor of the Bhadaur and Kot Duna families. He died at Bhadaur, 1726, having had
issue, five sons.
Subbah of Dhabali (1679 - 1729) was a ruler of Phulkian Dynasty from 1726 until his death in 1729. He was married Begi Kaur. He died 1729 and had one
son Sri Raja-i-Rajgan, Maharaja Ala, Mahendra Bahadur, Yadu Vansha Vatans Bhatti Kul Bushan, Maharaja of Patiala.
Bhangl Misl
The Bhangi Misl (Punjabi: ) was a large Sikh Misl centered on a village around Amritsar. It was founded in the early 18th century by Hari Singh
Dhillon. The name "Bhangi" came from the addition of Hashish (Bhang) of Hari Singh Dhillon's predecessor Bhuma Singh Dhillon.
[1]
It grew in strength and
territory to cover an area from Attock toMultan and emerged as the strongest power in the western Punjab region.
[2]
However, deaths among the leadership during
the late 1760s reduced the Misl's power.
[2]
The Bhangi misl engaged in numerous power struggles with the Sukerchakia Misl until they were severely weakened at
the Battle of Basin and the loss of Lahore to Ranjit Singh. Bhangi Misl held the possession of Zamzama, the famous cannon, which was at the time named
Bhangi Toap, Bhangianwala Toap and Bhangian di Top, names it retains to this day.
List of Rulers of Bhangi Misl
Hari Singh Dhillon (died 1764) was a ruler of Bhangi Misl from 1746 until his death in 1764. He was one of the most powerful, admired and famous of all
the royal Sikh warriors of the 18th century. He was Maharaja of Amritsar, Lahore and large areas of central and western Panjab. He was the nephew of Bhuma
Singh Dhillon, a famous Sikh soldier. They were a family of Jatsof the Dhillon clan from the Malwa region of Punjab Moga District. His military exploits were
legendary and his defence of Amritsar. Such was the respect and admiration of the Sikh community for Hari Singh, that at the formation of the Dal Khalsa in
1748, he was democratically elected leader of the Taruna Dal founded in (1734) at Amritsar which is considered to be one of the greatest honours given, in the
18th century, to any Sikh. He fought against the Afghans with the help of his friends Sardar Charhat Singh Sukerchakia (died 1770) (the grandfather of Maharaja
Ranjit Singh) and Baron Jassa Singh Ahluwalia, during Ahmed Shah Abdali's sixth invasion of Punjab. He was an intelligent leader, a progressive soldier and a
wise statesman. The author of Tarikh-e-Punjab writes that"Hari Singh was clever, powerful and a man of shining abilities." His two sons were Jhanda Singh
Dhillon and Ganda Singh Dhillon. He based his HQ around Amritsar.
Jhanda Singh Dhillon (died 1774) was a ruler of Bhangi Misl from 1764 until his death in 1774. He was a famous royal Sikh warrior of the late 18th
century. Moreover, he was Maharaja of Amritsar, Lahore, Multan, Chiniot, Jhang,Bhera, Rawalpindi, Hasan Abdal, Sialkot and Gujrat. Under Jhanda Singh's
leadership and statesmanship he increased the army's strength by 40% from 12000 to 20000 regular horsemen and accompanied by a huge increase in territory.
Under his leadership the Dhillon family became the dominant de facto ruling power of Punjab. His father was the legendary Hari Singh Dhillon, one of the most
powerful, admired and famous of all the Sikh warriors of the time. He also had a famous warrior brother Ganda Singh Dhillon. Jhanda Singh appointed his
younger brother Ganda Singh as the commander in chief of the forces. Jassa Singh Ramgarhia was one of the closest friends of Jhanda Singh.
Ganda Singh Dhillon (died 1776) was a ruler of Bhangi Misl from 1774 until 1775. He was a famous royal Sikh warrior of the late 18th century. Moreover,
he was Maharaja of Amritsar, Lahore, Multan, Chiniot, Jhang,Bhera, Rawalpindi, Hasan Abdal, Sialkot and Gujrat. His father was the legendary Hari Singh
Dhillon, one of the most powerful, admired and famous of all the Sikh warriors of the time. He also had a famous warrior brother Jhanda Singh Dhillon. He was
appointed commander in chief of the forces by his older brother Jhanda Singh and after his death he became leader and Maharaja of the principality.
Desa Singh was a ruler of Bhangi Misl in late 18th century. He was a famous royal Sikh warrior of the late 18th century. Moreover, he was Maharaja
of Amritsar, Lahore, Multan, Chiniot, Jhang,Bhera, Rawalpindi, Hasan Abdal, Sialkot and Gujrat.
Kanheya Misl
The Kanheya Misl was one of 12 Sikh Misls in Punjab during the 18th century. Kanheya Misl was first led by Sardar Jai Singh Kanhaiya. It had a strength of
5,000 regular horsemen. The Kanhaiya Misl was founded by Sardar Jai Singh (1712-1793), a Sandhu Jatt of the village of Kahna, 21 km south-west of Lahoreon
the road to Firozpur. His father Bhai Khushhal Singh sold hay at Lahore. Jai Singh received the vows of the Khalsa at the hands of Nawab Kapur Singh and
joined the derah or jatha of Sardar Amar Singh Kirigra. It is commonly believed that the name of the Misl, Kanhaiya, was derived from the name of Jai Singh's
village, Kahna, although another explanation connects it with the Sardar's own handsome appearance which earned him the epithet (Kahn) Kanhaiya, an
endearing title also used for Lord Krishna a Hindu deity. The Kanhaiya Misl under Jai Singh became the dominant power in thePunjab. He seized a part of
Riarki comprising the district of Gurdaspur and the upper portions of Amritsar. He first made his wife's village, Sohiari, in Amritsar district, his headquarters
from where he shifted to Batala and thence to Mukerian. His territories lay on both sides of the Beas River and Ravi River. Jai Singh extended his territory up to
Parol, about 70 km south-east of Jammu, and the hill chiefs of Kangra, Nurpur, Datarpur became his tributaries. In 1778 with the help of Mahan Singh
Sukkarchakkia and Jassa Singh Ahluwalia, he banished Jassa Singh Ramgarhia to the desert region of Hansi and Hissar (Haryana Region). In 1781, Jai Singh and
his associate Haqiqat Singh led an expedition to Jammu and received a sum of 3,00,000 rupees as tribute from its new ruler, Brij Raj Dev. On Jai Singh's death in
1793, at the age of 81, control of the Kanhaiya clan passed into the hands of his daughter-in-law Sada Kaur, as his son Gurbakhsh Singh had died before him.
Sada Kaur whose daughter Mehtab Kaur was married to Ranjit Singh was instrumental in the Sukkarchakkia chief's rise to political power in the Punjab. The
Kanheya Misl United with The Sukerchakia Misl in 1796.
List of Rulers of Kanheya Misl
Sardar Jai Singh (1712 1793) was a ruler of Kanhaiya Misl from 1750s until his death in 1793. The Kanhaiya Misl was founded by Sardar Jai Singh, a
Sandhu Jatt of the village of Kahna, 21 km south-west of Lahoreon the road to Firozpur. His father Bhai Khushhal Singh sold hay at Lahore. Jai Singh received
the vows of the Khalsa at the hands of Nawab Kapur Singh and joined the derah or jatha of Sardar Amar Singh Kirigra. It is commonly believed that the name of
the Misl, Kanhaiya, was derived from the name of Jai Singh's village, Kahna, although another explanation connects it with the Sardar's own handsome
appearance which earned him the epithet (Kahn) Kanhaiya, an endearing title also used for Lord Krishna a Hindu deity. The Kanhaiya Misl under Jai Singh
became the dominant power in thePunjab. He seized a part of Riarki comprising the district of Gurdaspur and the upper portions of Amritsar. He first made his
wife's village, Sohiari, in Amritsar district, his headquarters from where he shifted to Batala and thence to Mukerian. His territories lay on both sides of the Beas
River and Ravi River. Jai Singh extended his territory up to Parol, about 70 km south-east of Jammu, and the hill chiefs of Kangra, Nurpur, Datarpur became his
tributaries. In 1778 with the help of Mahan Singh Sukkarchakkia and Jassa Singh Ahluwalia, he banished Jassa Singh Ramgarhia to the desert region
of Hansi and Hissar (Haryana Region). In 1781, Jai Singh and his associate Haqiqat Singh led an expedition to Jammu and received a sum of 3,00,000 rupees as
tribute from its new ruler, Brij Raj Dev. On Jai Singh's death in 1793, at the age of 81, control of the Kanhaiya clan passed into the hands of his daughter-in-law
Sada Kaur, as his son Gurbakhsh Singh had died before him.
Sada Kaur was a ruler of Kanhaiya Misl in late 18th century. On Jai Singh's death in 1793, at the age of 81, control of the Kanhaiya clan passed into the hands
of his daughter-in-law Sada Kaur, as his son Gurbakhsh Singh had died before him.
Ramgarhia Misl
Ramgarhia Misl was a Punjabi community in the Punjab region of northwestern India.
[1]
They are named after Jassa Singh Ramgarhiawho was the leader of the
Ramgarhia Misl.
List of Rulers of Ramgarhia Misl
Jassa Singh Ramgarhia (17231803) was a ruler of Ramgarhia Misl from 150s until his death in 1803. He was a prominent Sikh leader during the period of
the Sikh Confederacy. He was the Commander of the Ramgarhia Misl (or Confederacy). Detailed accounts of his life vary. Jassa Singh Ramgarhia was born in
1723. According to W. H. McLeod, his birthplace was the village of Ichogil, near to Lahore, whilst H. S. Singha refers only to Lahore andPurnima Dhavan
mentions origins in either Guga or Sur Singh, both near to Amritsar. There is agreement among the sources that he was of Tarkhan origin and was originally
named Jassa Singh Thokar (Jassa Singh the Carpenter), but Dhavan also refers to Jat ethnicity. He had four brothers - Jai Singh, Khushal Singh, Mali
Singh and Tara Singh - and became head of the family when his father, Giani Bhagwan Singh, died.

Jassa Singh rose to command the Sikh misl that became later
known as Ramgarhia and built a mud fort called Ram Rauni at Amritsar. He joined forces with Adina Beg, who appointed him a risaldar (commander), but
switched sides when asked by him to attack the fort. He defended it against Adina Beg's siege and, in 1752, rebuilt the damaged fort. The edifice was renamed
Ramgarh, from which he took his new name. Jassa Singh's policies were in contrast to those of other misl leaders and he eventually lost his lands north of
Amritsar to that of the Kahnaiya. Thereafter, he turned his attention to the area around the Jamna river and Delhi, briefly holding control of the latter. Purnima
Dhavan says that "Jassa Singh Ramgarhia appeared to have a shrewd grasp of realpolitik, relying equally on diplomatic persuasion and martial prowess to
accomplish his goals. ... [His] supporters appear to have valued his political acumen, plain-spoken behaviour, and simple if rough ways". He died in 1803 and
was succeeded by his son, Jodh Singh, who ceded his territories to Ranjit Singh.
Jodh Singh Ramgarhia (1758 August 23, 1815) was a ruler of Ramgarhis Misl from 1803 until his death on August 23, 1815. He was a
prominent Sikh leader in the Punjab, the son of Jassa Singh Ramgarhia who inherited Jassa's position on his death in 1803. His Ramgarhia followers played an
important role in the struggle when Maharaja Ranjit Singh was establishing the Sikh Empire. Jodh was instrumental in persuading Mai Sukhan, widow of Gulab
Singh Bhangi and ruler of Amritsar to surrender to Ranjit Singh on February 24, 1805 and to hand over the massiveZamzama gun. He fought with Ranjit Singh in
the Battle of Kasur, and was awarded many estates by the Maharajah. He was responsible for the construction of the "Ramgarhia Bunga" adjoining the Golden
Temple of Amritsar, a residence for guards of the temple, using materials that had been collected by his father. His Samad is co-located with the Samad of Baba
Deep Singh and other family members in Amritsar. The area was donated by "Sardar Sahib" Sardar Tarlochan Singh for the expansion of the Gurudwara Sahib.
A slab is also walled to indicate the names of Ramgarhia Sardars who were cremated there. As per the agreement, Guru Granth sahib Ji is recited on the Samads
of Ramgarhia Sardars. The area is also known as Gurudwara Shaheed Ganj / Shaheedan. On his death in 1815 there was a dispute over succession to his estates
between his widow, his brother Vir Singh and his cousins Diwan Singh and Mehtab Singh. The Maharajah eventually split the estates between them. Diwan Singh
then served with Ranjit Singh and the Sikh army to extend the empire to Baramula in Kashmir in 1819 / 1820. The area was known as the cantonment of Diwan
Singh Ramgarhia. He ruled the area until he died in 1834. His samad was located there in Baramula and the present status require ground confirmation. On the
death of his father, Diwan Singh, his son Mangal Singh served the Sikh empire and fought the famous battle of Jamraud, Afghanistan with more than 400 troops
along with Hari Singh Nalwa. Since after the death of Ranjit Singh, the family was unable to rule or provide any leadership on account of leadership crises, many
of Ranjit Singh allies were weaned away. Mangal Singh too left and supported the British during the second Sikh wars. Much before SGPC came on the scene,
Sardar Mangal Singh solely managed entire affairs of the Golden Temple, Amritsar during its formative years, as the Chief Manager, for 17 years (1862-1879)
and lived at the Bunga Sardar Mangal Singh (now called Bunga Ramgarhia).
Diwan Singh (died 1834) was a ruler of Ramgarhia area from 1820 until his death in 1834. The area was known as the cantonment of Diwan Singh
Ramgarhia. He ruled the area until he died in 1834. After death his father Jodh Singh in 1815 state was a dispute over succession to his estates between his
widow, his brother Vir Singh and his cousins Diwan Singh and Mehtab Singh. The Maharajah eventually split the estates between them. Diwan Singh then served
with Ranjit Singh and the Sikh army to extend the empire to Baramula in Kashmir in 1819 / 1820. The area was known as the cantonment of Diwan Singh
Ramgarhia. He ruled the area until he died in 1834. His samad was located there in Baramula and the present status require ground confirmation. On the death
of his father, Diwan Singh, his son Mangal Singh served the Sikh empire and fought the famous battle of Jamraud, Afghanistan with more than 400 troops along
with Hari Singh Nalwa.
Singpuria Misl
Singpuria Misl was a Punjabi community in the Punjab region of northwestern India.The founder of the rule-by-Misl system was Nawab Kapur Singh. Nawab
Kapur Singh was a great warrior. He fought many battles. The last battle that he fought was the battle of Sirhind. After the fall of Sirhind in 1763, a considerable
portion of present-day Rupnagar District came under the Singhpuria Misl. These areas included Manauli, Ghanuli, Bharatgarh, Kandhola, Chooni, Machli,
Bhareli, Bunga and Bela. By 1769, the Singpuria Misl had the following territories in its possession:- Some parts of the districts of Jalandhar and Hoshiarpur
in Doaba, Kharparkheri and Singhpura in Bari-Doab and Abhar, Adampur, Chhat, Banoor, Manauli Ghanauli, Bharatgarh, Kandhola, Chooni, Machhli Bhareli,
Banga, Bela, Attal Garh and some other places in the province of Sirhind.
Ruler of Singpuria Misl
Kapur Singh was a ruler of Singpuria Misl from 1740s until 1760s. He was founder of the rule-by-Misl system. Nawab Kapur Singh was a great warrior. He
fought many battles. The last battle that he fought was the battle of Sirhind. After the fall of Sirhind in 1763, a considerable portion of present-day Rupnagar
District came under the Singhpuria Misl.
Singh Krora Misl (Panjgarhia Misl)
The Singh Krora Misl, alternatively as the Panjgarhia Misl, was first led by Sardar Karora Singh. It had a strength of 10,000 regular horsemen. The Karorsinghia
Misl was named after Sardar Karora Singh, a Virk Jatt of Barki village in Lahore District. The founder of the jatha or band of warriors that subsequently acquired
the size and power of a misl, was Sardar Sham Singh a Sandhu Jatt of Narli village inAmritsar District who had battled with the invading forces of Nadir Shah in
1739. He was succeeded by Karam Singh, an Uppal Khatri of the village of Panjgarh in Gurdaspur district. Karam Singh fell fighting against Ahmad Shah
Durrani in January 1748 and was succeeded by Sardar Karora Singh. Karora Singh confined his activities to the tract lying south of the Karigra hills in Hoshiarpur
district, and had seized several important towns such as Hoshiarpur, Hariana and Sham Chaurasi before he died in 1761. Baghel Singh who succeeded Karora
Singh as leader of the Karorsinghias is celebrated in Sikh history as the conqueror of Mughal Delhi. A Dhillon Jatt, Baghel Singh arose from the village of Jhabal
Kalan, in Amritsar district, to become a formidable force in the Sutlej region.
List of Rulers of Singh Krora Misl (Panjgarhia Misl)
Sardar Sham Singh was the ruler of Singh Krora Misl, alternatively as the Panjgarhia Misl in the first half 18th century. He had strength of 10,000 regular
horsemen. The founder of the jatha or band of warriors that subsequently acquired the size and power of a misl, was Sardar Sham Singh a Sandhu Jatt of Narli
village in Amritsar District who had battled with the invading forces of Nadir Shah in 1739. He was succeeded by Karam Singh, an Uppal Khatri of the village of
Panjgarh in Gurdaspur district.
Karam Singh (died 1748) was the ruler of Singh Krora Misl, alternatively as the Panjgarhia Misl during 1740s. Karam Singh fell fighting against Ahmad Shah
Durrani in January 1748 and was succeeded by Sardar Karora Singh.
Karam Singh was the ruler of Singh Krora Misl, alternatively as the Panjgarhia Misl from 1748 until his death in 1761. Karam Singh fell fighting
against Ahmad Shah Durrani in January 1748 and was succeeded by Sardar Karora Singh. Karora Singh confined his activities to the tract lying south of the
Karigra hills in Hoshiarpur district, and had seized several important towns such as Hoshiarpur, Hariana and Sham Chaurasi before he died in 1761. Baghel
Singh who succeeded Karora Singh as leader of the Karorsinghias is celebrated in Sikh history as the conqueror of Mughal Delhi. A Dhillon Jatt, Baghel Singh
arose from the village of Jhabal Kalan, in Amritsar district, to become a formidable force in the Sutlej region.
Sukerchakia Misl
The Sukerchakia Misl was one of 12 Sikh Misls in Punjab during the 18th century concentrated in Gujranwala and Hafizabad district in Western Punjab and
ruled from (1752-1801). The Sukerchakia last Misldar (commander of the Misl) was Maharaja Ranjit Singh. Towards the end of the eighteenth century,
Maharaja Ranjit Singh united all the misls and established an independent kingdom in Punjab. Sardar Charat Singh was the eldest son of Sardar Naudh Singh,
the father of Maha Singh, and the grandfather of Ranjit Singh. He distinguished himself at an early age in campaigns against Ahmad Shah Abdali and split from
the Singhpuria Misl to establish The Sukerchakia Misl in Gujranwala. He married Sardarni Desan Kaur the daughter of Sardar Amir Singh of Gujranwala, an
older but still powerful sardar, and moved his headquarters there. He extended his rule in Rohtas,Chakwal, Pind Dadan Khan which Stood in Pothohar Region
of Northern Punjab and tookWazirabad under his control. Then came Sardar Mahan Singh (d.1792) who also expanded the Misl further. After the decline of
the Mughals, Maharaja Ranjit Singh united all the mislsand shaped a powerful kingdom in Punjab.
List of Rulers of Sukerchakia Misl
Sardar Charat Singh was a ruler of Sukerchakia Misl in the second half 18th century. He was the eldest son of Sardar Naudh Singh, the father of Maha
Singh, and the grandfather of Ranjit Singh. He distinguished himself at an early age in campaigns against Ahmad Shah Abdali and split from the Singhpuria Misl
to establish Sukerchakia Misl in Gujranwala. He married Sardarni Desan Kaur the daughter of Sardar Amir Singh of Gujranwala, an older but still powerful
sardar, and moved his headquarters there. He extended his rule in Rohtas,Chakwal, Pind Dadan Khan which Stood in Pothohar Region of Northern Punjab and
tookWazirabad under his control.
Sardar Mahan Singh (died 1792) was a ruler of Sukerchakia Misl in the second half 18th century until his death in 1792. He was expanded the Misl further.
After the decline of the Mughals, Maharaja Ranjit Singh united all the mislsand shaped a powerful kingdom in Punjab.
Dallewalia Misl
The Dallewalia Misl, was first led by Sardar Gulab Singh Dallewalia it had a strength of 5,000 regular horsemen. The Misl was founded by Sardar Gulab Singh
Dallewalia (d. 1759), who belonged to the Khatri community.
[1]
He hailed from the village Dallewal near Dera Baba Nanak on the left bank of River Ravi, 50 km
northeast of Amritsar. The Misl ruled in the Manjke region of Punjab's Rahon, Phillaur, Bilga, Nakodar areas. After the death of Sardar Gulab Singh in 1759, his
successor became Sardar Tara Singh Ghaiba (17171807), who ruled and further expanded his Misl up to Ambala (Haryana region). With other Sikh Sardars,
he Sacked Kasur city of Pathans and joined the Sikh Sardars in the sack of Sirhind city in 1764. In 1807 after the death of Tara Singh Ghaiba his territories were
annexed by Ranjit Singh. The Dallewalia and Nishanwalia Jathas were stationed at Amritsar to protect the holy city.
List of Rulers of Dallewalla Misl
Sardar Gulab Singh Dallewalia (died 1759) was a ruler of Dallewalla Misl during 1750s until his death in 1759. He was belonged to the Khatri
community. He hailed from the village Dallewal near Dera Baba Nanak on the left bank of River Ravi, 50 km northeast of Amritsar. The Misl ruled in the
Manjke region of Punjab's Rahon, Phillaur, Bilga, Nakodar areas. After the death of Sardar Gulab Singh in 1759, his successor became Sardar Tara Singh
Ghaiba.
Sardar Tara Singh Ghaiba (17171807) was a ruler of Dallewalla Misl from 1759 until his death in 1807. He was ruled and further expanded his Misl up
to Ambala (Haryana region). With other Sikh Sardars, he Sacked Kasur city of Pathans and joined the Sikh Sardars in the sack of Sirhind city in 1764. In 1807
after the death of Tara Singh Ghaiba his territories were annexed by Ranjit Singh. The Dallewalia and Nishanwalia Jathas were stationed at Amritsar to protect
the holy city.
Nakai Misl
The Nakai Misl, was one of the twelve Sikh Misls that later became the Sikh Empire. It held territory between theRavi and Sutlej rivers to the west of Lahore.
The misl fought against the Sials and Pathans and the Kharals before being incorporated into the Sikh Empire of the Sukerchakia Misl by Ranjit Singh. In
1595, Guru Arjan Dev (1563-1606) the Fifth Sikh Prophet with some of his followers visited the village of Baherwal; but The Guru was not received with due
hospitality. So he passed on to the neighboring village of Jamber Kalan where he lay down on a Charpai (cot) under a shady tree. By this time, Hem Raj, a
Sandhu Jatt, Chaudhari or headman of Baherwal, who was absent when the Guru passed through his village, heard of what had occurred and ashamed of his
town-men's inhospitality went to Jamber Kalan and brought the Guru to his town. The Guru blessed Hem Raj and prophesied that his son and successors, would
be great and powerful chiefs. However, it was more than 100 years later that the prophesy was to materialize. In 1748 Sardar Hira Singh (1706-1767) took
possession of the lands surrounding his native village, Baherwal and countryside of Kasur which was located in the Nakka country South of Majha Region and his
misl took the name of the area they ruled. He took Amrit Sanchar (Sikh Baptism) in 1731. Nakka means border and the Nakka country was located between
the Ravi and Sutlej south of Lahore. He also took Chunian from the Afghans but died (Became a Shaheed) in a battle against Sujan Chisti for Pakpattan. His
companions brought his dead body to Baherwal where it was cremated. Hira Singh's son, Dal Singh, was a minor, so his nephew, Nar Singh succeeded him as
leader of the misl. In 1768, Nar Singh was killed in a battle against the Kharals at Kot Kumaliah and was succeeded by his son, Ran Singh. Ran Singh fought
repeatedly against Kamar Singh, the ruler of Syedwala. Sometime before his death in 1781, he defeated him and captured Syedwala. Sardar Ran Singh greatly
expanded the misl's strength so it became dominant among its neighbors. At its high point under Ran Singh it ruled Kasur, Sharaqpur, Gugera pargana, and
the Kharal fort of Kot Kumaliah and could field 2,000 horsemen, Zamburaks, and artillery. His son, Bhagwan Singh, succeeded him but could not hold his
territory against Wazir Singh, the brother of Kamar Singh, who retook Syedwala. Realizing he might lose all of his territory, Bhagwan Singh set up the
engagement of his sister, Raj Kour, to Ranjit Singh, who was the son of Maha Singh, the leader of the Sukerchakia Misl, in order to gain a powerful ally. In
1785, Maha Singh was facing attacks from Sardar Jai Singh of the Kanheya Misl and called Bhagwan Singh and Wazir Singh to help him, but after they were
victorious against Sardar Jai Singh, Maha Singh began to favor Wazir Singh. Bhagwan Singh and Wazir Singh then fought and Bhagwan Singh was killed in the
ensuing battle. Dal Singh, a son of Hira Singh, then killed Wazir Singh in revenge but was killed himself by a servant of Wazir Singh. In 1789, Gyan Singh,
succeeded his brother, Bhagwan Singh (sons of Sardar Ran Singh Nakai) and in 1798 married his sister Raj Kaur toRanjit Singh. Raj Kaur also being the name of
one of Maharaja Ranjit Singh's mothers, she took the name of Maharani Datar Kaur. In 1802, she gave birth to Kharak Singh, the heir apparent of the Sikh
empire. In 1807, Gyan Singh died and Kahn Singh succeeded him. Before having his estate seized by Ranjit Singh in 1810, Kahn Singh haad conquered
Pakpattan.
List of Rulers of Nakai Misl
Sardar Hira Singh Nakai (1706-1767) was a ruler of Nakai Misl from 1748 until his death in 1767. In 1748 Sardar Hira Singh (1706-1767) took possession
of the lands surrounding his native village, Baherwal and countryside of Kasur which was located in the Nakka country South of Majha Region and his misl took
the name of the area they ruled. He took Amrit Sanchar (Sikh Baptism) in 1731. Nakka means border and the Nakka country was located between the Ravi
and Sutlej south of Lahore. He also took Chunian from the Afghans but died (Became a Shaheed) in a battle against Sujan Chisti for Pakpattan. His companions
brought his dead body to Baherwal where it was cremated. Hira Singh's son, Dal Singh, was a minor, so his nephew, Nar Singh succeeded him as leader of
the misl.
Sardar Nar Singh Nakai (died 1768) was a ruler of Nakai Misl from 1767 until his death in 1768. In 1768, Nar Singh was killed in a battle against
the Kharals at Kot Kumaliah and was succeeded by his son, Ran Singh.
Sardar Ran Singh Nakai (died 1781) was a ruler of Nakai Misl from 1767 until his death in 1781. In 1768, Nar Singh was killed in a battle against
the Kharals at Kot Kumaliah and was succeeded by his son, Ran Singh. Ran Singh fought repeatedly against Kamar Singh, the ruler of Syedwala. Sometime
before his death in 1781, he defeated him and captured Syedwala. Sardar Ran Singh greatly expanded the misl's strength so it became dominant among its
neighbors. At its high point under Ran Singh it ruled Kasur, Sharaqpur, Gugera pargana, and the Kharal fort of Kot Kumaliah and could field 2,000
horsemen, Zamburaks, and artillery. His son, Bhagwan Singh, succeeded him but could not hold his territory against Wazir Singh, the brother of Kamar Singh,
who retook Syedwala.
Sardar Bhagwan Singh Nakai (died 1789) was a ruler of Nakai Misl from 1768 until his death in 1789. Bhagwan Singh, succeeded his father Ran Singh
but could not hold his territory against Wazir Singh, the brother of Kamar Singh, who retook Syedwala. Realizing he might lose all of his territory, Bhagwan
Singh set up the engagement of his sister, Raj Kour, to Ranjit Singh, who was the son of Maha Singh, the leader of the Sukerchakia Misl, in order to gain a
powerful ally. In 1785, Maha Singh was facing attacks from Sardar Jai Singh of the Kanheya Misl and called Bhagwan Singh and Wazir Singh to help him, but
after they were victorious against Sardar Jai Singh, Maha Singh began to favor Wazir Singh. Bhagwan Singh and Wazir Singh then fought and Bhagwan Singh was
killed in the ensuing battle. Dal Singh, a son of Hira Singh, then killed Wazir Singh in revenge but was killed himself by a servant of Wazir Singh.
Sardar Gyan Singh Nakai (died 1807) was a ruler of Nakai Misl from 1789 until his death in 1807. In 1789, Gyan Singh, succeeded his brother, Bhagwan
Singh (sons of Sardar Ran Singh Nakai) and in 1798 married his sister Raj Kaur toRanjit Singh. Raj Kaur also being the name of one of Maharaja Ranjit Singh's
mothers, she took the name of Maharani Datar Kaur. In 1802, she gave birth to Kharak Singh, the heir apparent of the Sikh empire. In 1807, Gyan Singh died
and Kahn Singh succeeded him.
Sardar Kahan Singh Nakai was a ruler of Nakai Misl from 1807 until 1810. In 1807, Gyan Singh died and Kahn Singh succeeded him. Before having his
estate seized by Ranjit Singh in 1810, Kahn Singh haad conquered Pakpattan.
Shaheedan Misl
The Shaheedan Misl, was one of twelve Sikh Misls that later became the Sikh Empire. It held a small amount of territory in theMalwa (Punjab) area around
the Damdama Sahib before being incorporated into the Sikh Empire of the Sukerchakia Misl byRanjit Singh. In 1748, Baba Deep Singh was appointed the
leader of the Shaheedan Misl and the Mahant of the Takht Sri Damdama Sahib. In 1757, Ahmad Shah Abdali invaded India and sent an army to
the Harmindar Sahib to block Sikhs from entering the Gurdwara.Baba Deep Singh and a company of men who rode with him to free the gurdwara were killed in
an action against the Durrani Army. His successor, Suddha Singh, later led the misl into a skirmish against the Afghan government of Jalandhar City. The first
two leaders of the misl were considered Shaheeds, or martyrs, by their contemporaries so the misl became known as, Shaheedan, or the followers of the
martyrs. Karm Singh, the next leader of the misl, expanded the territory of the misl by annexing several nearby towns to his control. The misl was annexed by
the Sikh Empire at some point in the early 19th century and became a part of theSikh Empire. The Nihang order of Sikhs maintains the traditions of this misl.
The modern day Shaheedan Da Misl is headed by Sri Maan Singh Sahib Jathedar Baba Makhan Singh Jee Akali and has its mukh (first) Chouni (Army
Barracks) in the respected villiage of Sri Baba Bakala Sahib Jee. In recent years this ang (limb) of the Shromani Panth Akali has been blessed with the leadership
of Shromani Gursikhs in the image of Sri Sach Khand Vasi Brahm Giani Sri Singh Sahib Jee Dass Baba Bishan Singh Jee Akali and the most venerable Sri Sach
Khand Vasi Brahm Giani Sri Singh Sahib Jee Dass Baba Kirtan Singh Jee Akali.
List of Rulers of Shaheedan Misl
Baba Deep Singh (16821757) was the first ruler of Shaheedan Misl from 1748 until his death in 1757. He is revered among Sikhs as one of the most
hallowed martyrs in Sikhism and as a highly religious person. He is remembered for his sacrifice and devotion to the teachings of theSikh Gurus. The Damdami
Taksal state he was their first head of their order. His name is also found as Deep Singh (without the "Baba" honorific) and Baba Deep Singh. Baba Deep Singh
was born in 1682 to Bhagatu (father) and Jioni (mother). He lived in the village of Pohuwind in the district of Amritsar. He went to Anandpur on the day
of Vaisakhi in 1699, where he was baptized as Khalsa by Guru Gobind Singh.Baba Deep Singh took Khande di Pahul or Amrit Sanchar (ceremonial initiation
into Khalsa). As a youth, he spent considerable time in close companionship of Guru Gobind Singh. He started learning weaponry, riding and other martial
skills. FromBhai Mani Singh, he began learning, reading and writing Gurmukhi and the interpretation of the Gurus' words. After spending two years at
Anandpur, he returned to his village in 1702 and married. He was summoned by Guru Gobind Singh at Talwandi Sabo in 1705, where he helped Bhai Mani
Singh in making copies of the Guru Granth Sahib. In 1709, Baba Deep Singh joined Banda Bahadur during the assaults on the towns of Sadhaura and Sirhind.
In 1733, Nawab Kapur Singh appointed him a leader of an armed squad (jatha). On the Vaisakhi of 1748, at the meeting of the Sarbat Khalsa in Amritsar, the
65 jathas of the Dal Khalsa were reorganized into twelve Misls. Baba Deep Singh was entrusted with the Leadership of the Shaheedan Misl. In April
1757, Ahmad Shah Durrani raided Northern India for the fourth time. While he was on his way back to Kabul from Delhi with precious booty and young men
and women as captives, the Sikhs made a plan to relieve him of the valuables and free the captives. The squad of baba Deep Singh was deployed
near Kurukshetra. His squad freed a large number of prisoners and raided Durrani's considerable treasury. On his arrival in Lahore, Durrani, embittered by his
loss, ordered the demolition of the Harimandir Sahib. The shrine was blown up and the sacred pool filled with the entrails of slaughtered cows. Durrani assigned
the Punjab region to his son, Prince Timur Shah, and left him a force of ten thousand men under General Jahan Khan. Baba Deep Singh, aged 75-years old, felt
that it was up to him to atone for the sin of having let the Afghans desecrate the shrine. He emerged from scholastic retirement (he had been making copies of
the Guru Granth Sahib), and declared to a congregation at Damdama Sahib that he intended to rebuild the temple. Five hundred men came forward to go with
him. Deep Singh offered prayers before starting for Amritsar: "May my head fall at the Darbar Sahib." As he went from hamlet to hamlet, many villagers joined
him. By the time babaDeep Singh reached Tarn Taran Sahib, ten miles from Amritsar, over five thousand peasants armed with hatchets, swords, and spears
accompanied him. According to the Sikh legend, Baba Deep Singh had vowed to avenge the desecration of the Golden Temple by the Afghan army. In 1757, he
led an army to defend the Golden Temple. The Sikhs and the Afghans clashed, in the battle of Amritsar, at the village of Gohalwar on November 11, 1757, and
in the ensuing conflict Baba Deep Singh was decapitated. The first version has it that Deep Singh continued to fight after having been decapitated, slaying his
enemies with his head in one hand and his sword in the other. In this version, only upon reaching the sacred city of Amritsar did he stop and finally die. On
being mortally wounded with a severe gash to his head, a Sikh reminded Baba Deep Singh, "You had resolved to reach the periphery of the pool." On hearing the
talk of the Sikh, he supported his head with his left hand and removing the enemies from his way with the strokes of his double-edged sword with his right hand,
reached the periphery of Harmindar Sahib where he breathed his last. The Singhs celebrated the Bandhi-Sor Divas of 1757 A.D. in Harminder Sahib". The
Sikhs recovered their prestige by defeating the Afghan army and the latter were forced to flee. The spot where the legend Baba Deep Singh's head fell is marked
in the Golden Temple complex, and Sikhs from around the world pay their respects there. Baba Deep Singh's (30lbs)15kg, Khanda (double-edged sword), which
he used in his final battle, is still preserved at Takht Sri Hazur Sahib, one of the five centers of temporal Sikh authority.
Suddha Singh was a ruler of Shaheedan Misl in the second half 18th century. He was successor of Baba Deep Singh founder of Shaheedan Misl. He was led
the misl into a skirmish against the Afghan government of Jalandhar City The first two leaders of the misl were considered Shaheeds, or martyrs, by their
contemporaries so the misl became known as, Shaheedan, or the followers of the martyrs
Karm Singh was a ruler of Shaheedan Misl in the second half 18th century. He was expanded the territory of the misl by annexing several nearby towns to his
control. The misl was annexed by the Sikh Empire at some point in the early 19th century and became a part of theSikh Empire.






Sumpa Kingdom
The Sumpa (Wylie transliteration: Sum-pa) were a tribe living in northeastern Tibet from ancient times. According to historical sources they descended from
the Qiang people, and they likely spoke a Tibetan dialect. Their territory was absorbed by the Tibetan Empire in the late 7th century, after which point they
gradually lost their independent identity. The Sumpa are the same people known to the Chinese as the Supi or Sunpo . The Tangshu, chap. 221b,
says that the people of the country of Supi (Sumpa) were originally of Western Qiang descent. The Qiang had been in the region for a very long time - they were
the main foreign enemies of the Shang dynasty (c. 1600-1046 BCE). It has been suugested by Christopher I. Beckwith that their name may have derived from
an Indo-European root meaning 'charioteer'. After they were annexed by the Tibetans they took the name of Sunpo (= Sumpa). They were the largest of the
tribes in the region and consisted of some 30,000 family units. Their territory extended from the border of the Domi people to the east as far as the Houmangxia
(or Houmang Gorge) Pass in the west. The location of the Supi/Sumpa kingdom in the 7th8th centuries in northeastern Tibet stretched from the southern bank
of the Yak River (Chinese: Tongtian River - known in Tibetan as the Chu-dmar, the largest upper course of the 'Bri-chu or Yangtze River) in the east about
1,400 li (roughly 452 km) southwest to the Houmangxia Pass (= the Ta-tsang-la) and ranged at times as far as Khotan. The Sumpa were considered part of the
Tibetan kingdom as early as the 6th century CE, in the time of Songtsn Gampo's father Namri Songtsen, and are thought to have spoken a Tibetan dialect.
List of Kings of Sumpa Kingdom
Molingzan was the King of Sumpa Kingdom in the first half 8th century. According to Tangshu 221b; during the Tianbao era (742755), the Sumpa king,
Molingzan, wanted to submit to the Chinese Empire with all his people, but he was killed by the Tibetans.
Xinuo was the King of Sumpa Kingdom in the second half 8
th
century. He was son of Molingzan King of Sumpa. Xinuo, accompanied by some dignitaries
sought refuge in Longyou in Gansu. The Governor sent them with an escort to the capital where the Emperor, Xuanzong(reigned 712756 CE), treated them
with great honours. The Xin Tangshu 216a places the submission of the son of the Supi king in 755. It gives his name as Xinuoluo and says that he was granted
the title of Huaiyi ("he who cherishes justice") Prince, and was given the family name of Li. It adds, "The Supi are a powerful tribe."

Bavand Dynasty
The Bavand dynasty (also spelled Bavend), or simply the Bavandids, was an Iranian dynasty that ruled in parts of Tabaristan(Mazandaran) in what is now
northern Iran from 651 until 1349, alternating between outright independence and submission as vassals to more powerful regional rulers. The dynasty itself
traced its descent back to Bav, who was alleged to be a grandson of the Sasanian prince Kawus, son of the shah Kavadh I (ruled 488531), who supposedly fled
to Tabaristan from the Muslim conquest of Persia. He rallied the locals around him, repelled the first Arab attacks, and reigned for fifteen years until he was
murdered by a certain Valash, who ruled the country for eight years. Bav's son, Sohrab or Sorkab (Surkhab I), established himself at Perim on the eastern
mountain ranges of Tabaristan, which thereafter became the family's domain. The scholar J. Marquart, however, proposed an alternative identification of the
legendary Bav with a late-6th-century Zoroastrian priest ("magian") from Ray. P. Pourshariati, in her re-examination of late Sasanian history, asserts that this Bav is
a conflation of several members of the powerful House of Ispahbudhan: Bawi, his grandson Vistahm and his great-nephew Farrukhzad. She also reconstructs the
events of the middle 7th century as a civil war between two rival clans, the Ispahbudhan and Valash's House of Karen, before the Dabuyid Farrukhan the
Great conquered Tabaristan and subdued the various local leaders to vassalage. The Dabuyid house then ruled Tabaristan until the Abbasids subdued the region
in 760. It is at the time after the Abbasid conquest that the Bavandids enter documented history, with Sharwin I, in later tradition accounted the great-grandson of
Surkhab I. The dynasty is commonly divided into three major branches: the Kayusiyya, named after Kayus ibn Kubad, the Arabicized name of the family's
legendary ancestor Kawus son of Kavadh, which ruled from 665 until 1006, when the family's rule was ended by Qabus ibn Wushmagir. Several members of the
family continued to rule in various localities thereafter, giving rise to the second line, the Ispahbadhiyya, in 1073. Their capital was Sari, and their rule extended
over Gilan, Ray and Qumisas well as Tabaristan, although the were mostly vassals of the Seljuqs and later of the Khwarezmshahs. The line was ended in 1210
with the murder of Shams al-Muluk Rustam, and the Khwarezmshah Muhammad II took over direct control of the region. The third line or Kinakhwariyya was
established in 1237 following the Mongol invasions and the widespread anarchy that prevailed, and lasted, as a vassal of the Mongols, until the final end of the
dynasty in 1349.
List of Rulers of Bavand Dynasty
Kayusiyya Line
Farrukhzad (Persian: , died 665), also known as Khurrazad, Znab Abl-Farrukhan and Bav, was the founder of Bavand Dynasty and the first ruler of
Tabaristan from 651 until his death in 665. He was an eminent Sasanian commander and later spahbed during the Arab invasion of Iran. Farrukhzad was brother
of the powerful spahbed Rostam Farrokhzd, who fought and died at the Battle of al-Qdisiyyah. Farrukhzad is most famous for being present at theBattle of
Jalula. There he led a major Persian force against the Muslims, resulting in a major disaster with perhaps a hundred thousands Persian casualties. After his defeat,
he left western Persia along with Yazdegerd III to Greater Khorasan. However, he later made a mutiny against Yazdegerd III, and marched towards Ray, where
he aided the Arabs in defeating his rival the Mihranid Siyavakhsh. He then left for Tabaristan where he became king of the region, including parts of Khorasan.
He was murdered in 665 Valash, an Karenednobleman, who then conquered his domains.
[

Valash (Persian: , died 688) was a Iranian prince from the House of Karen, who later became the ruler of Tabaristan from 665 until his death in
688. He was a descendant of Sukhra, a prominent Iranian nobleman who controlled much of the affairs of the Sasanian Empire. In 665, Valash
murdered Farrukhzad who was the ruler of Tabaristan, and then conquered him domains, thus becoming the sole ruler of Tabaristan. Farrukhzad's son, Surkhab
I, then fled to a Bavand stronghold in Mazandaran to avoid Valash. In 688, Surkhab avenged his father by killing Valash, and then reconquered Tabaristan from
Valash.
Surkhab I (Persian: , died 717) was the second ruler of the Bavand dynasty from ca. 688 until his death in 717. He was the son of Farrukhzad,
a Parthian nobleman from the Ispahbudhan family, a family which had a long story of service to the Sasanians, tracing his descent back to Bawi. Surkhab also had
four other brothers named Isfandyadh, Shahram, Bahram, and Farrukhan. In 665, Farrukhzad was murdered by an Karenid named Valash, who then had his
domains conquered. After the murder of his father, Surkhab fled to a Bavand stronghold in Mazandaran. In 688, Surkhab avenged his father by killing Valash,
and then reconquered lost Bavand territory. He then crowned himself as ispahbadh of the Bavandids at his capital in Perim. Surkhab died in 717, and was
succeeded by his son Mihr Mardan.
Mihr Mardan (Persian: , died 755) was the third ruler of the Bavand dynasty in Tabaristan from 717 until his death in 755. Nothing more is known
about him; he died in 755, and was succeeded by his son Surkhab II.
Surkhab II (Persian: , died 772) was the fourth ruler of the Bavand dynasty in Tabaristan from 755 until his death in 772. In 760, his overlord,
the Dabuyids, under Khurshid of Tabaristan, revolted against theAbbasid Caliphate. Khurshid, was, however, defeated, and fled to Daylam, where he made a
counterattack against the Abbasids, but was once again defeated. After learning that his family was captured by the Abbasids, Khurshid poisoned himself. This
marked the end of the Dabuyid dynasty, however, other dynasties such as the Bavandids, Karenidsand Zarmihrids, who were all formerly subject to the
Dabuyids, continued to control parts of Tabaristan as tributary vassals of the Abbasid government. Surkhab II died in 772, and was succeeded by his son Sharwin
I, who would later along with the rulers of Tabaristan revolt against the Abbasids and massacre all the Muslims in Tabaristan.
Sharwin I (Persian: , died 817) was the fifth ruler of the Bavand dynasty in Tabaristan from 772 until his death in 817. He was the son and successor
of Surkhab II. In 760, during the reign of Sharwin's father Surkhab II, Khurshid, the head of the Dabuyid dynasty that had ruled Tabaristan since theMuslim
conquest of Persia, revolted against the Abbasid Caliphate. Khurshid was defeated and poisoned himself after learning that his family had been captured by the
Abbasids. This marked the end of the Dabuyid dynasty, but other minor dynasties in the region such as the Bavandids, Karenids and Zarmihrids, who were all
formerly subject to the Dabuyids, continued to control parts of Tabaristan as tributary vassals of the Abbasid government. In 772, Surkhab II died, and was
succeeded by Sharwin I. During the same period, Khalid ibn Barmak, the Abbasid governor of Tabaristan, left the region. Shortly after Khalid's departure, the
Karenid ruler Vandad Hormozd sent Sharwin a letter which urged him to revolt against the Abbasids. Sharwin accepted, and along with Vandad Hormozd and
the Zarmihrid ruler revolted against the Abbasids. Sharwin then began destroying the cities built by the Muslims in the region, and in 782, along with Vandad
Hormozd, exterminated all the Muslims in Tabaristan. During the same period, the Karenids assumed the former Dabuyid title ofGilgilan, while Sharwin
assumed the title of Padashwargarshah ("King of the Mountains"). Sharwin and the other rulers of Tabaristan managed to repel several Arab invasions of
Tabaristan, until they were finally defeated in 785, and once again agreed to pay tribute to the Abbasid caliphs. In 805, the Abbasid caliph Harun al-
Rashid visited Ray where he met Sharwin and Vandad Hormozd, who reaffirmed their submission to him and promised to pay tax. In order to ensure their
loyalty, Harun took Sharwin's grandson Shahriyar I and Vandad Hormozd's son Karin as hostages to Baghdad. The two princes were allowed to return to
Tabaristan after Harun's death four years later.
[6]
Sharwin died in 817, and was succeeded by his grandson Shahriyar I.
Shahriyar I (Persian: , died 825) was the sixth ruler of the Bavand dynasty from 817 until his death in 825. He was the grandson and successor
of Sharwin I. Before Shahriyar became ruler of the Bavand dynasty, he was taken as hostage by Harun al-Rashid to Baghdad, where Shahriyar stayed for four
years until he was allowed to return to Tabaristan. In 817, Sharwin I died, and Shahriyar succeeded him. After Shahriyar's coronation, the Abbasid caliph Al-
Ma'mun, sent him robes of honour, and requested his and the Karenid rulerKarin ibn Vandad Hormozd's aid in the ArabByzantine wars. Shahriyar declined
the request, while Karin accepted, and became successful in his campaign against the Byzantines. Karin was then bestowed with many honors by Al-Ma'mun.
Shahriyar, jealous of Karin's fame, began annexing some of the latter's territory. In 817, during the reign of Karin's son Mazyar, Shahriyar, with the aid of Mazyar's
uncle Vinda-Umid, expelled the latter from Tabaristan, and seized all his territories. Shahriyar later died in 825, and was succeeded by his son Shapur of
Tabaristan.
Shapur (Persian: , died 825) was the seventh ruler of the Bavand dynasty in Tabaristan, who ruled briefly in 825. He was the son and successor
of Shahriyar I. Just when Shapur had ascended the Bavandid throne, the Karenid Mazyar, whom Shapur's father Shahriyar I along with Mazyar's uncle Vinda-
Umid had expelled from Tabaristan, returned with an Abbasid army, and invaded the territories of Shapur and Vinda-Umid, where he successfully defeated and
killed them both.
Mazyar (Persian: , died 839) was an Iranian prince from the House of Karen and feudal ruler of the mountainous region of Tabaristan from 825 until his
death in 839. For his resistance to the Abbasid Caliphate, Maziyar is considered one of the national heroes of Iran by twentieth-century Iranian nationalist
historiography. His name means "protected by the yazata of the moon". Mazyar was succeeded by his father Karin ibn Vandad Hormozd in ca. 817. However, his
territories were shortly invaded by theBavandid ruler Shahriyar I, whom Mazyar fought against, but was defeated and was forced to flee. Mazyar then took refuge
with his cousin Vinda-Umid. He, was, however, betrayed by Vinda-Umid and was handed over to Shahriyar. Mazyar managed to escape and reach the court of al-
Ma'mun, where he met one of his astrologers named Yahya ibn al-Munajjim, a Persian who recently converted to Islam and was from the Banu Munajjim family.
Mazyar shortly embraced Islam, and al-Ma'mun gave him the title of Mawla Amiri'l-Muminin and the Muslim name of Abu'l Hasan Muhammad. Mazyar was
also granted two towns in Tabaristan as his fief, and in 822/823 returned to Tabaristan with it's governor Musa ibn Hafs. Mazyar now began to take revenge
against the Bavand dynasty: Vinda-Umid, including Shahriyar's son and successor, Shapur, were defeated and killed, and Mazyar united the highlands under his
own rule. Mazyar now began constructing mosques in several towns, and successfully plundered the territories of the Justanids. In 826/827, Musa ibn Hafs died
and was succeeded by his son Muhammad ibn Musa as the governor of Tabaristan. Mazyar continued to expand his influence and his policies made the Muslims
of Tabaristan oppressed. The Muslims of Tabaristan and the Bavandid prince Qarin I now began complaining to al-Ma'mun about Mazyar's behavior, but did
not manage to turn al-Ma'mun against Mazyar. Al-Ma'mun was shortly involved with war against the Byzantine Empire, which gave Mazyar the opportunity to
imprison Muhammad ibn Musa in charge of being secretly involved with the Alids. Al-Ma'mun shortly acknowledged Mazyar's rule over Tabaristan and it's
surrounding regions. Al-Ma'mun later died in 833, and was succeeded by his half-brother al-Mu'tasim, who also acknowledged Mazyar as the ruler of Tabaristan.
However, the Tahirid ruler Abdallah ibn Tahir al-Khurasani, demanded land tax from Mazyar, but the latter refused. Abdallah, claiming Tabaristan as his own
fief, demanded that Mazyar should release Muhammad ibn Musa. Mazyar, however, once again refused to obey Abdallah, which made him accuse Mazyar of
infidelity and tyranny in front of al-Mu'tasim. Feeling threatened, Mazyar rebelled against the Abbasid Caliphate, an act which was widely supported by the
native Zoroastrians, who began plundering the Muslim villages and Abbasid borders. Mazyar now began ensuring the loyalty of the noblemen of Tabaristan and
imprisoned anyone he did not trust. According to the medieval historian Ibn Isfandiyar in his Tarikh-e-Tabaristan, Mazyar is said to have proclaimed: Afshin,
the son of Kavus, Babak Khorramdin, and I had made an oath and allegiance that we take the country back from the Arabs and transfer the government and the
country back to the family of Kasraviyan. Abdallah and the al-Mu'tasim shortly sent five corps that entered Tabaristan by all side. Mazyar made his brother
Quhyar as the defender of the Karenid mountains, and the Bavandid Qarin I as the defender of eastern Tabaristan. However, the fall of Tabaristan went quickly:
several cities were caught by surprise, while Qarin I betrayed Mazyar and agreed to aid the Abbasids in exchange for being restored as the ruler of the Bavand
dynasty. The people of Sari shortly revolted against Mazyar, and Mazyar was betrayed by his brother Quhyar, who captured him and gave him to al-Mu'tasim.
Mazyar was shortly brought to Samarra, where he was executed. His body later became gibbeted with the body of Babak Khorramdin. Mazyar's brother Quhyar
was shortly killed by his own Dailamite soldiers because of his betrayal against Mazyar. This marked the end of the Karenid dynasty, and the Tahirids were now
the rulers of Tabaristan, while Qarin I was restored as the ruler of the Bavand dynasty as an Tahirid vassal.
Qarin I (Persian: , died 867) was the eight ruler of the Bavand dynasty in Tabaristan from 839 until his death in 867. His brother, Shapur of Tabaristan,
was murdered in 825 by an Karenid named Mazyar, who then conquered his domains. With the aid of Abbasids and Tahirids, however, Qarin managed to
reclaim his domains from Mazyar. During the same period, Mazyar was betrayed by his brother Quhyar, and was sentenced to death in Baghdad. In 842, Qarin
converted to Islam, where he was rewarded with the title of Abu'l-Muluk. In the 860s, western Iran was governed by the Tahirid Muhammad ibn Abdallah ibn
Tahir, whose brother Sulayman ibn Abdallah ibn Tahir deputized him in Tabaristan and Gurgan. Popular resentment of the Tahirids' rule increased through the
oppression of their officials, especially their fiscal agents in the province. Consequently, in 864 a rebellion broke out in the towns of Ruyan, Kalar and Chalus, led
by two "sons of Rostam". The rebels called upon Hasan ibn Zayd, an Alid, to lead them, and allied themselves with the neighbouring Dailamites. Hasan, who
assumed the regnal name al-Da ilal-aqq ("He who summons to the Truth"), was recognized as emir by a part of the local population, and even secured the
allegiance of the Justanid king of Daylam, Vahsudan ibn Marzuban. Qarin, however, opposed Zaydid rule in Tabaristan, and allied himself with Sulayman ibn
Abdallah ibn Tahir against Hasan, but was defeated by Hasan in a battle, who had Qarin's domains devastated and his brother Jafar ibn Shahriyar killed. Qarin
then had to swear loyalty to the Zaydids and send his two sons Surkhab ibn Qarin and Maziar ibn Qarin as hostages to the Zaydid court, but quickly mutinied
against Hasan, and in 868, was forced to flee toKumis. Qarin I died in 867, and was succeeded by his son or grandson Rustam I.
Rustam I (Persian: , died 896) was the ninth ruler of the Bavand dynasty in Tabaristan from 867 until his death in 896. He was the successor and son (or
grandson) ofQarin I. Like his father, Rustam opposed the Zaydi rulers of Tabaristan, and in 879, revolted against them. Rustam then seized Kumis fromQasim
ibn Ali, and urged Ahmad ibn Abdallah al-Khujistani, the ruler of Nishapur, to invade Tabaristan. Ahmad ibn Abdallah accepted, and captured Gurgan, while
Rustam occupied Astarabad, but a sudden attack by the Zaydi emir Hasan ibn Zayd forced Rustam to flee to the mountains; Hasan's brother Muhammad ibn
Zayd chased Rustam and forced to accept his suzerainty and not raise an army any more. After the death of Hasan in 884, Rustam supported Abu'l-Husayn
Ahmad ibn Muhammad as the successor of Hasan ibn Zayd.
[3]
However, Muhammad ibn Zayd managed to defeat Abu'l-Husayn after ten months, and then
attacked Rustam and forced him to flee Tabaristan. Rustam then took refuge with the Saffarid emir Amr ibn al-Layth. With Saffarid mediation, Rustam was
allowed to return to his domains. Like his brother, Muhammad tried to expand his domain by military means, and campaigns occupied a large part of his reign.
In August 885 he tried to capture Rayy from its Turkish ruler Asategin, but was driven back. Rafi' ibn Harthama, a former Tahirid soldier, used the opportunity
to occupy Gurgan, but Muhammad recovered control of the province as soon as Rafi' departed it. In 888 or 889, Muhammad once again attacked Rustam, but
the latter managed to once again flee, and this time he sought aid from Rafi'. Rafi', along with Rustam, launched a major invasion of the Zaydi domains and
conquered most of them, forcing Muhammad, like his brother before him, to seek shelter in the mountain fortresses of the western districts. Muhammad also
gained the support of Jostan ibn Wahsudan, the Justanid ruler of Daylam. With his aid, Muhammad engaged in constant fighting with Rafi', but was unable to
recover his realm. Eventually, Rafi' struck a peace with Jostan, and the Daylamites too withdrew.
[1]
At this point, Muhammad's fortunes changed, with the
accession of a new Caliph, al-Mu'tadid, on the Abbasid throne in 892. Fearful of Rafi's power, the Caliph stripped him of the governorship of Khurasan and gave
it to his rival, the Saffarid Amr ibn al-Layth. In response, Rafi' concluded a peace with Muhammad, returned Tabaristan (but not Gurgan) to him and even
pledged allegiance to the Zaydi cause. Rustam, after hearing about Rafi's alliance with his rival Muhammad, then allied with Amr ibn al-Layth. In 896, Rafi' lured
Rustam to Astarabad, where he had him tortured and killed. Rustam I was then succeeded by his son Sharwin II.
Sharwin II (Persian: , died 930) was the tenth ruler of the Bavand dynasty in Tabaristan from 896 until his death in 930. In 896, Sharwin's
father, Rustam I, was tortured to death by Rafi ibn Harthama, who then divided Rustam's domains in Tabaristan with Zaydid Muhammad ibn Zayd. Sharwin thus
succeeded Rustam I as the head of the Bavand family. In 900, Sharwin, along with the Karenid ruler Shahriyar ibn Baduspan, aided the Samanids in conquering
Tabaristan. After the successful Samanid conquest, Sharwin's domains were restored to him. However, in 914, Hasan al-Utrush managed to re-establish Zaydid
control over Tabaristan, and forced Sharwin accept the Zaydids as his overlord and pay tribute to them. Sharwin seems to have later aided Makan ibn Kaki in his
campaign to conquer Khorasan from theSamanids in 930, where Sharwin shortly died, and was succeeded by his son Shahriyar II. Vushmgir, who would become
the overlord of Tabaristan in 935, married Sharwin's daughter after the latter's death.
Shahriyar II (Persian: ) was the eleventh ruler of the Bavand dynasty in Tabaristan from 930 until his death in 964. He was the son and successor
of Sharwin II. After the fall of the Zaydids of Tabaristan, Shahriyar II became involved in a power struggle between the Buyids and Ziyarids for the Tabaristan
region. The Ziyarid ruler of Tabaristan,Vushmgir, is known to have married the sister of Shahriyar. In 943, Vushmgir was expelled from Ray by the Buyid
by Rukn al-Dawla, and took refugee in the court of Shahriyar II. In 948, Rukn al-Dawla conquered Tabaristan, and forced Shahriyar to swear allegiance to the
Buyids in person. However, Shahriyar still remained loyal to the Ziyarids and their Samanid overlords. Because of his pro-Ziyarid policies, Shahriyar was
deposed in favor of his pro-Buyid brother Rustam II in 964. Shahriyar later tried to reclaim the Bavand throne by invading Tabaristan with an Samanid army in
968, but with no avail.
Rustam II (died 979) was the twelfth ruler of the Bavand dynasty in Tabaristan from 964 until his death in 979.
Dara (died 986) was the thirteenth ruler of the Bavand dynasty in Tabaristan from 979 until his death in 986.
Shahriyar III (died 1006) was the fourteenth ruler of the Bavand dynasty in Tabaristan from 986 until his death in 1006.
Rustam III (died 1057) was the fifteenth ruler of the Bavand dynasty in Tabaristan from 1006 until his death in 1057.
Qarin II (died 1074) was the sixteenth ruler of the Bavand dynasty in Tabaristan from 1057 until his death in 1074.
Ispahbadhiyya Line
Shahriyar IV (died 1114) was the seventeenth ruler of the Bavand dynasty in Tabaristan from 1074 until his death in 1114.
Qarin III (Persian: , died 1117) was the eighteenth ruler of the Bavand dynasty from 1114 until his death in 1117. He was the son and successor
of Shahriyar IV. After having ascended the Bavand throne, he arrested and imprisoned many of the most loyal servants of his father. These actions heavily
weakened the Bavand kingdom. Qarin later fell ill, and died after he asked the local people to pledge allegiance to his son Rustam IV, whom succeeded Qarin as
the ruler of the Bavand kingdom.
Rustam IV (died 1118) was the nineteenth ruler of the Bavand dynasty in Tabaristan from 1117 until his death in 1118.
Ali I of Tabaristan (died 1142) was the twentieth ruler of the Bavand dynasty in Tabaristan from 1118 until his death in 1142.
Shah Ghazi Rustam V (died 1165) was twenty first ruler of the Bavand dynasty in Tabaristan from 1142 until his death in 1165. Ghazi Rustam V, is
reported to have seriously defeated the Ismailis who were gaining prominence in Tabaristan and to have made significant progress in consolidating power in the
Caspian provinces.
Hasan I of Tabaristan (died 1173) was the twenty - second ruler of the Bavand dynasty in Tabaristan from 1165 until his death in 1173.
Ardashir I of Tabaristan (died 1205) was the twenty third ruler of the Bavand dynasty in Tabaristan from 1173 until his death in 1205.
Rustam VI (died 1210) was the twenty - fourth ruler of the Bavand dynasty in Tabaristan from 1205 until his death in 1210.
Kinkhwariyya Line
Ardashir II (Persian: , died 1249) was the twenty fifth ruler of the Bavand dynasty in Tabaristan from 1238 until his death in 1249. His grandmother
was a sister of Rustam IV, and he was also related to the Ismailis through his mother. In 1238, Ardashir restored Bavand rule in Mazandaran, and assumed the
traditional Bavand title of ispahbadh. He died in 1249, and was succeeded by his son Mohammad of Tabaristan.
Mohammad of Tabaristan (Persian: , died 1271) was the twenty sixth ruler of the Bavand dynasty in Tabaristan from 1249 until his death in 1271. He
was the son and successor of Ardashir II of Tabaristan. Mohammad had close relations with his ally the Paduspanid Shahragim, and even married his daughter.
During the reign of the Ilkhanid Abaqa Khan, Mohammad and Shahrigam were ordered to aid the Ilkhanids in their siege of fortress of Gerdkuh, which was
held by the Ismailites. Mohammad and Shahragim, however, disobeyed. Abaqa Khan responded by invading Mazandaran. The two kings were then forgiven.
Mohammad then joined the armies of the Ilkhanid, but was shortly arrested because of his recklessness. After hearing about Mohammad's imprisonment,
Shahragim revolted against Abaqa, which resulted in the execution of Mohammad, who was succeeded by his brother Ali II of Tabaristan.
Ali II (Persian: , died 1271) was the twenty - seventh ruler of the Bavand dynasty in Tabaristan, who ruled briefly in 1271. He was the brother
and successor of Muhammad. Nothing more is known about him; he died in 1271, and was succeeded by his cousin Yazdagird of Tabaristan.
Yazdagird (Persian: , died 1298) was the twenty eighth ruler of the Bavand dynasty in Tbaristan from 1271 until his death in 1298. He was the cousin
and successor of Ali of Tabaristan. Yazdagird was the son of Shahriyar, who was the brother of the Bavand king Ardashir II of Tabaristan. During the reign of
Yazdagird, his overlord, the Ilkhanate, were in a civil war. During this period, Yazdagird's kingdom experienced a period of relative prosperity and security. He is
also known for building several madrassas in his capital, Amol. Yazdagird died in 1298, and was succeeded by his son Shahriyar V.
Shahriyar V (Persian: , died 1310) was the twenty nine ruler of the Bavand dynasty in Tabaristan from 1300 until his death in 1310. He was the son
and successor of Yazdagird of Tabaristan. After Shahriyar's accession of the Bavand throne in 1300, the Ilkhanid amir Mo'men marched towards Amol and
greatly weakened the strength of Shahriyar's kingdom. Shahriyar died in 1310, leaving his kingdom to a weakened condition, which quickly fell into war of
succession between his brothers Kay Khusraw ibn Yazdagird, and Shams al-Moluk Mohammad. Kay Khusraw, with Ilkhanid support, managed to emerge
victorious during the civil war, and become the new king of the Bavand dynasty.
Kay Khusraw ibn Yazdagird (Persian: , died 1328) was the thirtieth ruler of the Bavand dynasty in Tabaristan from 1310 until his
death in 1328. He was the brother and successor of Shahriyar V. Shahriyar V died in 1310, leaving his kingdom to a weakened condition, which quickly fell into
war of succession between Kay Khusraw, and his brother Shams al-Moluk Mohammad. Kay Khusraw, with the support of the Ilkhanid Kutlushah,
invaded Mazandaran and forced Shams al-Moluk to flee. However, he later returned to Mazandaran, but was killed by Kay Khusraw, who then crowned himself
as the ispahbadh of the Bavand kingdom. Kay Khusraw later came involved in a conflict with Kutlushah, and was forced to leave Amol with his family and take
refugee in the domains of his brother-in-law the Paduspanid king Nasir al-Din Shahriyar, who later tried to help Kay Khusraw defeat Kutlushah, and seems to
have some successes in his effort, but was defeated. Kay Khusraw remained in refugee until Talish Chubani became the governor of Khorasan in 1317, where
Kay Khusraw restored Bavand authority in Mazandaran. Kay Khusraw died in 1328, and was succeeded by his son Sharaf al-Muluk.
Sharaf al-Muluk (Persian: , died 1334) was the thirty first ruler of the Bavand dynasty in Tabaristan from 1328 until his death
in1334. He was the son and successor of Kay Khusraw ibn Yazdagird. Nothing is known about Sharaf; he died in 1334, and was succeeded by his
brother Hasan II of Tabaristan.
Hasan II (Persian: ), also known as Fakhr al-Dawla Hasan (Persian: , died 1349) was the thirty second and last ruler of the Bavand
dynasty in Tabaristan from 1334 until his death in 1349. He was the brother, and successor of Sharaf al-Muluk. In 1344, the Sarbadar ruler Wajih ad-Din
Mas'ud, sought to increase his territorial domains, and thus in 1344 invaded the domains of Hasan and the Paduspanid ruler Eskandar II inMazandaran with
several hostile minor dynasties allied against him. When the Sarbadars advanced on Amol, Hasan decided to abandon the city. He then turned around and
defeated the Sarbadar garrison at Sari, cutting off Mas'ud's line of retreat. Despite this, Mas'ud decided to press on. When Hasan attacked his rear, however, and
Eskandar II met him at his front, Mas'ud was surrounded. The Sarbadars were decimated, and Mas'ud was captured by Eskandar II. He was handed over to the
son of one of Togha Temur's former officials who had died fighting the Sarbadars in 1341/1342. Mas'ud was then executed by the latter. In 1349, Hasan ordered
the execution of one his most powerful officials, Jalal ibn Ahmad Jal, who was from the powerful Jalali which governed Sari. Hasan then tried to get support from
another family of Mazandaran, the Afrasiyabids. However, the two sons of Kiya Afrasiyab, a powerful Afrasiyab nobleman, murdered Hasan. Afrasiyab then
gained control of the Bavandid territories, thus marking the end of the Bavand dynasty and the start of the Afrasiyab dynasty. The son of Hasan managed to flee
to the court of the Paduspanid ruler Eskandar II, who later tried to restore Bavand rule in Mazandaran, but failed to do so.

Paduspanid (Baduspanid) Dynasty
The Paduspanids or Baduspanids (Persian: ) were a local dynasty of Tabaristan which ruled over Royan, Nur and Rostamdar. It was founded by
Paduspan in 665, and ended in 1598 when the Safavids invaded their domains.The founder of the Paduspanid dynasty was Paduspan, (also known by the
Arabicized form Baduspan), who was the son of Gil Gavbara, the founder of the Dabuyid dynasty.
List of Known Rulers of Paduspanid (Baduspanid) Dynasty
Paduspan, (also known by the Arabicized form Baduspan) was a founder of Padupanid (Baduspanid) Dynasty around 665. He was the son of Gil Gavbara, the
founder of the Dabuyid dynasty.
Fakhr al-Dawla Namavar I was a ruler of Paduspanid (Baduspanid) Dynasty.
Hazarasf I was a ruler of Paduspanid (Baduspanid) Dynasty from ? until 1117.
Shahrivash was a ruler of Paduspanid (Baduspanid) Dynasty from 1117 until 1129.
Kay Ka'us I of Tabaristan was a ruler of Paduspanid (Baduspanid) Dynasty from 1129 until 1165.
Hazarasf II was a ruler of Paduspanid (Baduspanid) Dynasty from 1165 until 1190.
Zarrinkamar was a ruler of Paduspanid (Baduspanid) Dynasty from 1209 until 1213.
Bisotun I was a ruler of Paduspanid (Baduspanid) Dynasty from 1213 until 1223.
Fakhr al-Dawla Namavar II was a ruler of Paduspanid (Baduspanid) Dynasty from 1223 until 1242/1243.
Hosam al-Dawla Ardashir was a ruler of Paduspanid (Baduspanid) Dynasty in 1242.
Eskandar I was a ruler of Paduspanid (Baduspanid) Dynasty from 1242 until ?.
Shahragim was a ruler of Paduspanid (Baduspanid) Dynasty from 1242 until 1272.
Fakr-al-Dawla Namavar III Shah-Ghazi was a ruler of Paduspanid (Baduspanid) Dynasty from 1272 until 1301.
Kay-Khosrow of Tabaristan was a ruler of Paduspanid (Baduspanid) Dynasty from 1301 until 1311.
Shams-al-Muluk Mohammad was a ruler of Paduspanid (Baduspanid) Dynasty from 1311 until 1317.
Nasir al-Din Shahriyar was a ruler of Paduspanid (Baduspanid) Dynasty from 1317 until 1324.
Taj al-Dawla Ziar was a ruler of Paduspanid (Baduspanid) Dynasty from 1324 until 1333.
Eskandar II was a ruler of Paduspanid (Baduspanid) Dynasty from 1333 until 1359.
Fakhr al-Dawla Shah-Ghazi was a ruler of Paduspanid (Baduspanid) Dynasty from 1359 until 1378.
Azod al-Dawla Qobad was a ruler of Paduspanid (Baduspanid) Dynasty from 1378 until 1379.
Sa'd al-Dawla Tus was a ruler of Paduspanid (Baduspanid) Dynasty from 1391 until 1394.
Eskandar III was a ruler of Paduspanid (Baduspanid) Dynasty from 1394 until ?.
Kayumarth I was a ruler of Paduspanid (Baduspanid) Dynasty from 1399 until 1453.
Kayumarth II was a ruler of Paduspanid (Baduspanid) Dynasty in 1453.
Nur branch
Ka'us II was a ruler of Paduspanid (Baduspanid) Dynasty (Nur Branch) from 1453 until 1467.
Jahangir I was a ruler of Paduspanid (Baduspanid) Dynasty (Nur Branch) from 1467 until 1499.
Bisotun II was a ruler of Paduspanid (Baduspanid) Dynasty (Nur Branch) from 1499 until 1507.
Bahman of Tabaristan was a ruler of Paduspanid (Baduspanid) Dynasty (Nur Branch) from 1507 until 1550.
Kayumarth IV was a ruler of Paduspanid (Baduspanid) Dynasty (Nur Branch) from 1550 until 1576.
Sultan Aziz was a ruler of Paduspanid (Baduspanid) Dynasty (Nur Branch) from 1582 until 1586.
Jahangir III was the last ruler of Paduspanid (Baduspanid) Dynasty (Nur Branch) from 1586 until 1593/1594. He was the son and successor of Sultan Aziz. In
1593/94, he traveled to the court of the SafavidShah Abbas I, where he handed over his domains to him, and spend the rest of his life in a property
at Saveh which Abbas had given to him.
Kojur branch
Eskandar IV was a ruler of Paduspanid (Baduspanid) Dynasty (Kojur Branch) from 1453 until 1476.
Taj-al-Dawla ibn Eskandar was a ruler of Paduspanid (Baduspanid) Dynasty (Kojur Branch) from 1476 until 1491.
Ashraf ibn Taj al-Dawla was a ruler of Paduspanid (Baduspanid) Dynasty (Kojur Branch) from 1491 until 1507.
Ka'us III was a ruler of Paduspanid (Baduspanid) Dynasty (Kojur Branch) from 1507 until 1543. He was the son and successor of Ashraf ibn Taj al-Dawla.
During his reign, relations with the Kia'id Khan Ahmad Khan flourished, and by 1514 family ties were between the Paduspanids and Kia'ids. Nine years later,
Ka'us, along with theMarashiyan ruler visited the court of the Safavid king Ismail I. Not much more is known about Ka'us; he died after being poisoned by his
son Kayumarth III, whom Ka'us had imprisoned for unknown reasons.
Kayumarth III was a ruler of Paduspanid (Baduspanid) Dynasty (Kojur Branch) from 1543 until 1555. He was the son and successor of Ka'us III. During the
reign of Kayumarth's father, Ka'us III, the latter had Kayumarth imprisoned for unknown reasons. After eighteen years, Kayumarth managed to flee from prison,
and had his father poisoned. Kayumarth's uncle, Bisotun ibn Ashraf, with the support of the Paduspanid noblemen, then ascended the Paduspanid throne.
However, the people ofMazandaran quickly rose in revolt against him, and had him deposed in favor of Kayumarth. During Kayumarth's reign, his daughter
married the Marashiyan Mir Qewam-al-Din Marashi. Kayumarth died in 1555, and was succeeded by his brother Jahangir II.
Jahangir II was a ruler of Paduspanid (Baduspanid) Dynasty (Kojur Branch) from 1555 until 1567.
Sultan Mohammad ibn Jahangir was a ruler of Paduspanid (Baduspanid) Dynasty (Kojur Branch) from 1568 until 1590.
Jahangir IV was the last ruler of Paduspanid (Baduspanid) Dynasty (Kojur Branch) from 1590 until 1598. He was the son and successor of Sultan Mohammad
ibn Jahangir. In 1593, Jahangir arrived to the court of Abbas I of Persia, and established good relations with him. However, during a festival in Qazvin, Jahangir
killed two prominent Safavid nobles. This made Abbas invade his domains in 1598, where he besieged Kojur. Jahangir managed to flee, but was captured and
killed by a Pro-Safavid Paduspanid named Hasan Lavasani, marking the end of the Paduspanid dynasty.


Kia'I Dynasty
Kia'i, Amr K or Kar Kia dynasty were a Zaidi Shia dynasty who ruled over Bia pish (eastern Gilan) from 1389 to 1592. They claimed a Sasanian ancestry as
well. Kia'i helped shah Ismail I establish the Safavid Empire and Kia'is later became a vassal state of the Safavid Empire. The Safavid king, Abbas I put an end to
the Kia'i dynasty by dispatching its Army to Gilan in 1592.
List of Rulers of Kia'i Dynasty
Syed Ali Kia'i was the founder and the first ruler of Kia'i Dynasty in Gilan from 1367 until 1389.
Seyed Hadi Kia'i was a ruler of Kia'i Dynasty in Gilan from 1389 until 1395.
Syed Muhammad Mehdi was a ruler of Kia'i Dynasty in Gilan in 1395.
Seyyed Hossein Kia'i was a ruler of Kia'i Dynasty in Gilan from 1395 until 1396.
Seyyed Razi Kia'i (died 1427) was a ruler of Kia'i Dynasty in Gilan from 1386 until his death in 1427.
Seyyed Hossein Kia'i was a ruler of Kia'i Dynasty in Gilan from 1427 until 1430.
Syed Nasir Kia'i was a ruler of Kia'i Dynasty in Gilan from 1430 until 1447.
Syed Hussain was a ruler of Kia'i Dynasty in Gilan in 1430.
Syed Muhammad was a ruler of Kia'i Dynasty in Gilan from 1448 until 1480.
Mirza Ali Kia'i was a ruler of Kia'i Dynasty in Gilan from 1480 until 1506.
Sultan Hassan was a ruler of Kia'i Dynasty in Gilan from 1504 until 1506.
Sultan Ahmed I was a ruler of Kia'i Dynasty in Gilan from 1506 until 1535.
Karkya Ali was a ruler of Kia'i Dynasty in Gilan from 1535 until 1536.
Karkya Hassan II (died 1538) was a ruler of Kia'i Dynasty in Gilan from 1536 until his death in 1538.
Khan Ahmad Khan II Gilani (1537-1596) was the last king of the Kia'i dynasty in Gilan from 1538 until 1592. In 1591, Shah Abbas asked Ahmad's
daughter to marry his son Safi Mirza, since Ahmas had no male successor. Ahmad disagreed due to age of his daughter. This and some other economic factors
caused a Safavid raid in 1591 and Ahmad escaped to Ottoman territories, and spent the rest of his life inConstantinople and Baghdad, spending fruitless attempts
to return to power. He died in 1596 and was buried in Najaf, one of the holiest cities of Shia Islam. Ahmad's father, Hassan II, died in 1538 because of plague.
Ahmad then became king of the Kia'i dynasty.

Afrasiyab dynasty
The Afrasiyab dynasty was a small Iranian Shia dynasty of Mazandaran. It was founded by Kiya Afrasiyab, who conquered the Bavand kingdom in 1349 and
made himself king of the region. In 1504, Ismail I invaded Mazandaran and ended Afrasiab rule of the region.
Known Ruler of Afrasiyab dynasty
Kiya Afrasiyab was the founder of Afrasiyab dynasty who conquered the Bavand kingdom in 1349 and made himself king of the region. In 1504, Ismail
I invaded Mazandaran and ended Afrasiab rule of the region.

Upper Yafa
Upper Yafa or Upper Yafa'i (Arabic: Yfi al-Uly), officially State of Upper Yafa (Arabic: Daulat Yfi al-Uly), was a state in
the British Aden Protectorate and the Protectorate of South Arabia. It was ruled by the Harharah dynastyand its capital was Mahjaba, a small town on a hill
located by road 621, about 50 km northeast of Habilayn. The Yafa'i tribe has traditionally inhabited the mountainous hinterland of the Aden area. In the 19th
century it was formed by two sultanates, Lower and Upper Yafa. Upper Yafa included the five sheikhdoms of Al-Busi, Al-Dhubi, Al-Hadrami, Al-Muflihi,
and Al-Mausatta that were unified by the Harharah dynasty around 1800. A treaty of Protection was signed between the British and the Sultan of Upper Yafa in
1903. The area of Upper Yafa had not been visited by Europeans before Colonel M.C. Lake of the British Indian Army explored it in order to gather
intelligence and to find suitable sites for landing grounds. In 1925 Lake built a small army of tribal warriors that would be able to assist the British Aden
Protectorate in eventual territorial scuffles with the Imam of Yemen. Between 1955 and 1957 there were uprisings against the British authorities in Upper Yafa
that were successfully suppressed.
[5]
Unlike Lower Yafa, in the 1960s Upper Yafa did not join the British-sponsored Federation of South Arabia, forming an
enclave that became a part of the Protectorate of South Arabia. The Upper Yafa Sultanate was abolished in 1967 upon the founding of the People's Republic of
South Yemen. South Yemen united with North Yemen in 1990 to form the Republic of Yemen.
List of Rulers of Upper Yafa
List of Sheikhs of Upper Yafa
`Ali ibn Ahmad ibn Harhara was the Sheikh of Upper Yafa from around 1730 until 1735.
Ahmad ibn `Ali Al Harhara was the Sheikh of Upper Yafa from around 1735 until 1750.
Salih ibn Ahmad Al Harhara was the Sheikh of Upper Yafa from around 1750 until 1780.
`Umar ibn Salih Al Harhara was the Sheikh of Upper Yafa from around 1780 until 1800.
List of Sultans of Upper Yafa
Qahtan ibn `Umar ibn Salih Al Harhara was the Sheikh of Upper Yafa from around 1800 until 1810.
`Umar ibn Qahtan ibn `Umar Al Harhara was the Sultan of Upper Yafa from around 1810 until 1815.
Qahtan ibn `Umar ibn Qahtan Al Harhara was the Sultan of Upper Yafa from around 1815 until 1840.
`Abd Allah ibn Nasir ibn Salih Al Harhara was the Sultan of Upper Yafa from around 1840 until 1866.
al-Husayn ibn Abi Bakr ibn Qahtan Al Harhara was the Sultan of Upper Yafa from around 1866 until 1875.
Muhammad ibn `Ali ibn Salih ibn Ahmad Al Harhara (died April 28, 1895) was the Sultan of Upper Yafa from around 1875 until his death on
April 28, 1895.
Qahtan ibn `Umar ibn al-Husayn Al Harhara was the Sultan of Upper Yafa from 1895 until 1903.
Salih ibn `Umar ibn al-Husayn Al Harhara was the Sultan of Upper Yafa from December 4, 1903 until 1913 and 1919 until 1927.
`Umar ibn Qahtan ibn `Umar Al Harhara was the Sultan of Upper Yafa from 1913 until 1919.
Umar ibn Salih ibn `Umar Al Harhara was the Sultan of Upper Yafa from 1927 until 1948.
Muhammad ibn Salih ibn `Umar Al Harhara was the Sultan of Upper Yafa from 1948 until 1967.

Valluvanad
Valluvanad (Malayalam:) or Arangottu Swaroopam (Velatra, Velnatera, Vellatiri's kingdom, Valluvanad Proper) was an erstwhile late
medieval feudal state in present state of Kerala in South India extending from theBharathapuzha River in the south to the Pandalur Mala in the north during their
zenith in the early Middle Ages. On the west, it was bounded by the Arabian Sea at the port Ponnani and on the east by Attappadi Hills. According to local
legends, the last Later Chera ruler gave a vast extension of land in South Malabar to one of their governors, Valluvakkonithiri and left for a hajj. The
Valluvakkonithiri was also given last Later Chera ruler's shield (presumably to defend himself from the sword received by theSamoothiri (Zamorin)
of Kozhikode, another governor, from the departing ruler). Not surprisingly, the Vellatiri rajas were hereditary enemies of the Samoothiri.
[1]
Valluvanad is famous
for the Mamankam festivals, held once in 12 years and the endless wars against the Samoothiri of Kozhikode. By the late 18th century, Vellatiri or Walluwanad
proper was the sole remaining territory of the Walluvanad raja (Valluva Konatiri), who once exercised suzerain rights over a large portion of Southern Malabar.
Although management of the country was restored to the Vellatiri raja in 1792, it soon became evident that he was powerless to repress the trouble that quickly
broke out between Mapillas (favored by the Mysorean occupiers) and nayars (who sought to restore the ancien rgime), and already in 1793 management of the
district had to be resumed as the chief and his family fled to Travancore. Celebrated poets, Kunchan Nambiar and Poonthanam were born in Valluvanad.
List of known Rulers of Vallunuvad
Rajasekharan was the ruler of Valluwanad state in early 10th century.
Vallabhankumaran was the ruler of Valluwanad state in the first half 10th century. He was son of Rajasekharan, fought Rashtrakuta Ruler Krishna III. The
inscriptions of Tiruvattiyur gives the story of Vallabhankumaran renouncing his worldly life and assuming the ascetic order because he could not help his
friend Rajaditya Chola who died in the battle of Takkolam in this war.

Republic of South Maluku
The Republic of South Maluku (Indonesian: Republik Maluku Selatan, (RMS) Dutch: Republiek der Zuid-Molukken), also known as the Republic of the South
Moluccas, was a self-proclaimed republic in the Maluku Islands founded on April 25, 1950. The main islands were Seram, Ambon, and Buru. The RMS on
Ambon was defeated by Indonesian forces in November 1950, however, armed struggle continued on the island of Seram until December 1963. The defeat on
Ambon resulted in the flight of the self-declared RMS government to the island Seram, and later on the formation of a government in exile in the Netherlands in
1966. When resistance leader Dr. Chris Soumokil was captured by Indonesian forces on Seram and executed in 1966, a president in exile was inaugurated. The
government-in-exile continues to exist, with John Wattilete, a 55-year old lawyer, inaugurated as head of state in April 2010. The Indonesian archipelago consists
of over 15,000 islands. Dutch conquest exerted colonial control across the archipelago in the 19th century establishing a unitary administration. The borders of
present day Indonesia were formed through colonial expansion finalised in the 20th century. After the occupation by the Japanese Empire during WWII ended
in 1945, nationalist leaders on Java unilaterally declared Indonesian independence. Not all regions and peoples of present day Indonesia immediately subscribed
to the proclaimed Unitary State of the Republic of Indonesia. Early organised indigenous resistance to the newly declared Indonesian Republic came from the
South Moluccas with support and aid from the Dutch Government and Military. The South Moluccan contra-revolutionaries initially clung on to an early post-
colonial treaty prescribing a federal form of statehood. When that treaty, agreed between the Dutch government and the Indonesian government in December
1949, was broken they in turn unilaterally declared a fully independent Republic of the South Moluccas (April 1950) hoping to achieve an autonomous state. In
their decision the South Moluccan leaders based themselves on the treaty which stipulated autonomy for each of the states of the federation.
List of Presidents of the Republic of South Moluccas
Johanis Manihutu was the first President of the Republic of South Moluccas from April until May 1950.
Chris Soumokil (October 13, 1905 in Surabaya, East Java, Dutch East Indies April 12, 1966) was the second President of the Republic of
South Moluccas from 1950 until 1963. His father was South Moluccan, and his mother was Indo Eurasian. He studied law at the University of
Leiden. In April 1950 he declared the self-proclaimed Republik Maluku Selatanand served as President until he was arrested by the
Indonesian Army in Ceram on December 2, 1962. Brought to trial before a military tribunal in Jakarta, he was sentenced to death and
executed under President Suharto's rule on April 12, 1966.

Johannes Alvarez Manusama (Banjarmasin, August 17, 1910 Rotterdam, December 29, 1995), a former schoolteacher and
freemason, RMS Minister of Education and Minister of Defense (1950), was the third President of the Republic of South Moluccas
(19661993). His father was South Moluccan, while his mother was Indo Eurasian. After briefly administering the aspirant state in the
territory of the Moluccas, Manusama lived the rest of his life advocating independence and heading a government in exile in
the Netherlands. During his time, he hosted a regular radio show, "Voice of the Moluccas" and entered the Republik Maluku
Selatan into the Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organisation.
Frans Tutuhatunewa (born June 16 or June 26, 1923) was the fourth President of the Republic of South Moluccas from 1993 until 2010. The government-
in-exile continues to exist, with Frans Tutuhatunewa M.D. as head of state (19932010). However does not proclaim any violent action towards either the
Netherlands or Indonesia. The president in exile has said that the young generations should focus on their education and development opportunities in the
Netherlands if they want to potentially support and develop the South Moluccas. He was born in Batavia, Dutch East Indies. He was preceded by Johan
Manusama and succeeded by John Wattilete in 2010.
John Wattilete (born 1955) is the fifth and currently President of the Republic of South Moluccas since 2010. John Wattilete became
RMS president in April 2010. He is the first to come from the second generation of Moluccans in the Netherlands and is regarded as more
pragmatic than previous leaders. However one day before Indonesian President Yudhoyono's planned state visit to the Netherlands, the
first such visit since 1970, Wattilete issued legal proceedings to have him arrested upon entering the country. Although legal experts called
this action senseless and without much chance of success Yudhoyono consequently canceled his visit the next day.


Justanid (Jostanid) Dynasty
The Justanids or Jostanids (Persian: ) were the rulers of part of Daylam (the mountainous district of Gilan) from 791 to the late 11th-century. The
Justanids appear as "Kings of Daylam" at the end of the 8th century. Their centre was in the Rudbar of Alamut, running into the valley of the Shahrood. Two
centuries later, this would become the main centre of the historical Nizari Ismailis or Assassins (Hashshashin) as they are known in the west. They appear in
Islamic history as part of what Vladimir Minorsky has called "the Iranian intermezzo" where indigenous Daylamite and Kurdish principalities take power in north
west Persia after two to three hundred years of Arab rule. The Daylamite upsurge eventually culminated into the Buyid dynasty. After Marzuban ibn Justan
converted to Islam in 805, the ancient family of Justan's became connected to the Zaydi Alids of the Daylam region. The Justanids adopted the Zaydi form of
Shi'ism. In the 10th century, they became eclipsed by the Daylamite dynasty of Sallarids in Tarom (modern Iranian province of Zanjan). Nevertheless, the
Justanids were tied into marriage with the Sallarids and preserved their seat Rudbar in the highlands of Daylam. They also became allies with the Buyids. In the
11th century, they might have recognized the Suzerainty of the Ghaznavids. With the influx of the Seljuqs, they recognized the Suzerainty of the Seljuqs. But
shortly after, they fade away from history.
List of Rulers of Justanid (Jostanid) Dynasty
Justan I (died 805) was a ruler of Justanid (Jostanid) Dynasty from 791 until his death in 805.
Marzuban of Dailam (died 855) was a ruler of Justanid (Jostanid) Dynasty from 805 until his death in 855.
Justan II was a ruler of Justanid (Jostanid) Dynasty from 855 until 856.
Vahsudan of Dailam (died 865) was a ruler of Justanid (Jostanid) Dynasty from 856 until his death in 865.
Khurshid of Dailam was a ruler of Justanid (Jostanid) briefly in 865. He was the son and successor of Vahsudan of Dailam. Right after his accession,
because of his opposition against his Alid overlord, he was deposed by the Alid Hasan ibn Zayd, who then made Khurshid's brother Justan III the new ruler of
the Justanid dynasty.
Justan III (died 919) was a ruler of Justanid (Jostanid) Dynasty from 865 until his death in 919.
Ali of Dailam was a ruler of Justanid (Jostanid) Dynasty in 919.
Khusrau Firuz (died 919) was a ruler of Justanid (Jostanid) Dynasty briefly in 919. He was the brother and successor of Ali of Dailam. Before becoming the
ruler of the Justanids, Khusrau Firuz aided his brother Ali in murdering their brother Justan III. Ali then crowned himself as the new ruler of the Justanids, but
was shortly killed by the Sallarid ruler Muhammad bin Musafir, who was Justan's son-in-law. Khusrau Firuz then succeeded him as the ruler of the Justanids, but
was also killed by Muhammad bin Musafir. Khusrau Firuz was then succeeded by his son Siyahchashm.
Siyahchashm also known by his laqab of Mahdi (919928) was a ruler of Justanid (Jostanid) Dynasty from 919 until his death in 928. He was the son and
successor of Khusrau Firuz. Siyahchashm's father Khusrau Firuz was killed in 919 by the Sallarid ruler Muhammad bin Musafir, who made the Justanids his
vassal. Siyahchashm then succeeded Khusrau Firuz as the new ruler of the Justanids. Siyahchashm was killed in 928 by a Dailamite military commander
named Asfar ibn Shiruya. He was succeeded by Justan IV.
Justan IV (died 947) was a ruler of Justanid (Jostanid) Dynasty from 928 until his death in 947.
Manadhar (died 972) was a ruler of Justanid (Jostanid) Dynasty from 947 until his death in 972.
Khusrau Shah (died 1004) was a ruler of Justanid (Jostanid) Dynasty from 972 until his death in 1004. He was the son and successor of Manadhar. During his
reign, relations between the Buyids flourished; Khusrau Shah aided the Buyid ruler Adud al-Dawla in his campaigns by sending him Dailamite troops. Even
during a period when Khusrau Shah was sick, Adud al-Dawla sent one of his physicians named Jibril ibn Bukhtyishu to treat him. Adud al-Dawla also married
the sister of Khusrau Shah, who bore him Abu'l-Husain Ahmad and Abu Tahir Firuzshah. Khusrau Shah also had a brother named Fuladh ibn Manadhar, who
was a prominent Buyid officer who held much influence in the Buyid court of Baghdad. Khusrau Shah later died ca. in 1004, the name of his successor is not
known, however, dynasty continued to rule in Rudbar until the late 11th-century.

Tangut
The Tangut identified with the state of Western Xia were traditionally thought of as a Qiangic-speaking people who moved to northwestern China sometime
before the 10th century AD. Tangut (Khalkha Mongolian:Tangud) is typically regarded by Chinese scholars to represent the "Qiang" or the "Dangxiang"
(Chinese: ; pinyin: Dngxing). Historically the "Qiang" was a summary term for the multiple ethnic groups, includingTibetans, who lived in northwest
China. After the Xianbei migrated from the northeast to the northwest to found the Tuyhu Kingdom (284670), they were referred to as "Qiang Hu",to whom
the term "Tanghut" also referred. Historical records and recent archeological findings shows the link of Li Yuanhao and the royal family's lineage
with Tuoba Xianbei tribes.
[2]
The name Tangut first appears in the Orkhon Inscriptions of AD 735 and is probably of Altaic origin. In their own language, the
Tanguts called themselves Mi-niah. (Chin. Miyao). The Tanguts divided themselves into two classes: the "Black Headed" Tanguts, and the "Red Faced" Tanguts.
The Red Faced Tanguts comprised the commonality while the Black Headed Tanguts were the elite priestly caste. Although Buddhism was extremely popular
among the Tangut people, many Tangut herdsmen continued to practice an ancient shamanic religion known as "Root West". The black caps worn by Root West
shamans gave the Black Headed caste its name. According to Tangut myth, the ancestor of the Black Headed Tanguts was a heavenly white crane, while the
ancestor of the Red Faced Tanguts was a monkey. Ancient sources describe Tanguts as being short, stocky, dark-skinned, and thick-lipped. They wore their hair
in the Tufa style, shaved bald except for a long fringe of bangs that framed the face. Tangut kings went by the title of Wuzu.
List of known Rulers of Tanguts
T'o-pa Ssu-kung was a ruler of Tangut state in the second half 9th century. Under T'o-pa Ssu-kung they conquered Ch'ang-an (Xian) between 881 and 895
and expanded their reign southward and westward until they reached their original homeland in Tibet and Central Asia.
Li Jiqian (Chinese: ) (9631004) was a ruler of Tangut state from 980s until his death in 1004. He was resisted the Song empire and organized a
rebellion in 984. He created a successful alliance with the Liao empire for military support. Li Jiqian arranged a peace agreement with the Song emperor, but
violated the treaty himself. To avoid costly military campaigns, Emperor Zhenzong of the Song dynasty granted Li Jiqian the jiedushi position over Dingnan, and
recognized Li Jiqian's new empire of Xia. He supported the construction of irrigation canals that were crucial for the development ofagriculture in the arid areas
of Xia, especially around the capital Xingqing (modern Yinchuan ). Li Jiqian was father of Li Deming (Chinese: ), and grandfather of Li
Yuanhao (Chinese: ), the first emperor of the Western Xia Empire, and so was posthumously recognized as 'grand ancestor' (taizu ) of the Western
Xia royal family.
Li Deming (Chinese: ) (9811032) was a ruler of Tangut state from 1004 until his death in 1032. He was the eldest son of Li Jiqian, the founder of
the Western Xia dynasty. When his father died in battle in 1004, Li Deming became leader of the Tangut people, and over the next twenty years he considerably
expanded the territory controlled by the Tanguts. In 1028 he named his son Li Yuanhao as crown prince. Li Deming was a ruler of Tangut People Since the
Tangut's founding father, Li Deming, was not a very conservative ruler, the Tangut people began to absorb more and more of the Chinese culture that
surrounded them, but never lost their actual identity, as is proven by the vast amount of literature which survived the Tangut state itself. Li Deming's more
conservative son, Li Yuanhao, () sought to restore and strengthen the Tangut people's identity by ordering the creation of an official Tangut script and by
instituting laws that reinforced traditional cultural customs. He died of natural causes in 1032, and was posthumously recognized as 'grand ancestor' (taizong )
of the Western Xia royal family.

Pratapgarh
Pratapgarh (formerly Partabgarh) was a princely state of Oudh, India. The Pratapgarh state originally from Taroul or Tiraul. The ancestor of the royal family was
Babu Sujan Shah, son of Raja Sangram Shah of Taroul. the member of Pratapgarh state were Talukdars. Babu Pratap Singh, ruled as first Babu of Pratapgarh
state between 1628 to 1682. He fixed his headquarter at Rampur near old town Aror. There Babu Pratap Singh built a fort (garh), which later city named after
himself as Pratapgarh.Presently, Pratapgarh district consist some other princely state rather than Pratapgarh state, which are as follow,
List of Rulers of Pratapgarh
Pratap Singh (died 1682) was a ruler of Pratapgarh the princely state in India from 1628 until his death in 1682.
Chhatradari Singh was a ruler of Pratapgarh the princely state in India around 1722.
Abhiman Singh (died 1800) was a ruler of Pratapgarh the princely state in India in the second half 18th century.
Gulab Singh was a ruler of Pratapgarh the princely state in India around 1857.
Ajit Singh (died 1889) was a ruler of Pratapgarh the princely state in India from 1877 until his death in 1889.
Pratap Bahadur Singh (died 1921) was a ruler of Pratapgarh the princely state in India from 1889 until his death in 1921.
Ajit Pratap Singh was a ruler of Pratapgarh the princely state in India from 1921 until 1947.

Bhadri
Bhadri was a princely state near Kunda of Pratapgarh in India.
List of Rulers of Bhadri
Jit Singh was a ruler of Bhadri the princely state in India around 1748.
Daljit Singh was a ruler of Bhadri the princely state in India around 1798.
Zalim Singh was a ruler of Bhadri the princely state in India around 1833.
Bishnath Singh was a ruler of Bhadri the princely state in India around middle 19th century.
Jagat Bahadur Singh (died 1878) was a ruler of Bhadri the princely state in India in the second half 19th century.
Sarabjit Singh was a ruler of Bhadri the princely state in India in 1879.
Bajrang Bahadur Singh was a ruler of Bhadri the princely state from 1926 until 1947.

Kalakankar
Kalakankar is a village and former princely state of Pratapgarh district of Indian state Uttar Pradesh. Many personalities including Indira Gandhi, Pandit Madan
Mohan Malviya, Lal Pratap Singh, Sumitranandan Pant, Brajesh Singh,Svetlana Alliluyeva, Dinesh Singh were associated with Kalakankar.
List of Rulers of Kalakankar
Tej Singh was a ruler of Kalakankar the princely state in India around 1628.
Bairi Sal was a ruler of Kalakankar the princely state in India in 18th century.
Hanumant Singh (died 1885) was a ruler of Kalakankar the princely state in India from 1826 until his death in 1885.
Rampal Singh (died 1909) was a ruler of Kalakankar the princely state from 1885 until his death in 1909.
Ramesh Singh (died 1930) was a ruler of Kalakankar the princely state in India from 1909 until his death in 1930.
Audhesh Singh (died 1933) was a ruler of Kalakankar the princely state in India from 1930 until his death in 1933.
Dinesh Singh was a ruler of Kalakankar the princely state in India from 1933 until 1947.

Kingdom of Awsn
The ancient Kingdom of Awsn in South Arabia (modern Yemen), with a capital at ajar Yairr in Wd Markhah, to the south of Wd Bayn, is now
marked by a tell or artificial mound, which is locally named ajar Asfal. Once it was one of the most important small kingdoms of South Arabia. The city seems
to have been destroyed in the 7th century BCE by the king and mukarrib of Saba' Karib'il Watar, according to a Sabaean text that reports the victory in terms that
attest to its significance for the Sabaeans. First impressions in the mid-1990s, based on ceramics found by M. Saad Ayoub at the unexcavated site, date a
resurgence of the city to the end of the 2nd century BCE lasting until the beginning of the 1st century CE (which corresponds quite well to the epigraphic data
attesting the only deified South Arabian king that was just the king of Awsn precisely around this time). About 160,000 m were encircled by walls, and the
foundations of dwellings built of fired brick have been noted. Culture depended on annual flood irrigation in spring and summer, when flash floods down the
wadis temporarily flooded the fields, leaving light silt that has since been wind-eroded, revealing the ancient patterns of fields and ditches. Radiocarbon dating of
irrigation sediments in the environs suggest that essential irrigation was abandoned in the first half of the 1st century CE, and the population dispersed. This time
the site was never rebuilt. ajar Yairr was the center of an exceptionally large city for South Arabia, influenced by Hellenistic culture, with temples and a palace
structure surrounded by mudbrick dwellings, with a probable site for a souq or market and a caravanserai serving camel caravans. One of its kings at this period
was the only Yemeni ruler to be accorded divine honours; his surviving portrait statuette is dressed in Greek fashion, contrasting with those of his predecessors
who are dressed in Arabian style, with kilt and shawl. There are Awsn inscriptions, in the Qatabnian language. The siting of ajar Yairr is consistent with
other capitals of petty kingdoms, at the mouths of large wds: Ma`n in the Wd al-Jawf, Ma'rib in Wd Dana, Timnah in Wd Bayhn, and Shabwah in
Wd 'Irmah.
The First Dynasty
'Amkarib was the King of Awsn Kingdom in 8th century BC.
krl Lyn was the King of Awsn Kingdom around 700.
Martawum was the King of Awsn Kingdom in 7th century BC.
The Second Dynasty
Ilsharah I was the King of Awsn Kingdom in 1th century BC.
Zaihaman was the King of Awsn Kingdom in 1th century BC.
Ma'adil I was the King of Awsn Kingdom from end 1th century BC until early 1th century AD.
Yasduqil Fari'um I was the King of Awsn Kingdom in the first half 1th century AD.
Ma'adil II Salhan ibn Yasduqil Fari'um was the King of Awsn Kingdom in the first half 1th century AD.
Yasduqil Fari'um II Sharahat ibn Ma'adil Salhan was the King of Awsn Kingdom in the second half 1th century BC.
Ammiyitha Ghaylan Gashmu was the King of Awsn Kingdom in the second half 1th century BC.

Ay Kingdom
Ay dynasty (Aioi dynasty) ruled parts of southern India from the early Sangam age to the 10th century AD. At their zenith, the dynasty ruled an area extended
from Tiruvalla in the north to Nagercoil in the south including the naturally rich Western Ghats in the east. Ays were a prominent political power in the region
before the Cheras established themselves. Greek geographer Claudius Ptolemy (2nd century AD) founds the Ay kingdom extending from River Baris
(Pamba) to Kanyakumari. The former south Travancore (Nanjanad) was also included in the Ay kingdom. According to Purananuru, the capital was at Aykudi,
Podiyil Malai (near Shenkottai) and later they established administrative capital at Vizhinjam. Elephant was the royal emblem of the Ay rulers. After 10th century,
the state of Venad overpowered the Ays in southern Kerala and south-western Tamil Nadu. The origin of the Ays is still shrouded in mystery. Though some
records such as the Paliyam Copper Plates of Vikramaditya Varaguna points towards an exaggerated Aryan origin from Yadavas, its generally agreed that the Ays
were a native Dravidian clan in South India.One of the noted ruler of Ay Dynasty was Vikramadithya Varagunan,he was also known as "Kerala Asokan" and is
considered as the founder of Kanthalloor sala.
List of known Kings of Ay Kingdom
Ay Antiran was a King of Ay Kingdom. Ay Antiran is mentioned in thePurananuru as the lord of Podiyil Malaya in southern Western Ghats. He is said have
defeated the Kongu rulers and pursued them to the Arabian sea. He was an elder contemporary of the Chera royal Antuvan Cheral. It is a possibility that during
the time of Antiran the Ays were more powerful than the Cheras. He practiced polygamy and all his wives committed ritual suicide on his death.
Titiyan was a King of Ay Kingdom. He was contemporary of Pandya ruler Bhutapandya, poet Kapilar and Parnar. An understanding seems have been reached
between the Pandyas and Ays during this period.
Atiyan was a King of Ay Kingdom. Pandya ruler Pasumpun Azhakia Pandya invaded the Ay kingdom and subjugated Atiyan. The successors of Atiyan are
known to have fought against the Pandya supremacy. He was contemporary of Pandya ruler Bhutapandya, poet Kapilar and Parnar.
Sadayan was a King of Ay Kingdom in the second half 8th century until 788.
Karunandan was a King of Ay Kingdom from 788 until 857. During this time the Pandyas under Jatilavarman Parantaka invaded and defeated the Ays
multiple times. According to the Kazhugumalai inscription, he led a successful expedition against Karunadan and destroyed Fort Ariviyur. He also annexed the
then Ay capital Vizhinjam. But, the Ay ruler fought vigorously for more than ten years in the outskirts of Vizhinjam.
Karunandadakkan (died 885) was a King of Ay Kingdom from 857 until his death in 885. Karunandadakkan ruled with his capital at Vizhinjam. He is
perhaps the founder of the famous Kandalur Salai. He addressed himself to the arts of peace and took much interest in the promotion of education and learning.
His son Vikramaditya Varaguna succeeded him.
Vikramaditya Varaguna (died 925) was a King of Ay Kingdom from 885 until his death in 925. He was succeeded his father Karunandadakkan. He helped
Pandyas in their fight against the newly arose political power in south India, the Cholas. After the death of Vikramaditya Varaguna the glory of the Ays departed
and lost their territories to neighbouring powers such as the Cheras. By the 10th century, Kandalur and Vizhinjam became Chera strongholds. A branch of the
Ay family, which had been controlling the temple of Sri Padmanabha, later merged with the ruling house of Venad (c. 1100 AD).



State of Ba
Ba (Chinese: ; pinyin: B; literally "a pictograph for 'snake', linguistically meaning "cling" and "handle"") was an ancient statein eastern Sichuan, China. Its
original capital was Yicheng (Enshi City), Hubei. Ba was conquered by Qin in 316 BC. The modern ethnic minority Tujia people trace some of their origins back
to the Ba people. Ba, often described as a loose confederation or a collection of chiefdoms, consisted of several loosely-affiliated independent clans who
recognised a king. The Ba clans were highly diverse, being composed of multiple ethnicities. Archaeological evidence shows that the Ba people relied primarily
on fishing and hunting, with low levels of agriculture and no evidence of irrigation.
Known Ruler of State of Ba
Lin Jun (, or Lord Lin) was the founder of ancient state of Ba in China. According to Hou Hanshu, the founder of the state of Ba was Lin Jun (, or
Lord Lin). In this account, there were originally 5 clans, the Ba, the Fan (), the Shen (), the Xiang (), and the Zheng (), and they organized a contest to
determine who would be the chief: The clans did not yet have a leader, but simply worshiped the ghosts and spirits, and so they made a pact: whosoever could
throw a dagger and have it lodge in a particular stone crevice high up a cliff would be chief. Of all the competitors, only a son of the Ba Clan, Wuxiang, was able
to achieve the target, and when he did so all present sighed with admiration. Again they made a competition, giving each competitor a rustic boat and swearing,
"he who keeps himself afloat [on these rough waters] shall be chief!" Again Wuxiang prevailed, while all the other boats sank. So they made him chief, calling him
Lord Lin. Hou Hansh. Lin Jun led the people to settle in Yicheng in present day southwestern Hubei near Sichuan.

State of Chen
Chen (, Bronze script: ) was a Zhou Dynasty vassal state of ancient China. Its capital was in present-day Huaiyang County in the plains of
eastern Henan province. According to tradition, the royal family of Chen were descendants of the mythical Emperor Shun. After the conquest of the Shang
Dynasty around 1046 BC, King Wu of Zhou sought out the potter Gui Man (/), a descendant of Shun, and gave him the fief of Chen as Duke Hu of
Chen (/). Chen later became a satellite state of Chu, fighting as an ally of Chu at the Battle of Chengpu. It was finally annexed by Chu in 479 BC.
Many people of Chen then took the name of their former country as their family name, and account for the majority of Chinese people with the family
name Chen today. After the destruction of the old Chu capital at Ying, Chen became the Chu capital for a period.
List of Rulers (Dukes) of the state of Chen
Gui Man (), Chen Hugong (, died 986 BC) was a ruler of Chen, ancient state in China. He was ruled from 1045 BC until his death in 986 BC.
The dynastic founder, Duke Hu of Chen (), also called Man, Duke of Chen (), is said to have been a descendant of the mythical emperor Shun
(). His surname was Gui (), and his family had been enfeoffed for generations with the territory, a custom that was perpetuated by King Wu of Zhou
() (11th century BC), the founder of the Zhou dynasty.
Gui Xihou (), Chen Shengong (, died 961 BC) was a ruler of Chen, ancient state in China. He was ruled from 985 BC until his death in 961
BC.
Gui Gaoyang (), Chen Xianggong (, died 939 BC) was a ruler of Chen, ancient state in China. He was ruled from 960 BC until his death in
939 BC.
Gui Tu (), Chen Xiaogong (, died 905 BC) was a ruler of Chen, ancient state in China. He was ruled from 938 BC until his death in 905 BC.
Gui Yurong (), Chen Shengong (, died 855 BC) was a ruler of Chen, ancient state in China. He was ruled from 904 BC until his death in 855
BC.
Gui Ning (), Chen Yougong (, died 832 BC) was a ruler of Chen, ancient state in China. He was ruled from 854 BC until his death in 832 BC.
Gui Xiao (), Chen Xigong ( or , died 796 BC) was a ruler of Chen, ancient state in China. He was ruled from 931 BC until his death in 796
BC.
Gui Ling (), Chen Wugong (, died 781 BC) was a ruler of Chen, ancient state in China. He was ruled from 795 BC until his death in 781 BC.
Gui Yue (), Chen Yigong (, died 778 BC) was a ruler of Chen, ancient state in China. He was ruled from 780 BC until his death in 778 BC.
Gui Xie (), Chen Pinggong (, died 755 BC) was a ruler of Chen, ancient state in China. He was ruled from 777 BC until his death in 755 BC.
Gui Yu (), Chen Wengong (, died 745 BC) was a ruler of Chen, ancient state in China. He was ruled from 754 BC until his death in 745 BC.
Gui Bao (), Chen Huangong (, died 707 BC) was a ruler of Chen, ancient state in China. He was ruled from 744 BC until his death in 707
BC.
Chen Tuo (, died 706 BC) was a ruler of Chen, ancient state in China. He was ruled from 707 BC until his death in 706 BC.
Gui Yao (), Chen Ligong (, died 700 BC) was a ruler of Chen, ancient state in China. He was ruled from 706 BC until his death in 700 BC.
Gui Lin (),Chen Zhuangong (, died 693 BC) was a ruler of Chen, ancient state in China. He was ruled from 699 BC until his death in 693 BC.
Gui Chujiu (), Chen Xuangong (, died 648 BC) was a ruler of Chen, ancient state in China. He was ruled from 692 BC until his death in 648
BC.
Gui Kuan (), Chen Mugong (, died 632 BC) was a ruler of Chen, ancient state in China. He was ruled from 647 BC until his death in 632 BC.
Gui Shuo (), Chen Gonggong (, died 614 BC) was a ruler of Chen, ancient state in China. He was ruled from 631 BC until his death in 614 BC.
Gui Pingguo (), Chen Linggong (, 599 BC) was a ruler of Chen, ancient state in China. He was ruled from 613 BC until his death in 599 BC.
The reign of Duke Ling () initiated the downfall of the house of Chen. Chen was attacked by the powerful state of Chu () in the south. At the court, the
Duke played licentious games with Madame Xia (), the wife of Lord Yushu (), and the nobles Kong Ning () and Yi Xingfu (). Xie Ye
(), a remonstrating minister, was assassinted by the two nobles. During a banquet, the Duke insulted Xia Zhengshu (), Lady Xia's son, by asking
whom of he nobles he resembled (suggesting that Zhengshu's father was not Lord Yushu, but the Duke, Kong or Yi). Zhengshu thereupon laid down in ambush
and shot the Duke with a crossbow. The heir apparent, Prince Wu (), fled to Jin (), accompanied by the two nobles to Chu, and Zhengshu made himself
duke of Chen. He is traditionally called Marquis of Chen (), not Duke, because he was killed in a battle with Chu and was not venerated in the ancestral
temple. Although the king of Chu had promised the nobles of Chen to punish Zhengshu only, he tried occupying Chen and integrating it into the territory of
Chu, but he was stopped by one of his ministers, Shen Shu ().
Zheng Shu (, died 599 BC) was a ruler of Chen, ancient state in China. He was ruled in 599 BC.
Gui Wu (), Chen Chenggong (, died 569 BC) was a ruler of Chen, ancient state in China. He was ruled from 598 until his death in 569 BC.
Gui Ni (), Chen Aigong (, died 534 BC) was a ruler of Chen, ancient state in China. He was ruled from 568 BC until his death in 534 BC. He had
several sons from different mothers. His most beloved son was Prince Liu , who was given into custody with Prince Zhao (also called Situ Zhao
because he was Minister of Education, situ ), the Duke's brother. When the Duke fell seriously ill, Situ Zhao killed Prince Dao and had the Duke
arrested. In this precarious situation, Duke Aigong hanged himself.
Chen Liu (, ) was a ruler of Chen, ancient state in China. He was ruled in 533 BC. King Ling of Chu () (r. 540-529) took the chance to attack
Chen. Prince Liu fled to Zheng (0), and Chen was conquered by Chu.
Feng Xu () was a ruler of Chen, ancient state in China. He was ruled from 533 BC until 529 BC.
Gui Wu (), Chen Huigong (, died 506 BC) was a ruler of Chen, ancient state in China. He was ruled from 533 BC until his death in 506 BC. In
the annals, his rule was projected back to bridge the five years of interregnum.
Gui Liu (), Chen Huaigong (, died 502 BC) was a ruler of Chen, ancient state in China. He was ruled from 506 BC until his death in 502 BC.
Under the reign of Duke Huaigong (), thestate of Wu () conquered Chu. King Fucha () (r. 495-473) invited all lords of the smaller states to
congratulate, but Duke Huai refused for fear that Chu might recover later and punish him. Shortly after, King Fucha cited him again to his court, and this time
Duke Huaigong did not decline and traveled to Wu, where he was arrested. He died in confinement in Wu. Confucius dwelled in Chen during that sad
period, and was a witness to the downfall of the house of Chen.
Gui Yue (), Chen Mingong (, died 469 BC) was a ruler of Chen, ancient state in China. He was ruled from 502 BC until his death in 469 BC.

Bilaspur
Bilaspur was former state on present Bilaspur District in the Indian state of Chhattisgarh, situated 111 km (69 mi) north of the state capital, Raipur.
List of Rulers of Bilaspur
Kahal Chand was founder of Bilaspur in the late half 7th century and early 8th century. The state was founded around 697 by Kahal Chand. Kahal Chand
had built a fort, which was named after him, and was called Kahlur Fort.
Kahn Chand was a ruler of Bilaspur in the early 12th century. He was conquered Hindur, which he created as a separate realm for his second son Ajit Chand.
Ajit Chand was a ruler of Bilaspur in the first half 12th century. He was son of Khan Chand.
Udai Chand was a ruler of Bilaspur from 1133 until 1143.
Sangar Chand was a ruler of Bilaspur from 1197 until 1220.
Megh Chand was a ruler of Bilaspur from 1220 until 1251.
Abhaisand Chand was a ruler of Bilaspur from 1302 until 1317.
Ratan Chand was a ruler of Bulaspur from 1355 until 1406.
Gyan Chand was a ruler of Bilaspur in the second half 16th century.
Bikram Chand was a ruler of Bilaspur in late 16th century and early 17th century.
Sultan Chand was a ruler of Bilaspur in the first half 17th century.
Kalyan Chand was a ruler of Bilaspur in the first half 17th century.
Tara Chand was a ruler of Bilaspur from 1636 or 1645 until his death in 1653.
Dip Chand (died 1665) was Raja of Kahlur from 1653 until his death in 1665, caused by poisoning by agents of the Raja of Kangra. Chand was closely allied
with Shah Jahan who made Dip Chand the suzerein of 22 states in his region. Chand's first wife was Rani Kunkam Devi of Kullu but he was succeeded byBhim
Chand who was a son of his second wife, Rani Jalal Devi of Mandi.

Rajahnate of Cebu
Rajahnate of Cebu (Cebuan: Karadyahan sa Sugbo; Malay: Kerajaan Sugbo) was a historical Philippine state on the island of Cebu prior to the arrival of
the Spaniards. It was founded by Sri Lumay or Rajamuda Lumaya, a minor prince of the Chola dynasty which occupied Sumatra. He was sent by
the maharajah to establish a base for expeditionary forces but he rebelled and established his own independent rajahnate. Sri Lumay was the founder of
Rajahnate of Cebu around 1450. According to Visayan folklore, Sri Lumay, was a Half-Malay & Half Tamil from Sumatra, who settled in the Visayas, and had
several sons. One of his son was Sri Alho, who ruled a land known as Sialo which included the present-day towns of Carcar and Santander in the southern region
of Cebu. Sri Ukob ruled a kingdom known as Nahalin in the north which included the present-day towns of Consolacin, Liloan, Compostela, Danao, Carmen
and Bantayan. He died in battle, fighting with the Moro piratesknown as magalos (literally "destroyers of peace") from Mindanao. The islands they were in were
collectively known as Pulua Kang Dayang or Kangdaya (literally "[the islands] which belong to Daya"). Sri Lumay was noted for his strict policies in defending
against Moro raiders and slavers from Mindanao. His use of scorched earth tactics to repel invaders gave rise to the name Kang Sri Lumayng Sugbo (literally "that
of Sri Lumay's great fire") to the town, which was later shortened to Sugbo ("scorched earth").
List of Rulers of Rajahnate of Cebu
Sri Lumay was succeeded by the youngest of his sons, Sri Bantug, who ruled from a region known as Singhapala, which is now Mabolo of Cebu City. He died
of disease. Sri Bantug had a brother called Sri Parang who was originally slated to succeed Sri Bantug. But he was a cripple and could not govern his kingdom
because of his infirmity. Parang handed his throne to Sri Bantug's son and his nephew, Sri Humabon (also spelled Sri Hamabar), who became the Rajah of Cebu
in his stead.
Sri Alho was a ruler of land known as Sialo which included the present-day towns of Carcar and Santander in the southern region of Cebu in the second half
15th century. He was son of Sri Lumay founder of Rajahnate of Cebu.
Sri Ukob was a ruler of kingdom known as Nahalin in the north which included the present-day towns of Consolacin, Liloan, Compostela, Danao, Carmen
and Bantayan in the second half 15th century. He died in battle, fighting with the Moro piratesknown as magalos (literally "destroyers of peace") from Mindanao.
He was son of Sri Lumay founder of Rajahnate of Cebu.
Sri Bantug was a ruler of region known as Singhapala, which is now Mabolo of Cebu City in the second half 15th century. He died of disease. Sri Bantug had a
brother called Sri Parang who was originally slated to succeed Sri Bantug. But he was a cripple and could not govern his kingdom because of his infirmity. Parang
handed his throne to Sri Bantug's son and his nephew, Sri Humabon (also spelled Sri Hamabar), who became the Rajah of Cebu in his stead.
Sri Parang was a ruler of Rajahnate of Cebu in the second half 15th century. He was originally slated to succeed his brother Sri Bantug. But he was a cripple
and could not govern his kingdom because of his infirmity. Parang handed his throne to Sri Bantug's son and his nephew, Sri Humabon (also spelled Sri
Hamabar), who became the Rajah of Cebu in his stead.

Kingdom of Namayan
The Kingdom of Namayan (also called the Kingdom of Sapa, Maysapan or Nasapan, and sometimes Lamayan - both references to its capital) was one of three
major kingdoms that dominated the banks of the Pasig River and the coast ofLaguna de Bay in the Philippines prior to the Spanish conquest in the 16th century.
Namayan is said to be the oldest of the three kingdoms, predating the kingdoms of Tondo and Maynila. Formed by a confederation of barangays, it is said to
have achieved its peak in 1175. Much of what is known about precolonial Namayan is based on "Estado Geogrfico, Topogrfico, Estadstico, Histrico-Religioso
de la Santa y Apostlica Provncia de San Gregorio Magno", published in 1865 by Franciscan scholar Fr. Felix de Huerta. His description of Namayan included
important details such as the extent of Namayan's territories, and the lineage of its rulers.
List of Rulers of Namayan Kingdom
Lakan Tagkan (also spelt Lacatagcan, Takhan) was a ruler of the Kingdom of Namayan jointly with his wife Lady Buan. Historian Fr. Huerta also recorded
the history of Namayan's rulers. It had been ruled from Sapa by Lakan Tagkan (also spelt Lacatagcan, Takhan), and Lady Buan. Their known issue was five
individuals of whom the principal was named Palaba. Palaba sired a son named Laboy who, in turn, had a son named Calamayin whose own son was
christened Martn when he converted to Catholicism.
Lady Buan was a ruler of Kingdom the Kingdom of Namayan jointly with her husband Lakan Tagkan (also spelt Lacatagcan, Takhan). Historian Fr. Huerta
also recorded the history of Namayan's rulers. It had been ruled from Sapa by Lakan Tagkan (also spelt Lacatagcan, Takhan), and Lady Buan. Their known
issue was five individuals of whom the principal was named Palaba. Palaba sired a son named Laboy who, in turn, had a son named Calamayin whose own son
was christened Martn when he converted to Catholicism.
Pasay was a ruler of Kingdom the Kingdom of Namayan. He was son of Lakan Tagkan (also spelt Lacatagcan, Takhan) and his Bornean slave-wife. The child,
named Pasay, inherited the territory known today the barangays of Pio del Pilar and Bangkl (formerly known as Barrio Culi-culi), Baclaran, and the modern
city which still bears the name of this individual. There is, however, some disagreement as to whether Pasay was a son or daughter, with some legends bestowing
the title "Dayang-dayang ("princess") on Pasay.
Palaba was a ruler of Kingdom the Kingdom of Namayan.
Laboy was a ruler of Kingdom the Kingdom of Namayan.
Calamayin was a ruler of Kingdom the Kingdom of Namayan.
Martin was a ruler of Kingdom the Kingdom of Namayan.

Kingdom of Maynila
The Kingdom of Maynila (Tagalog:Maynila Old Malay: Kota Seludong, Jawi script: ), was one of three major city-states that dominated the area by
the lower reaches and mouth of the Pasig River before the arrival of Spanish colonizers in the 16th century. It is the site of present-day Manila, the capital of
the Republic of the Philippines. Early records claim that Maynila was named after the Yamstick Mangrove (Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea, whose local name was
"nila" or "nilad", by the time the Spanish colonizers arrived in the late 16th century. The name "maynila" itself transliterates as "There is nila (here)", and an
alternate name for the place is "maynilad."
List of Rulers of the Kingdom of Maynila
Rajah Ache of Maynila, better known by his title Rajah Matanda, (14801572) was a 16th-century king of the Kingdom of Maynila, a Tagalog kingdom on
the region of the Pasig River in the Philippines. He is also sometimes referred to as Rajah Laya,
[1]
a name derived from Ladyang Matanda - an alternate
pronunciation of his title. Together with Rajah Sulayman and Lakan Dula, he was one of three kings in Manila, who fought the Spaniards during the colonization
of the Philippines. "Rajah Matand" means "old king" in Tagalog, while the Spaniards called him "Rajah Ache el Viejo" (King Ache the Old). When the Spanish
explorer Martn de Goiti arrived in 1570, he had already ceded his authority to his nephew and heir, Rajah Sulaiman III, but still had considerable influence, as
did his brother Lakan Dula, who was king of the neighboring Kingdom of Tondo across the river. In August 1572, Rajah Matanda fell ill and was baptised upon
request. In the same year, he succumbed to his illness.
Rajah Sulayman (15581575, derived from Arabic: ) was the Muslim Rajah of Maynila, a kingdom at the mouth of the Pasig River where it
meets Manila Bay, at the time the Spanish forces first came to Luzon, reigned from 1571 until his death in 1575. Sulayman resisted the Spanish forces, and thus,
along with Rajah Matanda and Lakan Dula, was one of three Rajahs who played significant roles in the drama that was the Spanish conquest of the kingdoms of
the Pasig River delta in the early 1570s. Spanish documents say his people called him "Rajah Mura" or "Rajah Muda" (a Sanskrit title for a Prince). The Spanish
transcription of "Rajah Mura" is Young Rajah, a reference to the fact that he was Rajah Matanda's nephew and heir to the throne. The Spaniards called him "Rajah
Solimano el Mow". Spanish explorer Miguel Lpez de Legazpi, searching for a suitable place to establish his capital after being compelled to move
from Cebu to Panay by Portuguese pirates and hearing of the existence of a prosperous kingdom in Luzon, sent an expedition under Martn de Goiti and Juan de
Salcedo to explore its location and potentials. Goiti anchored at Cavite and established his authority peaceably by sending a message of friendship to various
nations in Manila. Rajah Sulayman, who had been ceded authority over their settlements by his aging uncle Rajah Matanda, was willing to accept the friendship
that the Spaniards were offering, but did not want to submit its sovereignty unto them, and waged war against them due to disputes and hostility. As a result, Goiti
and his army attacked the Muslim nations on June 1570 and occupied the villages before returning to Panay. When Lpez de Legazpi died in 1572, his
successor, Governor-General Guido de Lavezaris, did not honor the agreements with Rajah Sulaiman III and Lakan Dula. He sequestered the properties of the
two kings and tolerated Spanish atrocities. In response, Rajah Sulaiman III and Lakan Dula led a revolt in the villages of Navotas in 1574, taking advantage of the
confusion brought about by the attacks of Chinese pirate Limahong. This is often referred to as the "Manila revolt of 1574" but is sometimes referred to as the
"Sulaiman revolt" and the "Lakan Dula revolt." Since it involved naval forces, the Sulayman Revolt is also known as the "First Battle of Manila Bay". Friar
Geronimo Maran and Juan de Salcedo were tasked with pursuing conciliatory talks with various nations. Lakan Dula and Rajah Sulaiman III agreed on Salcedo's
peace treaty and an alliance were formed between the two groups. Rajah Sulayman died in the Battle of Bangkusay defending Manila from the Spanish invasion.
Some controversy exists about the identity of the leader of the Macabebe people that initiated the Battle of Bangkusay in 1571. That chieftain, is referred to by
Philippine historians as Tarik Sulayman. In some versions of the Battle of Bangkusay, Tarik Sulayman of Macabebe and Rajah Sulaiman III of Manila are the
same person. Other versions contend that they are different people with the same name. Some have even suggested that the two men were related. Spanish
documents do not identify the leader of the Macabebe people by name, but record that he died during the Battle of Bangkusay, resulting in a Macabebe retreat
and a Spanish victory, in 1571. Rajah Sulaiman III of Manila is clearly recorded as participating in the battle in 1574.

Republic of Katagalugan
Republic of Katagalugan is a term used to refer to two revolutionary bodies involved in the Philippine Revolution against Spain and thePhilippineAmerican
War. Both were connected to the Katipunan revolutionary movement. The term Tagalog refers to both an ethno-linguistic group in the Philippines and
their language. Katagalugan may refer to the historical Tagalog regions in the island of Luzon, part of the Philippine islands. In this respect, Katagalugan may be
translated as the "Tagalog nation." Andrs Bonifacio, a founding member of the Katipunan and later its supreme head (Supremo), promoted the use
of Katagalugan for the Philippine nation. The term "Filipino" was then reserved for Spaniards born in the islands. By eschewing "Filipino" and "Filipinas" which
had colonial roots, Bonifacio and his cohorts "sought to form a national identity."
President of the Republic of Katagalugan
Andrs Bonifacio y de Castro (November 30, 1863 - May 10, 1897) was the President (Unofficial) of the Philippines (Tagalog
Republic) from August 24, 1896 until March 22, 1897 or until his death on May 10, 1897. He was a Filipino nationalist and
revolutionary. He is often called "the father of the Philippine Revolution". He was a founder and later Supremo ("supreme leader") of
the Katipunan movement which sought the independence of the Philippines from Spanish colonial rule and started the Philippine
Revolution. He is considered a de factonational hero of the Philippines, and is also considered by some Filipino historians to be the
first President, but officially he is not recognized as such. Bonifacio was born in Tondo, Manila, the son of Santiago Bonifacio
of Taguig and Catalina de Castro, a native of Cabangan, Zambales. He was the eldest of six children. His siblings were Ciriaco,
Procopio, Troadio, Esperidiona and Maxima. His father was a tailor who served as a teniente mayor of Tondo, Manila, while his
mother was a mestiza born of a Spanish father and a Filipino-Chinese mother who was a supervisor at a cigarette factory. As was
custom, upon baptism he was named for the saint on whose feast he was born,Andrew the Apostle. Bonifacio learned his alphabet
through his mother's sister and he was first enrolled in a private school of one Guillermo Osmea where he learned Latin and
mathematics though his normal schooling was cut short when he dropped out at about fourteen years old to support his siblings after
both of their parents died of illness one year apart. Bonifacio was blessed with good hands in craftsmanship and visual arts that he made
canes and paper fans, which he and his young siblings sold, and he made posters for business firms. This became their thriving family business that continued on
when the men of the family, Andres, Ciriaco, Procopio and Troadio, became employed with private and government companies which provided them decent
living condition. In his late teens, he worked as a mandatorio for the British trading firm Fleming and Company, where he rose to become a corregidor of
tar, rattan and other goods. He later transferred to Fressell and Company, a German trading firm, where he worked as a bodeguero(storehouse keeper) where he
is responsible for warehouse inventory. Bonifacio also founded a theater company with his friends,Macario Sakay and Aurelio Tolentino, where he was also a
part-time actor performing in moro-moro plays. Not finishing his normal education, Bonifacio enriched his natural intelligence with self-education. He read
books about the French Revolution, biographies of the Presidents of the United States, books about contemporary Philippine penal and civil codes, and novels
such as Victor Hugo's Les Misrables, Eugne Sue's Le Juif errant and Jos Rizal's Noli Me Tngere and El Filibusterismo. Aside from Tagalog and Spanish, he
could speak and understand a little English, which he learned while working at J.M. Fleming and Co. Bonifacio was married twice: first to a certain Monica (of
Palomar). She was Bonifacio's neighbor in Tondo. Monica died of leprosy and they had no recorded children. In 1892 Bonifacio, a 28-year old widower, met the
18-years old Gregoria de Jess, through his friend Teodoro Plata who was her cousin. Gregoria, also called Oriang, was the daughter of a prominent citizen and
landowner from Kalookan. Gregoria's parents did not agree at first to their relationship as Andres was a freemason and freemasons then was believed to be
enemy of and against the catholic church. Her parents eventually gave in and Andres and Gregoria were married through a catholic ceremony in Binondo
Church on March 1893 or 1894. The couple also were married through Katipunan rites in a friend's house in Sta. Cruz, Manila on the same day of their church
wedding. They had one son named Andrs, born on early 1896, who died of smallpox in infancy In 1892 he joined Rizal's La Liga Filipina, an organization
which called for political reforms in Spain's colonial government of the Philippines. However, La Liga disbanded after only one meeting as Rizal was arrested and
deported to Dapitan in Mindanao. Bonifacio, Apolinario Mabini and others revived La Liga in Rizal's absence and Bonifacio was active at organising local
chapters in Manila. Bonifacio became the chief propagandist of the revived Liga. La Liga Filipina contributed moral and financial support to the Propaganda
Movement of Filipino reformists in Spain. Andres Bonifacio was also a member of Freemasonry with the lodge Taliba headed by Jose Dizon and his pseudonym
was Sinukuan, possibly taken from a Philippine mythological character Maria Sinukuan. Freemasons were the primary political activists during this period and La
Liga officers were also mostly freemasons. On July 7, 1892, the day after Rizal's deportation was announced, Bonifacio and others founded the Katipunan, or in
full, Kataastaasang Kagalanggalangang Katipunan ng mga Anak ng Bayan ("Highest and Most Respected Society of the Country's Children' 'Bayan can also denote
community, people and nation). The secret society sought independence from Spain through armed revolt. It was influenced by Freemasonry through its rituals
and organization, and several members including Bonifacio were also Freemasons. Within the society Bonifacio used the pseudonym May pag-asa ("There is
Hope"). For a time, Bonifacio worked with both the Katipunan and La Liga Filipina. La Liga eventually split because some members like Bonifacio lost hope for
peaceful reform and stopped their monetary aid. The more conservative members, mostly wealthy members, who still believed in peaceful reforms set up
the Cuerpo de Compromisarios, which pledged continued support to the reformists in Spain. The radicals were subsumed into the Katipunan. From Manila,
the Katipunan expanded to several provinces, including Batangas,Laguna, Cavite, Bulacan, Pampanga, and Nueva Ecija. Most of its members,
called Katipuneros, came from the lower and middle classes, and many of its local leaders were prominent figures in their municipalities. At first exclusively male,
membership was later extended to females, with Bonifacio's wife Gregoria de Jess as a leading member. From the beginning, Bonifacio was one of the
chief Katipunan officers, although he did not become its Supremo (supreme leader) or Presidente Supremo (Supreme President) until 1895. He was the third
head of the Katipunan after Deodato Arellano and Romn Basa. Prior to this, he served as the society's comptroller and then as its fiscal. The society had its
own laws, bureaucratic structure and elective leadership. For each province involved, the Katipunan Supreme Council coordinated with provincial councils in
charge of public administration and military affairs, and with local councils in charge of affairs on the district or barrio level. Within the society, Bonifacio
developed a strong friendship with Emilio Jacinto, who served as his adviser and confidant, as well as a member of the Supreme Council. Bonifacio adopted
Jacinto's Kartilya primer as the official teachings of the society in place of his own Decalogue, which he judged as inferior. Bonifacio, Jacinto and Po
Valenzuelacollaborated on the society's organ, Kalayaan (Freedom), which had only one printed issue. Bonifacio wrote several pieces for the paper, including the
poem Pag-ibig sa Tinubang Lup (approx. "Love for One's Homeland) under the pseudonym Agapito Bagumbayan. The publication of Kalayaan in March
1896 led to a great increase in the society's membership. The Katipunan movement spread throughout Luzon, to Panay in the Visayas and even as far
as Mindanao. From less than 300 members in January 1896, it had about 30,000 to 40,000 by August 1896. The rapid increase of Katipunan activity drew the
suspicion of the Spanish authorities. By early 1896, Spanish intelligence was already aware of the existence of a seditious secret society, and suspects were kept
under surveillance and arrests were made. On May 3, 1896 Bonifacio held a general assembly of Katipunan leaders in Pasig, where they debated when to start
the revolution. While some officers, especially Bonifacio, believed a revolution is inevitable, some members, especially Santiago Alvarez and Emilio
Aguinaldo from Cavite, expressed reservations and disagreement to the planned revolt due to lack of firearms. The consensus was to consult Jos Rizal in
Dapitan before launching their armed action, so Bonifacio sent Po Valenzuela to Rizal. Rizal turned out to be against the revolution as he believed it is
premature and recommended more preparation, but suggested, though, that in the event the revolution breaks out, they should seek the leadership of Antonio
Luna who was a known military genius. The Spanish authorities confirmed the existence of the Katipunan on August 19, 1896. Hundreds of Filipino suspects,
both innocent and guilty, were arrested and imprisoned for treason. Jos Rizal was then on his way to Cuba to serve as a doctor in the Spanish colonial army in
exchange for his release from Dapitan. When the news broke, Bonifacio first tried to convince Rizal, quarantined aboard a ship in Manila Bay, to escape and join
the imminent revolt. Bonifacio, Emilio Jacinto and Guillermo Masangkay disguised themselves as sailors and went to the pier where Rizal's ship was anchored.
Jacinto personally met with Rizal, who rejected their rescue offer. Rizal himself was later arrested, tried and executed. Eluding an intensive manhunt, Bonifacio
called thousands of Katipunan members to a mass gathering in Caloocan, where they decided to start their uprising. The event, marked by the tearing
of cedulas (community tax certificates) was later called the "Cry of Balintawak" or "Cry of Pugad Lawin"; the exact location and date of the Cry are disputed. The
Supreme Council of the Katipunan declared a nationwide armed revolution against Spain and called for a simultaneous coordinated attack on the
capital Manila on August 28, 1896. Bonifacio appointed generals to lead rebel forces to Manila. Other Katipunan councils were also informed of their plans.
Before hostilities erupted, Bonifacio reorganized theKatipunan into an open de facto revolutionary government, with him as President and commander-in-chief
(or generalissimo
[14]
) of the rebel army and the Supreme Council as his cabinet. On August 28, 1896 Bonifacio issued the following general proclamation:
This manifesto is for all of you. It is absolutely necessary for us to stop at the earliest possible time the nameless oppositions being perpetrated on the sons of the
country who are now suffering the brutal punishment and tortures in jails, and because of this please let all the brethren know that on Saturday, the 29th of the
current month, the revolution shall commence according to our agreement. For this purpose, it is necessary for all towns to rise simultaneously and attack Manila
at the same time. Anybody who obstructs this sacred ideal of the people will be considered a traitor and an enemy, except if he is ill; or is not physically fit, in
which case he shall be tried according to the regulations we have put in force. Mount of Liberty, August 28, 1896 ANDRS BONIFACIO
On August 30, 1896, Bonifacio personally led an attack on San Juan del Monte to capture the town's powder magazine and water station (which supplied
Manila). The defending Spaniards, outnumbered, fought a delaying battle until reinforcements arrived. Once reinforced, the Spaniards drove Bonifacio's forces
back with heavy casualties. Bonifacio and his troops regrouped near Marikina, San Mateo and Montalban. Elsewhere, fighting between rebels and Spanish forces
occurred in Mandaluyong, Sampaloc, Santa Ana, Pandacan,Pateros, Marikina, Caloocan, Makati and Taguig. The conventional view among Filipino historians is
that the planned general Katipunan offensive on Manila was aborted in favor of Bonifacio's attack on San Juan del Monte, which sparked a general state of
rebellion in the area. However, more recent studies have advanced the view that the planned offensive did push through and the rebel attacks were integrated;
according to this view, Bonifacio's San Juan del Monte battle was only a part of a bigger whole an unrecognized "battle for Manila". Despite his reverses,
Bonifacio was not completely defeated and was still considered a threat. Further, the revolt had spread to the surrounding provinces by the end of August. By
December 1896, the Spanish government recognized three major centers of rebellion: Cavite (under Mariano Alvarez, Emilio Aguinaldo and others),
Bulacan (under Mariano Llanera) and Morong (under Aquino). The revolt was most successful in Cavite, which mostly fell under rebel control by September
October 1896. Apolinario Mabini, who later joined the rebels and served as Aguinaldo's adviser, wrote that the government troops in Cavite were limited to
small, scattered constabularydetachments and thus the rebels were able to take virtually the entire province. The Spanish government had transferred much of its
troops from Cavite (and other provinces) to Manila in anticipation of Bonifacio's attack. The Cavite rebels won prestige in defeating Spanish troops in set
piece battles, using tactics like trench warfare. While Cavite is traditionally regarded as the "Heartland of the Philippine Revolution", Manila and its surrounding
municipalities bore the brunt of the Spanish military campaign, becoming a no man's land. Rebels in the area were generally engaged in hit-and-run guerrilla
warfare against Spanish positions in Manila, Morong, Nueva Ecija and Pampanga. From Morong, Bonifacio served as tactician for rebel guerrillas and issued
commands to areas other than his personal sector, though his reputation suffered when he lost battles he personally led. From September to October 1896,
Bonifacio supervised the establishment of Katipunan mountain and hill bases like Balara in Marikina, Pantayanin in Antipolo, Ugong in Pasig and Tungko in
Bulacan. Bonifacio appointing generals for these areas, or approving selections the troops themselves made. In November, Bonifacio led an assault on San
Mateo, Marikina and Montalban. The Spanish were forced to retreat, leaving these areas to the rebels, except for the municipal hall of San Mateo where some
Spanish troops had barricaded. While Bonifacio's troops laid siege to the hall, other Katipunan forces set up defensive lines along the nearby Langka (or Nangka)
river against Spanish reinforcements from Marikina. After three days, Spanish counterattacks broke through the Langka river lines. The Spanish troops thus
recaptured the rebel positions and surprised Bonifacio in San Mateo, who ordered a general retreat to Balara. They were pursued, and Bonifacio was nearly
killed shielding Emilio Jacinto from a Spanish bullet which grazed his collar. In Balara, Bonifacio commissioned Julio Nakpil to compose a national anthem.
Nakpil produced a hymn called Marangal na Dalit ng Katagalugan ("Honorable Hymn of the Tagalogs"). However, it was rejected years later in favor of
the Marcha Nacional Filipina commissioned by Emilio Aguinaldo. There were two Katipunan provincial chapters in Cavite that became rival factions:
the Magdalo, headed by Emilio Aguinaldo's cousin Baldomero Aguinaldo, and the Magdiwang, headed by Mariano lvarez, uncle of Bonifacio's wife. Leaders of
both factions came from the upper class, in contrast to Bonifacio, who came from the lower middle class. After initial successes, Emilio Aguinaldo issued a
manifesto in the name of the Magdalo ruling council which proclaimed a provisional and revolutionary government despite the existence of
the Katipunan government. Emilio Aguinaldo in particular had won fame for victories in the province. The Magdalo and Magdiwang clashed over authority and
jurisdiction and did not help each other in battle. Bonifacio was called to Cavite to mediate between them and unify their efforts. In late 1896 he travelled to
Cavite accompanied by his wife, his brothers Procopio and Ciriaco, and some troops. In Cavite, friction grew between Bonifacio and the Magdalo leaders.
Apolinario Mabini, who later served as Emilio Aguinaldo's adviser, writes that at this point the Magdalo leaders "already paid little heed to his authority and
orders." Bonifacio was partial to the Magdiwang, perhaps due to his kinship ties with Mariano lvarez, or more importantly, due to their stronger recognition of
his authority. When Aguinaldo and Edilberto Evangelista went to receive Bonifacio at Zapote, they were irritated with what they regarded as his attitude of
superiority. In his memoirs Aguinaldo wrote that Bonifacio acted "as if he were a king". Another time, Bonifacio ordered the arrest of one Katipunan general
fromLaguna surnamed Fernandez, who was accompanying the Magdalo leaders in paying their respect to Bonifacio, for failing to support his attack in Manila,
but the other Magdaloleaders refused to surrender him. Townspeople in Noveleta (a Magdiwang town) acclaimed Bonifacio as the ruler of the Philippines, to the
chagrin of the Magdalo leaders, (Bonifacio replied: "long live Philippine Liberty!"). Aguinaldo disputed with Bonifacio over strategic troop placements and
blamed him for the capture of the town of Silang. The Spanish, through Jesuit Superior Pio Pi, wrote to Aguinaldo about the possibility of peace negotiations.
When Bonifacio found out, he and the Magdiwang council rejected the proposed peace talks. Bonifacio was also angered that the Spanish considered Aguinaldo
the "chief of the rebellion" instead of him. However, Aguinaldo continued to arrange negotiations which never took place. Bonifacio believed Aguinaldo was
willing to surrender the revolution. Bonifacio was also subject to rumors that he had stolen Katipunan funds, his sister was the mistress of a priest, and he was
an agent provocateur paid by friars to foment unrest. Also circulated were anonymous letters which told the people of Cavite not to idolize Bonifacio because he
was a Mason, a mere Manila employee, allegedly an atheist, and uneducated. According to these letters, Bonifacio did not deserve the title of Supremo since only
God was supreme. This last allegation was made despite the fact that Supremowas meant to be used in conjunction with Presidente, i.e. Presidente
Supremo (Supreme President) to distinguish the president of the Katipunan Supreme Council from council presidents of subordinate Katipunan chapters like
the Magdalo and Magdiwang. Bonifacio suspected the rumor-mongering to be the work of the Magdalo leader Daniel Tirona. He confronted Tirona, whose airy
reply provoked Bonifacio to such anger that he drew a gun and would have shot Tirona if others had not intervened. On December 31, 1896 Bonifacio and
the Magdalo and Magdiwang leaders held a meeting in Imus, ostensibly to determine the leadership of Cavite in order to end the rivalry between the two factions.
The issue of whether the Katipunan should be replaced by a revolutionary government was brought up by the Magdalo, and this eclipsed the rivalry issue.
The Magdaloargued that the Katipunan, as a secret society, should have ceased to exist once the Revolution was underway. They also held that Cavite should not
be divided. Bonifacio and theMagdiwang contended that the Katipunan served as their revolutionary government since it had its own constitution, laws, and
provincial and municipal governments. Edilberto Evangelista presented a draft constitution for the proposed government to Bonifacio but he rejected it as it was
too similar to the Spanish Maura Law. Upon the event of restructuring, Bonifacio was given carte blanche to appoint a committee tasked with setting up a new
government; he would also be in charge of this committee. He tasked Emilio Aguinaldo to record the minutes of the meeting and requested for it to establish this
authority, but these were never done and never provided. The rebel leaders held another meeting in a friar estate house in Tejeros on March 22, 1897 on the
pretense of more discussion between the Magdalo and Magdiwang, but really to settle the issue of leadership of the revolution. Amidst insinuations that
the Katipunan government was monarchical or dictatorial, Bonifacio maintained it was republican. According to him, all its members of whatever rank followed
the principles of liberty, equality and fraternity, upon which republicanism is founded. He presided over the elections that followed, despite his misgivings over
the lack of representation by other provinces. Before elections started, he asked that the results be respected by everyone, and all agreed. The Cavite leaders
voted their own Emilio Aguinaldo President in absentia, as he was in the battlefield. That revolutionary government, now known as the Republic of Biak-na-
Bato, styled itself as the Philippine Republic or Republic of the Philippines. It lasted just over a month. A later revolutionary government now commonly known
as theFirst Philippine Republic and also with Aguinaldo as President was inaugurated on January 23, 1899 as the Republica Filipina (Philippine Republic). That
later government is now considered to be the first Republic of the Philippines, the present-day government of the Philippines being the fifth. Bonifacio received
the second-highest number of votes for President. Though it was suggested that he be automatically be awarded the Vice Presidency, no one seconded the
motion and elections continued. Mariano Tras of the Magdalo (originally Magdiwang) was elected Vice President. Bonifacio was the last to be elected, as
Director of the Interior. Daniel Tirona, who had helped distribute the ballots, protested Bonifacio's election to Director of the Interior on the grounds that the
position should not be occupied by a person without a lawyer's diploma. Tirona suggested a prominent Cavite lawyer for the position. Hurt and angered,
Bonifacio demanded an apology, since the voters had agreed to respect the election results. Tirona ignored Bonifacio's demand for apology which drove
Bonifacio to draw his gun and again nearly shot Tirona, who hid among the people, but he was restrained by Artemio Ricarte of the Magdiwang, who had been
elected Captain-General. As people left the room, Bonifacio declared: "I, as chairman of this assembly and as President of the Supreme Council of the
Katipunan, as all of you do not deny, declare this assembly dissolved, and I annul all that has been approved and resolved." The next day, Aguinaldo
surreptitiously took his oath of office as President in a chapel officiated by a Catholic priest Cenon Villafranca who was under the authority of the Roman pope.
According to Gen. Santiago Alvarez, guards were posted outside with strict instructions not to let in any unwanted partisan from the Magdiwang faction while the
oath-taking took place. Artemio Ricarte also took his office "with great reluctance" and made a declaration that he found the Tejeros elections "dirty or shady" and
"not been in conformity with the true will of the people." Meanwhile Bonifacio met with his remaining supporters and drew up the Acta de Tejeros (Act of
Tejeros) wherein they gave their reasons for not accepting the election results. Bonifacio alleged the election was fraudulent due to cheating and accused
Aguinaldo of treason due to his negotiations with the Spanish. In their memoirs Santiago lvarez (son of Mariano) and Gregoria de Jess both alleged that many
ballots were already filled out before being distributed, and Guillermo Masangkay contended there were more ballots prepared than voters present. lvarez
writes that Bonifacio had been warned by a Cavite leader Diego Mojica of the rigged ballots before the votes were canvassed, but he had done nothing.
Aguinaldo later sent a delegation to Bonifacio to get him to cooperate, but the latter refused. Bonifacio appointed Emilio Jacinto general of the rebel forces in
Manila, Morong, Bulacan and Nueva Ecija. In Naik, Bonifacio met with Artemio Ricarte and others, including generals Po del Pilar and Mariano Noriel of
the Magdalo who had gone over to his side. Bonifacio asserted his leadership of the revolution with the Naik Military Agreement, a document which appointed
Pio del Pilar commander-in-chief of the revolutionary forces. Bonifacio's meeting was interrupted by Aguinaldo himself, and del Pilar and Noriel promptly
returned to Aguinaldo's fold. In late April Aguinaldo fully assumed presidential office after consolidating his position among the Cavite elite most of
Bonifacio's Magdiwang supporters declaring allegiance to Aguinaldo. Aguinaldo's government then ordered the arrest of Bonifacio, who was then moving out of
Cavite. A party of Aguinaldo's men led by Agapito Bonzn and Jos Ignacio Paua met with Bonifacio at his camp in Indang. Unaware of the order for his arrest,
Bonifacio received them cordially. The next day, Bonzn and Paua attacked Bonifacio's camp. Bonifacio did not fight back and ordered his men to hold their
fire, though shots were nevertheless exchanged. Bonifacio was shot in the arm by Bonzn and Paua stabbed him in the neck who was prevented from striking
further by one of Bonifacio's men, who offered to be killed instead. Andres' brother Ciriaco was shot dead, while his other brother Procopio was beaten
senseless, and his wife Gregoria may have been raped by Bonzn. Bonifacio's party was brought to Naic, where he and Procopio stood trial on charges of sedition
and treason against Aguinaldo's government and conspiracy to murder Aguinaldo. The jury was composed entirely of Aguinaldo's men and even Bonifacio's
defence lawyer himself declared his client's guilt. Bonifacio was barred from confronting the state witness for the charge of conspiracy to murder on the grounds
that the latter had been killed in battle, but after the trial the witness was seen alive with the prosecutors. The Bonifacio brothers were found guilty despite
insufficient evidence and recommended to be executed. Aguinaldo commuted the sentence to deportation on May 8, 1897 but Po del Pilar and Mariano Noril
persuaded him to withdraw the order for the sake of preserving unity. In this they were seconded by Mamerto Natividd and other bona fide supporters of
Aguinaldo. The Bonifacio brothers were executed on May 10, 1897 in the mountains of Maragondon. Apolinario Mabini wrote that Bonifacio's death
demoralized many rebels from Manila, Laguna and Batangas who had come to help those in Cavite, and caused them to quit. In other areas, some of Bonifacio's
associates like Emilio Jacinto and Macario Sakay never subjected their military commands to Aguinaldo's authority. The historical assessment of Bonifacio
involves several controversial points. His death is alternately viewed as a justified execution for treason and a "legal murder" fueled by politics. Some historians
[

consider him to be the rightful first President of the Philippines instead of Aguinaldo. Some historians have also called that Bonifacio share or even take the place
of Jos Rizal as the (foremost) Philippine national hero. The purported discovery of Bonifacio's remains has also been questioned. Historians have condemned
the trial of the Bonifacio brothers as unjust. The jury was entirely composed of Aguinaldo's men; Bonifacio's defense lawyer acted more like a prosecutor as he
himself declared Bonifacio's guilt and instead appealed for less punishment; and Bonifacio was not allowed to confront the state witness for the charge of
conspiracy on the grounds that the latter had been killed in battle, but later the witness was seen with the prosecutors. Teodoro Agoncillo writes that Bonifacio's
declaration of authority in opposition to Aguinaldo posed a danger to the revolution, because a split in the rebel forces would result in almost certain defeat to
their united and well-armed Spanish foe.
[66]
In contrast, Renato Constantino contends that Bonifacio was neither a danger to the revolution in general for he still
planned to fight the Spanish, nor to the revolution in Cavite since he was leaving; but Bonifacio was definitely a threat to the Cavite leaders who wanted control of
the Revolution, so he was eliminated. Constantino contrasts Bonifacio who had no record of compromise with the Spanish with the Cavite leaders who did
compromise, resulting in the Pact of Biak-na-Bato whereas the revolution was officially halted and its leaders exiled, though many Filipinos continued to fight
especially Katipunan leaders used to be close to Bonifacio (Aguinaldo eventually, unofficially allied with the United States, did return to take charge of the
revolution during the SpanishAmerican War). Historians have also discussed the motives of the Cavite government to replace Bonifacio, and whether it had the
right to do so. The Magdalo provincial council which helped establish a republican government led by one of their own was only one of many such councils in
the pre-existing Katipunan government. Therefore, Constantino and Alejo Villanueva write Aguinaldo and his faction may be considered counter-revolutionary as
well as guilty of violating Bonifacio's constituted authority just as they considered Bonifacio to violate theirs. Aguinaldo's own adviser and official Apolinario
Mabini writes that he was "primarily answerable for insubordination against the head of the Katipunan of which he was a member". Aguinaldo's authority was not
immediately recognized by all rebels. If Bonifacio had escaped Cavite, he would have had the right as the Katipunan leader to prosecute Aguinaldo for treason
instead of the other way around. Constantino and Villanueva also interpret the Tejeros Convention as the culmination of a movement by members of the upper
class represented by Aguinaldo to wrest power from Bonifacio who represented the middle and lower classes. Regionalism among the Cavite rebels, dubbed
"Cavitismo" by Constantino, has also been put forward as motivation for the replacement of Bonifacio. Mabini considered the execution as criminal and
"assassination...the first victory of personal ambition over true patriotism." He also noted that "All the electors [at the Tejeros Convention] were friends of Don
Emilio Aguinaldo and Don Mariano Tras, who were united, while Bonifacio, although he had established his integrity, was looked upon with distrust only
because he was not a native of the province: this explains his resentment." There are differing accounts of Bonifacio's manner of execution. The commanding
officer of the execution party, Lazaro Macapagal, said in two separate accounts that the Bonifacio brothers were shot to death, which is the orthodox
interpretation. Macapagal's second account has Bonifacio attempting to escape after his brother is shot, but he is also killed while running away. Macapagal writes
that they buried the brothers in shallow graves dug with bayonets and marked by twigs. However, another account states that after his brother was shot, Bonifacio
was stabbed and hacked to death. This was allegedly done while he lay prone in a hammock in which he was carried to the site, being too weak to walk. This
version was maintained by Guillermo Masangkay, who claimed to have gotten this information from one of Macapagal's men. Also, one account used to
corroborate this version is of an alleged eyewitness, a farmer who claimed he saw five men hacking a man in a hammock. Historian Milagros Guerrero also says
Bonifacio was bayoneted, and that the brothers were left unburied. After bones said to be Bonifacio's including a fractured skull - were discovered in 1918,
Masangkay claimed the forensic evidence supported his version of events. Writer Adrian Cristobal notes that accounts of Bonifacio's captivity and trial state he
was very weak due to his wounds being left untreated; he thus doubts that Bonifacio was strong enough to make a last dash for freedom as Macapagal
claimed. Historian Ambeth Ocampo, who doubts the Bonifacio bones were authentic, thus also doubts the possibility of Bonifacio's death by this manner. Some
historians such as Milagros Guerrero, Emmanuel Encarnacin, and Ramn Villegas have pushed for the recognition of Bonifacio as the first President of the
Philippines instead of Aguinaldo, the officially recognised one. This view is based on his position of President/Supremo of the Katipunan revolutionary
government from 189697. This view also emphasises that Bonifacio established a government through the Katipunan before a government headed by
Aguinaldo was formed at the Tejeros Convention. Guerrero writes that Bonifacio had a concept of the Philippine nation called Haring Bayang
Katagalugan ("Sovereign Tagalog Nation") which was displaced by Aguinaldo's concept of Filipinas. In documents predating Tejeros and the First Philippine
Republic, Bonifacio is called the president of the "Tagalog Republic". The term Tagalog historically refers to an ethnic group, their language, and script. While
historians have thus tended to view Bonifacio's concept of the Philippine nation as restricted to the Tagalog regions of Luzon, as compared to Aguinaldo's view of
Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao (comprising the modern Philippines), Guerrero writes that Bonifacio and theKatipunan in fact already had an all-encompassing
view. The Kartilya defines "tagalog" as "all those born in this archipelago; therefore, though visayan, ilocano, pampango, etc. they are all tagalogs".In their memoirs,
Emilio Aguinaldo and other Magdalo people claim Bonifacio became the head of the Magdiwang, receiving the title Har ng Bayan ("King of the People") with
Mariano lvarez as his second-in-command. However, these claims are unsupported by documentary evidence. Carlos Quirino suggests these claims stem from a
misunderstanding or misrepresentation of Bonifacio's title Pangulo ng Haring Bayan ("President of the Sovereign Nation"). Santiago lvarez (son of Mariano)
distinguishes between the Magdiwang government and the Katipunan Supreme Council headed by Bonifacio. Jos Rizal is generally considered the National
hero, but Bonifacio has been suggested as a more worthy candidate on the grounds of having started the Philippine Revolution. Teodoro Agoncillo notes that the
Philippine national hero, unlike those of other countries, is not "the leader of its liberation forces". Renato Constantino writes that Rizal is a "United States-
sponsored hero" who was promoted as the greatest Filipino hero during the American colonial period of the Philippines after Aguinaldo lost the Philippine
American War. The United States promoted Rizal, who was taken to represent peaceful political advocacy, instead of more radical figures whose ideas could
inspire resistance against American rule. Specifically, Rizal was selected over Bonifacio who was viewed as "too radical" and Apolinario Mabini who was
"unregenerate." Historian Ambeth Ocampo gives the opinion that arguing for Bonifacio as the "better" hero on the grounds that he, not Rizal, began the
Philippine Revolution, is moot since Rizal inspired Bonifacio, the Katipunan and the Revolution. Even prior to Rizal's banishment to Dapitan, Rizal was already
regarded by the Filipino people as a national hero, having been elected as honorary president by the Katipunan. Leon Ma. Guerrero notes that while Rizal did
not give his blessing to Bonifacio because he believed the time was premature, he did not condemn the aim of independence per se. Teodoro Agoncillo gives the
opinion that Bonifacio should not replace Rizal as national hero, but they should be honored "side by side". Despite popular recognition of Rizal as
"the Philippine national hero", the title itself has no explicit legal definition in present Philippine law. Rizal and Bonifacio, however, are given the implied
recognition of being national heroes because they are commemorated annually nationwide Rizal Day on December 30 and Bonifacio Day on November 30.
According to the website of the National Center for Culture and the Arts: Despite the lack of any official declaration explicitly proclaiming them as national
heroes, Rizal and Bonifacio remain admired and revered for their roles in Philippine history. Heroes, according to historians, should not be legislated. Their
appreciation should be better left to academics. Acclamation for heroes, they felt, would be recognition enough. In 1918, the American-sponsored government of
the Philippines mounted a search for Bonifacio's remains in Maragondon. A group consisting of government officials, former rebels, and a man reputed to be
Bonifacio's servant found bones which they claimed were Bonifacio's in a sugarcane field on 17 March. The bones were placed in an urn and put into the care of
the National Library of the Philippines. They were housed at the Library's headquarters in the Legislative Building in Ermita, Manila, together with some of
Bonifacio's papers and personal belongings. The authenticity of the bones was much disputed at the time and has been challenged as late as 2001 by Ambeth
Ocampo. When Emilio Aguinaldo ran for President of the Commonwealth of the Philippines in 1935, his opponent Manuel L. Quezn (the eventual victor)
invoked the memory of Bonifacio against him, the bones being the result of Bonifacio's execution at Aguinaldo's hands. During World War II, the Philippines
was invaded by Japan in 1941. The bones were lost due to the widespread destruction and looting during the Allied capture of Manila in February 1945.
Macario Sakay y de Len (1870 September 13, 1907) was the President (Unofficial) of the Philippines (Tagalog Republic) from
May 6 until July 14, 1902. He was a Filipino general who took part in the 1896 Philippine Revolution against the Spanish Empire and in
the Philippine-American War. After the war was declared over by the United States in 1902, Sakay continued resistance and the following
year he became President of the Republic of Katagalugan. Sakay was born in 1870 along Tabora Street, Tondo, in the City of Manila. He
first worked as an apprentice in a kalesa (carriage) manufacturing shop. He was also a tailor and a stage actor, performing in a number of
plays including Principe Baldovino, Doce Pares de Francia, and Amante de la Corona. An original member of the Katipunan movement,
of which he joined in 1894, he fought alongside Andrs Bonifacio against the Spanish throughout the Philippine Revolution. In 1899, he
continued the struggle for Philippine independence against the United States. Early in the Philippine-American War, he was jailed for
seditious activities, and later released as part of an amnesty. Sakay was one of the founders of the Partido Nacionalista (unrelated to the
present Nacionalista Party founded in 1907), which sought to achieve Philippine independence through legal means. The party appealed
to the Philippine Commission, but the Commission passed the Sedition Law, which prohibited any form of propaganda advocating independence. Sakay thus
took up arms again. Around 1902 Sakay established the Tagalog Republic somewhere in the mountains of Rizal. His first military circulars and presidential
orders as "President and Commander-in-Chief" came in 1903. Sakay's military circular No. 1 was dated May 5, 1903, and his Presidential Order No. 1 was dated
March 18, 1903. In Sakay's military circular No. 7, dated June 19, 1903, the government of the Tagalog Republic (called the "Republic of the Philippines")
affirmed the formation of an organized army. The army units were composed of Kabohans (eight soldiers, equivalent to a squad), Camilleros (nine
soldiers), Companias (117 soldiers, equivalent to a company, and Batalions(801 soldiers, equivalent to battalion). However, in Sakay's Second Manifesto, dated
April 5, 1904, it was said that the exact number of soldiers in his army could not be ascertained. There are insufficient documents to speculate on the size of the
Republic's army, but they do demonstrate that Sakay's army existed and that it was made up of officers appointed and commissioned by Sakay himself. In Sakay's
presidential order No. 2, dated May 8, 1903, the government, in search of sources of weapons to carry out its struggle against the Americans, stated that it was
willing to confer military rank on citizens who could turn over firearms to the Presidential Office or any of the headquarters under its command. Ranks would be
conferred on the following schedule: 10 to 15 firearms, the rank of lieutenant; 16 to 25 firearms, the rank of captain; 26 to 36 firearms, the rank of major; 40 to
50 firearms, the rank of colonel. In Sakay's military order No. 5, dated May 25, 1903, the government assigned the following color codes for the divisions of its
army: artillery (red), infantry (light blue), cavalry (dark blue), engineering (dark brown), chief-of-staff (dark green), sanitary (yellow), and marines (gray). According
to General Leon Villafuerte, his, Carreon's and Sakay's forces planned to kidnap Alice Roosevelt Longworth, the daughter of President Theodore Roosevelt. The
plan was to trade her with the Americans in exchange for the immediate recognition of Philippine independence. The kidnapping was not attempted since
Longworth postponed her trip by train to Baguio. In 1905, Filipino labour leader Dominador Gmez was authorised by Governor-General Henry Clay Ide to
negotiate for the surrender of Sakay and his men. Gmez met with Sakay at his camp and argued that the establishment of a national assembly was being held up
by Sakay's intransigence, and that its establishment would be the first step toward Filipino independence. Sakay agreed to end his resistance on the condition that
a general amnesty be granted to his men, that they be permitted to carry firearms, and that he and his officers be permitted to leave the country. Gmez assured
Sakay that these conditions would be acceptable to the Americans, and Sakay's emissary, General Len Villafuerte, obtained agreement to them from the
American Governor-General. Sakay believed that the struggle had shifted to constitutional means, and that the establishment of the assembly was a means to
winning independence. As a result, he surrendered on July 20, 1906, descending from the mountains on the promise of an amnesty for him and his officials, and
the formation of a Philippine Assembly composed of Filipinos that would serve as the "gate of freedom". With Villafuerte, Sakay travelled to Manila, where they
were welcomed and invited to receptions and banquets. One invitation came from the Constabulary Chief, Colonel Harry H. Bandholtz; it was a trap, and Sakay
along with his principal lieutenants were disarmed and arrested while the party was in progress. At his trial, Sakay was accused of "bandolerismo under the
Brigandage Act of November 12, 1902, which interpreted all acts of armed resistance to American rule as banditry." The colonial Supreme Court of the
Philippines upheld the decision. Sakay was sentenced to death, and hanged on September 13, 1907. Before his death, he made the following statement: "Death
comes to all of us sooner or later, so I will face the LORD Almighty calmly. But I want to tell you that we are not bandits and robbers, as the Americans have
accused us, but members of the revolutionary force that defended our mother country, the Philippines! Farewell! Long live the Republic and may our
independence be born in the future! Long live the Philippines!" Sakay is often cited for his long hair, and his name has become a byword in the Philippines for
people needing a haircut.Sakay is the subject of the biographical film Sakay directed by Raymond Red, in which he is portrayed by actor Julio Daz.
[11]
A life-sized
statue of Sakay was unveiled at the Plaza Morga in Tondo, by the Manila Historical Heritage Commission on September 13, 2008, the 101st anniversary of his
death. That same month, the Senate adopted two separate resolutions honouring Sakay's life and his fellow freedom fighters for their contribution to the cause of
independence.

Philippine Republic
The Philippine Republic (Spanish: Repblica Filipina, Tagalog: Republika ng Pilipinas), more commonly known as the First Philippine Republic or the Malolos
Republic was a short-lived nascent revolutionary government in the Philippines. It was formally established with the proclamation of the Malolos Constitution on
January 23, 1899 in Malolos, Bulacan, and endured until the capture and surrender of Emilio Aguinaldo to the American forces on March 23, 1901
in Palanan, Isabela, which effectively dissolved the First Republic. The establishment of the Philippine Republic was the culmination of the Philippine
Revolution against Spanish rule. On June 12, 1898, at Aguinaldo's ancestral home in Cavite, Philippine independence was proclaimed and The Act of
Declaration of Philippine Independence was read. The act had been prepared and written in Spanish by Ambrosio Rianzares Bautista, who also read its
proclamation. The Malolos Congress convened on 15 September, and produced the Malolos Constitution. That constitution was proclaimed on January 22,
1899, transforming the government into what is known today as the First Philippine Republic, with Aguinaldo as its president. In the meantime, on December 10,
1898, the Treaty of Paris had been signed, ending theSpanish-American War. Article 3 of the treaty transferred the Philippines from Spain to the United States.
The PhilippineAmerican War then ensued. Aguinaldo was captured by U.S. forces on March 23, 1901 and swore an oath accepting the authority of the United
States over the Philippines and pledging his allegiance to the American government. On April 19, he issued a Proclamation of Formal Surrender to the United
States, telling his followers to lay down their weapons and give up the fight, effectively ending the First Philippine Republic. Subsequently, the U.S. continued its
annexation of the islands pursuant to the Treaty of Paris. The Philippines was under US sovereignty until 1946, when formal independence was granted by
the Treaty of Manila. It was the first Constitutional Republic in Asia. It was titled "Constitucin poltica", and was written in Spanish following the declaration of
independence from Spain, proclaimed on January 20, 1899, and was enacted and ratified by the Malolos Congress, a Congress held in Malolos. Although there
were several Asian republics predating the First Philippine Republic, i.e. the Republic of Formosa or the Republic of Ezo, the Republic at Malolos was the first to
frame a comprehensive constitution duly approved by an elected congress.
President (Unofficial) of the Philippines of the First Philippine Republic
Miguel Malvar y Carpio (September 27, 1865 October 13, 1911) was the President (Unofficial) of the Philippines of the First
Philippine Republic from April 1, 1901 until April 16, 1902. He was a Filipino general who served during the Philippine Revolution
and subsequently during the PhilippineAmerican War. He assumed command of the Philippine revolutionary forces during the latter
conflict following the surrender of Emilio Aguinaldo to the Americans in 1901. According to some historians, he could have been
listed as one of the presidents of the Philippines but is currently not recognized as such by the Philippine government. Malvar was born
on September 27, 1865 in New York, a street in Cubao, to Mximo Malvar (locally known as Capitan Imoy) and Tiburcia Carpio
(locally known as Capitana Tibo). Malvar's family was not only well known in town for their wealth but also for their generosity and
diligence. For his education, Malvar first attended the town school in Santo Tomas. Later, he attended the private school run by Father
Valerio Malabanan in Tanauan, Batangas, a famous educational institution in Batangas at the time, where Malvar had fellow
revolutionary Apolinario Mabini as his classmate. He then transferred to another school in Bauan, Batangas, after which he decided
not to pursue higher education in Manila, preferring to settle down as a farmer. In turn, he helped his more studious younger brother,
Potenciano, to study medicine in Spain. He was later elected as capitan municipal of his hometown. In 1891, Malvar married Paula
Maloles, the beautiful daughter of the capitan municipal of Santo Tomas, Don Ambrocio Maloles. Don Ambrocio was his successor
as capitan municipal. Ulay, as she was locally known, bore Malvar thirteen children, but only eleven of them survived: Bernabe, Aurelia, Marciano, Maximo,
Crispina, Mariquita, Luz Constancia, Miguel (Junior), Pablo, Paula, and Isabel. Malvar had the habit of bringing his family with him as he went to battle during
the Philippine Revolution and the PhilippineAmerican War. Malvar and his family had a friendship with Jos Rizal and his family. Doctor Rizal mended the
harelip of Malvar's wife, and Saturnina Rizal lend Malvar 1,000 pesos as an initial capital to start a business. Saturnina's husband, Manuel, was a relative of Malvar,
and Soledad Rizal Quintero's daughter married Malvar's eldest son, Bernabe. Also, Paciano Rizal was Malvar's fellow revolutionary. Like Macario Sakay, his
subsequent successor as President, Malvar was an original Katipunero. That is, he joined the Katipunanbefore the Philippine Revolution. When the Revolution
began by August 1896, he emerged from a leader of a 70-man army to being the military commander of Batangas. As military commander, he coordinated
offensives with General Emilio Aguinaldo, leader of the revolutionaries in Cavite and General Paciano Rizal, leader of the revolutionaries in Laguna. He once
fought with General Edilberto Evangelista, Malvar's senior officer at the time, at the Battle of Zapote Bridge, where the former died in battle. That was February
17, 1897. Succeeding Evangelista's generalship, Malvar had set up his own headquarters atIndang, Cavite where he stayed until the Tejeros Convention. After the
Tejeros Convention, wherein Aguinaldo won as President, Malvar opted to side with the Katipunan Supremo, Andrs Bonifacio. In response to Malvar's
support, Bonifacio gave them assistance in fighting their battles. Seeing the mutual relations between Malvar and Bonifacio, Aguinaldo decided to use his newly
acquired position to put Batangas, as well as Malvar, under his jurisdiction. Malvar was also threatened with punishment if he did not break ties with Bonifacio,
but this did not eventuate. Bonifacio and his brother Procopio were found guilty, despite insufficient evidence, and they were recommended to be executed.
Aguinaldo 'issued a commutation of sentence' to deportation or exile on May 8, 1897, but Po del Pilar and Mariano Noriel, both former supporters of
Bonifacio, persuaded Aguinaldo to withdraw the order for the sake of preserving unity. In this they were seconded by Mamerto Natividd and other bona
fide supporters of Aguinaldo. The Bonifacio brothers were murdered on 10 May 1897 in the mountains of Maragondon. After Bonifacio was bumped off, the
Spanish offensive resumed, now under Governor-General Fernando Primo de Rivera, and forced Aguinaldo out of Cavite. Aguinaldo slipped through the
Spanish cordon and, with 500 picked men, proceeded to Biak-na-Bat, a wilderness area at the tri-boundaries of the towns of San Miguel, San
Ildefonso and Doa Remedios in Bulacan. When news of Aguinaldo's arrival there reached the towns of central Luzon, men from the Ilocos provinces, Nueva
Ecija, Pangasinan, Tarlac, and Zambales, renewed their armed resistance against the Spanish. On November 1, 1897, the provisional constitution for the Biak-
na-Bato Republic was signed. By the end of 1897, Governor-General Primo de Rivera accepted the impossibility of quelling the revolution by force of arms. In a
statement to the Cortes Generales, he said, "I can take Biak-na-Bato, any military man can take it, but I can not answer that I could crush the rebellion." Desiring
to make peace with Aguinaldo, he sent emissaries to Aguinaldo seeking a peaceful settlement. Nothing was accomplished until Pedro A. Paterno, a distinguished
lawyer from Manila perhaps wanting a Spanish nobility title, volunteered to act as negotiator. On August 9, 1897, Paterno proposed a peace based on reforms
and amnesty to Aguinaldo. In succeeding months, practicing shuttle diplomacy, Paterno traveled back and forth between Manila and Biak-na-Bato carrying
proposals and counterproposals. Paterno's efforts led to a peace agreement called the Pact of Biak-na-Bato. This consisted of three documents, the first two being
signed on December 14, 1897, and the third being signed on December 15, 1897 effectively ending the Republic of Biak-na-Bato. Malvar, along with other
generals like Mariano Tras, Paciano Rizal, Manuel Tinio and Artemio Ricarte, was opposed to the pact, believing it was a ruse of the Spanish to get rid of the
Revolution easily, and therefore resumed military offensives. Aguinaldo, seeing the stiff resistance of Malvar and his sympathizers, issued a circular ordering the
revolutionary generals to stop fighting. On January 6, 1898, Malvar ceased his offensives. On May 19, 1898, Aguinaldo, aboard the American revenue
cutter McCulloch, returned to the Philippines with 13 of his military staff. After four days, the first delivery of arms from Hong Kong arrived. It amounted to
2,000 rifles and 200,000 rounds of ammunition. With Aguinaldo's return, the Filipinos, numbering around 12,000, who enlisted under the Spanish flag in
the war against America defected to Aguinaldo's banner. By June, Philippine independence was declared in Kawit, Cavite and Manila found herself surrounded
by Aguinaldo's troops. But on August 13, 1898, it was the Americans who captured Manila. On February 4, 1899, hostilities began between Americans and
Filipinos. On February 7, Malvar was appointed second-in-command of Trias, who was the overall commander of the Filipino forces in southern Luzon. On
February 23, General Antonio Luna needed Malvar and his unit to take part in a Filipino counterattack that was planned to regain ground lost earlier by Filipinos
and capture Manila. However, the Filipino offensive collapsed mainly due to the insubordination of the Kawit Battalion. During the following months, Malvar
harassed American troops south of Manila as he and his 3,000-man brigade conducted offensives in Muntinlupa. By July 1899, the Americans under General
Robert Hall captured Calamba, Laguna. With ten companies (around 2,000 men) of American troops in the town, Malvar unsuccessfully besieged Calamba from
August to December 1899. On November 13, 1899, Aguinaldo disbanded the Filipino regular army, forming them into guerrilla units at Bayambang, Pangasinan
and afterwards conducted his escape journey to Palanan, Isabela, which he reached by September 6, 1900. This change in tactics was not as successful as it had
been against the Spaniards, and Aguinaldo was captured on March 23, 1901, by General Frederick Funston with help from some Macabebe scouts. Trias,
Aguinaldo's chosen successor as President and Commander-In-Chief of the Filipino forces, surrendered earlier, on March 15, 1901. Therefore, as designated in
Aguinaldo's decreed line of succession, Malvar became President of the Philippine Republic.
[1]
The Hong Kong Junta affirmed Malvar's authority in succeeding
Aguinaldo. As he took over the affairs of the Republic, Malvar reorganized Filipino forces in southern Luzon and renamed the combined armed forces as "Army
of Liberation", which possessed around 10,000 rifles at the time. He also reorganized the regional departments of the Republic, which included the Marianas as a
separate province. Beginning January 1902, American General J. Franklin Bell took command of operations in Batangas and practiced scorched earth tactics
that took a heavy toll on both guerrilla fighters and civilians alike. Malvar escaped American patrols by putting on disguise. So, as early as August 1901, the
Americans released an exact description of Malvar's physical features. According to the description given, Malvar was of dark complexion and stood around 5
feet 3 inches. He weighed about 145 pounds and wore a 5 or 6 size of shoes. He surrendered to Bell on April 13, 1902, mainly due to desertion of his top
officers and to put an end to the sufferings of his countrymen. After the war, he refused any position offered to him in the American colonial government. He
died in Manila on October 13, 1911, due to liver failure. He was buried in his hometown,Santo Tomas, Batangas, on October 15, 1911. On September 18,
2007, Rodolfo Valencia, Representative of Oriental Mindoro filed House Bill 2594, that declared Malvar as the second Philippine President, alleging that it is
incorrect to consider Manuel L. Quezon as the Second President of the Philippine Republic serving after Emilio Aguinaldo: "General Malvar took over the
revolutionary government after General Emilio Aguinaldo, first President of the Republic, was captured on March 23, 1901, and [was] exiled in Hong Kong by
the American colonial governmentsince he was next in command." In October 2011, Vice President Jejomar Binay sought the help of historians in proclaiming
revolutionary General Miguel Malvar as the rightful second President of the Philippines. The Miguel Malvar class corvette, named after Malvar, is a ship class of
patrol corvettes of the Philippine Navy, and are currently its oldest class of corvettes. Extra Mile Productions conducted the General Miguel Malvar Essay Writing
Contest in commemoration of the 100th Death Anniversary of General Miguel Malvar. Malvar, Batangas, a second class municipality in the Philippines, was
named after him.

Republic of Negros
The Republic of Negros (Spanish: Repblica de Negros, Hiligaynon: Republica sang Negros) was a short-lived revolutionary republic, and later, administrative
division, which existed while the Philippines was under Spanish and American sovereignty. It took its name from Negros Island. From November 3 until
November 6, 1898, the people of Negros rose in revolt against the Spanish authorities headed by politico-military governor Colonel Isidro de Castro. The
Spaniards decided to surrender upon seeing armed troops marching in a pincer movement towards Bacolod. The revolutionaries, led by General Juan
Araneta from Bago and General Aniceto Lacson fromTalisay, were actually carrying fake arms consisting of rifles carved out of palm fronds and cannons of
rolled bamboo mats painted black. By the afternoon of 6 November, Colonel de Castro signed the Act of Capitulation, thus ending Spanish rule in Negros
Occidental. On November 27, 1898, the unicameral Chamber of Deputies (Spanish: Camara de Deputados) met in Bacolod and declared the establishment of
the Cantonal Republic of Negros (Spanish: Repblica Cantonal de Negros). The Chamber of Deputies acted as a Constituent Assembly to draft a constitution.
When the invasion of the United States Army was looming, President Aniceto Lacson raised the American flag in the Casa Real to welcome the army as a
friendly force. Despite the initial protest from the Negros Oriental deputies, the republic came under U.S. protection on April 30, 1899 as a separate state from
the rest of the Philippine Islands and on the next day, the constitution was passed. On July 22, 1899, it was renamed the Republic of Negros, but on April 30,
1901, it was dissolved and annexed to the Philippine Islands by the United States.
List of Rulers of Republic of Negros
Aniceto Ledesma Lacson (April 17, 1857 in Molo, Iloilo, Philippines February 3, 1931 in Talisay, Negros Occidental,
Philippines) was a Filipino, revolutionary general, sugar baron and businessman. He is notable for leading the Negros Revolution along
with Juan Araneta, and for being the President of the short-lived Republic of Negros from November 5, 1898 until April 30, 1901.
Lacson was the fifth son of seven children of Lucio Petronila Lacson and Clara Ledesma of Iloilo who migrated to Negros when he was
still young. His early education began under private tutelage in Molo, Iloilo. He later studied commerce at the Ateneo Municipal de
Manila, where his classmates included future general and comrade Juan Araneta, Dr. Jos Rizal, and other Filipinos who later figured in
the Philippine Revolution. While a student in Manila, he had the opportunity to meet the founder of the Katipunan, Andrs Bonifacio,
with whom he had a secret blood compact. He was the only Negrense who had this honor and consequently became a member of the
revolutionary society. Aniceto first married Rosario Araneta, a direct descendant of the Kabungsuan royal family of Mindanao, daughter
of Patricio Cabunsol Araneta and Leoncia Araneta, with whom he sired eleven children. They were: Jesusa, the eldest, married Jose
Maria Arroyo y Pidal, her second cousin. Jesusa and Jose are the grandparents of Atty. Jose Miguel Arroyo,husband of President Gloria
Macapagal-Arroyo; Emilio and Clotilde, both died at an early age; Carmen, married Ricardo Claparols, a Spaniard, Enriqueta, married Domingo Lacson III, a
first cousin; Isaac, who became governor of Negros, then congressman and senator of the Republic married Carmen Paterno; Mariano, married Lilia Montilla;
Perfecta, married Santiago Franco; Jose, died young; Aniceto, Jr., married Aurora Lacson, a cousin; and Dominador, married Visitacion Lacson, another cousin.
With his second wife, Magdalena Torres, he had 10 children. They were: Resureccion, married Carlos Sackermann; Margarita, a former Miss Negros
Occidental, married William Gemperle; Leonila, married Angel Gamboa; Leoncia, single born 6 December 1903 died 29 June 1981; Nicolas, married Amparo
Lacson, sister of Arsenio Lacson, Mayor of Manila, parents of the famous and controversial Rose Porteous of Perth, Australia; Juan, married Reymunda
Villareal; Jose, married Estelita Adrias; Lucio, a Marine Engineer married to Consuelo Flores; had 6 daughters -Jennifer Lacson Snyder, Christie Lacson
Eccleston, Kathleen Lacson Griffith, Vivienne Lacson Pascual, Grace Lacson Hosseini, May Lacson. He died in 1989, Luis, married Lily Distajo and Consuelo,
married Sebastian Corro. When his father became bedridden, he took charge of all the work in the haciendas and did much to improve the properties. As a
result, through his efforts his father became one of the richest men in Negros and the Philippines. When the time came to divide his fathers properties his other
brothers chose the best haciendas. He, for his part, chose the uncultivated ones. Thus, he received more land from his father than his brothers. Through hard
work, he improved all the land and turned it into one of the best producing haciendas in Negros. In the later 19th century, a Swiss businessman by the name of
Luchinger decided to sell his vast properties in Matabang, Talisay, which he earlier purchased from Nicholas Loney, the biggest sugar cane producer in Negros at
that time. It was offered to Aniceto Lacson, but he did not have enough ready cash. Luchinger was willing to sell it on installment but Anicetos father Lucio
refused as the venture appeared risky. Aniceto negotiated with Luchinger to agree to sell it to him without guarantor. Knowing that Aniceto was hardworking,
honest and followed through with his business commitments, Luchinger agreed. His home in Talisay City, Negros Occidental is owned by his descendants the
Claparols family. The Cantonal Republic of Negros was established with Aniceto Lacson as its President from November 27, 1898 until March 4, 1899 when the
Negros revolutionaries surrendered to the United States General James Francis Smith. The government lasted for three months and four days.
Melesio Severino was the Civil Governor of Negros Republic from 1899 until 1901.




Kottayam
Kottayam (Cotiote) is a former Hindu vassal feudal city-state in the erstwhile province of Malabar in present day Kerala, in the Indian subcontinent.
[1]
Kottayam
(Cotiote) is famed for Pazhassi Raja (Pyche Rajah), one of principal leaders of Wynaad Insurrection (Kotiote Palassi rebellion or Cotiote War). The Kingdom of
Kottayam covered what is today Talassery Taluk (1000 km
2
) of Kannur District and Wynad District (2000 km
2
). Head-quarters of this kingdom was located
in Kottayam, a small town not far from Tellicherry. The royal dynasty of princely state of Kottayam was called Purannatt Swarupam. The Padinjare Kovilakam or
Western Branch of this royal dynasty was located at Pazhassi and is famous for its heroic royal rebel, Pazhassi Raja.
List of Rulers of Kottayam
Vira Varma (Elder) was the ruler of the princely state of Kottayam or Cotiote in Malabar, India in the seconf half 18th century until 1774.
Kerala Varma Pazhassi Raja (also known as Cotiote Rajah or Pychy Rajah) (January 3, 1753 - November 30, 1805) was one of
the earliest freedom fighters in India. He was the Prince Regent of the princely state of Kottayam or Cotiote in Malabar, India from
1774 until his death on November 30, 1805. His struggles with English East India Company is known as Cotiote War. He is popularly
known as Kerala Simham (Lion of Kerala) on account of his martial exploits. Pazhassi Raja was a member of the western branch of
the Kottayam royal clan. When Hyder Ali of the Kingdom of Mysore occupied Malabar in 1773 the Raja of Kottayam found political
asylum in Travancore. Pazhassi Raja, the fourth prince in line for succession to the throne during this period, became one of the de
facto heads of state surpassing several of his elder royals. He fought a war of resistance on Mysorean army from 1774 to 1793. On
account of his refusal to flee and resolve to fight invaders, people of Kottayam stood firmly behind the Raja who had not abandoned
them in their hour of misfortune. Raja's troops were drawn from ranks of theNambiar, Thiyya and also the tribal clans
like Kurichias and Mullukurumbas. In 1792, after the Third Anglo-Mysore War, English imposed their paramountcy in Kottayam in
violation to their earlier agreement of 1790 which recognised independence of Kottayam.Vira Varma, to whom Raja was a nephew,
was appointed by the East India Company authorities as the Raja of Kottayam. To meet revenue target fixed by Company authorities,
Vira Varma ordered exorbitant rate of tax to be collected from the peasantry and this move was met by a mass resistance led by
Pazhassi Raja in 1793 who was opposed to surrender to English right from beginning. In 1796, the Company made an attempt to arrest Pazhassi Raja, but he
evaded capture and instead fought back using guerrilla warfare. After a string of serious setbacks, the Company sued for peace in 1797. The conflict was renewed
in 1800 over a dispute on Wayanad and after an insurgent warfare lasted for five years, Pazhassi Raja was killed on 30 November 1805 in a gun-fight at Mavila
Todu near Kerala-Karnataka border. Kerala Varma Pazhassi Raja was born in the Padinjare Kovilakam of Purannattu Swarupam- the royal clan of the kingdom
of Kottayam. This Padinjare Kovilakam (Western Branch) of the royal dynasty was located at Pazhassi. Thus, the origin of the name Pazhassi Rajawas
pronounced as Pychy Rajah by the early British. The name Cotiote Raja comes from the British anglicising the name Kottayam to Cotiote. The kingdom of
Kottayam covers what is today the Thalassery taluk (1000 km
2
) of the Kannur District andWayanad district along with Gudalur and Panthalur taluks of the
Nilgiris District and some parts of Kudagu. As a royal clan, Purannattu Swarupam had three branches, a western branch or Padinjare Kovilakam at Pazhassi near
Mattannur, an eastern branch or Kizhakke Kovilakam at Manatana near Peravoor and a southern branch or Tekke Kovilakam at Kottayampoil near
Koothuparamba. Pazhassi Raja's warfare with Mysore troops can be divided into two phases based on the rulers of the kingdom of Mysore. First phase lasted
from 1773 to 1782 during this time Mysore ruler was Hyder Ali. Second phase extended from 1784 to 1793 and during this phase he fought troops of Tipu
Sultan, son and successor of Hyder Ali: In 1773, Hyder Ali marched into Malabar for the second time, for non-payment of tributes from the Rajas (kings) of
Malabar as agreed after war in 1768. Most of the Rajas of Malabar, along with many Naduvazhis or vassals fled to seek political asylum in Travancore. Princes
and younger noblemen who refused to flee the invasion organised resistances. The Malabari partisans made excellent use of the wooded hills that covered most
of Malabar during this rebellions. In 1774, at age of 21, Pazhassi Raja took over the throne to replace his uncle who had fled to Travancore. He vowed to resist
Hyder Ali's troops, and stayed on in Kottayam where he gathered a force and began a guerrilla battles against the troops of Mysore as he had neither guns or
troops enough to face them in an open battle. He set up a large number of bases in the nearly impenetrable forested mountains of Puralimala and Wynad and
repeatedly inflicted severe minor losses to the Mysore army in Kottayam as well as in Wynad. Once true Raja of Kottayam had fled away, a three royals rose to
power in Kottayam. Nephew of escaped Raja named Vira Varma and his nephews, Ravi Varma and Pazhassi Raja now took over reigns of government. Vira
Varma was a skilled in political intrigue and manipulation whereas Ravi Varma was too incompetent to play any serious political role and hence his role only was
nominal. Pazhassi Raja become most powerful figure in Kottayam, much to chargin of his uncle Vira Varma. Hence Vira Varma played a series of power games
with aim to check growing clout of his nephew. So relations between Vira Varma and Pazhassi Raja was one of enmity right from onset. Military situation was
grim for Pazhassi Raja and his troops in 1774, Coorgs had joined hands with Hyder Ali on promise of being gifted Wynad and a large Coorg army camped in
Wynad to help Mysore troops. In 1776, Hyder Ali re-installed Hindu Raja in Chirakkal and latter joined Mysore war effort to crush Pazhassi Raja. This triple
alliance which lasted till 1780 reached nowhere near defeating Kottayam army. During his long war with the Mysore and then the English East India Company,
Pazhassi Raja increased his sphere of influence significantly eastwards as far as the outskirts of Mysore. His men regularly looted enemy treasuries and
sandalwood from southern Karnataka and his enemies could do little to check these raids. This enabled him to lay claim on a great chunk of the Mysore district
as far as Nanjangod in east. Also Pazhassi Raja and his men frequently raided the domains of neighbouring Rajas in northern Malabar and Coorg to harass the
enemy regiments posted there and he was often supported by local population of those territories. Along with this he had close ties with Ravi Varma andKrishna
Varma, who were princes of Calicut and popular rebel leaders of southern Malabar. Thalasseri or Tellicherry in late 18th century was a harbour-fort which was
held by British East India Company as a factory. Value of Tellicherry as a naval base meant that her capture could seriously impact British naval situation in West
Coast. Also rebels in North Malabar bought arms and ammunition from British in Tellicherry. So if Hyder could capture this fort, he could in a stroke cripple
both rebels in North Malabar as well as British military power at a regional basis. So in 1778, Hyders vassal, the Raja of Chirakkal, besieged Thalasseri and
enforced an economic blockade-under orders from Hyder himself. The British factors at Talassery armed Pazhassi Rajas men to enable them to recover
Kottayam from the Mysorean occupation army. This move by the British ensured that the Chirakkal army was now at risk of being struck in the rear by Pazhassi
Rajas force. The Chirakkal troops began to retreat. But Pazhassi chased and devastated the Chirakkal army, and then marched to Kottayam where he obliterated
the Mysorean occupation and over-ran all of Western Kottayam. But at this critical moment when the Mysorean army in Malabar could have been destroyed by a
joint action on the part of British and the Rajas, the British factors at Talassery were instructed by the Governor not to upset the nominal peace with Hyder.
Thus the British decision not to exploit the victory at Thalasseri was exploited by Mysore. The Chirakkal army reinforced by a Mysorean contingent under
Balwant Rao marched into Kottayam. Pazhassis men, though secretly supplied with arms and ammunition by the British, could not hold or defeat this huge host
and soon the Kottayam army was forced to disperse after a fight. Then the Mysore-Chirakkal army captured Kadathanad and installed a puppet Raja who joined
hand with Mysore. In 1779, a huge Mysore-Chirakkal-Kadathanad army besieged Thalasseri. Pazhassi Raja sent a force of 2000 Nairs to aid British defence of
Thalassery-and this enabled factors to hold on successfully. By end of 1779, Sardar Khan, the Mysorean general was sent to Thalasseri to bring the siege speedily
to a successful conclusion. Sardar Khan knew that it was Pazhassi Rajas help that enabled the British to resist him and so he opened negotiations with Pazhassi
his offer was the restoration of Mysore occupied territories of Kottayam if Pazhassi would ally himself with Mysore and pay an immediate tribute of 500,000
rupees. It was well beyond the capacity of Kottayam to raise so huge a sum in so short a time. But Pazhassi did his best to pay Sardar Khan [probably in hope that
latter would make concessions] and 60,000 rupees was paid to the latter. But Khan was not satisfied and rejected Pazhassis request that his possessions in
Malabar be restored. This greedy and tactless approach of Sardar Khan's made sure that there was little chance for Mysore to capture Thalasseri. Kottayam army
became far more stronger with their major victory in 1779 at Kalpetta (Wynad) where whole Coorg army of 2,000 was surrounded and decimated by Pazhassi
Raja's troops.Destruction of Coorg army in Wynad enabled Raja to throw a whole new army into contest at Thalasseri. In 1780, Pazhassi Raja proposed a plan to
the British to break the Mysorean siege of Thalassery: he and his men would strike the enemy in the rear from the east as the British came out of the fort and
struck the Mysorean line in front. Both armies would effect a junction that would split the enemy into two. The Mysorean and allied troops could then be routed
easily. But it was only in 1781 that the British understood the value of this plan and their Bombay authorities agreed to it. An operation was carried out as per
Pazhassi's plan; it ended with the destruction of the Mysorean forces. Sardar Khan himself was killed. What followed was a rebellion in Kottayam by the Nayar
militia led by Pazhassi Raja. Soon, the Mysoreans were ousted. By 1782, Kottayam was once more a free land. But by the Treaty of Mangalore [1784] after the
Second Anglo-Mysore War, the British recognised Tipu Sultan's sphere of authority in Malabar. Thus with its only valuable ally lost, Kottayam was ready to
become a vassal state of Mysore. Once more, as Sardar Khan did in 1779, Mysore exacted an exorbitant rate of tribute. Although Ravi Varma, the elder brother
of Pazhassi Raja agreed to pay 65,000 rupees per year, Mysore demanded 81,000 rupees. The hiked rate of tribute meant greater hardship for the peasantry
[largely Tiyar/Izhava] who had suffered from years of foreign occupation. So Pazhassi Raja took up this issue and decided to launch a mass resistance struggle
once more. What angered Pazhassi Raja even more was that his brother Ravi Varma who paid visit to Tipu Sultan in 1786 for peace talks was forced to sign a
treaty which ceded Wayanad to Tipu Sultan. Pazhassi Raja decided not to let Tipu enjoy Wayanad in peace and kept up a guerrilla warfare that constantly
harassed Mysore troops in Wayanad and neighbourhood. War in Wayanad lasted for seven years till 1793 when the last of Mysore garrisons were expelled
from soil of Wayanad. By the end of 1788, Pazhassi Rajas hatred of Tipu had shot up on account of the latters policy of forcible conversion. So he strengthened
his ties with British on one hand and with fellow rebel chiefs and princes in Malabar on other hand. Not surprisingly, Tipu sent an army under a French general
named Lally with a genocidal missionthe extermination of theNair caste from Kottayam to Palakkad as Tipu was determined to end the menace of Nair
rebels in Malabar who had foiled all attempts of him and his late father Hyder Ali to subjugate and exploit Malabar. But in 1790, Tipu abandoned the war in
Malabar as the war in Deccan drew his attention. Pazhassi Raja joined the British with a force of 1500 Nairsto capture the Mysorean stronghold in Katirur (near
Talassery). After Katirur, Pazhassi Raja and his troops moved south-east and captured the Kuttiyadi fort from Tipus men. Thus once more the whole of
Kottayam was in the control of Pazhassi Raja. In 1790, the British recognised Pazhassi Raja as the head of Kottayam instead of the original Raja who was in refuge
at Travancore. Raja agreed to pay 25,000 rupees as tribute to the British. But his struggle with Mysore troops continued in Wayanad till 1793 when he freed that
land also. But by the Treaty of Seringapatam (1792) signed between the British and Tipu after the latter failed in Third Anglo-Mysore War, Malabar was ceded
to the British. The British then began to work for establishment of their supremacy in Malabar. This was where the British and Pazhassi Raja had opposite
opinions Pazhassi Raja helped the British not because he was ready to accept British sovereignty but because he wanted his country Kottayam to be a free land.
Pazhassi Raja was disturbed when he heard about the terms which British put forward to Rajas of Malabar in 1792 because British had signed a cowl with him in
1790 which promised to respect independence of Kottayam. The summary of the British terms in 1792 were as follows: The Raja to be able to rule as before but
British to control him in case of oppressing inhabitants. A resident to be appointed to enquire about complaints of oppression.Two persons on the part of
the British and two persons on the part of the Raja to make valuation of land revenue of Kottayam. The Tax to be paid by each subject to be ascertained. The
Rajas tribute to be settled in October 1792 according to the appearance of crop. The British share of the pepper to be delivered at a price fixed by the British in
December 1792. The remainder of the pepper to be bought only by merchants appointed by the British. These terms converted monarchs to mere agents of the
British. Rajas were now stripped of their right to rule as they willed; they also lost control over their economies. Kottayam was represented by Vira Varma, uncle
of Pazhassi Raja during talks with British in 1792. Vira Varma concluded treaty with British by which he accepted all terms and conditions put forward by British.
Pazhassi Raja resisted British imperialism from 1793 onwards till his death in 1805. He fought two wars to resist British intervention in the domestic affairs of his
kingdom. From 17931797 he fought over the question of the management of Kottayam and from 18001805 over the issue of who was to be master of Wynad.
British called their wars with Pazhassi Rajah as Cotiote War. The British offered rewards for information about the whereabouts of Pazhassi Raja (3000 pagodas),
Vira Varma Raja (1000 pagodas), and Ravi Varma Raja (1000 pagodas). Pazhassi Raja was not on good terms with his uncle Vira Varma, Raja of Kurumbranad.
In 1793, foxy Vira Varma who had surrendered Kottayam to British back in 1792, convinced British Commissioners to let him collect tax in Kottayam. He
calculated that a good collection might please the British and that that would let him seize all of Kottayam. Needless to say, Pazhassi Raja was angry at this British
move. He felt betrayed. After all he was the only Raja in Northern Malabar to have helped the British consistently in the war with Mysore. Vira Varma Raja was a
real crook on the one hand he undertook to collect tax in Kottayam directly and on the other hand he instigated Pazhassi Raja to oppose the British. Moreover,
the British assessment was harsh and beyond the peasants' capacity to pay. They resisted its forcible collection by the agents of the British, and Pazhassi Raja took
up their cause. As seen before, Raja was deadly opposed to extortion of the peasantry. In 1793, Pazhassi Raja made sure that no tax was collected in Kottayam by
the British as a mark of his protest. He also threatened that if British officials did not give up their enumeration of pepper vines, he would have the vines
destroyed. Local British authorities, however, debated with Raja and soon both discovered Vira Varmas dirty games. So the British put forward a solution
acceptable to the Raja by which 20 percent of gross revenue would go to Raja and another 20 percent would go for the temples' expense. No tax would be
imposed on temple property in the immediate future. In 1793, Tipus Vakils protested to the British that Pazhassi Raja, who was a British tributary, had overrun
most of Wayanad, still under Mysore. Soon the Raja was supreme in the Wayanad Plateau. But the Governor General unwisely revoked the agreement in 1794
and gave Kottayam to Kurumbranad Raja on a five-year lease. The Raja was truly angry at this decision and decided to retaliate by ruling his country as per
customary law. The year before the lease was concluded the Raja had provided asylum to a Nayar noble, Narangoli Nambiar belongs to the Iruvazinad royal clan,
who had been declared an outlaw by British for the murder of three men who had killed his kinsman. The Rajas kind treatment of Nambiar irritated the British.
The British also became angry that the Raja impaled two robbers as per customary law. British planned to arrest Raja for 'murder', but gave up the idea as the
Raja had a bodyguard of 500 well armed Wayanad Nayars. In 1795, even after a year Vira Varma Raja got Kottayam on lease, he was not able to collect tax in
Kottayam-thanks to his nephew Rajas determination. So British troops arrived in Kottayam to help Vira Varmas tax collectors, but Pazhassi Rajas men resisted
them with success. In 1796, orders were issued from Bombay to collect tax arrears for two years in Kottayam. For British no more pretexts were needed to arrest
Raja. 300 men under Lieutenant James Gordon marched from Talassery and seized Rajas fortified house at Pazhassi-but Raja fled four days earlier to Manattana
[near Kottiyur]. Gordon plundered the palace where traditional treasure of Raja was kept. Raja was angry at this loot and sent a letter to Supervisor at Thalassery.
Raja was also angry that one of his former general named Pazhayamviden Chandu had become an agent of Kurumbranad Raja and what angered him even more
than that was that this turn-coat had the audacity to boss him with Vira Varmas and British blessings. Raja shifted his HQ to Purali Range and then into
Wayanad. Raja then blocked all British communications between Wayanad and Low Malabar through Kuttiyadi Pass. The British retaliated by cutting all
communications between Raja and Low Malabar. But as they did not have enough troops to chase him they waited for reinforcements. The British commandant
was Colonel Dow, whom Raja knew well during Siege of Thalassery. So Raja thought that this old friend might help him mediate with the British government.
Raja offered to give up the struggle provided he was pardoned and his treasure and house restored. The Colonel and Raja being old soldiers hated needless
bloodshed and so he forwarded Rajas request to Commissioners, who though they were bitterly opposed to Rajas independent style, agreed to the Colonels
suggestion as there was a risk that Raja might ally with Tipu. So Northern Superintendent ordered the restoration of the Raja's house [but not treasure], and the
Raja's pardon was confirmed by the Bombay and Supreme Governments. But the orders of government were communicated to the Raja via Vira Varma which
meant that uncle Raja took care not to report to his nephew that the British had agreed to his requests. Uncle Raja had a vested interest in war between the
Company and his nephew Pazhassi Raja. Vira Varma also removed Kaitheri Ambu, a favourite noble and general of Raja, from home administration of
Kottayam. Ambu along with followers went to Kannavam [also spelledKannavath and Kannoth], where he planned and executed a mass resistance with peoples
support, which made sure that Vira Varma could make no tax collection in Kottayam. But Ambu acted clearly on guidance of Raja, who felt expulsion of Ambu
was another of his uncles conspiracies to undermine him. Raja feared that British planned to seize him [not knowing that their truce terms were kept blocked
from him by his uncle] and retreated into depths of Wayanad. British troop build up in Wayanad also accelerated his doubts. However Raja was still eager to
avoid a war and came to meet Northern Superintendent with a bodyguard of 1500 armed Nayars. Vira Varma Raja was also ordered to be present. Pazhassi
Rajas main demand was that Kottayam must be under his rule-a demand his uncle was not ready to accede. British Commissioners' attitude also was arrogant-
they were already prejudiced towards Raja and so were blind towards Rajas logical argument that Vira Varma had no business in Kottayam. As talks broke down,
Commissioners' issued a threat proclamation in Kottayam that if those Kottayam men in service of Raja does not desert him and come home, they would be
declare enemies and their properties would be confiscated. But this proclamation had little effect in Kottayam where resistance to British-Kurumbranad rule
became stronger. British, to their horror, found out that a large number of Vira Varmas troops had deserted to join ranks of resisters and Vira Varma himself
was not much interested to help British-after all his aim was to create a flare up between his nephew and British for sake of pure self-interest. Raja then visited to
Mysorean commandant at Karkankotta in 1796 and in 1797 held an audience with old enemy Tipu in Mysore who posted 6000 men at Karkankotta to aid Raja
in case of war and also to supply ammunition to rebels. He also began to collect troops and armament. War was imminent. 1200 troops and artillery under Major
General was sent by Bombay Government to deal with Pazhassi. British also began to set up outposts in Kottayam and sent more troops to Wayanad. In early
1797, Nayar militia rose all over Kottayam and British outposts were trapped in a true state of siege. Partisan bands became active all over Kottayam and harassed
reinforcements and supply convoys. Same was the case in Wayanad where British troops that moved out of safety of block-houses risked being way-laid by
Kurichia bowmen. British suffered good loss in terms of men, ammunition and stores in these ambuscades. This event was the most important in the whole war.
In 1797, Colonel Dow & force marches into Wayanad. His plan was to block Periya Pass and then crush a large rebel force in Kannavam once their retreat is
blocked. Reinforcements under Lieutenant Mealy were to reach Dow at Periya, but on way they were severely harassed by a force of Nayars and Kurichias and
suffered a casualty of 105 men. So instead of Periya they retreated to their original base. Dows troops suffered chronic shortage of supplies and so Dow applied
for reinforcements and re-supplies to be sent under Major Anderson of Bowles' regiment. But as Mappila guides of Anderson deserted at last moment. That
caused a delay in journey of Anderson-a delay that had fatal consequence for British. Dow then received news that Tipu had sent sepoys to aid Raja as Tipu
considered British entry into Wayanad a violation of Seringapatam Pact. Dow decided that he will go to Talassery to consult authorities there and to plan a
greater operation to deal with troops of Raja and Tipu simultaneously in Wayanad. He left with a small band of men but was ambushed on way by Rajas men
aided by Mysorean sepoys but Dow escaped unhurt. Day after he left, British force of 1100 under Major Cameroon in Periya decided to descend into Kottayam
via Periya Pass as their supplies have exhausted. But what they did not know was that Raja who learnt of true state of British army laid a trap for them-he ordered
troops lay concealed in camouflaged stockades built on both sides of pass. Once the whole British force entered the narrow pass, hidden troops were to pounce
on their enemy who must be caught unawares. Plan worked well and what followed was great slaughter of British. Had it not been for arrival of Major Andersons
force the following day, hardly any would have survived due to lack of medical care. Most of enemy were killed and all their guns, ammunition, baggage and cattle
were plundered along with Union colours. Senior British officers like Major Cameroon, Lieutenant Nugent, Lieutenant Madge and Lieutenant Rudderman were
killed in action. Around this time, Commissioners took a decision on advice of Swaminatha Pattar, a Tamil Brahmin who was minister of Zamorin that sowed the
eventual downfall of Pazhassi Raja. They decided to raise an irregular force of local traitors to harass Pazhassi Raja. This force was a fore-runner of the
infamous Kolkar, who became infamous for their sycophancy to British and cruelty to resisters and people. A brief introduction to Swaminatha Pattar-He is an
arch rogue who helped to consolidate British rule in Calicut. Though he was Zamorin's representative to British, he betrayed his master and worked secretly to
deliver kingdom of Calicut to British. Ravi Varma who led resistance to Hyder Ali and Tippu Sultan became so furious at this betrayal that he along with his
nephews tried to assassinate him in 1793. But the attempt failed and British arrested Ravi Varma who had fled to Wayanad to join hands with Pazhassi Raja. Ravi
Varma and his nephews were imprisoned and died in mysterious circumstances believed to be poisoned by authorities. What impact would death of Ravi
Varma of Calicut made of Pazhassi Raja is anyone's guess, but it is likely that his fear and suspicion of British only shot up after these events in Calicut in 1793.
But for time being, Raja was in a strong position. On account of British disasters, Bombay Government sent a Committee of Government composed of men of
highest ranks-Commander-In-Chief Lieutenant General Stuart and Governor Jonathan Duncan. They decided to make peace as they were anxious that guerrilla
warfare in a mountainous and forested terrain could last long and that Raja might join forces with Tipu or French. They also decided that Kurumbranad Raja
Vira Varma should be ousted form administration of Kottayam. Rajas of Chirakkal and Parappanad acted as mediators in negotiation between Raja and British
and a peace pact was signed between Pazhassi and British in 1797. The Treaty of 1797 agreed on following points:

Pazhassi Raja was to be 'pardoned'. He will be
returned his treasure. He will be provided an annual allowance of 8000 rupees. He will be given back his confiscated house at Pazhassi. Ravi Varma, elder
brother of Pazhassi Raja will be head of Kottayam. A pardon and restoration of property was also extended to Narangoli Nambiar of Iruvazinad. Thus Rajas
efforts of four years ended in a political victory. Peace dawned after four years of antagonism and war. Tipu Sultan in his letter to French government notes with
glee that British had lost 1,000 European soldiers and 3,000 native sepoys in four years of war between British troops and Kottayam army. After fall of Tipu,
Wayanad fell to British. They sent a Mysore Commission to seize Wayanad and planned to annex it to either Canara or Coimbatore. But as Wayanad was a
traditional possession of Kottayam Raja and that Pazhassi is in control of this region since 1793, Pazhassi correctly saw move was an encroachment on his
countrys ancient provinces. Raja retaliated by collecting a large force of Nayars which was now supplemented by Mappilas and Pathans, latter being ex-soldiers of
Tipu who became unemployed after Tipus death. British Government at Madras appointed Major General Arthur Wellesley as British army commandant of
Mysore, Canara & Malabar- He planned a double pronged move from Malabar Coast and Mysore into Wayanad and began preparations for that end. Raja
observed Major General-latter had brought reinforcements and building roads in Wayanad and outposts across rebel country. In response, Raja also recruited
numerous men which so alarmed Wellesley that latter even wanted to kidnap kith and kin of rebels so as to check Rajas recruitment. Raja learnt that Wellesley
had left to Deccan on a military mission-Raja who understood that Major Generals absence is a great chance swiftly made his move. He marched across
Kuttiyadi Pass and below he made a junction with Unni Mootha Mooppan, a Walluvanad Mappila leader & his men and soon several great nobles like
Kampuratt Nambiar of Iruvazhinad, Peruvayal Nambiar and Kannavath Sankaran Nambiar also joined Raja with their men. By monsoon of 1800, rebels who
controlled all of country-side of Kottayam threatened to overwhelm British outposts in Kottayam. Wellesley sent a large force under Colonel Sartorius to
recapture rebel held Kottayam. But the plan could not be carried out as there were not enough troops in Malabar. Wellesley advised Commissioners to stop all
communications with Wayanad so as to starve Raja of supplies. But shortage of troops also meant this plan too remained on paper. By the time, Wellesley
decided to smash Raja by a double drive from Malabar Coast and Mysore into Wayanad, Manjeri Athan Gurikkal an Ernad Mappila leader along with his
followers agreed to support of Raja. By 1801, a large British force of over 10,000 men swarmed all over Kottayam and Wayanad and they blocked all passes that
linked Wayanad with Malabar. Before so large numbers, rebels thought wise to go under-ground for time being. Raja also found that he could no longer contact
his supporters in Southern Wayanad and Southern Malabar. Raja became a wanderer in forests but even then, to surprise of British, he ruled out compromise it
seems he understood that there was no alternative to full freedom. Raja had six close aides and 25 musketeers in his wanderings. First he went north via Payyavur
along montane forests of eastern Chirakkal to rally support. But British were on his trail but failed to catch him. Raja then visited his secret bases in Kottayam and
then moved into Kadathanad and into jungles of Kurumbranad. British were angered that where ever he went, nobles supported him in secret and decided to
punish them for their help to rebel Raja. As a part of terrorization, Peruvayal Nambiar who was arrested was hanged. British also threatened brutal penalty and
confiscation of property for all those rebels who failed to surrender in six weeks time. But a pardon was also issued for surrendered rebels. But none of these
threats and temptations worked and Raja was still at large. But some of his chief supporters were arrested of whom Kannavath Sankaran Nambiar was most
famous. Kannavath Sankaran Nambiar and his son were hanged too and their property was confiscated. The tree on which Nambiar and his son was hanged was
preserved until recent past. But then the tree fell away. It stood at Chittaripparamba junction near Koothuparamba. Following murder of Kannavath Nambiar, a
deceptive calm descended on North Malabar-calm before storm. Collector Major MacLeod believed that war was over and went ahead with exploitation
program. He immediately declared a total disarmament of Malabar and threatened those who kept arms with death penalty. He also doubled the rate of tax and
ordered a reassessment of tax of whole Malabar in a mere forty days. All these 'reforms' paid back in 1803 when Malabar was on verge of revolt as people were
pushed to wall. MacLeod tried to calm this with corrective measure-He cancelled all his 'reforms' and old system was reinstated. But it was too late for Wayanad
where Rajas men were prepared for a rebellion. The first major event was the capture of Panamaram Fort. Edachena Kungan Nair planned the operation and
was helped by 150 Kurichia bowmen under Talakkal Chandu. Fort had 70 men under Captain Dickenson and there was a large force of 360 men under Major
Drummond only a few miles away in Pulinjali. So if Major came to help Captain in time Kurichia force would be overwhelmed by gun-fire and numbers. But
Kungan and Chandu decided to take risk. Whole garrison was slaughtered in the surprise attack led by the two generals and they lost only 5 dead and 10
wounded. Dickenson himself was killed. Rebels got 112 muskets, six boxes of ammunition and 6000 rupees. They also destroyed the whole fort.(The remains of
the fort can be seen now near Panamaram High School). Wellesley was enraged at this rebel audacity and dispatched 500 men to retaliate. But by then rebel
victory had roused all of Wayanad and Kottayam. Edachena Kungan, hero of Panamaram success, went to Pulpally shrine and issued a proclamation to people to
join Rajas war. 3000 men volunteered. They were posted at Valliyurkav at Mananthavadi, Motimjarra [?], and Edappally and 100 of them under brother of
Kungan posted themselves at Periya Pass and 25 men were posted at Kottiyur Pass. Rebel outposts were set up en route from Dindimal to Valliyurkav. The rebel
army was mostly composed of archers and sword men, but some had muskets. Edachena Kungan Nambiar led an attack on a British detachment headed from
Mysore to Mananthavadi. Harassment began once this force entered Wayanad till it reached a stream between Manathavadi and Bhavully [?] river. There they
were blocked by a rebel force entrenched on opposite side of stream. But to ill luck of rebels a reinforcement which had caught up with blocked British army
outflanked the rebel entrenchment and took a large number of prisoners. All these prisoners were disarmed and marched to a road where they were murdered.
[2]

Besides, British reinforcements arrived in Wayanad from all directions. But British could find rebels nowhere. The rebels now concentrated in Kottayam. In
1802, they raided a supplies convoy near Kottiyur. British were frustrated by Kottayam peoples total lack of co-operation. To add to their trouble, in 1803, a
rebel force took to field in Kurumbranad* & Payyormala* and people were sympathetic to rebels. Kungan marched towards Pazhassi to wipe out the British
outpost there but had to retreat, though British suffered serious losses. Soon rebellion spread into Chirakkal where armed bands of partisans launched operations
and often fought British openly. Rajas army by end of 1803 was ranging as far as Kannur and Thalasseri (Both in northern and eastern parts of modern Calicut
District). In March 1803, a rebel force marched as far as Calicut and captured Sub-Jail where they killed all guards and seized their firearms and ammunition.
They also released prisoners, many of whom joined ranks of rebel army. This was too much for MacLeod and he resigned immediately after this event. In 1803,
Wellesley left for Europe, after three years of inconclusive war with Pazhassi Raja, later destined to become Duke of Wellington, vanquisher of Napoleon at
Waterloo. In 1804, a large British army arrived and 1200 Kolkar were also ready for action. Most importantly Thomas Hervey Baber, a cunning man was
appointed as Sub-Collector. It was he who crushed Pazhassi's Revolt forever. It is indeed ironic that what a military genius like Wellesley could not attain, was
achieved by Baber said to be just a 'civil servant.' Baber had both a personal motive to avenge the death of his friend Major Cameron, the first husband of his
wife Helen Somerville Fearon at the hand of Pazhassi Raja on January 9, 1797 at Periya Pass. Baber became a civil servant to protect the interests of a small but
influential group of merchants that included his in-laws the Inglis and Money families of Bombay. It is noteworthy that Baber's son Henry Fearon Baber
married the Granddaughter of George Harris, 1st Baron Srirangapattam and the nemesis of Tipu Sultan. In 1804, a huge rising led by Kalyat Nambiar [a
powerful Chirakkal noble but Rajas sympathiser] and Rajas men in largely forested eastern Chirakkal was crushed by British. If there was large and long revolt
warfare in Chirakkal, it would have immensely profited Raja. Though there was a lot of supporters of Raja in Chirakkal, as revolt collapsed fast as rebels opted for
open confrontation instead of time honoured guerrilla warfare. Another cause for failure of revolt was treacherous Kolkar also served their White pay-masters
well. So once more rebel force had retreat to Wayanad. They were hotly chased by British who had 2000 Sepoys and 1000 Kolkar. A reward of 3000 pagodas
was offered for Raja along with 1000 Pagodas for Edachena Kungan and bounties were put on heads of 10 other associates of Raja. But rebels, mostly Kurumbas,
struck at Churikunji [?] in Wayanad. Though they had to withdraw, they had devastated their enemy. That year, a party of Kolkar nearly caught Raja but he
escaped thanks to timely warning of a Kurumba guard. But monsoon and brutal climate of Wayanad soon aided Raja. Of 1300 Kolkar only 170 were not sick by
October. Raja and Edachena Kungan organised a large force of Kurichias and Kurumbas at Pulpally shrine and positioned them to as far as Kurichiyat. Also
effort of Kungan to rally Nayar nobles of Wayanad to support Rajas war-effort had also succeeded. British for past couple of years did not have to suffer loss on
a scale of Periya in 1797, but matters were not easy for British at all. Even in Kottayam which had become quiet might explode once more and a large rebel force
with Raja as head was still at large. But one must remember that the whole revolt is a one man show as Wellesley himself remarked once-We are not fighting
1000 men [Rajas army] ... but one man ... Kerala Varma. - Rajas end would mean end of revolt. T.H. Baber went to Mysore to direct operations himself and
began a large search for informants and traitors. True, British themselves admit that they did not get lot of informants as locals were devoted to Raja, but some of
those few informants proved devastating to revolt-one of them a Chetti, found out where Raja had camped and informed Baber who took to field with 100
Kolkar and 50 Sepoys, But it must be added in this context that had Pazhayamviden Chandu not given British a full and clear picture about inner workings of
Pazhassi military force, British could not have destroyed Pazhassi Raja. Pazhassi Raja's war machine was an enigma for British before autumn of 1805. But since
recruitment of turncoat Pazhayamviden to British imperial service in 1800, British fully understood their elusive enemy and consequences were fatal for
Pazhassi Raja and his cause. But to his credit and to credit of his followers and subjects, he gave a bloody five-year fight to British across Northern Malabar.
There is one school of thought that blames Pazhayamviden Chandu as solely responsible for fall of Raja and end of his revolt. Pazhayamviden worked with
British military authority as an "adviser" like Pallore Eman, but in reality spied for Raja. But in autumn of 1805 Pazhayamviden decided to betray all military
secrets of his master for a large sum of money. In light of above points, it will not be far fetched to believe that Chetti who guided British troops to Raja's hideout
mentioned by Baber in his letter could be a servant or agent of Pazhayamviden Chandu. On 1805, 30 November, Raja and retainers were camped near close to
Karnataka on shore of a stream named Mavila or Mavila Tod. Raja and party were caught by surprise and an intense but short fight followed. Six rebels were
killed. One of the earliest rebels to be killed was Pazhassi Raja. Given below is an account of final moments of Raja: "The night of November 29, 1805 was
surprisingly hot and humid in the jungles beyond Wayanad. A small army of rebels from Malabar had crossed over to the Mysore side and was holed up there,
hidden from the British. None of them could sleep properly and there was a sense of unease." "The following morning, their leader, Kerala Varma, was up early.
It was an important day for him, his mother's death anniversary. He bathed in the Mavila Thodu, and finished his prayers. He discussed strategy with his men for
a while, and then they formed a protective circle around him as he sat on the bank and the ceremonies began. Suddenly, in the middle of the rituals, they found
themselves surrounded by the English army under Sub-Collector Thomas Harvey Baber." "Bullets were fired and the men scattered. His men pleaded with
Kerala Varma to escape, but he refused. In the ensuing confusion, a bullet caught him in the chest. With a prayer to Sriporkali, his clan deity, he collapsed on the
bank. His men stood helpless, watching the end of their only hope of freedom." But evidently, wounded Raja did live long enough for a few more minutes to
raise his loaded gun and then tell Canara Menon, an East India Company minor official, not to come too close to his dying body and pollute it. Raja's contempt
and sarcasm for a man who chose to serve unclean foreigner is evident. But it also showed his uncompromising stand towards collaborators and foreign invaders.
Aralat Kutty Nambiar, another outlawed noble, who accompanied Raja fought a desperate duel with enemy and met a hero's death. Four other followers of Raja
also were killed in action and his sickly wife and her maids were taken prisoner. Sick wife of Raja along with her maids too were arrested but T.H. Baber took
care to ensure treatment for the sickly widow of Raja. To the credit of T. H. Baber, he treated Rajas body with due respect and arranged for cremation with full
traditional honours. Baber justified his respectful treatment in following words: I was induced to this conduct from the consideration that, although a rebel, he
was one of the natural chieftains of the country, and might be considered on that account rather as a fallen enemy. Baber also added: Thus terminated the
career of a man who has been enabled persevere in hostilities against the Company for near nine years, during which many thousand valuable lives have been
sacrificed and sums of all money beyond all calculation expended.
Vira Varma (Younger) was the ruler of the princely state of Kottayam or Cotiote in Malabar, India in early 19th century.
Prime Minister or Sarvadikaryakar of the princely state of Kottayam
Kannavath Sankaran Nambiar (c. 1760 27 November 1801) was the Prime Minister or Sarvadikaryakar of the princely state of Kottayam or Cotiote
in Malabar, India for reigned Pazhassi Raja in late 18th century and early19th century. The word "Kannavath" means "that which is associated with Kannavam" -
Kannavam is the name of a village which is located in Thalasseri taluk of Kannur district. But "Kannavam" is also the name of the dominant feudal Nair
(Nambiar) clan resident to this village and this Nair clan once possessed this village along with vast estates in neighborhood that was estimated at 400 square miles.
Kannavath Nambiars were vassals of Kottayam Raja and were once the richest landlords in whole of Northern Malabar. Sankaran was born into this feudal clan.
As a teenager Sankaran joined Pazhassi Rajah's war effort to oust Mysoreans from Kottayam. Rajah was pleased with his courage, determination, loyalty and also
appreciated his skill in diplomacy and administration - so he appointed him as his prime minister. One of Pazhassi rajah's main head-quarters was located in
Todikulam which was in heart of Sankaran's fief. Much of Sanakaran's fief was covered with mountains and woods inhabited by Kurichia tribesmen who proved
to be of great help in war with Mysore and then British. During first war with British, Kannavath Nambiar along with Kaitheri Ambu played a major role in the
mass resistance and subsequent war faced by British. He also was present in Todikulam where Pazhassi troops entrenched in a fortified temple fought British
army in 1797 - British faced severe loss in this encounter with death of their senior leaders like Captain Bachelor and Captain William Brown. During second
war with British too he played an active role. In June 1800, he along with his friends collected a large band of rebels. The British, on 4 August 1801, proclaimed
him an outlaw and imposed death penalty on him. But Sankaran along with his men helped Rajah evade capture and came into agreement with rebels in South
Malabar like Manjeri Athan Gurikkal as well as organized harassing warfare increase difficulties of British troops. On November 27, 1801, Sankaran along with
his 24 year old son and a small band of rebels who had camped at Kuttiyadi was betrayed to British by a Brahman. That night itself British took all the prisoners
to Kannavam and hanged them in night. The following morning people of Kannavam was greeted by sight of hanged bodies of their lord and his followers. The
tree on which Sankaran and his son was hanged fell recently due to natural death. But 1 acre spot where he along with his son and retainers were hanged is even
now kept vacant as a memorial and is called as Kuritikalam or Plot of Blood Sacrifice. Sankaran showed remarkable calm and courage even at the moment he
was to be hanged. British officers repeatedly promised him pardon and a big reward if they showed Pazhassi Raja's hideout to British. But Sankaran angrily
rejected all offers and told his executioners that "he will get a far greater reward in heaven if he remained loyal to his Raja." His son, nephew and brother as well as
rest of his arrested followers who were to be hanged also rejected British offer of pardon and reward in exchange for information about Pazhassi Raja's hideout.
So all of them were hanged that same night - Sankaran reportedly put the noose around his neck with his own hands and his followers also repeated his example.

Lai
Lai (simplified Chinese: ; traditional Chinese: ; pinyin: Li Gu), also known as Laizi (|) or Laiyi (), was an ancient Dongyi state located in
what is now eastern Shandong Province, recorded in the Book of Xia. Tang Shanchun () believes laimeans "mountain" in the old Yue language, while
the Yue Jue Shu () says lai means "wilderness". Lai was a traditional enemy of the State of Qi to its west. As soon as Jiang Ziya, the first ruler of Qi, was
enfeoffed at Qi, the state of Lai attacked its capital at Yingqiu. In 567 BC, Lai attacked Qi but was decisively defeated by Duke Ling of Qi, and its last ruler
Furou, Duke Gong of Lai, was killed. Lai was a large state, and Qi more than doubled in size after annexing Lai. The people were moved to Laiwu,
where Mencius called them the Qdng yrn (t , s ), the "peasants of eastern Qi".
Known Ruler of Lai
Furou (), Duke Gong of Lai () was a ruler of Lai, ancient Dongyi state located in what is now eastern Shandong Province in China from ? until 567
BC.

Principality of Samtskhe (Meskheti)
The Principality of Meskheti (Georgian: ) or Principality of Samtskhe (Georgian: ) was a Georgian feudal principality
existing between 1268 and 1628. Its territory consisted of modern Meskheti and the historical region of Tao-Klarjeti. Samtskhe-Saatabago was established after
the expansion of the dukedom of Samtskhe. Dukes of Samstkhe were always distinguished by their longing for higher autonomy from the king of Georgia. After
the Mongol invasion and their conquest of Georgia, Sargis I Jaqeli and David VII of Georgia rebelled against their Mongol overlords, but failed, and after a
myriad of events Samtskhe-Saatabago was designated as a Khasinju, a territorial unit submitting only to the Khan, nominally being a Ulus. Samtskhe-Saatabago
managed to remain a culturally developed part of Georgia as well as maintaining territorial integrity, sometimes even expanding along its borders. Samtskhe-
Saatabago, which was fully independent at a time, was again incorporated in the Georgian Kingdom by George V of Georgia, who claimed maternal descent from
the House of Jaqeli. George V made Samtskhe-Saatabago an integral part of Georgia once again. At the end of the 14th century, Timur's forces invaded
Samtskhe-Saatabago several times. After the weakening of Georgian monarchy, the rulers of Samtskhe turned to separatism once more.
List of Princes of Samtskhe (Meskheti)
Sargis I Jaqeli (Georgian: I ) (died 1285) was a Georgian nobleman of the House of Jaqeli who became the first sovereign Prince of
Samtskhe (Meskheti) from 1268 until his death in 1285. Sargis was the son of Beka Jaqeli, duke of Samtskhe in southwest Georgia, and served as eristavi
and amirspasalar under King David VII of Georgia. When David revolted against the Mongol emperors of Il-Khan in 1260, Sargis assumed the commandership
of rebel forces and confronted the Mongol punitive expedition led by Arghun Agha. He was eventually defeated, but succeeded in beating off Arghuns attack on
his estates in 1262. Later that year, Sargis accompanied David VII to the Il-Khan court. He is reported to have pleaded himself guilty of a revolt in order to save
his royal suzerain from Hulagu Khans rage. Around same time, he took part in the Il-Khans struggle against the rival Mongol ruler Berke of the Golden Horde,
and reputedly saved Hulagus life during a battle. The khan decided to reward Sargiss service by granting him the city of Karin, an honor blocked by jealous
Georgian rivals. Having felt betrayed, Sargis broke with the Georgian court, but remained a faithful vassal to the Il-Khans, and was granted inj status in 1266.
Thus, Samtskhe became virtually independent of the Georgian crown and was placed under the Il-Khan protectorate.
[1]
Sargiss association with the Georgian
court was not completely severed, however, as we hear of him being appointed a Lord High Treasurer by Demetrius II of Georgia (r. 12701289).
Beka I Jaqeli (Georgian: I ) (c. 1240 1306) was a Prince of Samtskhe (Meskheti) from 1285 until his death in 1306. His principality included
Samtskhe, Adjara, Shavsheti, Klarjeti, Tao, Kola,Artaani and most of Javakheti. His realm stretched from Tashiskari (modern Khashuri District) to Karnu-kalaki
(now Erzurum) and the Black Sea. During his reign, Samtskhe-Saatabago existed as a politically independent entity from the Georgian Kingdom. Beka was a
vassal of the Ilkhanate, paid regular tributes and participated in their campaigns. Despite being independent, Samtskhe still maintained some kind of relations
with Georgia. Beka himself was given a title of Mandaturukhutsesi (the elder - first in rank - Mandator) by Georgian king. At the time of Beka's rule, the Turks
became more active the Southwest borders, from the Sultanate of Rum. After a series of invasions, he managed to fend off the attacks. Beka was a supporter of
maintaining Georgian political influence over the Empire of Trebizond. For this cause, he married off his daughter Jiajak to the Trapezuntine EmperorAlexios
II. Another daughter of Beka, - Natela, became the consort of Demetrius II of Georgia and bore him a son and the successor to the throne. After the execution
of his father Demetrius by Mongols, George was raised by his grandfather.
Sargis II Jaqeli (Georgian: II ) (died 1334) was a Georgian prince and ruler of Principality of Samtskhe from 1306 until his death in 1334.
[
He was son of Prince Beka I Jaqeli. Sargis II was made Amirspasalari by King George V of Georgia "the Brilliant".
Qvarqvare I (died 1361) was a Prince of Samtskhe (Meskheti) from 1334 until his death in 1361.
Shalva (died 1389) was a Prince of Samtskhe (Meskheti) from 1372 until his death in 1389.
Aghbugha I (died 1395) was a Prince of Samtskhe (Meskheti) from 1389 until his death in 1395.
Ivane II (died 1444) was a Prince of Samtskhe (Meskheti) from 1391 until his death in 1444.
Aghbugha II (died 1451) was a Prince of Samtskhe (Meskheti) from 1444 until his death in 1451.
Qvarqvare II (died 1498) was a Prince of Samtskhe (Meskheti) from 1451 until his death in 1498.
Kaikhosro I (died 1500) was a Prince of Samtskhe (Meskheti) from 1498 until his death in 1500.
Mzetchabuki (died 1515) was a Prince of Samtskhe (Meskheti) from 1500 until his death in 1515.
Manuchar I (died 1518) was a Prince of Samtskhe (Meskheti) from 1515 until his death in 1518
Qvarqvare III (died 1535) was a Prince of Samtskhe (Meskheti) from 1518 until his death in 1535.
Kaikhosro II (1522 - 1573) was a Prince of Samtskhe (Meskheti) from 1545 until his death in 1572.
Qvarqvare IV (died 1581) was a Prince of Samtskhe (Meskheti) from 1573 until his death in 1581.
Manuchar II (died 1614) was a Prince of Samtskhe (Meskheti) from 1581 until his death in 1614.
Manuchar III (1591 - 1625) was a Prince of Samtskhe (Meskheti) from 1614 until his death in 1625.

Kingdom of Tungning (Kingdom of Formosa)
The Kingdom of Tungning (simplified Chinese: ; traditional Chinese: ; pinyin: Dngnng Wnggu) or Kingdom of Formosa was a
government that ruled part of southwestern Taiwan between 1661 and 1683. A pro-Ming Dynastystate, it was founded by Koxinga (also known as Zheng
Chenggong) () after the Ming government in China was replaced by the Manchu-ruled Qing Dynasty. Koxinga hoped to use the island as a base of
operations to train military forces and recapture mainland China from the Manchus. The Kingdom of Tungning is sometimes known as the Zheng Family
Dynasty (simplified Chinese: ; traditional Chinese: ; pinyin: Zhngsh Wngcho), Zheng Family Kingdom (simplified Chinese: ;
traditional Chinese:; pinyin: Zhngsh Wnggu) or Kingdom of Yanping (simplified Chinese: ; traditional Chinese:
;pinyin: Ynpng Wnggu). Taiwan was referred to by Koxinga as Tungtu (simplified Chinese: ; traditional Chinese: ;pinyin: Dngd). In the West, it
was known as the Kingdom of Taiwan,
[1]
and the period of rule is sometimes referred to as the Koxinga Dynasty.
List of Kings of Kingdom of Tungning (Kingdom of Formosa)
Koxinga (a westernization of simplified Chinese: ; traditional Chinese: ; pinyin: Guxngye; literally "Lord of the
Imperial Surname"; August 1624 23 June 1662) or Zheng Chenggong was a Chinese military leader who was born
in Hirado, Japan to the Chinese merchant/pirate Zheng Zhilong and his Japanese wife, and died on the Island of Taiwan (Formosa).
He was the King of Kingdom of Tungning (Kingdom of Formosa) from 1661 until 1662. A Ming loyalist and the chief commander of
the Ming troops on the maritime front for the later emperors of the withering dynasty, Koxinga devoted the last 16 years of his life to
resisting the conquest of China by the Manchus. Upon defeating the forces of the Dutch East India Company (VOC) on Taiwan in his
last campaign in 16611662, Koxinga took over the island in order to support his grand campaign against the Manchu-ruled Qing
dynasty. After Koxinga's death, his son and successor, Zheng Jing, gradually became the ruler of an independent Kingdom of
Tungning, the first Chinese state to rule the island. In 1624, Koxinga, whose name at birth was Zheng Sen (traditional Chinese: ;
simplified Chinese: ; pinyin: Zhng Sn), was born in Hirado, Nagasaki Prefecture, Japan to Zheng Zhilong, a Chinese merchant
and pirate, and a Japanese woman, only known as being surnamed Tagawa. He was raised there until the age of seven and then moved
to Nan'an county in Quanzhou in Fujian province of China. In 1638, Koxinga became a Xiucai (a successful candidate) in the imperial
examination and became one of the twelve Linshansheng () of Nan'an. In 1641, Koxinga married the niece of Dong Yangxian,
an official who was a Jinshi from Hui'an. In 1644, Koxinga studied at the Imperial Nanking University, where he met and became a
student of the scholar Qian Qianyi. In 1644, Beijing fell to rebels led by Li Zicheng and the Chongzhen Emperor hanged himself on a tree at modern-
day Jingshan Park in Beijing. Manchu armies aided by Wu Sangui's forces defeated the rebels and took the city. The Ming remnant forces retreated
toNanjing where the Prince Fu ascended to the throne as the Hongguang Emperor. The next year, the Manchu armies led by Dodoadvanced south and
conquered Yangzhou and Nanjing while the Ming leader defending Yangzhou, Shi Kefa, was killed. The Hongguang Emperor was captured and executed. In
1645, Prince Tang was installed on the throne as the Longwu Emperor with support from Zheng Zhilong and his family. The Longwu Emperor established his
court in Fuzhou, which was controlled by the Zhengs. In the later part of the year, another Ming Prince Lu proclaimed himself as Regent () in Shaoxing and
established his own court there. Although Prince Lu and Longwu's regimes stemmed from the same dynasty, both of them pursued different goals. It was due to
the natural defences of Fujian and the military resources of the Zheng family, that the emperor was able to remain safe for some time. The Longwu Emperor
granted Zheng Zhilong's son, Zheng Sen, a new personal name, "Chenggong" (success), and the title of Guoxingye ("Lord of the Imperial Surname"; Koxinga). In
1646, Koxinga first led the Ming armies to resist the Manchurian invaders and won the favour of the Longwu Emperor. The Longwu Emperor's reign in Fuzhou
was brief, as Zheng Zhilong refused to support his plans for a counter-offensive against the rapidly-expanding forces of the newly established Qing Dynasty by the
Manchus. Zheng Zhilong ordered the defending general of Xianxia Pass (), Shi Fu (a.k.a. Shi Tianfu, a relative of Shi Lang), to retreat to Fuzhou even
when Qing armies approached Fujian. As such, the Qing army faced little resistance when it conquered the north of the pass. In September 1646, Qing armies
broke through inadequately defended mountain passes and entered Fujian. Zheng Zhilong retreated to his coastal fortress and the Longwu Emperor faced the
Qing armies alone. Longwu's forces were destroyed and he was captured and died shortly afterwards. The Qing forces sent envoys to meet Zheng Zhilong
secretly and they offered to appoint him as the governor of both Fujian and Guangdong provinces if he would surrender to Qing. Zheng Zhilong agreed and
ignored the objections of his family, surrendering himself to the Qing forces in Fuzhou on November 21, 1646. Koxinga and his uncles were left as the successors
to the leadership of Zheng Zhilong's military forces. Koxinga operated outside Xiamen and recruited many to join his cause in a few months. He used the
superiority of his naval forces to launch amphibious raids on Manchu-occupied territory in Fujian and he managed to take Tong'an in Quanzhou prefecture in
early 1647. However, Koxinga's forces lacked the ability to defend the newly occupied territory. Following the fall of Tong'an to Zheng, the Manchus launched a
counterattack in the spring of 1647, during which they stormed the Zheng family's hometown of Anping. Koxinga's mother, Lady Tagawa, had come from Japan
in 1645 to join her family in Fujian (Koxinga's younger brother, Tagawa Shichizaemon, remained in Japan). She did not follow her husband to surrender to the
Qing Dynasty. She was caught by Manchu forces in Anping and committed suicide after refusal to submit to the enemy, according to traditional accounts. By
1650, Koxinga was strong enough to establish himself as the head of the Zheng family. He pledged allegiance to the only remaining claimant to the throne of the
Ming Dynasty, the Yongli Emperor. The Yongli Emperor was fleeing from the Manchus in south-western China with a motley court and hastily assembled army
at the time. Despite one fruitless attempt, Koxinga was unable to do anything to aid the last Ming emperor. Instead, he decided to concentrate on securing his
own position on the southeast coast. Koxinga enjoyed a series of military successes in 1651 and 1652 that increased the Qing government's anxiety over the threat
he posed. The fight carried out massacre in Zhangzhou. Zheng Zhilong wrote a letter to his son from Beijing, presumably at the request of the Shunzhi
Emperor and the Qing government, urging his son to negotiate with the Manchurians. The long series of negotiations between Koxinga and the Qing Dynasty
lasted until November 1654. The Qing government appointed Prince Jidu (son of Jirgalang) to lead an attack on Koxinga's territory after the failed negotiations.
On May 9, 1656, Jidu's armies attacked Jinmen, an island near Xiamen that Koxinga had been using to train his troops. Partly as a result of a major storm, the
Manchus were defeated and they lost most of their fleet in the battle. Koxinga had sent one of his naval commanders to capture Zhoushan island prior to Jidu's
attack, and now that the Manchus were temporarily without an effective naval force in the Fujian area, Koxinga was free to send a huge army to Zhoushan, which
he intended to use as a base to capture Nanjing. He was a king. In 1661, Koxinga led his troops on a landing at Lu'ermen to attack the Dutch colonists in Taiwan.
On 1 February 1662, the DutchGovernor of Taiwan, Frederik Coyett, surrendered Fort Zeelandia to Koxinga. During the siege, Koxinga's life was saved by a
certain Hans Jurgen Radis of Stockaert, a Dutch defector who strongly advised him against visiting the overrun ramparts, which he knew would be blown up by
the retreating Dutch forces. In the peace treaty, Koxinga was styled "Lord Teibingh Tsiante Teysiancon Koxin" . This effectively ended 38 years of Dutch rule on
Taiwan. Koxinga then devoted himself to transforming Taiwan into a military base for loyalists who wanted to restore the Ming Dynasty. In 1662, Koxinga's
forces raided several towns in the Philippines. Koxinga's chief adviser was an Italian friar named Riccio, whom he sent to Manila to demand tribute from the
Philippine government, threatening to attack the city if his demands were not met. The Spanish refused to pay the tribute and reinforced the garrisons around
Manila, but the planned attack never took place due to Koxinga's sudden death in that year after expelling the Dutch on Taiwan. Koxinga's threat to invade the
islands and expel the Spanish eventually caused the Spanish failure to conquer the Muslim Moro people inMindanao. The threat of Chinese invasion forced the
Spanish to withdraw their forces to Manila, leaving some troops in Jolo and by Lake Lanao to engage the Moro in protracted conflict, while Zamboanga was
immediately evacuated upon Koxinga's threats. Koxinga died of malaria at the age of 37. There were speculations that he died in a sudden fit of madness when
his officers refused to carry out his orders to execute his son Zheng Jing. Zheng Jing had an affair with his wet nurse and conceived a child with her. Zheng Jing
succeeded his father as the King of Tungning. Zheng Chenggongs short but eventful career was characterised by family tension and conflicting loyalties. The title
of Koxinga ("Lord of the Imperial Surname") was one that Zheng himself used during his lifetime to emphasize his status as an adopted son of the deposed
imperial house, and hence it was also a declaration of ongoing support to the Ming dynasty. Despite his deliberate self-identification as the noble, loyal vassal of a
vanquished master, Koxingas actual relationship with the Longwu Emperor lasted only twelve months or so, beginning in September 1645 and ending with the
Emperor's death the following year. Although many secondary sources claim that the two men shared a "close bond of affection", there is an absence of any
reliable contemporary evidence on Koxingas relationship with the Longwu Emperor. In contrast, Koxingas father Zheng Zhilong left his Japanese wife not long
after the birth of his son; Koxinga would be a boy of seven when he finally joined his father on the Fujianese coast. It seems that Zheng Zhilong recognised his
sons talent and encouraged him in his studies and the pursuit of a career as a scholar-official, which would legitimise the power the Zheng family had acquired
using sometimes questionable means. Zheng Zhilongs defection to the Qing must have seemed opportunistic and in stark contrast to Koxingas continued loyalty
to the Ming. But it is difficult to deny that in refusing to submit to the Qing, Koxinga was risking the life of his father, and that the subsequent death of Zheng
Zhilong could only be justified by claiming loyalty to the Ming. It has even been suggested that Koxingas fury at the incestuous relationship between his son,
Zheng Jing, and a younger sons wet nurse was due to the fact that strict Confucian morality had played such a crucial role in justifying his lack of filial behaviour.
The one possible exception to this may have been his relationship with his mother, which has generally been described as being extremely affectionate,
particularly in Chinese and Japanese sources. Their time together, however, was apparently very short - despite frequent entreaties from Zheng Zhilong for her to
join him in China, Koxingas mother would only be reunited with her son sometime in 1645, and a year later she would be killed when the Qing took Xiamen.
A portrait of Zheng was in the hands of Yuchun who was his descendant in the eight generation. During the Siege of Fort Zeelandia, Koxinga executed Dutch
missionary Antonius Hambroek and took his teenage daughter as a concubine. Other Dutch women were sold to Chinese soldiers to become their wives. In
1684 some of these Dutch wives were still captives of the Chinese. Depending on which side of the Taiwan Strait, Koxinga is remembered differently. Koxinga is
worshipped as a god in coastal China especially Fujian and Taiwan and by overseas Chinese in Southeast Asia. There is a temple dedicated to Koxinga and his
mother in Tainan City, Taiwan. The National Cheng Kung University in Tainan, one of the most prestigious universities in Taiwan, is named after him. Koxinga
is still revered for expelling the Dutch from Taiwan. Koxinga's army also brought the Qinxi fraternal brotherhood into Taiwan, of which some of his army were
members of the organization. In the present day, the Qinxi currently exists in Taiwan. The Hongmen are associated with them. The play The Battles of
Coxinga (Kokusen'ya Kassen, ) was written by Chikamatsu Monzaemon in Japan in the 18th century, first performed in Kyoto. A 2001 film
titled The Sino-Dutch War 1661 starred Vincent Zhao as Koxinga. The film was renamed Kokusenya Kassen after the aforementioned play and released in
Japan in 2002. Koxinga has received renewed attention since rumours began circulating that the Peoples Liberation Army Navy were planning to name their
newly acquired aircraft carrier, the ex-Soviet Varyag, the Shi Lang. Although the Chinese government denied all allegations that the vessel would be dedicated to
the decorated Qing dynasty admiral. Admiral Shi Lang famously defeated Koxingas descendants in 1683, thus claiming Taiwan as part of Mainland
China under Qing dynasty rule. Koxinga is regarded as a hero in the People's Republic of China, Taiwan, and Japan, but historical narratives regarding Koxinga
frequently differ in explaining his motives and affiliation. Japan treats him as a native son and emphasized his maternal link to Japan in propaganda during
the Japanese occupation of Taiwan. The People's Republic of China considers Koxinga a national hero for driving the imperialist Dutch away from Taiwan and
establishing ethnic Chinese rule over the island. On Mainland China, Koxinga is honoured as the Conqueror of Taiwan, Great Rebel-Quelling General a
military hero who brought Taiwan back within the Han Chinese sphere of influence through expanded economic, trade and cultural exchanges. According to
Wong Kwok Wah, Koxinga is honoured in China without any religious overtones and reverence as in Taiwan. The Republic of China, which withdrew to
Taiwan after losing the Chinese Civil War, regards Koxinga as a patriot who also retreated to Taiwan and used it as a base to launch counterattacks against
the Qing Dynasty of mainland China. In Taiwan, Koxinga is honored as the islands most respected saint for expelling the Dutch and seen as the original ancestor
of a free Taiwan, and is known as Kaishan Shengwang, or the Sage King who Opened up Taiwan and as The Yanping Prince, Lost Colony: The Untold Story
of China's First Great Victory Over the West - Dramatis Personae, which refers to the Kingdom of Tungning, which he established in modern-day Tainan.
In Taiwan, Koxinga is remembered and revered as a divine national hero with hundreds of temples, schools, tertiary educations, and other public centers named
in his honor. Koxinga is accredited with replacing Dutch colonial rule with a more modern political system. Furthermore, Koxinga transformed Taiwan into an
agrarian society through the introduction of new agricultural methods such as the proliferation of iron farming tools and new farming methods with cattle. For
these reasons, Koxinga is often associated with hints of [a] consciousness of Taiwanese independence. However, not all Taiwanese accept the popularized
interpretation of the Koxinga legacy. Supporters of Taiwanese, or Republic of China independence are sceptical about embracing the Koxinga legacy. Koxingas
mixed Japanese heritage (the Japanese were an occupying force for 50 years between 1895-1945) and the positive connotations in Mainland China have all made
acceptance by Republic of China independence supporters problematic. Taiwanese aborigines are also highly critical of whole-heartedly accepting Koxinga as a
patron saint and national hero. Although Koxinga was successful in expelling the Dutch East India Company and colonial control from Taiwan, the Aboriginal
population was far from liberated. The Han migrants and soldiers which Koxinga brought to Taiwan seemed merely to replace the Dutch colonialists and also
began to use the Aboriginals as part of their own lucrative endeavours. Koxingas forces and the Han immigrants he brought with him began clearing large tracts
of indigenous land to support their military expeditions and counter any food shortages. Koxinga also accelerated the decrease of deer stock on the island, which
ultimately brought a deleterious effect on aboriginal tribes who relied on the deer trade established by the Dutch. In mainland China, Koxinga is also considered
a very much positive historical but human figure (not deified as he often is in Taiwan). Koxingas retreat to Taiwan is seen largely as an inspirational story of
Chinese nationalists seeking refuge against hostile forces. Koxingas aspirations to see Taiwan re-united with the mainland is often accentuated. Furthermore
Koxinga facilitated the settlement of a large number of Han Chinese to Taiwan, initially to meet labour demand on the island. As a direct result, Han
Chinese make up approximately 98% of the Taiwanese population today. With such a large-scale migration, the immigrants brought with them their Han culture,
tradition, and language whose roots lie in Mainland China. There are hundreds of public pieces, shrines dedicated to and worship Koxinga. The Koxinga
Temple in Tainan City, Taiwan, is perhaps the most interesting as it is the only Fujianese style shrine in Taiwan. The temple illustrat[es] the geographic
connection between Taiwan and the Mainland, [whilst] describ[ing] the evolution of life from the past to the present, which means that the temple acknowledges
that Koxinga is a legacy shared by both Taiwan and the Mainland and that this perhaps is still important today. In Mainland China however, there is only one
official memorial to their conqueror of Taiwan and that is on Gulang Island of Xiamen, Fujian Province (which is positioned directly across Taiwans Kinmen.
The imposing statue of Zheng Chenggong in full military regalia, gazes over the water facing Taiwan. Whilst the statue of Zheng portrays a clean-shaven young
general in armour [in] Taiwan, Koxinga seldom appears as a warrior. His portraits show him as a Ming noble in civilian robes and wearing a small beard, a
symbol of seniority and sobriety. This difference in commemoration of the Koxinga story illustrates the wide difference in attitudes on either side of
the Taiwan Strait on the issue of Taiwan sovereignty.
Zheng Jing (November 4, 1642 - March 17, 1681), courtesy names Xianzhi () and Yuanzhi (), pseudonym Shitian (),
was a 17th-century Chinese warlord and Ming Dynasty loyalist. He was the King of the Kingdom of Tungning (Kingdom of Formosa)
from 1662 until his death on March 17, 1681. He was the eldest son of Koxinga (Zheng Chenggong) and a grandson of the pirate-
merchant Zheng Zhilong. After the conquest of Taiwan in 1662 by his father, Zheng Jing controlled the military forces
inXiamen and Quemoy on his father's behalf. Upon the death of his father six months later, Zheng Jing contested throne as the King of
Taiwan with his uncle, Zheng Shixi. The dispute was resolved in Zheng Jing's favor after he successfully landed an army in Taiwan
despite strong opposition by the forces of his uncle. This was followed by Zheng Shixi withdrawing his claim. With both the vast pirate
fleet and the throne of Tainan, he intended to continue his father's plans to invade the Philippines; however, he was forced to abandon
this venture when faced with the threat of a Manchu-Dutch alliance. His victory over a combined Manchu-Dutch fleet in 1664 resulted in
ending the brief alliance. For the next 19 years, he tried to provide sufficiently for the local inhabitants and reorganizing their military forces in Taiwan. He
frequently exchanged ambassadors with the Kangxi Emperor from the mainland. Although he continued to fight for the cause his father died for, he had largely
abandoned any pretense of restoring the Ming Dynasty by the time he invaded Fujian in 1676. He occupied key cities in the province for a year before losing
them back to the Manchus by the end of 1677. Invading Fujian once more, he led a force of 30,000 men to capture Haicheng as well as taking the provincial
commander prisoner. In 1680, Zheng Jing was forced to abandon Xiamen, Quemoy and the Pescadores islands after losing a major naval battle to
ChineseQing admiral Shi Lang. Driven off the mainland by the Manchus, he retreated to Tainan where he fell ill and died of dissipation on March 17, 1681.
Zheng named as his successor his oldest son, Zheng Kezang; however, Zheng Kezang was quickly toppled in favor of Zheng Keshuang.
Zheng Kezang () was the King of the Kingdom of Tungning (Kingdom of Formosa) briefly in 1681. He was son of Zheng Jing previous King of the
Kingdom of Tungning (Kingdom of Formosa) from 1662 until his death on March 17, 1681. Kezang was quickly toppled in favor of Zheng Keshuang.
Zheng Keshuang (August 13, 1670 September 22, 1717), courtesy name Shihong (), pseudonym Huitang (), was the King of the Kingdom of
Tungning (Kingdom of Formosa) from 1681 until his death on September 22, 1717. He was the second son of Zheng Jing and a grandson of Koxinga (Zheng
Chenggong). When Zheng Jing died in 1681, the official Feng Xifan allied with Zheng Jing's cousin to launch a coup to kill Zheng Kezang (), Zheng Jing's
eldest son, and install a 12-year-old Zheng Keshuang on the throne of Tungning. Zheng Keshuang became known as the "Prince of Yanping Commandery"
(). In 1683, the Kangxi Emperor of the Qing Dynasty commissioned Shi Lang to lead a naval fleet to attack Tungning. Shi Lang's fleet defeated the
Tungning forces led by Liu Guoxuan at the Battle of Penghu. Feng Xifan then urged Zheng Keshuang to surrender to the Qing Dynasty. Zheng Keshuang
heeded his advice. Zheng Keshuang then moved to the Qing capital, Beijing, where he became a member of the Plain Red Banner of the Eight Banners, and
received the title of "Duke of Haicheng" () from the Kangxi Emperor. He died of illness in 1717 and his ducal title was not inherited by his descendants.
Zheng Keshuang married Feng Xifan's daughter and they had a son, Zheng Anfu (). The Taiwanese poet Zheng Chouyu (; born 1933) is a
descendant of Zheng Keshuang. Zheng Keshuang appears as one of the antagonists in the novel The Deer and the Cauldron by Louis Cha.

Habbari Emirate
The Habbari dynasty ruled the Abbasid province of Greater Sindh from 841 to 1024. The region became semi-independent under the Arab ruler Aziz al-
Habbari in 841 CE, though nominally remaining part of the Caliphate. The Habbaris, who were based in the city of Mansura, ruled the regions of
Sindh, Makran, Turan, Khuzdar and Multan. The Umayyad Caliph made Aziz governor of Sindh and he was succeeded by his sons Umar al-Habbari I and
Abdullah al-Habbari in succession while his grandson Umar al-Habbari II was ruling when the famous Arab historian Al-Masudi visited Sindh. The Habbaris
ruled Sindh until 1024 when Sultan Mahmud Ghaznavi defeated their last ruler and annexed the region under the Ghaznavid rule independent but loyal to the
Abbasids. The Habbaris have a history which goes back to pre-Islamic times. Initially they played an active role in the politics of Nejd in the Arabian Peninsula.
Later they remained prominent during the rule of the Umayyads and the Abbasids in Syria and Iraq. The ancestors of Umar bin Abdul Aziz (not to be confused
with the Umayyad Caliph of the same name), the founder of the Habbari emirate, came to Greater Sindh almost five or six generations earlier. The family
acquired an agricultural estate in the village of Baniya, which later became an important town. Here the Habbaris engaged themselves in agriculture and in
commerce and achieved a prominent status among the Arab settlers. They also established close relations with the Umayyad as well as Abbasid emirs. Although
the Habbaris were settled in Baniya for well over a century and even married locals, like many other Arab settlers in Sindh, they strictly maintained their Arab
identity. They continued to follow the customs of traditional Arab tribal society, converse in the Arabic language and lead a life according to the teachings
of Islam. The result was that after secession of Greater Sindh from the Caliphate, there was no basic change in the character of the regime and the newly
established Habbari state continued to function on the lines set by the Umayyads and the Abbasids. The basic change was in the ruling hierarchy and in the
administration of funds derived from the existing system of taxation. The state established by the Habbaris came to be known as Mansura. In the period 855 C.E.
to 1025 C.E. about ten members of the Habbari family held the offices of emirs in Mansura. The names of three of these rulers, Umar bin Abdul Aziz, his sons
Abdur Rahman bin Umar and Abdullah bin Umar, appear in the coins found from the site of Mansura. The name Abul Munzir Umar bin Abdullah, who
probably ruled Mansura in the period around 915 C.E., appears in the publication of Masudi. They were nominal vassals of Tahirids,Saffarids, Samanids
and Ghaznavids successively.
List of Rulers of Habbari Emirate
Umar ibn'Abd al-Aziz al'Habbari (died 884) was a ruler of Habbari Emirate from 855 until his death in 884.
Abdullah bin Umar (died 913) was a ruler of Habbari Emirate from 884 until his death in 913.
Umar bin-Abdullah (dieed 943) was a ruler of Habbari Emirate from 913 until his death in 943.
Muhammad bin Abdullah (died 973) was a ruler of Habbari Emirate from 943 until his death in 973.
Ali bin Umar (died 987) was a ruler of Habbari Emirate from 973 until his death in 987.
Manbi ibn Ali bin Umar (died 1010) was a ruler of Habbari Emirate from 987 until his death in 1010.
Khafif (died 1025) was a ruler of Habbari Emirate from 1010 until his death in 1025.

Langah Dynasty
The Langah (Persian: ) dynasty ruled Multan for 80 years. Langah is a tribe of agriculturists having different theories about their origin.Some Langahs
claim to have been originally an Afghan tribe, who came to Multan from Sibi for the purposes of trade and eventually settled at Rappri, near the city of Multan. In
the confusion that followed the invasion of South Asia by Amir Timur, the city of Multan became independent of the Sultanate of Delhi. The inhabitants chose
Shaikh Yousaf Qureshi, a descendent of the famous Sufi Baha-ud-din Zakariya, as governor. In 1445, Rai Sahra, chief of the Langahs, whose daughter had been
married to Shaikh Yousaf, introduced an armed band of his tribesman into the city by night, seized Shaikh Yousaf, and sent him Delhi, and proclaimed himself
king, under the title Sultan Qutbudin. The dynasty was terminated with the capture of Multan, by the Mughal Emperor Babur, mainly because the tribe
maintained an alliance with Ibrahim Lodi during the battle of Panipatin 1526. Farishta is the authority for their Afghan origin which is doubtful to say the least.
Pirzada Murad Baksh Bhutta of Multan says that Langah are Panwar Rajputs by origin. According to James Todd, these Langah Rajputs were driven out by the
Bhattis at least 700 years ago. Also Mirasis who keep a track of all the lineages have confirmed this Rajput origin. Other than these origins, some langahs also
claim Arab descent and Baloch descent. Other than this Langahs are also classified in jatts in Mandi bahaudin, Multan Districts andDera Ghazi Khan where they
settled during Akbar's Reign. In Montgomery Langah are a part of Arain clan.
List of Rulers of Langah Dynasty
Sultan Qutbudin was a ruler of Langah Dynasty from 1445 until 1460.
Sultan Hussain was a ruler of Langah Dynasty in 1460.
Sultan Firuzshah was a ruler of Langah Dynasty in the second half 16th century.
Sultan Mahmud was a ruler of Langah Dynasty in late 15th century and early 16th century.
Sultan Hussain was a ruler of Langah Dynasty from 1518 until 1526.

Apracas (Avacas)
The Apracas (also known as Avacas) were an Eastern Iranic people and Scythian ruling dynasty of Western Pakistan. TheApraca capital, known as Apracapura
(also Avacapura), was located in Bajaur, Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. Apraca rule of Bajaur existed from the 1st century BCE to the 1st century CE. Its rulers
formed the dynasty which is referred to as the Apracaras. Apracan territory was the stronghold of the warlike Aspasioi tribe of Arrian, recorded in Vedic
Sanskrit texts as Ashvakas. The Apracas are known in history for having offered a stubborn resistance to the Macedonian invader,Alexander the Great in 326
BCE. Sometime during the course of their history, the Apracas, (unlike their Parata vassals inBalochistan abandoned their Iranic religious practices and are
known to have embraced Buddhism). A recently discovered inscription in Kharoshthi on a Buddhist reliquary gives a relationship between several eras of the
period and mentions several Apraca rulers: "In the twenty-seventh year in the reign of Lord Vijayamitra, the King of the Apraca; in the seventy-third year which is
called of Azes, in the two hundred and first - 201 - year of the Yonas (Greeks), on the eighth day of the month of Sravana; on this day was established [this] stupa
by Rukhana, the wife of the King of Apraca, [and] by Vijayamitra, the king of Apraca, [and] by Indravarma (Indravasu), the commander (stratega), [together] with
their wives and sons." This inscription would date to c. 15 CE, according to the new dating for the Azes era which places its inception c. 47 BC. The rulers seem
to have been related to Kharaostes, which if true, would also certainly connect Apraca with Kamuia (q.v) or Kambojika (Kamboja) lineage. Kamuia (q.v) is a
Kharosthised form of Kambojika (q.v) which is same as Kamboja of Sanskrit or Pali texts. The Apraca rulers seem to have adopted honorific Vedic-Buddhist
titles over their own Eastern Iranian names. The last two rulres of the Apraca Dynasty,Aspa and Sasan, seem to have retained their ethnic Eastern Iranian names
instead of adopting a Vedic-Buddhist title like their predecessors. Apraca vassals administrating a southernly satrapy founded the Prata dynasty of Balochistan.
The Apracan vernacular, a branch of Bactrian is often attributed as having been an old form of Pashto. Apracan is also attributed as being the word from which
the word "Afghan" is derived (the later being the old Persian pronunciation of Apracan). Dr. Prashant Srivastava, an Indian professor from the University of
Lucknow, has recently written a research monograph which aims to highlight the significant role played by the Apraca Dynastical rulers, and has connected the
Apraca kings of Pakistan to the Ashvaka clan of Vedic literature. According to Srivastava Ashvaka clan was none else than a sub-branch of the greater Kamboja
tribe spread towards the Pamirs. The Apraca kings are also mentioned in the Bajaur casket.
List of Apraca Dynastical Rulers
Vijayamitra was an Indo-Scythian king of the Apracas in modern Pakistan from 15 BC until AD 20. He is mentioned in a recently discovered inscription
in Kharoshthi on a Buddhist reliquary, which gives a relationship between several eras of the period: "In the twenty-seventh - 27 - year in the reign of Lord
Vijayamitra, the King of the Apraca; in the seventy-third - 73 - year which is called "of Azes", in the two hundred and first - 201 - year of the Yonas (Greeks), on
the eighth day of the month of Sravana; on this day was established [this] stupa by Rukhana, the wife of the King of Apraca, [and] by Vijayamitra, the king of
Apraca, [and] by Indravarma (Indravasu?), the commander (stratega), [together] with their wives and sons.
Indravasu was an Indo-Scythian king of the Apracas in modern Pakistan around AD 20. He had wife Queen Vasumitra.
Vispavarman was an Indo-Scythian king of the Apracas in modern Pakistan around AD 20. He had wife Queen iirena.
Indravarman was an Indo-Scythian king of the Apracas in modern Pakistan in the early part of the 1st century. He had wife Queen iirena.
Aspavarman was an Indo-Scythian king of the Apracas in modern Pakistan in the early part of the 1st century. He is known from inscriptions and coins to
have ruled in Gandhara in the early part of the 1st century. He is also referenced in Ghandari texts, written in Kharosth script, dating from the period.


Kingdom of Middag
The Kingdom of Middag was a kingdom or supra-tribal alliance located in the central western plains of Taiwan in the 17th century. This polity was established by
the Taiwanese aboriginal tribes of Papora, Babuza, Pazeh, and Hoanya; it had ruled as many as 27 villages, occupying the western part of present-
day Taichung county and the northern part of modern Changhuacounty. Having survived the rule of European colonists and the Kingdom of Tungning, the
aboriginal tribes that previously comprised Middag were eventually subjugated to the rule of the Qing Empire in the 18th century. The Kingdom of Middag is the
western name for the kingdom. In Taiwan, it is known as the Kingdom of Dadu (Chinese: ; pinyin: Dd Wnggu; WadeGiles: T-t Wng-
ku; Peh-e-j: Ta-t ng-kok), Dadu being the modern-day name of the historical capital Middag. The 17th century leader Kamachat Aslamie was known
in Hoklo as Quata Ong (Peh-e-j: Khoa-ta ng), and sometimes inDutch as Keizer van Middag. The most common aboriginal name was Lelian ("Sun King").
List of Rulers of Middag Kingdom
Kamachat Aslamie was a ruler of Middag Kingdom from ? until 1648. After the Dutch conquered the Spanish colony in northern Taiwan in 1642, they
sought to establish control of the western plains between the new possessions and their base at Tayouan (modernTainan). After a brief but destructive campaign,
Pieter Boon was able to subdue the tribes in this area in 1645. Kamachat Aslamie, ruler of Middag, was given a cane as a symbol of his local rule under Dutch
overlordship. Between 1646 and 1650, the Company divided his lands into six parts and leased them to Chinese farmers. During this period Kamachat Aslamie
died and was succeeded by his nephew Kamachat Maloe, but his successor was never referred to by the title "Quata Ong".
Kamachat Maloe was a ruler of Middag Kingdom from 1648 until ?.

Republic of Formosa
The Republic of Formosa (literally Democratic State of Taiwan, also known informally in English as the Formosan Republic,Taiwan Republic or Republic of
Taiwan) was a short-lived republic that existed on the island of Taiwan in 1895 between the formal cession of Taiwan by the Qing Dynasty of China to
the Empire of Japan by the Treaty of Shimonoseki and its invasion and occupation by Japanese troops. The Republic was proclaimed on May 23, 1895 and
extinguished on October 21, 1895 when the Republican capitalTainan was occupied by the Japanese. Though sometimes claimed as the first Asian republic to
have been proclaimed, it was predated by the Lanfang Republic, established in 1777, as well as by the Republic of Ezo established in 1869.
List of Presidents of Republic of Formosa
Tang Ching-sung (traditional Chinese: ; simplified Chinese: ; pinyin: Tng Jngsng) (18411903) was a Chinese
general and statesman. He was the President of the Republic of Formosa from May until June 1895. He commanded the Yunnan Army
in the Sino-French War (August 1884April 1885), and made an important contribution to China's military effort in Tonkin (northern
Vietnam) by persuading the Black Flag leader Liu Yung-fu to serve under Chinese command. His intelligent, though ultimately
unsuccessful, direction of the Siege of Tuyen Quang (November 1884March 1885) was widely praised. He later became governor of the
Chinese province of Taiwan. Following China's cession of Taiwan to Japan at the end of the First Sino-Japanese War (18941895) he
became president of the short-lived independent country Republic of Formosa (Taiwan). Tang Ching-sung played an important role in
the Sino-French War and during the period of undeclared hostilities that preceded it. In 1882 he was sent by the Qing government to
Vietnam to assess the ability of the Vietnamese government to resist French expansion in Tonkin. During his stay he was able to
persuade Liu Yung-fu to take the field against the French with the Black Flag Army. Liu's intervention resulted in the French defeat in
the Battle of Paper Bridge on 19 May 1883, in which the French commandant suprieur Henri Rivire was killed. In the wake of this
disaster, Jules Ferry's government committed substantial military and naval forces to Tonkin. Tang was the only senior Chinese
commander to take part in the Son Tay Campaign (December 1883). Although Liu Yung-fu and his Vietnamese and Chinese allies failed
to hold Son Tay against the French, Tang's loyalty to Liu on that occasion was never forgotten by the Black Flag leader. In September 1884 Tang led the Yunnan
Army down the Red River from Lao Cai to threaten the French post of Tuyen Quang, and Liu Yung-fu took service with him as a subordinate general. Although
he ultimately failed to capture the French post, Tang's intelligent and methodical conduct of the Siege of Tuyen Quang was praised by many of his Chinese
colleagues, including Chang Chih-tung, the viceroy of the two Kwangs, and Ts'en Yu-ying, the viceroy of Yunnan and Kweichow. Captain Jean-Franois-Alphonse
Lecomte, one of the more discerning officers of the Tonkin Expeditionary Corps, also paid tribute to the skill T'ang's army had shown in its siegecraft at Tuyen
Quang: The mandarins had directed the attack on Tuyen Quang in a very intelligent manner. Owing to the Moslem insurrection in Yunnan, an insurrection that
had nearly engulfed the entire province and was only put down by Marshal Ma after several sieges, they were now experts in the art of siegecraft. Their troops
were excellent, and although they were unable to capture the fortress, defended as it was by a handful of heroes and relieved in the very nick of time by
Giovanninellis brigade, this siege was nonetheless a glorious feat of arms for the Celestials and showed that when necessary they could rise to the occasion. Tang
succeeded Shao You-lien () as governor-general of Taiwan in 1894. Upon the outbreak of the First Sino-Japanese War (189495) he invited his old
friend Liu Yung-fu to assume command of Ch'ing forces in southern Taiwan. Following China's defeat in the First Sino-Japanese War, Taiwan was ceded to
Japan in April 1895 under the Treaty of Shimonoseki. A number of Chinese officials in Taiwan decided to resist the Japanese, and proclaimed Taiwan an
independent Republic of Formosa. Tang was inaugurated as the republic's president on May 25, 1895. The republic lasted no longer than the time it took the
Japanese to invade and occupy Taiwan. The Japanese invaded northern Taiwan on May 29, 1895 and defeated Chinese forces at Keelung on June 3, 1895.
When the news of the defeat at Keelung reached Taipei on 4 June, the republican leaders promptly abandoned ship. During the night of June 4, 1895 Tang
Ching-sung fled to Tamsui, and from there sailed for the mainland on the evening of June 6, 1895 aboard the steamship Arthur. His departure was delayed for a
day because of disorder in Tamsui. After Tang's flight, the republican forces continued to resist the Japanese in Taiwan under the leadership of Liu Yung-fu.
The republican forces were no match for the Japanese, however, and the republic eventually collapsed with the Japanese occupation of Tainan on October 21,
1895. Like Tang, Liu Yung-fu also abandoned his soldiers and fled to the mainland to escape capture. Tang died in 1903 at his home in Guilin, at the age of 63.
Liu Yongfu (simplified Chinese: ; traditional Chinese: ; pinyin: Li Yngf; WadeGiles: Liu Yung-fu; Vietnamese:
Lu Vnh Phc) (18371917) was a Chinese soldier of fortune and commander of the celebrated Black Flag Army. Liu won fame as a
Chinese patriot fighting against the French in northern Vietnam (Tonkin) in the 1870s and early 1880s. During the Sino-French
War (August 1884April 1885) he established a close friendship with the Chinese statesman and general Tang Ching-sung, and in
1895 he helped Tang organise resistance to the Japanese invasion of Taiwan. He succeeded Tang as the second and last leader of the
short-lived Republic of Formosa from June 5 until October 21, 1895. Liu Yongfu was born on October 10, 1837 in the town
of Qinzhou (Ch'in-chou, ) in southern China, close to the Vietnamese border. Qinzhou, now in Guangxi province, was at that
time in the extreme southwest of Guangdong province. The ancestral home of Liu's family was the village of Popai in Guangxi
province, and when he was eight his parents moved to Shangsizhou (Shang-ssu-chou, ) in Guangxi. Liu's family was poor, living
by manual work for others, and was only just able to scrape a living. In 1857 Liu joined a local militia force commanded by Wu
Yuanqing (Wu Yuan-ch'ing, ), who claimed to hold a commission from the Taipings. The fall of Nanking and the collapse of
the Taiping Rebellion in 1864 altered Liu's prospects dramatically for the worse. Imperial forces gradually began to reassert their
control over southwest China, and it was only a matter of time before they secured Guangxi province. To escape their vengeance, Liu needed to make himself
sufficiently powerful to give the Imperial generals pause. His first step was to buy some time by retreating into the mountains of northern Tonkin. In 1868 he
abandoned Wu Yuanqing's rebels and crossed into Vietnam with a force of 200 soldiers whose loyalty he could trust. He had dreamed as a youth that he would
one day become a famous 'General of the Black Tiger', and christened his tiny band of adventurers the Black Flag Army, heiqi jun (hei-ch'i chun, ). The
Black Flags marched slowly through northern Tonkin, recruiting men to their standard as they went, and eventually set up camp just outside Son Tay, on the
northern bank of the Red River. The mountain regions of western Tonkin were inhabited by tribesmen who did not acknowledge the writ of the Vietnamese
government, and these montagnards resented the arrival of the Black Flag Army on Vietnamese soil. Fearing that Liu might eventually pose a threat to their own
ascendancy in the area, they declared their intention of attacking the intruders. Liu struck first, however, and defeated a far stronger army of montagnards in a
surprise attack. The short conflict enabled Liu to come to an early arrangement with the Vietnamese authorities, who had observed the performance of the Black
Flag Army with great interest. The Vietnamese government, reasoning that it would be difficult to dislodge Liu from its territory and that he might also be a useful
ally against the refractory montagnards, co-opted Liu into its service in 1869 and gave him military rank in the Vietnamese army. Provided that he continued to
act in accordance with his technical status as a Vietnamese military governor, the Vietnamese authorities promised not to trouble the Black Flag leader. Having
secured his base, Liu began to extend his ambitions. Ultimately, his intention was to carve out a small empire of his own controlling the upper course of the Red
River. His first target was the border town of Lao Cai, which had recently been occupied by a force of Cantonese bandits under the command of He Junchang
(Ho Chun-ch'ang, ). His band was allied with the Yellow Flag Army, a force established by Huang Chongying (Huang Ch'ung-ying, ) on the model
of the Black Flag Army and about three times its size. Liu's attempt on Lao Cai brought him into conflict with the Yellow Flags. Troops of both armies moved
warily into the town while their leaders negotiated insincerely. Finally the Yellow Flags launched a surprise attack on the Black Flags, first exploding a mine in an
unsuccessful attempt to kill the Black Flag leader. However, despite their superior numbers, they were defeated and driven from Lao Cai. The town was to
remain in the hands of the Black Flags until 1885, and became Liu's main stronghold. In 1869, having conciliated the Vietnamese, Liu also won favour with the
Chinese authorities by committing the Black Flag Army to a Chinese punitive campaign against the Yellow Flags, which gave him the opportunity to cripple this
rival bandit army. The Chinese expedition was commanded by the veteran general Feng Zicai, who would later win fame during the Sino-French War (August
1884April 1885) by defeating a French column at the Battle of Zhennan Pass (March 24, 1885). In one particular military exploit, known as 'the storming of the
thirteen passes', Liu's Black Flags fought their way through the mountains and attacked Huang Chongying's headquarters at Hayang, a town on the Clear River
near the border with Yunnan, forcing the Yellow Flag leader to take refuge with his montagnard allies. Although the Chinese and Black Flags failed to anninhilate
the Yellow Flags, they taught them a severe lesson, and Feng rewarded Liu for his help by offering him an honorary commission in the Chinese army. In the next
few years Liu Yongfu established a profitable protection racket on commerce on the Red River between Son Tay and Lao Cai. Traders were taxed at the rate of
10% of the value of their goods. The profits that accrued from this extortion were so great that Liu's army swelled in numbers during the 1870s, attracting to its
ranks adventurers from all over the world. Although most of the soldiers were Chinese, many of the junior officers were Americans or European soldiers of
fortune, some of whom had seen action in the Taiping Rebellion, and Liu used their expertise to transform the Black Flag Army into a formidable fighting
force. Liu commanded 7,000 black flag soldiers from Guangdong and Guangxi around Tonkin. In 1873 the Vietnamese government enlisted the help of Liu's
Black Flag Army to defeat the first French attempt to conquer Tonkin, led by the naval lieutenant Francis Garnier. On December 21, 1873 Liu Yongfu and
around 600 Black Flags, marching beneath an enormous black banner, approached the west gate of Hanoi. A large Vietnamese army followed in their wake.
Garnier began shelling the Black Flags with a field piece mounted above the gate, and when they began to fall back led a party of 18 French marine infantrymen
out of the city to chase them away. The attack failed. Garnier, leading three men uphill in a bayonet attack on a party of Black Flags, was speared to death by
several Black Flag soldiers after stumbling in a watercourse. The youthful enseigne de vaisseau Adrien-Paul Balny dAvricourt led an equally small column out of
the citadel to support Garnier, but he also died leading his men. Three French soldiers also were killed in these sorties, and the others fled back to the citadel
after their officers fell. Garnier's death ended the first French adventure in Tonkin. In April 1882 the French naval captain Henri Rivire captured the citadel
of Hanoi, again disclosing French colonial ambitions in Tonkin and alarming the Vietnamese and Chinese governments. In April 1883, in the wake of Rivire's
capture of Nam Dinh (March 27, 1883), the Chinese and Vietnamese were again able to enlist the support of Liu Yongfu and the Black Flag Army against the
French in Tonkin. On May 10, 1883 Liu Yongfu challenged the French to battle in a taunting message widely placarded on the walls of Hanoi: The valiant
warrior Liu, general and military governor of the three provinces, has decided to wage war. He makes this proclamation to the French bandits: Everyone knows
you are thieves. Other nations despise you. Whenever you come to a country, you claim that you have come to preach the faith, but you really wish to stir up the
inhabitants with false rumours. You claim that you have come to trade, but in fact you are plotting to take over the country. You act like wild animals. You are as
fierce as tigers and wolves. Ever since you came to Vietnam, you have seized cities and killed governors. Your crimes are as numerous as the hairs on the head.
You have taken over the customs and seized the revenues. This crime deserves death. The inhabitants have been reduced to misery, and the country is nearly
ruined. God and man both loathe you. Heaven and earth both reject you. I have now been ordered to wage war. My three armies are massed like clouds. My
rifles and cannon are as many as the trees of the forest. We are eager to attack you in your devils den and to suppress all disloyal subjects. But the countrys
welfare weighs heavily with me. I cannot bear to turn Hanoi into a battlefield, in case I ruin its merchants and people. So I am first making this proclamation: You
French bandits, if you think you are strong enough, send your rabble of soldiers to Phu Hoai to fight in the open field with my tiger warriors, and then we will see
who is the strongest. If you are afraid to come, cut off the heads of your chief men and present them to me. Then give back the cities you have taken. I am a
merciful commander, and I will let you miserable ants live. But if you delay, my army will take your city and kill you all, and not even a blade of grass will mark
where you stood. You must choose between happiness and disaster. Life is but a step away from death. Mark my words well. The French had no option but to
respond to so stark a challenge. On May 19, 1883 Rivire marched out of Hanoi to attack the Black Flags. His small force (around 450 men) advanced without
proper precautions, and blundered into a well-prepared Black Flag ambush at Paper Bridge (Pont de Papier), a few miles to the west of Hanoi. In the Battle of
Paper Bridgethe French were enveloped on both wings, and were only with difficulty able to regroup and fall back to Hanoi. Like Francis Garnier ten years
earlier, Rivire was killed in the battle. Liu had now taken the scalps of two French naval commanders in remarkably similar circumstances. Liu began an
unconventional campaign against the French, with success. Liu fought two further actions against the French in the autumn of 1883, the Battle of Ph
Hoi (August 15, 1883) and the Battle of Palan (September 1, 1883). The Black Flag Army was mauled in both these battles, but was not seriously damaged as a
fighting force. In December 1883, however, Liu Yongfu suffered a major defeat at the hands of Admiral Amde Courbet in the Sn Ty Campaign. Despite
fighting with fanatical courage in the engagements at Phu Sa on December14, 1883 and Sn Ty on December 16, 1883 the Black Flags were unable to prevent
the French from storming Sn Ty. Although there were also Chinese and Vietnamese contingents at Son Tay, the Black Flag Army bore the brunt of the
fighting, and took very heavy casualties. Angered that his Chinese and Vietnamese allies had done little to support the Black Flag Army at Son Tay, Liu stood on
the sidelines during the Bc Ninh Campaign (March 1884). After the French capture of Bc Ninh, Liu retreated with the Black Flag Army to Hng Ha. In
April 1884 the French advanced on Hng Ha with both brigades of the Tonkin Expeditionary Corps. The Black Flags had thrown up an impressive series of
fortifications around the town, but General Charles-Thodore Millot, the French commander-in-chief, took it without a single French casualty. While General
Franois de Ngrier's 2nd Brigade pinned the Black Flags frontally and subjected Hung Hoa to a ferocious artillery bombardment from the Trung Xa heights,
General Louis Brire de l'Isle's 1st Brigade made a flank march to the west to cut Liu's line of retreat. On the evening of April 11, 1884 seeing Brire de l'Isle's
Turcos and marine infantry emerging behind their flank at Xuan Dong, the Black Flags evacuated Hng Ha before they were trapped inside it. They set alight
the remaining buildings before they left, and on the following morning the French found the town completely abandoned. Liu now fell back up the Red River to
Thanh Quan, only a few days march from the frontier town of Lo Cai. He was now in a position to retreat into China if the French pursued him. Several
hundred Black Flag soldiers, demoralised by the ease with which Courbet and Millot had defeated the Black Flag Army, surrendered to the French in the
summer of 1884. One of Millot's final achievements was to advance up the Clear River and throw the Black Flag Army out of Tuyn Quang in the first week of
June, again without a single French casualty. If the French had seriously pursued Liu Yongfu after the capture of Tuyn Quang, the Black Flags would probably
have been driven from Tonkin there and then. But French attention was diverted by the sudden crisis with China provoked by the Bc L ambush (June 23,
1884), and during the eventful summer of 1884 the Black Flags were left to lick their wounds.
[13]
Liu's fortunes were transformed by the outbreak of the Sino-
French War in August 1884. The Empress Dowager Cixi responded to the news of the destruction of China's Fujian Fleetat the Battle of Fuzhou (August 23,
1884) by ordering her generals to invade Tonkin to throw the French out of Hanoi. Tang Ching-sung, the commander of the Yunnan Army, knew that Liu's
services would be invaluable in the war with France. Although Liu had bitter memories of his previous service as an ally of China, he respected Tang (the only
Chinese commander to have contributed troops to the defence of Sn Ty), and agreed to take part with the Black Flag Army in the forthcoming campaign.
Appointed a divisional general in the Yunnan Army, Liu helped the Chinese forces put pressure on Hng Ha and the isolated French posts of Phu Doan and
Tuyn Quang during the autumn of 1884. In the winter and spring of 1885 he commanded 3,000 soldiers of the Black Flag Army during the Siege of Tuyn
Quang. At the Battle of Ha Mc (March 2, 1885), the Black Flag Army inflicted heavy casualties on a French column marching to the relief of Tuyn Quang.
One of the conditions of the peace treaty between France and China that ended the Sino-French War was that Liu Yongfu and the Black Flag Army should leave
Tonkin. By the end of the war Liu had only around 2,000 troops under his command and was in no position to resist pressure from Tang Ching-sung and the
other commanders of the Yunnan Army to remove the Black Flag Army. Liu crossed into China with some of his most loyal followers, but the bulk of the Black
Flag Army was disbanded on Tonkinese soil in the summer of 1885. Unpaid for months and still in possession of their rifles, most of the unwanted Black Flag
soldiers immediately took to banditry. It took months for the French to reduce them, and the route between Hung Hoa and the border town of Lo Cai was only
secured in February 1886. Meanwhile, the Qing government rewarded Liu Yongfu for his services in the Sino-French War with a minor military appointment in
Guangdong province. In 1895, under the Treaty of Shimonoseki which ended the First Sino-Japanese War, Taiwan was ceded by China to Japan. The
Taiwanese attempted to resist the Japanese occupation, and a short-lived Democratic Republic of Formosa was declared by the Chinese governor Tang Ching-
sung on May 25, 1895. Tang became president of the new republic, and Liu Yongfu was made a brigadier general and given command of resistance forces in
southern Taiwan. Ten days after declaring independence Tang Ching-sung fled toMainland China, and Liu replaced him as head of government (though he did
not, as is often claimed, succeed to the presidency). At the end of May 1895 Japanese forces landed near Keelung, on the northern coast of Taiwan, and
proceeded to conquer the island. Between June and August the Japanese defeated the Formosan forces in northern and central Taiwan, and in October 1895
three Japanese columns advanced on Tainan, brusquely sweeping aside Liu's forces. On October 20, 1895 Liu fled to the mainland aboard a British ship,
disguised as a coolie. On October 21, 1895 Tainan capitulated to the Japanese. The collapse of Formosan resistance inaugurated five decades of Japanese rule in
Taiwan. Liu Yongfu outlived the Qing dynasty and survived into the second decade of the twentieth century, his reputation growing with the passing years: He
continued until the closing years of the dynasty in the employment of the Kwangtung provincial administration, and is said to have been a notable suppressor of
bandits and a pacifier of clan feuds, those twin curses of the south China countryside. The advent of the Republic in 1912 found him in retirement, listening with
interest to the news of public affairs as others related it to him from the papers, for he himself never learned to read. Most of the time, though, his mind dwelt in
the past. He would take out Garniers watch and show the picture of the young wife inside the cover. He would tell of his challenge to Rivire and describe the
battle at Paper Bridge. But he soon wearied of the incomprehensible foreign devils, and turned instead to what for him had been beyond comparison the most
serious business of his life. The talk would then be all of the Black and Yellow Flags, and of the long years of feuds and hatreds in the steaming malarial jungle
and on the silent reaches of the great river. His published memoirs, for his reminiscences were reverently taken down in writing, have as their main theme the
story of this interminable vendetta between expatriate Chinese. But when he died, in January 1917, it was as the scourge of a foreign enemy, the hero whose
achievements were nullified by the cowardice of his own government, that he was mourned by his countrymen, and that is the way they still remember him. The
Yongfu Road and Yongfu Elementary School in West Central District, Tainan City, Taiwan, are named after Liu Yongfu.

Masmughans of Damavand Dynasty
The Masmughans of Damavand (Middle Persian: Masmughan-i Dumbawand, New Persian: Masmughan-e Damavand, meaning Great Magians of Damavand)
were a local dynasty, which ruled Damavand and its surrounding areas from ca. AD 651 to AD 760. The founder of the dynasty was an Karenid
named Mardanshah of Damavand. The Masmughans of Damavand are first mentioned by Al-Tabari, where the Masmughan Mardanshah of Damavand
reportedly aided the Mihranid Siyavakhsh at Ray against the Arabs. The forces of Siyavakhsh and Mardanshah, were, however, defeated. Mardanshah then
made peace with the Arabs in return for an annual tribute. In AD 748/749, Abu Muslim sought to subdue the Masmughan but his general Musa ibn Kab was
ambushed by the local forces who enjoyed the advantage of the terrain, which forced him to return to Ray. In AD 758/759 due to disputes between Abarwiz and
his brother who is simply called Masmughan in Arabic sources. Abarwiz then went over to the Caliph Al-Mansur who gave him a pension. In some Arabic
sources Abarwiz is called Al-Masmughan Malik (malik of the Masmughans), and is known for his bravery. In AD 760, Masmughan, the brother of Abarwiz, was
at war against his father-in-law, the Dabuyid ispahbadh Khurshid, but when heard about the Abbasid expedition to Tabaristan, he made peace with the latter. The
Arabs then defeated the ispahbadh and the Masmughan, who was captured along with his daughters Bakhtariya and Shakla. One of these daughters became the
wife of Al-Mahdi.
List of Rulers of Mashmugans of Damavand Dynasty
Mardanshah was an Sasanian nobleman from the House of Karen, who was the founder of the Masmughans of Damavand dynasty around AD 651, which
included Larijan and its surrounding areas. During the Arab conquest of Iran, he sent reinforcements to aid Siyavakhsh at Ray against the Arabs. Siyavaksh was
however, defeated. The Arabs then proceeded to Damavand, where Mardanshah made peace with Arabs, while being promised that he will not be attacked, nor
approached without his permission, in return for giving tribute to the Caliphate. He thereafter disappears from history chronicles.
Abarwiz was a ruler of the Masmughans of Damavand dynasty during AD 750s, which included Larijan and its surrounding areas. In AD 758/759 due to
disputes between Abarwiz and his brother who is simply called Masmughan in Arabic sources. Abarwiz then went over to the Caliph Al-Mansur who gave him a
pension. In some Arabic sources Abarwiz is called Al-Masmughan Malik (malik of the Masmughans), and is known for his bravery.
Mashmugan was a ruler of the Masmughans of Damavand dynasty during AD 750s until AD 760, which included Larijan and its surrounding areas. In AD
758/759 due to disputes between Abarwiz and his brother who is simply called Masmughan in Arabic sources. Abarwiz then went over to the Caliph Al-
Mansur who gave him a pension. In some Arabic sources Abarwiz is called Al-Masmughan Malik (malik of the Masmughans), and is known for his bravery. In
AD 760, Masmughan, the brother of Abarwiz, was at war against his father-in-law, the Dabuyid ispahbadh Khurshid, but when heard about the Abbasid
expedition to Tabaristan, he made peace with the latter. The Arabs then defeated the ispahbadh and the Masmughan, who was captured along with his daughters
Bakhtariya and Shakla. One of these daughters became the wife of Al-Mahdi.

Great Yan
Yan (Chinese: ; pinyin: Yn), also known as the Great Yan (Chinese: ; pinyin: D Yn), was a state established in AD 756 by the Tang
Dynasty general An Lushan, after he rebelled against the reign of Emperor Xuanzong of Tang in AD 755. The state was extinguished in AD 763, with the death
of An Lushan's former subordinate, Shi Siming's son, Shi Chaoyi, who was the last person to claim the title as Yan's emperor.
List of Rulers of the Great Yan
An Lushan (simplified Chinese: ; traditional Chinese: ; pinyin: n Lshn, a transcription of the common Sogdian name Rokhshan
meaning "the Bright") (c. AD 703 January 29, AD 757) was the Emperor of Yan (AnShi) (de facto ruler of North China) from 756 until his death on January
29, 1757. He was a general who rebelled against the Tang Dynasty inChina. His name was also transcribed into Chinese as lushn () or
Glushn (), and he was posthumously named Prince La of Yan () by his deputy Shi Siming. An Lushan was of Sogdian and Tujue (Trk)
origin, at least by adoption. He rose to prominence defending the northeastern border from the Khitan and other northern threats. He was summoned
to Chang'an, the Tang capital, several times and managed to get the favor of Chancellor Li Linfu and Emperor Xuanzong. This allowed An Lushan to amass
significant military power in northeast China. After the death of Li Linfu, his opposition with rival generals Geshu Han and Yang Guozhong created military
tension within the Empire, which was increased by the promotion of Yang Guozhong to Chancellor. In AD 755, An Lushan, following 8 or 9 years of
preparation, rose in armed revolt, proclaiming himself to be the ruler of his own, new dynasty, precipitating a series of catastrophic events often known as the An
Lushan Rebellion, named after him (although sometimes referred to as An-Shi after the An and Shi families). An Lushan himself did not live to see the final end
to open fighting, which lasted on into 763. Viewed as paranoid and dangerous, An was assassinated in AD 757 by his own son, An Qingxu, after which his Yan
dynasty continued to spiral into a turmoil that eventually led to its collapse in AD 763. An Lushan's mother was of Tujue ethnicity, from the Ashide clan, and
served as a sorceress. His original name might have been Aluoshan or Galuoshan, which meant "war" in the Tujue language. His father died early, and his mother
Lady Ashide married An Yanyan (), a Tujue military officer, a brother of the general An Bozhi (). An Lushan therefore took the name of An.
Early inEmperor Xuanzong's Kaiyuan era (AD 713 AD 741), there was a disturbance among the Tujue tribe that An Yanyan belonged to, and An Lushan fled
to Tang with An Yanyan and An Yanyan's nephew An Sishun. He later settled in Ying Prefecture (, roughly modern Chaoyang, Liaoning). Sources conflict
about An Lushan biological father's origin and surname; for example, as to whether An Lushan's father had the surname Kang or not: he took the name of An
from his stepfather An Yanyan. (The surnames Kang and An suggest that they were respectively from the Sogdian kingdoms of Kang (; cf. Kangju) and An
(), around Samarkand and Bukhara.) The An are not to be confused with earlier Anxi, which had been established as a prefecture by the Chinese in AD
661. On his side, Matsui Hitoshi, noting that nothing in the historical records provides hard evidence of Sogdian origin and that An Lushan was living at
Yingzhou, the settlement of Khitans and Xi, suggests that "Perhaps [An Lushan's father] might have been of Khitan origin." Edward H. Schafer, however,
maintains that An Lushan is probably the Sinicized version of a name derived from Anxi (; Arsacid) and the Sogdian word roxshan, "light", related to the
Sogdian female name Roxana, also borne by Alexander's Sogdian wife. It was said that An Lushan knew six non-Han Chinese languages, and, after he grew
older, served as an interpreter in one of the military markets, which were set up by the Chinese government largely to obtain horses in exchange for silk through
foreign trade. Serving with him was Shi Sugan (later named Shi Siming), who was one day older than he was and who became a good friend of his. In AD 732,
when the general Zhang Shougui () was governing You Prefecture (, roughly modern Beijing), where An was at, when An was discovered to have
stolen sheep. Zhang was set to execute An by caning, when An yelled out, "Is it that you, Lord, do not wish to destroy the two barbarian tribes? Why do you want
to cane An Lushan to death?" Zhang, seeing that he had a large body and impressed by his plea, released him and had him serve as a police officer, along with
Shi, and both of them were said to be capable at catching criminals. Later, Zhang promoted him to be a military officer. As Zhang believed that he was obese, he
did not dare to eat too much while in Zhang's presence, and this drew Zhang's favor. Zhang took him in and treated him like a son. At a time that was not
recorded in history, he married a Lady Kang as his first wife, and she bore him at least one son, An Qingxu, who, however, was not his oldest son. By AD 736,
An Lushan carried a general title and was serving under Zhang Shougui as an officer of the Pinglu Army (, based in modern Chaoyang). In AD 736, after
An disobeyed Zhang's orders and made an overly aggressive attack against the Khitan and the Xi, he was defeated. According to army regulations, he was
supposed to be executed, but Zhang, instead, allegedly sent him to the capital,Chang'an, and, while recommending execution, was hoping that Emperor
Xuanzong would pardon An. The chancellor Zhang Jiuling, arguing that An's death would be necessary to preserve military discipline and further believing that
An had the appearance of a rebel, advocated An's death, but Emperor Xuanzong believed An to be able and did not want to execute him, and therefore spared
him but stripped him of titles, returning him to serve under Zhang. In AD 740, An became the Bingmashi () of Pinglu Army. It was said that he carefully
cultivated relationships with other officials and generals to earn praises, and whenever Emperor Xuanzong sent messengers to Pinglu Army, An always bribed
them to earn praises from them. In AD 741, when the deputy chief imperial censor Zhang Lizhen () was sent to survey the Hebei (, i.e., the region
north of the Yellow River) and visited Pinglu Army, An ingratiated himself with Zhang, so much so that he even bribed Zhang's servants. When Zhang returned
to Chang'an and praised An, Emperor Xuanzong promoted An to be the commandant at Ying Prefecture and the commander of Pinglu Army, to defend against
the Khitan, the Xi, Balhae, and the Heishui Mohe. In AD 742, Emperor Xuanzong further promoted Pinglu Army to be a military circuit, making An its military
governor (jiedushi). In AD 743, An visited Chang'an to pay homage to Emperor Xuanzong. Emperor Xuanzong treated him well and allowed him to visit the
palace at all times. Meanwhile, he began to inject himself into court politicsas the official Su Xiaoyun () complained to him that the imperial
examinations that year was unfair and that Zhang Shi (), the son of the deputy chief imperial censor Zhang Yi (), had been given top grade despite
having no abilities. An reported this to Emperor Xuanzong, who ordered a retesting before him personally. Zhang Shi was not able to even write one character in
response to Emperor Xuanzong's reexamination. As a result, the deputy ministers of civil service, Song Yao () and Miao Jinqing were demoted. An often
pleased Emperor Xuanzong by offering Emperor Xuanzong tributes of rare items, such as rare animals or jewels. Meanwhile, he was even more obese than
before, and Emperor Xuanzong, on one occasion, jokingly asked him, "What does this barbaric belly contain?" He responded, "Other than a faithful heart, there
is nothing else." On another occasion, when Emperor Xuanzong's son Li Heng the Crown Prince was in audience, he refused to bow to Li Heng, stating, "I am a
barbarian, and I do not understand formal ceremony. What is a crown prince?" Emperor Xuanzong responded, "He is the reserve emperor. After my death, he
will be your emperor." An apologized, stating, "I am foolish. I had only known about Your Imperial Majesty, and not that there is such a thing as a reserve
emperor." He then bowed, but Emperor Xuanzong, believing him to be honest, favored him even more. As he was allowed to enter the palace, he asked that he
become an adoptive son of Emperor Xuanzong's favorite concubine Consort Yang Guifei, and Emperor Xuanzong agreed. Thereafter, on one occasion, he
bowed to Consort Yang first before bowing to Emperor Xuanzong, stating, "Barbarians bow to mothers first before fathers." Emperor Xuanzong, now believing
that An was as submissive to him as a son to a father, showed him even greater favors. In AD 744, with further praises from the powerful chancellor Li Linfu and
Pei Kuan (), An was, in addition to Pinglu, made the military governor of Fanyang Circuit (, headquartered in modern Beijing). Wanting to show his
military abilities, he often pillaged the Khitan and the Xi, and he was blamed by traditional historians for the Khitan and Xi rebellion in AD 745, which he
defeated. Meanwhile, according to the Song Dynasty historian Sima Guang, it was said that An was attempting to increase his own strength and planning a
rebellion, and in AD 747, he claimed to be building Fort Xiongwu () and asked fellow military governor Wang Zhongsi to contribute troops, hoping to
hold onto the troops that Wang would send and not return them. Wang, instead, led the troops himself to Xiongwu in advance of the rendezvous date and, after
participating in the building project, returned with the soldiers, and submitted reports to Emperor Xuanzong that he believed An was planning treason. Li Linfu,
who was at this point apprehensive of Wang as a potential rival, used this as one of the reasons to indict Wang, and Wang was, later in AD 747, removed from
his post. Also in AD 747, An Lushan was given the honorary title as chief deputy imperial censor (, Yushi Daifu), and Lady Duan, now described as his
wife, although Lady Kang was still alive, was created a lady. In AD 748, Emperor Xuanzong awarded An Lushan an iron certificate promising that he would not
be executed, except for treason, and in 750, he created An the Prince of Dongping, setting a precedent for generals not of the imperial Li clan to be created
princes. Later in AD 750, he tricked the Khitan and Xi chieftains into feasting with him, and then poisoned them. He then attacked the tribes, scoring a major
victory. By this point, a friendship had developed between An Lushan and the Emperor. When An went to Chang'an later that year to pay homage to Emperor
Xuanzong, he presented Emperor Xuanzong with 8,000 Xi captives. In AD 751, Emperor Xuanzong had a magnificent mansion built for An in Chang'an,
sparing no expenses, using jade, gold, and silver in many different places. On An's birthday on February 20, AD 751, Emperor Xuanzong and Consort Yang
awarded him with clothing, treasures, and food. On February 23, AD 751 when An was summoned to the palace, Consort Yang, in order to please Emperor
Xuanzong, had an extra-large infant wrapping made, and wrapped An in it, causing much explosion of laughter among the ladies-in-waiting and eunuchs. When
Emperor Xuanzong asked what was going on, Consort Yang's attendants joked that Consort Yang gave birth three days ago and was washing her baby Lushan.
Emperor Xuanzong was pleased by the comical situation and rewarded both Consort Yang and An greatly. Thereafter, whenever An visited the capital, he was
allowed free admittance to the palace, and there were rumors that he and Consort Yang had an affair, but Emperor Xuanzong discounted the rumors. On An's
request, Emperor Xuanzong also gave him the governorship of Hedong Circuit (, headquartered in modern Taiyuan, Shanxi), in addition to Pinglu and
Fanyang. Two of his sons, the oldest An Qingzong () and An Qingxu, were given ministerial level positions, and An Qingzong was given an imperial clan
member's daughter, the Lady Rongyi, in marriage. Meanwhile, though, An was arrogant toward other officials, including Consort Yang's second cousin Yang
Guozhong. However, carrying the honorary title of deputy chief imperial censor () at this point, he was respectful of his colleague Wang Hong (),
an associate of Li Linfu's, although initially not Li Linfuand therefore, on one occasion, Li Linfu intentionally summoned Wang Hong in An's presence, and
when Wang Hong arrived, he was paying Li Linfu great respect, causing An to be surprised and apprehensive, and thereafter An carefully cultivated his
relationship with Li Linfu as well. It was also said that, by this point, An began to be apprehensive of what would happen once Emperor Xuanzong diedas he
remembered how he had refused to bow to Li Hengand he began to plan an eventual rebellion, which was further encouraged by his observation that the heart
of the empire was without defenses. He selected some 8,000 soldiers among the surrendered Khitan, Xi, and Tongluo () tribesmen, organizing them into an
elite corps known as the Yeluohe (), which meant "the brave". He retained Gao Shang (), Yan Zhuang (), Zhang Tongru (), and Sun
Xiaozhe () as his strategists; and Shi Siming, An Shouzhong (), Li Guiren (), Cai Xide (), Niu Tingjie (), Xiang Runrong
(), Li Tingwang (), Cui Qianyou (), Yin Ziqi (), He Qiannian (), Wu Lingxun (), Neng Yuanhao (), Tian
Chengsi, Tian Qianzhen (), and Ashina Chengqing () as his generals. Late in AD 751, An launched a major attack against the Khitan,
advancing quickly to the heart of Khitan territory, but, hampered by rains, was defeated by the Khitan, and the general He Side () was killed. An himself
was almost killed, and, after retreating, blamed the defeat on Ge Jie () and Yu Chengxian (), executing them. He subsequently had Shi defend against
the Khitan counterattack, and Shi was able to repel the Khitan. In AD 752, he wanted to launch a major counterattack against the Khitan, requesting that the
ethnically Tujue general Li Xianzhong () accompany him. Li Xianzhong was afraid of An; when An ordered Li to attack the Khitan, Li rebelled, thus
putting a halt to An's campaign. Later that year, when Emperor Xuanzong, seeing that both An Lushan and An Sishun (who by this point was the military
governor of Shuofang Circuit (, headquartered in modern Yinchuan, Ningxia)) had poor relations with Geshu Han, the military governor of Hexi (,
headquartered in modern Wuwei, Gansu) and Longxi (, headquartered in modern Haidong prefecture, Qinghai) Circuits, and wanted to improve relations
between these three key border troop commanders, he summoned all three to the capital and had the powerful eunuch Gao Lishi host a feast for the three of
them, trying to get them to resolve their unpleasantries. At the conference, however, Geshu and An Lushan got into an argument, which only stopped after Gao
gazed at Geshu, stopping him from responding to An Lushan's insults. In AD 753, with Li Linfu's death and replacement by Yang Guozhong, Yang Guozhong,
intending to posthumously dishonor Li Linfu, had An Lushan corroborate his accusations that Li Linfu was involved in Li Xianzhong's rebellion. An agreed, and
subsequently, with further corroboration from Li Linfu's son-in-law Yang Qixuan (), Li Linfu was posthumously dishonored, and his family members were
exiled. Also in AD 753, Li Xianzhong's troops were defeated by the Huige, and they surrendered to An, further enhancing his strength. Despite their cooperation
in posthumously accusing Li Linfu, a rivalry soon developed between An and Yang Guozhong, as An did not fear Yang Guozhong the way he did Li Linfu. Yang
Guozhong made repeated accusation against An to Emperor Xuanzong that he was plotting a rebellion, but the accusation were dismissed by Emperor
Xuanzong. Yang Guozhong, instead, entered into an alliance with Geshu against An. In spring AD 754, Yang asserted, to the Emperor, that An was set on
rebelling, an accusation Yang had made before. Yang also predicted that if Emperor Xuanzong summoned An to Chang'an, he would surely not come. However,
when Emperor Xuanzong tested Yang's hypothesis by summoning An, he immediately showed up in Chang'an and claimed that Yang was making false
accusations. Thereafter, Emperor Xuanzong refused to believe any suggestions that An was plotting rebellion, despite Li Heng agreeing with Yang's assessment
on this issue. Meanwhile, the Emperor considered promoting An to be chancellor; however, Yang opposed, and the promotion did not occur. An subsequently
returned to Fanyang. At An's request, Emperor Xuanzong allowed him to award his soldiers with high ranks without first receiving imperial approval. (Geshu,
hearing this, made the same request, and Emperor Xuanzong also granted this privilege to Geshu.) Later in AD 754, An defeated Xi forces, capturing their
chieftain Li Riyue (). Meanwhile, Yang Guozhong also viewed the official Wei Zhi () as a threat and accused Wei accused of corruption. Yang
Guozhong later accused Wei of bribing An's associate Ji Wen (), and Wei and Ji were both demoted. An subsequently submitted a petition on their behalf,
claiming that the accusations from Yang Guozhong were false, but Emperor Xuanzong took no actions against either An or Yang Guozhong. The An Lushan
Rebellion spanned from December 16, AD 755 to February 17, AD 763. During this time, the registered population fell by 33 36 million, making it the second
deadliest war in history. In the spring of AD 755, matters were beginning to come to a head. When An Lushan submitted a petition to have 32 non-Han generals
under him replace Han generals. This was accepted by Emperor Xuanzong, despite opposition from Yang Guozhong and his fellow chancellor Wei Jiansu who
took An's use of non-Han generals as a sign of impending rebellion. Yang and Wei then suggested that An be promoted to be chancellor, and that his three
commands be divided between his three deputies. Emperor Xuanzong initially agreed, but after the edict was drafted, Xuanzong tabled it and instead sent the
eunuch Fu Qiulin () to send fresh fruits to An and to observe him upon which An was alleged to bribe Fu into submitting a favorable report. Yang,
however, persisted in his reports against An. Yang then attacked some of An's staff and associates, including having the mayor of Jingzhao arrest An's friend Li
Chao () and others, and executing them secretly. An Qingzong, who was then at Chang'an, reported Yang's attack to An Lushan, causing considerable
concern to An Lushan. An Lushan thereafter refused to attend the funeral of an imperial prince in summer AD 755, and did not offer to send a large number of
horses to Chang'an that autumn, which aroused suspicion from Emperor Xuanzong. Allegation of An's bribes to Fu also reached the Emperor, who then had Fu
executed, and sent another eunuch, Feng Shenwei () to Fanyang to again summon An. An refused. In winter AD 755, An launched his rebellion on
December 16, AD 755 claiming that he had received a secret edict from Emperor Xuanzong to advance on Chang'an to remove Yang. The imperial officials
were all apprehensive, because An had the strongest troops of the realm at the time, except for Yang, who believed that An could be suppressed easily. Emperor
Xuanzong, meanwhile, commissioned the general Feng Changqing as the military governor of Fanyang and Pinglu, intending to have him replace An after An's
rebellion was defeated. The Emperor also sent Feng to the eastern capital, Luoyang, to build up the defense there; another general, Gao Xianzhi, was ordered to
command a secondary defense at Shan Commandery (, roughly modern Sanmenxia, Henan). He also executed An Qingzong and An's first wife Lady Kang,
and forced An Qingzong's wife Lady Rongyi to commit suicide. On January 8, AD 756, An Lushan crossed the Yellow River, quickly capturing Chenliu (,
roughly modern Kaifeng, Henan) and Yingyang (, roughly modern Zhengzhou,Henan) Commanderies. He then approached Luoyang, where he
encountered an ill-prepared army commanded by Feng, defeating Feng quickly and forcing Feng to flee and concede Luoyang to him. Feng joined forces with
Gao and urged a retreat to Tong Pass; Gao agreed, and they took up defensive positions there, and An did not proceed quickly, but remained at Luoyang,
planning to declare himself emperor there. (Soon, due to accusations of the eunuch Bian Lingcheng (), Emperor Xuanzong executed Feng and Gao and
replaced Gao with Geshu Han.) Some Tang officials north of the Yellow River resisted An under the leadership of Yan Zhenqing, the governor of Pingyuan
Commandery (, roughly modern Dezhou, Shandong). On Lunar New Year's day, February 5, AD 756, An Lushan declared himself Emperor at Luoyang,
establishing a new state of Yan, making Zhang Tongru and the surrendered Tang official Daxi Xun () his chancellors. He created An Qingxu the Prince
of Jin and another son, An Qinghe (), the Prince of Zheng. Meanwhile, Yan Zhenqing's cousin Yan Gaoqing (), who initially submitted to An, rose
against An at Changshan Commandery (, roughly modern Baoding, Hebei) but was quickly defeated and delivered to An in Luoyang; An executed him. An
also sent An Qingxu to make an initial attack against Tong Pass, and Geshu Han repelled the attack. Meanwhile, the Tang generals Guo Ziyi and Li
Guangbi had fought their way into Emperor An's territory north of the Yellow River, cutting off the communication between Luoyang and Fanyang, causing much
fear in An's troops. An considered withdrawing north of the Yellow River to secure the territory, but meanwhile, suspicions had begun to rise between Yang
Guozhong and Geshu, each believing that the other had designs on himself. Yang therefore persuaded Emperor Xuanzong to order Geshu to attack the Yan
general Cui Qianyou, who was then stationed at Shan Commandery. (This order was against the advice of Geshu, Guo, and Li Guangbi that the proper strategy
was to secure Tong Pass and let Guo and Li Guangbi capture the Yan territory to the north.) Geshu, with Emperor Xuanzong repeatedly ordering him to attack,
was forced to do so, and was defeated by Cui. Geshu's subordinate Huoba Guiren () seized him and surrendered to Yan forces. Subsequently, An
induced Geshu to write letters to several Tang generals, urging them to surrender, but they all refused. Meanwhile, when Yan forces captured Tong Pass,
Emperor Xuanzong and Yang, in panic, abandoned Chang'an and fled toward Shu Commandery (, roughly modern Chengdu,Sichuan). On the way, at a
small village, Mawei Station, prompted by general Chen Xuanli who believed that Yang Guozhong had provoked this rebellion, the imperial guards assassinated
Yang Guozhong, and demanded the death of Yang Guifei, to which the Emperor reluctantly consented. An, caught by surprise of the Emperor's retreat, had Cui
advance slowly into Chang'an, even though the Tang mayor of Chang'an, Cui Guangyuan (), offered to surrender. Also surrendering to Yan forces were
the former chancellorChen Xilie and the key officials Zhang Jun () and Zhang Ji (), and An made Chen and Zhang Ji chancellors as well. Meanwhile,
An had Emperor Xuanzong's sister Princess of Huo, as well as a number of other imperial relatives, executed, and sacrificed their organs to An Qingzong. At this
point, a new person became the Tang Emperor, Li Heng, or Emperor Suzong. Due to the slowness of the Yan advance, the Yan forces were unable to capture
either Emperor Xuanzong, who eventually reached Shu Commandery, or Li Heng, who fled to Lingwu and took imperial title there (as Emperor Suzong).
(Emperor Xuanzong recognized Li Heng's actions and subsequently took the title Taishang Huang (retired emperor).) Meanwhile, hearing news of Chang'an's
fall, Guo and Li Guangbi withdrew to Lingwu, allowing Shi to again pacify the region north of the Yellow River and east of theTaihang Mountains with exception
of pockets held by Yan Zhenqing and other Tang officials under his command. Meanwhile, it was said that An Lushan, the Yan Emperor, was having eye
problems and had become blind, and was also suffering from ulcers on his body. As a result, he became ill-tempered, and would whip, cane or even sometimes
execute his servants, if they had caused him any displeasure. Yan Zhuang and a favorite eunuch of An's, Li Zhu'er (), were also said to be hit frequently.
Once he declared imperial title, he spent most of his time inside the Luoyang palace, and his generals rarely saw him, with most important matters going through
Yan Zhuang. Meanwhile, An favored his son An Qing'en (), the son of his second wife Lady Duan (who might have carried the title of empress by this
point). An considered letting An Qing'en be his crown prince, instead of An Qingxu, who was otherwise considered in order to receive that honor. An Qingxu
often feared that An Lushan would put him to death; this fear drove him to assassinate An Lushan. He, Yan, and Li Zhu'er therefore plotted the assassination.
On the night of January 29, AD 757, with Yan and An Qingxu watching outside, Li Zhu'er took a sword into the palace and attacked An Lushan; An Lushan
tried to fight back, but could not locate a sword that he put under his bed, and Li Zhu'er killed him. The next morning, Yan first announced to the Yan officials
that An Lushan was seriously ill and was creating An Qingxu crown prince, and then An Qingxu took the throne, before announcing An Lushan's death. After
Shi Siming killed An Qingxu in AD 759 and took imperial title himself, he buried An Lushan with ceremony due an imperial prince, not an emperor, and gave
him the rather unflattering posthumous name of La (, meaning "unthinking"). He had two wives Lady Kang, mother of Prince Qingxu (executed by Emperor
Xuanzong of Tang AD 756) and Empress Duan, mother of An Qing'en. He had following children: An Qingzong () (executed by Emperor Xuanzong of
Tang AD 756), An Qingxu (), the Prince of Jin (created AD 756), later emperor, An Qingzhang (), An Qinghe (), the Prince of Zheng
(created AD 756, executed by Emperor Suzong of Tang AD 758), An Qing'en () and six other sons, names unrecorded in history.
An Qingxu () (died April 10, AD 759), n An Renzhi () was the Emperor of Yan (AnShi) (de facto ruler of North China) from AD 757 until
his death on April 10, AD 759. He was a son of An Lushan, a general of the Chinese Tang Dynastywho rebelled and took imperial title of his own state of Yan.
An Qingxu served as the Prince of Jin from AD 756 AD 757, and later killed his father and took the imperial title for himself. He was eventually defeated by
Tang forces and cornered at Yecheng. After An Lushan's general Shi Siming lifted the siege, An Qingxu met Shi to thank him, and Shi arrested and executed
him. It is not known when An Renzhi was born, although he was said to be not yet 20 when Emperor Xuanzong gave him the mostly honorary title of minister of
vassal affairs, likely in AD 751. He was An Lushan's second son, and his mother was An Lushan's first wife Lady Kang. At some point, Emperor Xuanzong gave
him the name of Qingxu. The first definitive historical references to him were in AD 752, when, in a defeat that An Lushan suffered against the Xi, An Lushan
was said to have fallen into a hole and was only saved through the effort of An Qingxu and others. Also that year, when An Lushan's close associate Ji Wen
() went to meet An Lushan before departing for the Tang capital Chang'an, it was An Qingxu that An Lushan sent to accompany Ji to the borders of his
territory. In AD 755, when An Lushan rebelled at his post at Fanyang Circuit (, headquartered in modern Beijing), An Qingxu was apparently with his father
and accompanied his father south. In response to An Lushan's rebellion, An Qingxu's mother Lady Kang and older brother An Qingzong (), then at
Chang'an, were executed, and after An Lushan captured Chenliu Commandery (, roughly modern Kaifeng, Henan), it was An Qingxu who realized that An
Qingzong had been executed and who tearfully informed his father, sending his father into a rage in which he executed the Tang soldiers who surrendered to him
at Chenliu. In AD 756, after An Lushan declared himself emperor of a new state of Yan at Luoyang, he created An Qingxu the Prince of Jin. He subsequently
sent An Qingxu to make a preliminary attack against Tong Pass, then defended by the Tang general Geshu Han, and Geshu repelled An Qingxu's attack. By
early AD 757, when Yan forces had captured Chang'an and forced both Emperor Xuanzong and his crown prince Li Heng to flee, it was said that An Lushan was
having eye problems and had become blind, and was also suffering from ulcers on his body. As a result, his temper became terrible, and his servants, if they had
caused him any ill will, would often be whipped or caned, and sometimes even executed. Once he declared imperial title, he spent most of his time inside the
Luoyang palace, and his generals rarely saw him, with most important matters going through his official Yan Zhuang (), -- but even Yan and a favorite eunuch
of An's, Li Zhu'er (), were being frequently battered. Meanwhile, An Lushan favored another son An Qing'en (), the son of his second wife Lady
Duan (who might have carried the title of empress by this point). An considered letting An Qing'en be his crown prince, instead of An Qingxu, who was
otherwise considered in order to receive that honor. An Qingxu often feared that An Lushan would put him to death. He, Yan, and Li Zhu'er therefore plotted.
On the night of January 29, AD 757, with Yan and An Qingxu watching outside, Li Zhu'er took a sword into the palace and attacked An Lushan; An Lushan
tried to fight back, but could not locate a sword that he put under his bed, and Li Zhu'er killed him. The next morning, Yan first announced to the Yan officials
that An Lushan was seriously ill and was creating An Qingxu crown prince, and then An Qingxu took the throne, before announcing An Lushan's death. It was
said that An Qingxu was weak in personality and did not speak well. As a result, Yan Zhuang advised him not to meet officials frequently, and he entrusted most
of affairs of state to Yan and created Yan the Prince of Fengyi. He tried to ingratiate his generals by promoting their positions. Meanwhile, with the major
general Shi Siming sieging the Tang general Li Guangbi at Taiyuan, An Qingxu ordered Shi to return to his base of Fanyang and leave the general Cai Xide
() at Taiyuan to watch Li Guangbi's actions. He also sent the general Yin Ziqi () to attack the city of Suiyang, then under the defense by the Tang
generals Zhang Xun and Xu Yuan (), intending to first capture Suiyang and then send Yin south to capture Tang territory south of the Huai River. (Yin,
however, was locked into a siege of Suiyang that would last until winter AD 757, stopping any possibility of Yan advance south.) To show favor to Shi, he created
Shi the Prince of Guichuan and made him the military governor (jiedushi) of Fanyang Circuit; instead, Shi, hoarding the supplies that An Lushan had previously
shipped to Fanyang, began to disobey An Qingxu's orders, and An Qingxu could not keep him in check. When the Tang general Guo Ziyiattacked Tong Pass,
intending to recapture Chang'an, however, An was able to send forces to repel Guo's attack. However, the Tang prince Li Chu the Prince of Guangping (the son
of Li Heng, who by this point had taken imperial title as Emperor Suzong), with aid from Huige, was able to recapture Chang'an in summer AD 757. Tang forces
under Li Chu and Huige forces then advanced east, toward Luoyang. In winter AD 757, An put together his forces and sent them, under Yan Zhuang's
command, to defend Shan Commandery (, roughly modern Sanmenxia, Henan). When Yan forces engaged Tang forces, however, they saw that Huige
forces were on Tang's side, and, in fear, they collapsed. Yan Zhuang and Zhang Tongru () fled back to Luoyang to inform An, and An, after executing
some 30 Tang generals who had been captured, abandoned Luoyang and fled north, to Yecheng, which he converted to Ancheng Municipality. At the time that
An arrived at Yecheng, he had only 1,000 infantry soldiers and 300 cavalry soldiers. Soon, however, Yan generals Ashina Chengqing (), Cai
Xide, Tian Chengsi, and Wu Lingxun (), who had been attacking other Tang cities, headed to Yecheng and coalesced there, allowing An to have over
60,000 soldiers under his disposal and thus regaining some measure of strength. Meanwhile, apprehensive of Shi, he sent Ashina and An Shouzhong () to
Fanyang to order Shi to contribute troops, but was intending to have Ashina and An Shouzhong to take over Shi's command if possible. Instead, Shi arrested
Ashina and An Shouzhong and submitted to Tang. Many other cities previously under Yan control also submitted to Tang, and An Qingxu's territory shrank to
just Yecheng and the surrounding area. It was said that An Qingxu became cruel and paranoid in light of the military losses, and that if generals submitted to
Tang, he would slaughter their families if they were Han and their tribes if they were non-Han. Meanwhile, believing accusations that Zhang made against Cai, he
killed Cai, which further led to dissension among his soldiers, particularly since he then put Cui Qianyou () in command of his army, and the soldiers
resented Cui for his harshness. By winter AD 758, the Tang generals Guo Ziyi, Lu Jiong (), Li Huan (), Xu Shuji (), Li Siye, Ji Guangchen
(), Cui Guangyuan (), Dong Qin (), Li Guangbi, and Wang Sili (), were gathering at Yecheng and putting it under siege. An Qingxu
tried to fight out of the siege, but was defeated by Tang forces, and his brother An Qinghe () was killed. Meanwhile, with Shi recently having again
rebelled against Tang, An sent the general Xue Song to Fanyang to seek aid from Shi, offering the throne to him. Shi thus advanced south toward Yecheng.
Meanwhile, Tang forces, under the command of nine generals (with Li Siye having died during the siege), were uncoordinated. On April 7, AD 759, Shi engaged
Tang forcesand, when a storm suddenly arrived, both armies panicked; Shi's forces fled north, and Tang forces fled south, lifting the siege on Yecheng. An
Qingxu's forces gathered the food and supplies abandoned by Tang forces, and An thereafter considered, with Sun Xiaozhe () and Cui, the possibility of
refusing Shi, who gathered his troops and again approached Yecheng, admittance. Shi himself was not communicating with An, but was feasting his soldiers and
watching Yecheng. Zhang and Gao Shang () requested permission to meet Shi, and An agreed; Shi gave them gifts and let them return to Yecheng. An,
unsure what to do, again offered the throne to Shi, which Shi declined. Shi, instead, suggested to him that perhaps they could both be emperors of independent,
allied states. An, pleased, exited Yecheng and met with Shi to swear to the alliance. When An met Shi, he knelt down to thank Shi for his help, stating: I did not
have the abilities to uphold the empire; I lost the two capitals and was put under siege. I did not know that Your Royal Highness would, on account of
theTaishang Huang [i.e., An Lushan], arrive from afar to save me from death. I have no way to repay your kindness. Shi suddenly changed his expression and
rebuked An: Losing the two capitals is nothing worthy to be mentioned. You were a son, and you killed your father and usurped his throne. Heaven, earth, and
the gods cannot tolerate you. I am attacking the bandits on behalf of the Taishang Huang, and I will not listen to your flattery. Shi then executed An Qingxu, his
four brothers, Gao, Sun, and Cui. He took over An's territory and troops and soon claimed for himself the title of emperor of Yan.
Shi Siming () (AD 703 - April 18, AD 761), or Shi Sugan () Emperor of Yan (AnShi) (de facto ruler of North China) from AD 759 until his
death on Aprl 18, AD 1761. He was a general of the Chinese Tang Dynasty who followed his childhood friend An Lushan in rebelling against Tang, and who
later succeeded An Lushan's son An Qingxu as emperor of the Yanstate that An Lushan established. It is not known when Shi Sugan was born, other than that he
was born one day before his friend An Lushan and that they grew up together. He was of Tujue extraction, and was said to be thin with smooth skin, with an
impatient disposition. After both he and An grew up, they were both known for their bravery. However, he was poor and of low social station, and was looked
down by the people of his locale. However, a Lady Xin, a daughter of local gentry, insisted on marrying him despite her family's opposition, and she was
eventually successful in doing so. Shi Sugan first served under the Tang Dynasty general Wu Zhiyi (), and it was said that whenever Wu ordered him to
attack, he would be able to capture enemy soldiers and return with them. As he and An Lushan each understood six non-Han languages, they both served in the
military market as interpreters. He later served under the general Zhang Shougui (), along with An. Early in Emperor Xuanzong's Tianbao era (AD 741
AD 756), because of Shi's repeated military accomplishments, he was made a general at Pinglu Army (, headquartered in modern Chaoyang, Liaoning).
Once, when he was in the capital Chang'an to make reports to Emperor Xuanzong, Emperor Xuanzong was impressed with him and patted his back, stating,
"You, Lord, will one day be honored. Keep this in mind." He had Shi change his name to Siming (literally meaning, "thinking of brightness"). Shi later served as
the governor of Beiping Commandery (, roughly modern Qinhuangdao, Hebei). In AD 751, after a major defeat that An, who was then the military
governor (jiedushi) of Pinglu (then converted into a military circuit) as well as Fanyang (, headquartered in modern Beijing) and Hedong (,
headquartered in modern Taiyuan,Shanxi) Circuits, suffered at the hands of the Xi, Shi reorganized the collapsed troops to prevent further disaster, drawing
accolades from Analthough Shi commented that if he had met An just slightly earlier after the defeat, he would have been executed, as were Ge Jie () and
Yu Chengxian (), two other generals that An blamed for the defeat. In AD 752, at An's recommendation, Shi was made Bingma Shi (), a
commanding officer of Pinglu soldiers. In AD 755, An Lushan rose against Emperor Xuanzong's rule, and Shi Siming served under him. Initially, the Tang
commanderies north of the Yellow River nearly all submitted to An, allowing An to quickly advance south and capture the Tang eastern capital Luoyang, but
around the new year AD 756, the official Yan Gaoqing (), who had earlier submitted to An, rose against An at Changshan Commandery (, roughly
modern Shijiazhuang, Hebei), which he was governor of, leading to a flurry of other commanderies turning against An as well. An, who was then at Luoyang, sent
Shi and Li Lijie () to attack Changshan and Boling (, roughly modern Baoding, Hebei) Commanderies. Just eight days after Yan's defection, Shi and
Cai Xide () both arrived at Changshan and captured Yan, who was delivered to Luoyang and executed. Shi, Li, and Cai then attacked the other
commanderies that rose along with Yan, and they resubmitted to An, who declared himself the emperor of a new state of Yan. Lu Quancheng (), the
governor of Raoyang Commandery (, roughly modern Hengshui, Hebei), however, refused to submit, and Shi put Raoyang under siege but could not
quickly capture it, and was forced to lift the siege when the Tang general Li Guangbi arrived with relief troops from Hedong Circuit. Subsequently, he and Li
Guangbi and another Tang general, Guo Ziyi, engaged in a number of battles, largely to Shi's detriment, eventually causing many commanderies to rise against
An again. This brought An much concern, and at one point, An considered abandoning Luoyang and heading back north. Eventually, however, the situation
changed when the Tang general Geshu Han was defeated at Tong Pass by another Yan general, Cui Qianyou (), and Yan troops were able to capture
Chang'an and force both Emperor Xuanzong and his crown prince Li Heng to fleewith Li Heng fleeing to Lingwu and declaring himself emperor there (as
Emperor Suzong). Guo and Li Guangbi abandoned their campaign against Shi and went to Lingwu as well, thus allowing Shi to largely repacify the region north
of the Yellow River for Yan. When Liu Zhengchen (), who had risen against An at Pinglu, made a surprise attack on Fanyang, Shi defeated Liu, forcing
him to flee back to Pinglu. In spring AD 757, An Lushan was killed by his son An Qingxu, who succeeded to the Yan throne. Meanwhile, though, Shi Siming,
who had not received the news of An Lushan's death, attacked Taiyuan, where Li Guangbi was at that point, along with Cai Xide, Gao Xiuyan (), and Niu
Tingjie (), with 100,000 troops total. They besieged Taiyuan for more than a month, but could not capture it. The news of An Lushan's death then
arrived, and An Qingxu further ordered Shi to return to Fanyang to guard it, leaving Cai at Taiyuan to watch Li Guangbi. An Qingxu also made Shi the military
governor of Fanyang and created him the Prince of Guichuan. Shi, however, hoarding the supplies that An Lushan had previously shipped to Fanyang, began to
disobey An Qingxu's orders, and An Qingxu could not keep him in check. In winter AD 757, after An Qingxu was forced to abandon Luoyang after a joint
Tang/Huige counterattack, various non-Han tribal troops abandoned An Qingxu and fled north. Shi induced the elite Yeluohe () troops, as well as
various other tribes, to submit to him, but the Tongluo () forces refused, and he then defeated them. Meanwhile, An Qingxu sent the generals Ashina
Chengqing () and An Shouzhong () to Fanyang to requisition troops from Shi, and also see if they could seize Fanyang. Shi, under the advice
of his assistant Geng Renzhi (), turned against An Qingxu, detaining Ashina and An Shouzhong, and offering to submit to Tang instead, along with Gao.
Emperor Suzong was pleased. He commissioned Shi as the military governor of Fanyang and created him the Prince of Guiyi. He also sent the eunuch Li Sijing
() and Wu Zhiyi's son Wu Cheng'en () to comfort Shi. After Shi Siming's submission to Tang, the other nearby prefectures also largely submitted
to Tang, leaving An Qingxu isolated in Yecheng, holding only Yecheng and its surrounding region. However, a number of Tang generals, including Li Guangbi
and Zhang Gao, doubted Shi's sincerity. In summer AD 759, under Li Guangbi's advice, Emperor Suzong had Wu Cheng'en try to persuade Ashina Chengqing
into killing Shi together and seizing Fanyang. Shi discovered this and put Wu to death. He did not initially formally turn against Tang, but made an ultimatum
demanding Li Guangbi's death. Meanwhile, though, with An Qingxu seeking aid from him, he launched his troops and headed south toward Yecheng. Shi
quickly captured Wei Prefecture (, in modern Handan, Hebei) from the Tang general Cui Guangyuan (), and then declared himself "the Great Holy
Prince of Yan" () in spring AD 760. Meanwhile, the Tang generals Guo Ziyi, Lu Jiong (), Li Huan (), Xu Shuji (), Li Siye, Ji
Guangchen (), Cui Guangyuan (), Dong Qin (), Li Guangbi, and Wang Sili (), were gathering at Yecheng and putting it under siege.
An Qingxu tried to fight out of the siege, but was defeated by Tang forces, and his brother An Qinghe () was killed. Meanwhile, An sent the general Xue
Song to Fanyang to seek aid from Shi, offering the throne to him. Shi thus advanced south toward Yecheng. Meanwhile, Tang forces, under the command of
nine generals (with Li Siye having died during the siege), were uncoordinated. On April 7, AD 759, Shi engaged Tang forcesand, when a storm suddenly
arrived, both armies panicked; Shi's forces fled north, and Tang forces fled south, lifting the siege on Yecheng. An Qingxu's forces gathered the food and supplies
abandoned by Tang forces, and An thereafter considered, with Sun Xiaozhe () and Cui the possibility of refusing Shi, who gathered his troops and again
approached Yecheng, admittance. Shi himself was not communicating with An, but was feasting his soldiers and watching Yecheng. Zhang and Gao Shang ()
requested permission to meet Shi, and An agreed; Shi gave them gifts and let them return to Yecheng. An, unsure what to do, again offered the throne to Shi,
which Shi declined. Shi, instead, suggested to him that perhaps they could both be emperors of independent, allied states. An, pleased, exited Yecheng and met
with Shi to swear to the alliance. When An met Shi, he kneeled down to thank Shi for his help, stating: I did not have the abilities to uphold the empire; I lost the
two capitals and was put under siege. I did not know that Your Royal Highness would, on account of theTaishang Huang [i.e., An Lushan], arrive from far to save
me from death. I have no way to repay your kindness. Shi suddenly changed his expression and rebuked An: Losing the two capitals is nothing worthy to be
mentioned. You were a son, and you killed your father and usurped his throne. Heaven, earth, and the gods cannot tolerate you. I am attacking the bandits on
behalf of the Taishang Huang, and I will not listen to your flattery. Shi then executed An Qingxu, his four brothers, Gao, Sun, and Cui. He took over An's
territory and troops, but returned to Fanyang and left his oldest son Shi Chaoyi in charge of Yecheng. He soon claimed for himself the title of emperor of Yan.
He created his wife Lady Xin empress, Shi Chaoyi the Prince of Huai, and made Zhou Zhi () his chancellor and Li Guiren (), the main chieftain
who of the non-Han forces that had submitted to him in AD 757, his chief general. Shi Siming soon left Empress Xin's son Shi Chaoqing () in charge of
Fanyang and headed south. He quickly captured Bian Prefecture (, roughly modern Kaifeng, Henan) and Luoyang, but his further attempts to advance was
rebuffed by Tang forces at Heyang (, in modern Jiaozuo, Henan) and Shan Prefecture (, roughly modern Sanmenxia,Henan), and the sides stalemated.
At this time Shi was described as cruel and prone to kill, terrorizing his army. He favored Shi Chaoqing over Shi Chaoyi and considered creating Shi Chaoqing
crown prince and killing Shi Chaoyi. In spring AD 761, Shi Siming began another attempt to attack Shan Prefecture, wanting to attack Chang'an. He had Shi
Chaoyi serve as his forward commander, but Shi Chaoyi was repeatedly repelled by the Tang general Wei Boyu (). Shi Siming was angered by Shi
Chaoyi's failures and considered punishing him and the generals below him. On April 18, AD 761 Shi Siming had ordered Shi Chaoyi to build a triangular fort
with a hill as its side, to store food supplies, and ordered that it be completed in one day. Near the end of the day, Shi Chaoyi had completed it, but had not
plastered the walls with mud, when Shi Siming arrived and rebuked him for not applying mud. He ordered his own servants to stay and watch the plastering. He
then angrily stated, "After I capture Shan Prefecture I will kill you, thief!" That night, Shi Chaoyi's subordinates Luo Yue () and Cai Wenjing ()
warned him that he was in dire straitsand that if he refused to take action to depose Shi Siming, they would defect to Tang. Shi Chaoyi agreed to take action,
and Luo persuaded Shi Siming's guard commander General Cao (personal name lost to history) to agree with the plot. That night, Luo led 300 soldiers and
ambushed Shi Siming, binding him and then beginning a return to Luoyang with the troops. On the way back to Luoyang, Luo feared that someone might try to
rescue Shi Siming, and so strangled him. He had wife Empress Xin (created AD 759, executed AD 761), mother of Crown Prince Chaoqing and seven children:
Shi Chaoyi (), the Prince of Huai (created AD 759), later emperor, Shi Chaoqing (), the Crown Prince (executed AD 761) and least five more
sons.
Shi Chaoyi () (died AD 763) was the Emperor of Yan (AnShi) (de facto ruler of North China) from AD 761 until his death in AD 763. He was the
final emperor of the Yan state that was established in rebellion against the Chinese Tang Dynasty. He was the oldest son of Shi Siming, and he overthrew and
then killed his father in a coup in AD 761 and took over as emperor. However, he could not gain the allegiance of his father's subordinates, and was eventually
defeated by joint forces of Tang and Huige. He committed suicide in flight. It is not known when Shi Chaoyi was born, but it is known that he was the oldest son
of his father Shi Siming (and therefore likely born after AD 720), and that he was not the son of Shi Siming's wife Lady Xin. The second historical reference
made to him was in AD 757, when Shi Siming, who was a childhood friend of An Lushan and who served under An Lushan during An Lushan's service as
a Tang Dynastygeneral and then as the emperor of his own rebel state of Yan, turned against An Lushan's son and successor An Qingxu and submitted
to Emperor Suzong of Tang, along with the Fanyang (, modern Beijing) region that he controlled. Shi Siming, after his submission to Tang, made Shi
Chaoyi the prefect of Ji Prefecture (, roughly modern Hengshui, Hebei). In AD 758, however, Shi Siming, possibly because of a failed assassination plot
against him, possibly at the order of Emperor Suzong and the major Tang general Li Guangbi, turned against Tang again and initially aided An Qingxu, then
under Tang siege at Yecheng. In spring AD 759, Shi Siming was able to have the siege against Yecheng lifted, and then, when An Qingxu met him to thank him,
killed An Qingxu. He left Shi Chaoyi in defense of Yecheng and returned to Fanyang. Later that year, when Shi Siming claimed the title of emperor of Yan, he
created Shi Chaoyi the Prince of Huai, but did not create him crown prince. Rather, he created his wife, Lady Xin, empress, and favored her son, Shi Chaoqing
(), considering creating Shi Chaoqing crown prince. In summer AD 759, when Shi Siming launched a major campaign against Tang's eastern
capital Luoyang, he left Shi Chaoqing in charge of Fanyang and joined forces with Shi Chaoyi and other Yan generals. He captured Luoyang quickly, but was
subsequently repelled in his attempt to attack the Tang capital Chang'an, as he was unable to capture Shan Prefecture (, roughly modern Sanmenxia,
Henan). Meanwhile, by this point, Shi Siming was described to be cruel and prone to kill, terrorizing his army. In contrast, Shi Chaoyi was considered kind and
was favored by the soldiers, but Shi Siming favored Shi Chaoqing over Shi Chaoyi and considered killing Shi Chaoyi. In spring AD 761, Shi Siming began
another attempt to attack Shan Prefecture, wanting to attack Chang'an. He had Shi Chaoyi serve as his forward commander, but Shi Chaoyi was repeatedly
repelled by the Tang general Wei Boyu (). Shi Siming was angry at Shi Chaoyi's failures and considered punishing him and the generals below him. On
April 18,
[2]
Shi Siming had ordered Shi Chaoyi to build a triangular fort with a hill as its side, to store food supplies, and ordered that it be completed in one day.
Near the end of the day, Shi Chaoyi had completed it, but had not plastered the walls with mud, when Shi Siming arrived and rebuked him for not applying mud.
He ordered his own servants to stay and watch the plastering. He then angrily stated, "After I capture Shan Prefecture I will kill you, thief!" That night, Shi
Chaoyi's subordinates Luo Yue () and Cai Wenjing () warned him that he was in dire straitsand that if he refused to take action to depose Shi
Siming, they would defect to Tang. Shi Chaoyi agreed to take action, and Luo persuaded Shi Siming's guard commander General Cao (personal name lost to
history) to agree with the plot. That night, Luo led 300 soldiers and ambushed Shi Siming, binding him and then beginning a return to Luoyang with the troops.
On the way back to Luoyang, Luo feared that someone might try to rescue Shi Siming, and so strangled him. Shi Chaoyi claimed the Yan throne, and sent
messengers to Fanyang to have Empress Xin and Shi Chaoqing killed. Shi Chaoyi was considered kind and humble, willing to listen to his advisors. However, he
faced the situation that by this time, the Luoyang region, directly under his control, had already been ravaged by the wars, and many of the other Yan generals
had previously been followers of An Lushan, and considered themselves equal to Shi Siming, and therefore were only nominally submissive to the younger Shi
Chaoyi. He thus began to suffer a number of losses at Tang generals' hands, and his attempts to counter by attacking Tang's Lu Prefecture (, roughly
modern Changzhi, Shanxi) and Song Prefecture (, roughly modern Shangqiu, Henan) ended in failure. However, not until winter AD 762, when Tang
forces were aided by Huige's Dengli Khan, did Luoyang fall. Shi Chaoyi left Luoyang and fled, but his generals, including Zhang Xiancheng (), Xue
Song, Zhang Zhongzhi, Tian Chengsi, Li Huaixian, and Li Baozhong (), successively turned against him when he turned to them for aid. He wanted to
flee to the Xi or the Khitan, but on the way, in spring AD 763, he was intercepted by troops sent by Li Huaixian to capture him. To avoid capture, he committed
suicide by hanging. Li Huaixian had his head delivered to Chang'an.

Ammon
Ammon (Hebrew: , Modern Ammon Tiberian Ammn ; "People"; Arabic: , translit.: Ammn; Greek: ), also referred to as the Ammonites
and children of Ammon, is an ancient nation best known from the Old Testament, which describes Ammon as located east of the Jordan River, Gilead, and
the Dead Sea, in present-day Jordan. The chief city of the country was Rabbah or Rabbath Ammon, site of the modern city of Amman, Jordan's
capital. Milcom and Molech (who may be one and the same) are named in the Bible as the gods of Ammon.
List of Rulers of Ammon
Hanun was the king of Ammon described in 2 Samuel. Upon the death of his father Nahash, Hanun ascended to the throne of the
Ammonites. When King David sent ambassadors to convey his condolences, Hanun reversed his father's pro-David policy and humiliated
the emissaries, stripping them of their clothes and shaving half of their beards. He joined with Hadadezer of Damascusagainst Israel but was
defeated and deposed. His brother Shobi was made king in his stead and became a loyal vassal of David's.

Shanip (Assyrian: Sanipu) was the king of Ammon in the mid eighth century BCE. He is mentioned as a vassal of the Assyrian king Tiglath-Pilesar III. His
name, which invokes the name of the god El (as do the names of his fellow Ammonite kings Hissalel and Barakel suggests that El was worshiped in Ammon
alongside Milcom and other deities. He was probably succeeded by Pado'el.
Pado'el (in Assyrian, Pudu-ilu) was the king of Ammon in the 720s BCE and probably the successor to Shanip. He is mentioned as a vassal of
the Assyrian kings Sennacherib andEsarhaddon. His name also appears on a seal from the period that reads lbyd'l 'bd pd'l ("Belonging to Beyad'el servant of
Pado'el).

His name, which invokes the name of the god El (as do the names of his fellow Ammonite kings Hissalel and Barakel) suggests that El was worshipped
in Ammon alongside Milcomand other deities.
Amminadab I was the king of Ammon from 680 BC until 640 BC.

Amorite
Amorite (Sumerian MAR.TU, Akkadian Tidnum or Amurrm, Egyptian Amar, Hebrew mr, Ancient Greek ) refers to an ancient Semitic-
speaking people from ancient Syria who also occupied large parts of Mesopotamia from the 21st Century BC. The term Amurru in Akkadian and Sumerian texts
refers to them, as well as to their principal deity. In the earliest Sumerian sources, beginning about 2400 BC, the land of the Amorites ("the Mar.tu land") is
associated not with Mesopotamia but with the lands to the west of theEuphrates, including Canaan and Syria. They appear as a nomadic people in Mesopotamian
sources, especially connected with the mountainous region of Jebel Bishri in Syria called the "mountain of the Amorites". The ethnic terms Amurru and
Amar were used for them in Akkadian and Ancient Egyptian respectively. From the 21st century BC, possibly triggered by a major drought, a large-scale
migration of Amorite tribes infiltrated southern Mesopotamia. They were one of the instruments of the downfall of the Sumerian Third Dynasty of Ur, and
Amorite dynasts established independent city-states that next vied for power, particularly Isin, Larsa and Kish among others, culminating in the triumph
underHammurabi of one of them, Babylon. Known Amorites wrote in a dialect of Akkadian found on tablets at Mari dating from 18001750 BC. Since the
language shows northwest Semitic forms and constructions, theAmorite language was presumably a northwest Semitic dialect, as opposed to the east Semitic
Akkadian language. The main sources for the extremely limited knowledge about Amorite are the proper names, not Akkadian in style, that are preserved in
such texts. According to the Hebrew scriptures, Amalek is distinct from the Amorites. "The Amalekites dwell in the land of the south: and the Hittites, and the
Jebusites, and the Amorites, dwell in the mountains: and the Canaanites dwell by the sea, and by the coast of Jordan." (1769 Oxford King James Bible
"Authorized Version", Numbers 13:29)
Known ruler of Amorite in present Israel
Sihon, according to the Old Testament, was an Amorite king, who refused to let the Israelites pass through his country. The Bible describes that as the
Israelites in their Exoduscame to the country east of the Jordan, near Heshbon, King Sion of the Amorites refused to let them pass through his country: "But
Sihon would not allow Israel to pass through his territory. So Sihon gathered all his people together and went out against Israel in the wilderness, and he came to
Jahaz and fought against Israel. Then Israel defeated him with the edge of the sword, and took possession of his land from the Arnon to the Jabbok, as far as the
people of Ammon.." (Numbers 21:23-24) Moses allocated the land of Sihon, the king of Heshbon, to the Tribe of Gad in the allocation of land to the Israelite
tribes. (Joshua 13:24-28) In a similar way the Israelites took the country of Og, and these two victories gave them possession of the complete country east of the
Jordan, from the Arnon to the foot of theHermon. These victories, among the earliest successful campaigns of the Israelites, quickly became legendary among
them, and are referred to numerous times in the Bible as prototypical examples of God-given victory.


Moab
Moab (/mob/; Moabite: Mb; Hebrew: , Modern Mo'av Tiberian M ; "seed of father"; Greek Mav; AssyrianMu'aba, Ma'ba, Ma'ab ;
Egyptian Mu'ab) is the historical name for a mountainous strip of land in Jordan. The land lies alongside much of the eastern shore of the Dead Sea. The
existence of the Kingdom of Moab is attested to by numerous archeological findings, most notably the Mesha Stele, which describes the Moabite victory over an
unnamed son of King Omri of Israel. The Moabite capital was Dibon. According to biblical historiography, Moab was often in conflict with its Israelite
neighbours to the west.
List of Kings of Moab Kingdom
Balak was a king of Moab described in the Book of Numbers in the Hebrew Bible for his dealings with Balaam. Balak tries to hire Balaam for the purpose of
cursing Israel (Numbers 22:1-5). The famous and enigmatic scene of the speaking donkey ensues (Numbers 22:21-35). Balak died when Joshua began his
conquest of Canaan. According to Numbers 22:2, and Joshua 24:9, Balak was the son of Zippor. Revelation 2:12 - 2:14 says about Balak: 12 `And to the
messenger of the assembly in Pergamos write: These things saith he who is having the sharp two-edged sword: 13 I have known thy works, and where thou dost
dwellwhere the throne of the Adversary [is] -- and thou dost hold fast my name, and thou didst not deny my faith, even in the days in which Antipas [was] my
faithful witness, who was put to death beside you, where the Adversary doth dwell. 14 `But I have against thee a few things: That thou hast there those holding
the teaching of Balaam, who did teach Balak to cast a stumbling-block before the sons of Israel, to eat idol-sacrifices, and to commit whoredom; (Young's Literal
Translation). Other sources detailing the story of Balak, Numbers 2224, Judges 11:25 - This is the only time in the Bible that Balak is not mentioned in direct
conjunction with Balaam and Micah 6:5. Balak is also the name of the weekly parshah or portion in the annual Jewish cycle of Torah reading that tells the story
of Balak in the Book of Numbers. There are various proposed etymologies for the name Balak, all having to do with "waste" - The name Balak comes from the
sparsely used Hebrew verb (balaq), waste or lay waste (Isaiah 24:1,3; Jeremiah 51:2). There are no derivations of this verb besides this name. Other proposals
are: Devastator (BDB Theological Dictionary), Empty (NOBS Study Bible Name List), or Wasting (Jones' Dictionary of Old Testament Proper Names).
Eglon was the king of Moab who oppressed Israel in the time of the Book of Judges.
[1]
He was the head of the confederacy of
Moab, Ammon and Amalek in their assault. One day, Ehud came presenting a customary tribute and tricked Eglon and stabbed him with his
sword, but when Ehud attempted to draw the sword back out, the obese king's excess fat prevented its retrieval. His servants, believing he was
relieving himself, left him be.
[1]
Rabbis in the Talmudic tradition claimed that Ruth was Eglon's daughter. According to this tradition, Eglon
was rewarded for rising out of respect when Ehud mentioned the Israelite God by having King David as a descendant. This can also be seen
as an attempt to provide a royal lineage to David. The Talmud also describes Eglon as the grandson of Balak. There is, however, no basis in
the actual verses for such an assertion. According to a legend in a midrash, the two Moabite women from the Book of Ruth Orpah and Ruth, were sisters, and
both were daughters of the Moabite king Eglon (Ruth R. ii. 9). According to this same midrash Eglon was a son of Balak, the king of Moab introduced
in Numbers 22. Some historical theories link the King's name with that of the present-day town of Ajloun in Jordan, though the precise derivation is obscure.
Mesha of Moab was a king of Moabites around the 9th century BC, known most famous for writing the Mesha stele. The books of Samuel record
that Moab was conquered by David (floruit c.1000-970 BCE) and retained in the territories of his sonSolomon (d. 931 BCE). Later, King Omri of Israel
reconquered Moab after Moab was lost subsequent to King Solomon's reign. TheMesha Stele, erected by Mesha, indicates that it was Omri, king of the
northern kingdom of Israel, who conquered his land. TheMesha Stele records Mesha's liberation of Moab c.850 BCE. 2 Kings 3:4 reports the same events from
the point of view of the Israelites, stating that "King Mesha of Moab ... used to deliver to the king of Israel one hundred thousand lambs, and the wool of one
hundred thousand rams", before rebelling against Jehoram (the Mesha Stele does not name the king against whom Mesha rebelled). 2 Kings and the Mesha Stele
differ in their explanation for the success of the revolt: according to Mesha, "Israel has been defeated", but 2 Kings says the Israelites withdrew when
Meshasacrificed the eldest son of the Edomite king to his god Chemosh, causing Edom to withdraw from the coalition. Aside from these attestations, references
to Mesha are scanty, if extant. The name "Mesha" is based on the Hebrew root meaning "to save", but some scholars have suggested that it seems to have been
etymologically equivalent to the Hebrew "Moshe" (Moses).
Salmanu was king of Moab during the reign of the Assyrian king Tiglath-Pileser III (ruled 745727 BCE). He is mentioned in a clay inscription found
in Nimrud as a vassal of Assyria.Eberhard Schrader theorized that he might be identical with the Shalman who waged war on Israel and sacked Beth-
arbel (Hosea x. 14); though other scholars identify Shalman with one of the Assyrian kings named Shalmaneser.
Muuri was a ruler of Moab during the reigns of the Assyrian kings Esarhaddon (681 BC - 669 BC) and Assurbanipal (669 BC - c.627 BC). His name may
mean "the Egyptian." This name may simply be a given name or nickname; alternatively, it may be an indicator of his ethnicity (e.g., he may have been an
Egyptian prince installed by the Assyrians, or his mother may have been an Egyptian wife or concubine of his predecessor on the Moabite throne). Another
possibility is that he may have been given the name as a title during some campaign against Egypt (as with Roman names Germanicus, Britannicus, etc.). He was
likely succeeded by Kaasalta, though the relationship between the two is unknown.
Kaasalta is mentioned in Assyrian sources as a king of Moab during the reign of Assurbanipal (669-c.627 BCE).

Aram-Damascus
Aram-Damascus (/rm/ or /rm dmsks/) was an Aramaean state around Damascus in Syria, from the late 12th century BC to 732 BC. Sources for this
state come from texts that can be divided into three categories: Assyrian annals, Aramaean texts, and the Hebrew Bible. The largest portion of the textual sources
come from Assyria. There are, however, often several copies of the same texts. Most of the texts are annalsfrom the Assyrian kings Shalmaneser III, Adad-Nirari
III, and Tiglath-Pileser III. The texts mention Aram-Damascus from an Assyrian perspective, but are in many ways informative of the strength of the state, and
give us several names of its rulers. Aramaean royal inscriptions are rare, and only one royal stele from Aram-Damascus proper has been identified the Tel Dan
Stele. Other sources in Aramaic that shed light on the history of Aram-Damascus include two "booty inscriptions" from Eretria and Samos, and the Zakkur stele.
The Hebrew Bible gives more detailed accounts of Aram-Damascus' history, mainly in its interaction with Israel. For instance, there are texts of the Bible
mentioning David's battles against Aramaeans in southern Syria in the 10th century BCE. (2 Samuel 10:6-19) In contrast, the sources for the early history of
Aram-Damascus are almost nonexistent. In an annal dating to Tiglath-Pileser I (1114-1076 BCE), we learn that Aramaean people have begun settling in the
southern half of Syria. The first reliable data can be found in the 9th century BCE when Aramaean, Assyrian, and Hebrew texts all mention a state with its capital
in Damascus. The state seems to have reached its peak in the late 9th century BCE under Hazael, who, according to Assyrian texts, fought against the Assyrians,
and according to Aramaean texts, had some influence over the north Syrian state Unqi,
[1]
and according to Hebrew texts, conquered all of Israel.(2 Kings 13:3) To
the southwest, Aram-Damascus reached over most of Golan to the Sea of Galilee.
[2]
In the 8th century BCE, Rezin had been a tributary of Tiglath-Pileser III, the
king of Assyria. In c. 732 BCE, he allied himself with Pekah, the king of Israel, to attack Ahaz, theking of Judah. However, Ahaz appealed to Tiglath-Pileser III
for help. This the Assyrian king obliged, after Judah paid tribute to the Assyrian king. (2 Kings 16:7-9) As a result, Tiglath-Pileser sacked Damascus and annexed
Aram. According to 2 Kings 16:9, the population was deported and Rezin executed. Tiglath-Pileser also records this act in one of his inscriptions. Archaeological
evidence of Aram-Damascus is close to nothing. Excavations in Damascus are hard to perform, owing to the continuous settlement of the city. Other cities of
Aram-Damascus have not been positively identified from textual sources, and excavations of Iron Age sites around Damascus are almost nonexistent. The
material culture at sites farther south (e.g. Tell-Ashtara, Tell er-Rumeith, et-Tell, Tel-Dan, Tell el-Oreme, to name but a few) do not show many features
distinguishing from the material culture of northern Israel.
List of Rulers of Aram Damascus Kingdom
Hezion was a king of Aram Damascus according to the genealogy given in 1 Kings 15:18, where Ben-Hadad I is said to be the son of Tabrimmon, the son of
Hezion, king of Abram, who lived in Damascus." Samsi-ilu fought against Hezion of Damascus in 773-2 BCE and extracted tribute from him.
[3]
In the 19th
Century many scholars equated him with Rezon the Syrian, an enemy of Solomon.
Tabrimmon, also as Tabrimon, also as Tabremon in Douay-Rheims, was an Aramaean king., but there is little known about him.
[1]
According to theBible, he
is the son of Hezion and the father of Ben-Hadad I:
[2]
Then Asa took all the silver and the gold that were left in the treasures of the house of the LORD, and the
treasures of the king's house, and delivered them into the hand of his servants: and king Asa sent them to Benhadad, the son of Tabrimon, the son of Hezion,
king of Syria, that dwelt at Damascus, saying.
Ben-Hadad I (Hebrew BeN HaDaD,
[1]
Aramaic: , Bar-Hadad) was the king of Aram Damascus between 885 BC and 865 BC. He was the son
of Tabrimmon and grandson of Hezion and a contemporary of Kings Baasha and Ahab of Israel and Asa of Judah. Asa called on Ben-Hadad I to aid him in
attacking northern Israel while Baasha was restricting access to Jerusalem through border fortifications. The plan worked for Asa as Ben-Hadad took the towns of
"Ijon, Dan, Abel-beth-maachah, and all Chinneroth, with all the land of Naphtali" (1 Kings 15:20). This acquisition gave Damascuscontrol of the trade route to
southern Phoenicia. By the reign of Ahab the area was back in Israelite hands.
Hadadezer (/hddizr/; "Hadad is my help"); also known as Adad-Idri (Assyr.) and possibly the same as Bar-Hadad II (Aram.); Ben-Hadad II(Heb.), was
the king of Aram Damascus from 880 BC until 842 BC at the time of the battle of Qarqar against the Assyrian king Shalmaneser III in 853 BC. He
and Irhuleni ofHamath led a coalition of eleven kings (listed as twelve) at Qarqar (including Ahab of Israel and Gindibu the Arab). He fought Shalmaneser six
other times, twice more with the aid of Irhuleni and possibly the rest of the coalition that fought at Qarqar. He is mentioned in the inscriptions on the Tel Dan
Stele; he seems most likely to be the unknown author's father. He was succeeded by Hazael after he was suffocated in the night by him. Some accounts claim that
Hazael was in fact his son.
Hazael (/hezil/; Hebrew: ro
[ 1 ]
La'aZa ; Aramaic, from the triliteral Semitic root h-z-y, "to see"; his full name meaning,
"God has seen") was a court official and later an Aramean king from 842 BC or 805 BC until 796 BC who is mentioned in
the Bible. Under his reign, Aram-Damascus became an empire that ruled over large parts of Syria and Palestine. Hazael is first referred
to by name in 1 Kings 19:15. (In 842 BC God tells the prophet Elijah to anoint Hazael king over Syria.) Years after this, the Syrian
king Hadadezer was ill and sent his court official Hazael with gifts to Elijah's successor Elisha. Elisha asked Hazael to tell Hadadezer
that he would recover, and he revealed to Hazael that the king would recover but would die of other means. The day after he returned
to Hadadezer in Damascus, Hazael suffocated him and seized power himself. During his approximately 46-year reign (c. 842 BC-796
BC), King Hazael led the Arameans in battle against the forces of King Jehoram of Israel and King Ahaziah of Judah. After defeating
them at Ramoth-Gilead, Hazael repelled two attacks by the Assyrians, seized Israelite territory east of the Jordan, the Philistine city
of Gath, and sought to takeJerusalem as well (2 Kings 12:17). Hazael's death is mentioned in 2 Kings 13:24. (796 B.C) A monumental
Aramaic inscription discovered at Tel Dan is seen by most scholars as having been erected by Hazael, after he defeated the Kings of
Israel and Judah. Recent excavations at Tell es-Safi/Gath have revealed dramatic evidence of the siege and subsequent conquest of Gath by Hazael. The
destruction of the settlement at Tell Zeitah during the ninth century may also be the result of Hazael's campaign. King Joash of Judah forestalled Hazael's
invasion by bribing him with treasure from the royal palace and temple. Decorated bronze plaques from chariot horse-harness taken from Hazael, identified by
their inscriptions, have been found as re-gifted votive objects at two Greek sites, the Heraion of Samos and in the temple of Apollo at Eretria on Euboea. The
inscriptions read "that which Hadad gave to our lord Hazael from 'Umq in the year that our lord crossed the River".
[6]
The river must be the Orontes. The
triangular front pieces show a "master of the animals"
[7]
gripping inverted sphinxes or lions in either hand, and with deep-bosomed goddesses who cup their breasts
and stand on the heads of lions. When Tiglath-Pileser III took Damascus in 733/2, these heirlooms were part of the loot that fell eventually into Greek,
probably Euboeanhands.
Bar-Hadad III (Aram.) or Ben-Hadad III (Heb.) was the king of Aram Damascus from 796 BC until 792 BC. He was the son of Hazael, and succeeded him
after his death as king of Aram Damascus. His succession is mentioned in II Kings 13:3, 24. He is thought to have ruled from 796 BC tuntil 792 BC, although
there are many conflicting opinions among Biblical archaeologists as to the length of his reign. The archaeological Stele of Zakkur mentions him as "Bar Hadad,
son of Hazael".
Rezin of Aram (/ri.zn/) or Rasin of Syria in DRB (Hebrew: , Modern {{{2}}} Tiberian rzin; Latin: Rasin) was the king of Aram Damascus during the
8th century BC. During his reign he was a tributary of King Tiglath-pileser III of Assyria. Rezin's reign ended around 732 BC when Tiglath-pileser sacked
Damascus and annexed Aram. According to the Bible, the sack of Damascus was instigated by King Ahaz ofJudah and ended in Rezin's execution (2 Kings 16:7-
9). The execution of Rezin is neither confirmed nor disconfirmed by independent evidence. According to 2 Kings Rezin allied with Pekah, son of Remaliah,
against Ahaz. The defeat of both kings is promised to Ahaz in the Immanuel prophecy Isaiah 7:14, linked to the birth of a child who will be an infant, possibly
Ahaz' royal heir Hezekiah, when this takes place.

Zobah (Aram-Zobah)
Zobah or Aram-Zobah (Hebrew or ) was the capital of an early Aramean state in southern Syria, at one time of considerable importance. In I
Samuel xiv. 47, its king is supposed to have fought with Saul, but this has hitherto been unconfirmed. Its king, Hadadezer bar Rehob, allied with Ammon
against David, who defeated Zobah and made the kingdom tributary to Israel (II Samuel 10.). In this war, Arameans from across the Euphrates came to
Hadadezer's aid (II Sam. 10:16). Upon the accession of Solomon, Zobah became independent of Israel (compare I Kings xi. 23 et seq.). Berothai, a city
belonging to Hadadezer (II Sam. 8:8) is identified by many with Berothah (Ezekiel xlvii. 16), which was between Hamath and Damascus. Zobah was probably
located near this city, though Joseph Halvy claims to have identified Zobah with Chalcis. On either view, the area in question would be found in the far south of
Syria and parts of Lebanon. After the 10th century BCE, Zobah is not mentioned in the Bible, but the city of Subiti, which is mentioned in the annals
of Assurbanipal as having been conquered by him in the 7th century BCE, is probably identical with it (compare Schrader, "K. B." ii. 217). The same city is
mentioned in some brokencuneiform lists of towns in connection with Hamath and Damascus. It also appears (as "Aram-Zobah") in the title of Psalm 60. From
the 11th century, it was common Rabbinic usage to apply the term "Aram Zobah" to the area of Aleppo, and this is perpetuated by Syrian Jews to this day.
Known ruler of Zobah (Aram Zobah)
Hadadezer ben Rehob ("Hadad helps") was king of the Aramaean kingdom of Zobah during the early tenth century BC. He was the son of Rehob
According to II Samuel, Hadadezer allied with the Ammonites against King David of Israel but was defeated.
[1]
Hadadezer's kingdom may previous to this have
dominated the Aramaean states. After Hadadezer of Zobah's defeat Damascus began its rise to prominence and states like Hamath sent grateful missives to
David. Rezon the Syrian, an enemy of King Solomon mentioned in 1 Kings, is recorded as having deserted Hadadezer king of Zobah. After Hadadezer's death
Rezon became king in Damascus and, like Hadad the Edomite harried Israel's borders.

Diauehi (Diaokhi)
Diauehi or Diaokhi (Georgian: ) was a coalition of tribes, or kingdoms, located in northeastern Anatolia, that was formed in the 12th century BC in
the post-Hittite period. It is mentioned in the Urartian inscriptions. It is usually (though not always) identified with Daiaeni of the Yonjalu inscription of
the Assyria king Tiglath-Pileser Is third year (1118 BC). Diauehi is a possible locus of proto-Kartvelian; it has been described as an "important tribal formation of
possible proto-Georgians" by Suny (1994). Although the exact geographic extent of Diauehi is still unclear, many scholars place it in the Pasinler Plain in todays
northeastern Turkey, while others locate it in the Turkish-Georgian marchlands as it follows the Kura River. Most probably, the core of the Diauehi lands may
have extended from the headwaters of the Euphrates into the river valleys of oruh to Oltu. The Urartian sources speak of Diauehis three key cities Zua, Utu
and Sasilu; Zua is frequently identified with Zivin Kale and Ultu is probably modern Oltu, while Sasilu is sometimes linked to the early medieval
Georgian toponym Sasire, near Tortomi (present-day Tortum, Turkey).
[3]
This federation was powerful enough to counter the Assyrian forays, although in 1112
BC its king, Sien, was defeated byTiglath-Pileser I. He was captured and later released on terms of vassalage. In 845 BC, Shalmaneser III finally subdued
Diauehi and downgraded its king, Asia, to a client ruler. King Asia of Diauehi (850 BC 825 BC) was forced to submit to the Assyrian king Shalmaneser III in
845 BC, after the latter had overrun Urartu and made a foray into Diauehi. In the early 8th century, Diauehi became the target of the newly emerged regional
power of Urartu. Both Menuas (810-785 BC) and Argishtis I (785-763 BC) campaigned against the Diauehi king,Utupurshi (c. 810 BC - 770 BC), annexing his
southernmost possessions and forcing him to pay tribute, which included copper, silver and gold. Diauehi was finally destroyed by Colchian incursions by about
the 760s BC, the date of the last recorded references to Diauehi.
List of Rulers of Diauehi (Diaokhi)
Sien of Diauehi was the king of Diauehi or Diaokhi (Georgian: ) coalition of tribes, or kingdoms, located in northeastern Anatolia in early 12th
century BC. This federation was powerful enough to counter the Assyrian forays, although in 1112 BC its king, Sien, was defeated byTiglath-Pileser I. He was
captured and later released on terms of vassalage.
Asia of Diauehi was the king of Diauehi or Diaokhi (Georgian: ) coalition of tribes, or kingdoms, located in northeastern Anatolia from 850 BC
until 825 BC. In 845 BC, Shalmaneser III finally subdued Diauehi and downgraded its king, Asia, to a client ruler. King Asia of Diauehi was forced to submit to
the Assyrian king Shalmaneser III in 845 BC, after the latter had overrun Urartu and made a foray into Diauehi.
Utupurshi was the king of Diauehi or Diaokhi (Georgian: ) coalition of tribes, or kingdoms, located in northeastern Anatolia from around 810 BC
until 770 BC. In the early 8th century, Diauehi became the target of the newly emerged regional power of Urartu. Both Menuas (810-785 BC) and Argishtis
I (785-763 BC) campaigned against the Diauehi king,Utupurshi, annexing his southernmost possessions and forcing him to pay tribute, which included copper,
silver and gold. Diauehi was finally destroyed by Colchian incursions by about the 760s BC, the date of the last recorded references to Diauehi.

Kizzuwatna (Kizzuwadna)
Kizzuwatna (or Kizzuwadna; in Ancient Egyptian Kode), is the name of an ancient Anatolian kingdom in the 2nd millennium BC. It was situated in the highlands
of southeastern Anatolia, near the Gulf of skenderun in modern-day Turkey. It encircled the Taurus Mountains and the Ceyhan river. The center of the
kingdom was the city of Kummanni, situated in the highlands. In a later era, the same region was known as Cilicia. The country possessed valuable resources,
such as silver mines in the Taurus Mountains. The slopes of the mountain range are still partly covered by woods. Annual winter rains made agriculture possible
in the area at a very early date (see atal Hyk). The plains at the lower course of the Ceyhan river provided rich cultivated fields. Several ethnic groups
coexisted in the Kingdom of Kizzuwatna. The Hurrians inhabited this area at least since the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. The Hittite expansion in the
early Old Kingdom period (under Hattusili I and Mursili I) was likely to bring the Hittites and the Luwians to southeastern Anatolia. The Luwian language was
part of the Indo-European language group, with close ties to the Hittite language. Both the local Hittites and the Luwians were likely to contribute to the
formation of independent Kizzuwatna after the weakening of the Hittite Old Kingdom. The toponym Kizzuwatna is possibly a Luwian adaptation of Hittite *kez-
udne 'country on this side (of the mountains)', while the name Isputahsu is definitely Hittite and not Luwian (Yakubovich 2010, pp. 2734). Hurrian culture
became more prominent in Kizzuwatna once it entered the sphere of influence of the Hurrian kingdom ofMitanni. Puduhepa, queen of the Hittite king Hattusili
III, came from Kizzuwatna, where she had been a priestess. Their pantheon was also integrated into the Hittite one, and the goddess Hebat of Kizzuwatna
became very important in Hittite religion towards the end of the 13th century BC. A corpus of religious texts called the Kizzuwatna rituals was discovered
at Hattusa. King Sargon of Akkad claimed to have reached the Taurus mountains (the silver mountains) in the 23rd century BC. However, archaeology has yet
not confirmed any Akkadian influence in the area. The trade routes from Assyria to the karum in the Anatolian highlands went through Kizzuwatna by the early
2nd millennium BC. The kings of Kizzuwatna of the 2nd millennium BC had frequent contact with the Hittites to the north. The earliest Hittite records seem to
refer to Kizzuwatna and Arzawa (Western Anatolia) collectively as Luwia. In the power struggle that arose between the Hittites and the Hurrian kingdom
of Mitanni, Kizzuwatna became a strategic partner due to its location. Isputahsu made a treaty with the Hittite king Telepinu. Later, Kizzuwatna shifted its
allegiance, perhaps due to a new ruling dynasty. The city state of Alalakh to the south expanded under its new vigorous leader Idrimi, himself a subject of the
Mitannian king Barattarna. King Pilliya of Kizzuwatna had to sign a treaty with Idrimi. Kizzuwatna became an ally of Mitanni from the reign of Shunashura I,
until the Hittite king Arnuwanda I overran the country and made it a vassal kingdom. Kizzuwatna rebelled during the reign of Suppiluliuma I, but remained
within the Hittite empire for two hundred years. In the famousBattle of Kadesh (c. 1274 BC), Kizzuwadna supplied troops to the Hittite king. After the fall of the
Hittite empire, several minor Neo-Hittite kingdoms emerged in the area, such as Tabal, Kammanu and Quwe.
List of Rulers of Kizzuwatna (or Kizzuwadna; in Ancient Egyptian Kode)
Pelliya I or Pilliya I was a king of Kizzuwatna (or Kizzuwadna; in Ancient Egyptian Kode), probably during the second half 15th century BC (short chronology).
Pariyawatri was a king of Kizzuwatna (or Kizzuwadna; in Ancient Egyptian Kode), probably during the second half 15th century BC (short chronology).
Isputahsu (Iputahu) was a king of Kizzuwatna (or Kizzuwadna; in Ancient Egyptian Kode), probably during the mid 15th century BC (short chronology). He
signed a treaty of alliance with the Hittite king Telepinu. His father was Pariyawatri, who maybe was not a king. The name of Isputahsu is Hittite and not Luwian.
The first king of free Cilicia, Isputahsu was recorded as a "great king" in both cuneiform and Hittite hieroglyphs. A treaty between Ishputahshu and Telepinu is
recorded in both Hittite and Akkadian.
Shunashshuna I (unaura I) was a king of Kizzuwatna (or Kizzuwadna; in Ancient Egyptian Kode), probably around 1500 BC (short chronology).
Paddatishshu was a king of Kizzuwatna (or Kizzuwadna; in Ancient Egyptian Kode), probably around 1480 BC (short chronology).
Eheya or Ekheya was a king of Kizzuwatna (or Kizzuwadna; in Ancient Egyptian Kode), probably around 1470 BC (short chronology).
Pelliya II or Pilliya II was a king of Kizzuwatna (or Kizzuwadna; in Ancient Egyptian Kode), probably around 1470 BC (short chronology). He signed a treaty
with Idrimi of Alalakh, allying with the Mitanni empire.He made peace with Zidanta II.
Talzu was a king of Kizzuwatna (or Kizzuwadna; in Ancient Egyptian Kode), probably around 1450 BC (short chronology).
Shunashshuna II (unaura II) was a king of Kizzuwatna (or Kizzuwadna; in Ancient Egyptian Kode), probably around 1400 BC (short chronology).

Alalakh
Alalakh (Hittite: Alala) was an ancient city-state, a late Bronze Age capital in the Amuq River valley of Turkey's Hatay Province. It was occupied from before
2000 BC, when the first palace was built, and likely destroyed in the 12th century BC and never reoccupied. The city contained palaces, temples, private houses
and fortifications. Modern Antakya has developed near the site. The remains of Alalakh have formed an extensive mound; the modern archaeological site is
known as Tell Atchana. It was first excavated in the 1930s and 1940s by a British team. In addition to other artifacts. A team sponsored by the University of
Chicagostarted surveys in the late 20th century, and has conducted excavations led by Aslihan Yener in the early 21st century. She is now leading work sponsored
by Mustafa Kemal University and the Turkish government.
List of known Rulers of Alalakh
Idrimi was the king of Alalakh in the 15th century BC. Idrimi was a Hurrianised Semitic son of Ilim-Ilimma I the king of Aleppo who
had been deposed by the new regional master, Barattarna, king of the Mitanni. Nevertheless he succeeded in regaining his seat and was
recognized as a vassal by Barattarna. Idrimi founded the kingdom of Mukish, and ruled from Alalakh as a vassal to the Mitanni. He also
invaded the Hittite territories to the north, resulting in a treaty with the country Kizzuwatna. An inscription on the Statue of Idrimi's base
found at Alalakh records Idrimi's vicissitudes. After his family had been forced to flee toEmar, with his mother's people, he left them and
joined the "Hapiru people" in "Ammija in the land of Canaan", where other refugees from Aleppo recognized him as the "son of their
overlord" and "gathered around him;" after living among them for seven years, he led his new friends and Habiru allies in a successful attack
by sea on Alalakh, where he became king.
Niqmepuh was the king of Alalakh in the 15th century BC. He was son of Idrimi, King of Alalakh. The socio-economic history of Alalakh during the reign of
Idrimi's son and grandson, Niqmepuh and Ilim-ilimma, is well documented by tablets excavated from the site.
Ilim ilimma was the king of Alalakh in the 15th century BC. He was grandson of Idrimi and son of Niqmepuh, kings of Alalakh. The socio-economic
history of Alalakh during the reign of Idrimi's son and grandson, Niqmepuh and Ilim-ilimma, is well documented by tablets excavated from the site.

Nuhae (Nuhaa)
Nuhae, also Nuhaa, was a territory in the Syrian region mentioned in various Middle Eastern documents as between Mari on the Euphrates and Hamath.
The 1350 BC Amarna letters correspondence refers to Nuhae in 11 tablet-letters written in Akkadian cuneiform. The region was generally south of Aleppo. In
the Amarna letters, Nuhae was ruled by Addu-nirari, letter EA 51, (EA for 'el Amarna').
Known ruler of Nuhae (Nuhaa)
Addu-nirari was a ruler of Nuhae (Nuhaa) Kingdom around 1350 BC.

Kadesh (Qidu)
Kadesh (Qadesh-on-the-Orontes, also known as Qadesh, Qanta. Kinza, or Kidsa; Hittite: Kade) was an ancient city of theLevant, located on or near the
headwaters or ford of the Orontes River. It is surmised by Kenneth Kitchen to be the ruins at Tell Nebi Mend, about 24 kilometers (15 mi) southwest
of Homs near al-Qusayr and adjacent to the modern-day village of Tell al-Nabi Mando, in what is now western Syria. The text of the inscriptions at the Battle of
Kadesh locates the ancient settlement as being near Tunip in the land of the Amurru. Since Tunip is now also believed to have been located on the Orontes
(at Tell Acharneh near Tell Salhab in Syria), this is in accord with Kitchen's identification. From the Semitic root Q-D-, meaning Holy. Kadesh means "the holy
city" in reference to the followers of Qetesh. The meaning of Kadesh derives from Indo European, Sanskrit term Deza (written as ) meaning "land, country".
In Slovene as "deela" also as a "country, land". Kadesh - "Land of Hati" (Ka-Nea), "land of Hittites". The site of Kadesh was first occupied during
the Chalcolithic period. Kadesh was coming under the influence of the growing Hittite Empire between 1500 and 1285 BC. It was the target of military
campaigns by most of the pharaohs of the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt. Between 1504 and 1492 BC Thutmosis I campaigned north into Syria against
the Mitanni, a vassal of the Hittites and, along with Aram, an ally of Kadesh. Kadesh is first noted as one of two Canaanite cities (the other being Megiddo) that
led a coalition of city-states opposing the conquest of the Levant by Thutmose III. In mounting this opposition, Kadesh was probably guided by the ruler
of Mittani, Egypt's primary foreign rival in control of the Levant. Defeat in the subsequent Battle of Megiddo ultimately led to the extension of Egyptian
hegemony over the city, as well as the rest of southern Syria. In 1479 BC Thutmoses III fought against the king of Kadesh in the Battle of Megiddo. In the time
of Hatshepsut there were no campaigns against Kadesh as she was focused on developing trade across the Red Sea and southward. Although Amenophis
IIcampaigned in the Djadi from then on until the reign of Haremhab 1319-1307 for a century and a half Canaan was in virtual rebellion and the Egyptians could
do little about it. Correspondence between the ruler of Kadesh and the pharaoh Akhenaten is preserved amongst the Amarna letters. Kadesh is known
as Qidshu in these Akkadian languageletters. The names of three kings of Kadesh survive from contemporary sources: Suttarna (or Sutatarra; fl. c. 1350
BC); Etakkama (c. 1340s) and his son Ari-Teshub (fl. c. 1330-1325).
List of Rulers of Kadesh (Qidu)
Suttarna (or Sutatarra) was the 'mayor' (king) of Kadesh (Qidu) around 1350 BC.
Etakkama, as a common name, but also, Aitukama, Atak(k)ama, Etak(k)ama, and Itak(k)ama is the name for the 'mayor' (king) of Kadesh (Qidu) around
1340 BC. (Qidu is also referenced as: Qinu, also Kissa). Etakkama is referenced in 11 of the 382 EA letters, (EA for 'el Amarna'), and especially, a series of
4 identical letters concerning: Amqu, the region of the Beqaa in Lebanon. Those 4 letters concern the intrigues of city/city-state takeovers, along with troops
from Hatti, and the claim of: Etakkama's troops from 'Kinsa' -(Qidu-Kissa)-Kadesh) and are titled: "A joint report on Amqu (1-4)". Etakkama was the author of
one letter, EA 189. "To the king, my lord: Message of Etakkama, your servant. I fall at the feet of my lord, my Sun, 7 times plus 7. My lord, I am your servant,
but the wicked Biryawaza has gone on defaming me in your sight, my lord, and when he was defaming me in your sight, then he took my entire paternal estate
along with the land of Qidu, and sent my cities up in flames. But, I assure you, the commissioners of the king, my lord, and his magnates know my loyalty, since
I said to the magnate Puhuru, "May the magnate Puhuru know that [...]" ..."
Reverse - "...Biryawaza. Thus do I serve you along w[it]h all my brothers, and wherever there is war against the king, I go, together with my troops, together with
my chariots, and together with all my brothers. Since Biryawaza had allowed all of the cities of the king, my lord, to go over to the 'Apiru in Tahi and Upu, I
went, and with your gods and your Sun leading me, I restored from the 'Apiru the cities to the king, my lord, for his service, and I disbanded the 'Apiru. May the
king, my lord, rejoice at Etakkama, his servant, for I serve the king, my lord, together with all my brothers. I serve the king, my lord, but Biryawaza caused the
loss of all [your] lan[ds. His intention] is solely injustice, but I am [your servant] forever." -EA 189, lines 1-20, Rev: lines 1-27 (bottom of tablet-letter
damaged, lacuna of 2-5 sentences(?)).
Besides claiming his loyalty to Pharaoh, Etakkama is revealing how Biryawaza, the King of Dimaqu, (Damascus) is really the problem in Upu, the region
surrounding Damascus. The 'Amqu region' is the Beqaa Valley area to the northeast (of Damascus), in Lebanon.
Ari-Teshub was the 'mayor' (king) of Kadesh (Qidu) from 1330 BC until 1325 BC. He was son of Ettakama, 'mayor' (king) of Qidu (Kadesh) around 1340
BC.

Ruhizzi
Ruhizzi, was a city, or city-state located in northern Canaan or southern Amurru territories, in the foothills of Mount Hermon during the time of the Amarna
letters correspondence. During the 15-20 year Amarna letters of 1350-1335 BC, Arsawuya was the 'mayor' of Ruhizzi and corresponded with
the Egyptianpharaoh. According to EA 53, (EA for 'el Amarna'), a letter concerning a warring Etakkama, Ruhizzi was associated with the problems of Upu in the
region to the south at Damascus, (named Dimaqu), and in the region ofAmqu, (the Beqaa), in the northwest. Ruhizzi is located near Kadesh-(Qidu), and east of
the Anti-Lebanon. In 1350 BC Syria did not exist, and the regional empire of Assyria was ascendant-(the king of Assyria, Ashur-uballit I also wrote letters to the
pharaoh).
Ruler of Ruhizzi
Arsawuya was a ruler or 'mayor' of Ruhizzi, located east of Qidu-(Kadesh), and farther east beyond the Anti-Lebanon mountain range, during the 1350-1335
BC Amarna letterscorrespondence. He is referenced in 5 letters, 2 letters of which he wrote to the Egyptian pharaoh, letters EA 191, and 192, (EA for
'el Amarna'). The complete topic of Arsawuya's 2nd letter is missing because of a multi-sentence lacuna.
EA 191, "Preparations for war"
"To the king, my lord: Message of Arsawuya, the ruler of Ruhizza. I fall at the feet of the king, my lord. The king, my lord, wrote to me to make preparations
before the arrival of the archers of the king, my lord, and before the arrival of his many commissioners. And could I think of not serving the king, my lord? May I
join up with the archers of the king and his commissioners so that, having everything prepared, I might follow them wherever they are at war against the king, my
lord, and we capture them (and) give his enemies into the hand of the king, our lord." -EA 191, lines 1-21 (complete)
EA 192, "Message received"
"[Sa]y [t]o the king, my lord, both Sun and my god: Message of [A]rsawuya, the loyal servant [o]f the king, my lord, [and the di]rt at the feet of the king, my lord. I
fall at the feet of the king, my lord, both Sun and my god, 7 times and 7 times. [I have] heard the words [of the king], my lord and my god, [and here]with [...]
...[the king], (my) lord. And the king, [m]y lord, must [not] neglect his country." -EA 192, lines 1-17 (complete, with lines 12-15 a lacuna).

Qatna
Qatna (Arabic , modern Tell el-Mishrife, Arabic ) is an archaeological site in the Wadi il-Aswad, a tributary of the Orontes, 18 km northeast
of Homs, Syria. It consists in a tell occupying 1 km, which makes it one of the largest Bronze Age towns in western Syria. The tell is located at the edge of the
limestone-plateau of the Syrian desert towards the fertile Homs-Bassin. The tell is named after the adjacent modern town of al-Mishirfeh. The first finds at Qatna
date to the mid- to late 3rd millennium BC, although this early period is not well represented. The find of a 12th Dynasty Egyptian sphinx belonging to Princess
Ita, daughter of Amenemhat II (18751840 BC) shows early Egyptian influence, although it is not clear at what time the sphinx got to Qatna (the sphinx was
found within the debris of the Late Bronze Agepalace). The first finds at Qatna date to the mid- to late 3rd millennium BC, although this early period is not well
represented.
[1]
The find of a 12th Dynasty Egyptian sphinx belonging to Princess Ita, daughter of Amenemhat II (18751840 BC) shows early Egyptian influence,
although it is not clear at what time the sphinx got to Qatna (the sphinx was found within the debris of the Late Bronze Agepalace). The first king of Qatna
(Qatanum) known by name from the Mari archives is Ishi-Adad ("Haddad" or "Adad is my help"), an Amurru or "Amorite". He was a confederate of Shamshi-
Adad of upper Mesopotamia. He was succeeded by his son Amut-p-el who had been governor of Nazala as crown prince. This was in the time
of Hammurabi of Babylon (17921750 BC). Beltum, the sister of Amut-p-el was married to Jasmah-Addu of Mari. Contracts between Mari and Qatna define
her as the principal wife of Jasmah-Addu. Her mother might have been Lammassi-Ashur from Assur or Ekallatum. Zimrilim of Mari was married to another
princess from Qatna, Dam-hurasim. After the destruction of Mari by Hammurapi, the written sources become sparse. Aleppo (Yamkhad) now became Qatna's
most powerful neighbour, during the reign of Yarim-Lim III Qatna was temporarily dominated by Aleppo. With the development of the Mitanni empire in
upper Mesopotamia, Qatna was incorporated but was located in disputed territory between the Mitanni and Egypt. The inscriptions of the so-called Nin-Egal
temple (part of the Royal palace, room C) show that Mittanni were resident in Qatna. The campaigns of Pharaohs Amenhotep I (15151494 BC) andThutmose
I (14941482 BC) in Syria might have reached Qatna, but there is no conclusive evidence. On the 7th Pylon of the temple of Amun in Karnak, Thutmose
III (14791425 BC) mentions that he stayed in the land of Qatna in the 33rd year of his reign. Amenhotep II (14271401 BC) was attacked by the host of Qatna
[

while crossing the Orontes, but of course he remained victorious and acquired booty, among which the equipment of a Mitanni charioteer is mentioned. Qatna is
mentioned

in Egyptian topographic lists till the time of Ramesses III (1180 BC). Cuneiform tablets discovered under the Royal palace in Qatna mention a
previously unknown king Idanda who ruled ca. 1400 BC. During the Syrian campaign of the Hittite king Suppiluliuma I (13801340 BC), Prince Akizzi of Qatna
asked for the help of Akhenaten/Amenhotep IV, but as he was only concerned with his monotheistic reform symbolized by his own throne name Akhnaton and
his new capital Amarna (abandoned after his death as all reforms were reversed), the town was among several Syrian city-states captured and plundered by the
Hittites, the inhabitants deported to Hatti. During this same Amarna letters period, Prince Akizzi wrote 5 letters to Akhenaten. Texts from Emar describe how
Qatna was attacked by Aramaic tribes in the late Bronze Age, so the town must still have been in existence. The tell was settled in Neo-Babylonian times as well
(a hilani has been excavated), but the town remained insignificant as nearby Emesa had taken over its position on the trade routes.
List of Rulers of Qatna (Qatanum)
Ishi-Adad was the first king of Qatna (Qatanum) known by name from the Mari archives is Ishi-Adad ("Haddad" or "Adad is my help"), an Amurru or
"Amorite" reigned around 1800 BC. He was a confederate of Shamshi-Adad of upper Mesopotamia. He was succeeded by his son Amut-p-el who had been
governor of Nazala as crown prince.
Amut-p-el was the second king of Qatna (Qatanum) reigned around 1800 BC. He was son of Ishi-Adad, founder of Qatna (Qatanum).
Danda was the king of Qatna (Qatanum) reigned around 1400 BC.
Taku was the king of Qatna (Qatanum) reigned around 1400 BC.
Akizzi was the king of Qatna (Qatanum) in the fourteenth century BC. During the Syrian campaign of the Hittite king Suppiluliuma I (13801340 BC),
Prince Akizzi of Qatna asked for the help of Akhenaten/Amenhotep IV, but as he was only concerned with his monotheistic reform symbolized by his own
throne name Akhnaton and his new capital Amarna (abandoned after his death as all reforms were reversed), the town was among several Syrian city-states
captured and plundered by the Hittites, the inhabitants deported to Hatti. During this same Amarna letters period, Prince Akizzi wrote 5 letters to
Akhenaten. Texts from Emar describe how Qatna was attacked by Aramaic tribes in the late Bronze Age, so the town must still have been in existence.

Tabal
Tabal (c.f. biblical Tubal) was a Luwian speaking Neo-Hittite kingdom of South Central Anatolia. According to archaeologist Kurt Bittel, the kingdom of Tabal
first appeared after the collapse of the Hittite Empire.
[
The Assyrian king Shalmaneser III records that he received gifts from their 24 kings in 837 BC and the
following year. A century later, their king Burutash is mentioned in an inscription of king Tiglath-Pileser III. The kings of Tabal have left a number of
inscriptions from the 9th-8th centuries BC in hieroglyphic-Luwian in the Turkish villages of alapverdi and Aliar. Tabal and its people are often identified with
the tribe of the Tibareni (Tibarenoi in Greek, Thobeles in Josephus) who lived near the Black Sea. They are mentioned in the works of Hecataeus of
Miletus, Herodotus, Xenophon and Strabo. On this ground, the Georgian historianIvane Javakhishvili (1950) considered Tabal, Tubal, Jabal and Jubal to be an
early Kartvelian tribal designation. Whether there is really any connection between the Tibareni of the Black Sea coast and the Tabal kingdom of Southern
Anatolia is uncertain, ancient authors may have already confused the two.
List of Rulers of Neo Hititite Kingdom of Tabal
Tuwati or Tuwatis was a ruler of Neo Hittite Kingdom of Tabal around 850 BC.
Kati (Kiakki) was a ruler of Neo Hittite Kingdom of Tabal around 837 BC. He was son of Tuwati o Tuwatis king of Tabal.
Tuwatis II (Tuate) was a ruler of Neo Hittite Kingdom of Tabal around 770 BC.
Burutash was a ruler of Neo Hittite Kingdom of Tabal around 740 BC.
Uassurme (Wasuarma) was a ruler of Neo Hittite Kingdom of Tabal around 738 BC.
Wasu-ama, Wasu-arumas was a ruler of Neo Hittite Kingdom of Tabal around 730 BC.
Hili (Khulli) was a ruler of Neo Hittite Kingdom of Tabal around 730 BC.
Ambaris or Amris was a ruler of Neo Hittite Kingdom of Tabal from around 730 BC until 712 BC.
Warpalawas was a ruler of Neo Hittite Kingdom of Tabal around 712 BC.
Wasurmas was a ruler of Neo Hittite Kingdom of Tabal around 700 BC.
Hidi was a ruler of Neo Hittite Kingdom of Tabal around 690 BC.
Mugallu (Mukalli) was a ruler of Neo Hittite Kingdom of Tabal around 670 BC.
..-ussi was a ruler of Neo Hittite Kingdom of Tabal around 650 BC.


Kummuh
Kummuh is an Iron Age Neo-Hittite kingdom located on the west bank of the Upper Euphrates within the easternly loop of the river between Malatya and
Carchemish. Assyrian sources refer both to the land and its capital city with the same name. The city is identified with the classical period Samosata, modern-day
Samsat Hyk which has now been flooded under the waters of a newly built dam. Urartian sources refer to it as Qumaha.
[1]
The name is also attested in at least
one local royal inscription dating to the 8th century BCE.
[2]
Other places that are mentioned in historical sources to be within Kummuh are lands of Kitan and
Halpi, and cities of Wita, Halpa, Parala, Sukiti and Sarita(?).
[3]
Other neighboring kingdoms were Melid to the north, Gurgum to the west and Carchemish to the
south. They were facing Assyria and later Urartu to the east. Several indigenous rock inscriptions were found in the region, all written in Hieroglyphic Luwian,
attesting to the continuity of Hittitetraditions. In his annals Assyrian king Sargon II referred to the Kummuh ruler as Hittite, and names of several Kummuh
rulers are identical to famous Hittite kings of the 2nd millennium: Hattuili(?), uppiluliuma, Muwattalli (in Assyrian sources Qatazilu, Upilulume, Muttallu).
List of Rulers of Kummuh Kingdom
Kali-Teshub (Sarupi or Irrupi) was a ruler of Kummuh Kingdom around 1120 BC.
Kili-Teshub was a ruler of Kummuh Kingdom around 1115 BC.
Shadi-Teshub was a ruler of Kummuh Kingdom around 1115 BC.
Qatazilu was a ruler of Kummuh Kingdom from 870s BC until 855 BC. In 866 BCE, Kummuh king Qatazilu paid tribute to Assyrian king Ashurnasirpal II in
the city of Huzirina (modern-day Sultantepe). In 858 BCE, Assyrian king Shalmaneser III reported in his Kurkh Monolith that Qatazilu submitted to him
peacefully after the Assyrian king crossed Euprates on a campaign to the west. A similar report is mentioned for another campaign in 857.
Kundapi was a ruler of Kummuh Kingdom around middle 9th century BC. In 853 BC, a new king in Kummuh, Kundapi, is reported by Shalmaneser III as
being among the northern Syrian kings who submitted to him in the city of Pitru.
Upilulume (uppiluliuma) was a ruler of Kummuh Kingdom 810 BC until 770 BC. In 805 BC, as reported on the Pazarck Stele, Kummuh king Upilulume
(uppiluliuma) asked for the assistance of the Assyrian king Adad-nirari III against the a coalition of eight kings led by Atarumki of Arpad. Adad-nirari
apparently travelled with his mother ammuramat, defeated the alliance, and established the border between Kummuh and Gurgum atPazarck.
Hattuili was a ruler of Kummuh Kingdom in the second half 8th century BC. Malpnar inscription is carved on a natural rock cliff dates to the reign of
Hattuili, son of uppiluliuma. Improved reading of ANCOZ 5 mentions the pair "Hattuili and uppiluliuma, father and son" (as opposed to a father
uppiluliuma and son Hattuili) which may suggests the existence of either a second uppiluliuma or second Hattuili.
Kutapi was a ruler of Kummuh Kingdom from 750s BC until 732 BC. Around 750 BC Kummuh was attacked by the Urartian king Sarduri II who captured
the cities of Wita and Halpi, and made the Kummuh king Kutapi pay a tribute. In 743, BC Kutapi was among the Urartu-Arpad alliance against Tiglath-
pileser III of Assyria. The alliance was defeated but Tiglath-pieleser III pardoned Kutapi along with the kings of Melid and Gurgum. Kutapi appears as a
tributary of Tiglath-pileser III in 738 BC and 732 BC.
Mutallu was a ruler of Kummuh Kingdom from 732 BC until 707 BC. In 712 BC, after the Kingdom of Melid was dismembered by the Assyrian king Sargon
II city of Melid itself was given to Kummuh king Muttallu. In 708 BC, Sargon II accused Muttallu for alliance with Urartu and sent his army. According to the
annals, Muttallu escaped but the royal family and the population was deported to Babylonia, and settlers from Bit-Yakin (in Babylonia) were brought to
Kummuh. Thereafter the region became a province of Assyria and was under the jurisdiction of the turtanu of the left, whose seat of power was apparently the
city of Kummuh.

Carchemish
Carchemish (/krkm./
[1]
) or Karkemish (Hittite: Kargami; Greek: ; Latin: Europus) was an important ancient capital at times independent but also
having been part of the Mitanni, Hittite and Neo Assyrian Empires, now on the frontier between Turkey and Syria. It was the location of an important
battle between the Babylonians and Egyptians, mentioned in theBible (Jer. 46:2). Modern neighbouring cities are Karkam in Turkey and Jarabulus in Syria
(also Djerablus, Jerablus, Jarablos, Jarblos); the original form of the modern toponym seems to have been Djerabis, likely derived from the ancient name of the
Hellenistic-Roman settlement Europos.
List of Rulers of Carchermish
Aplahanda was a king of Carchemish proposed to have reigned from 1786 BC until 1766 BC.
[
He was first known from a cylinder seal translated by Rene
Dussaud in 1929. The seal was found at the base of the mound of Ugarit before excavations began. He is also found mentioned in the Mari tablets, reigning at
the same time as Iasma-Addu and Zimri-Lim, by whom he is addressed as a brother. His name was suggested to beAmorite by I. J. Gelb and the hypothesis of
a semitic origin was supported by Wilfred G. Lambert. He was allied with Shamshi-Adad in a war against Aleppo that was unsuccessful. Aplahanda was
succeeded by two sons, Yatar-Ami and Yahdul-Lim and a daughter called Matrunna, who had a non-semitic, possilby Hurrian name. He is known to have died in
1762 from a letter of Ishtaran-Nasir.
Yatar-Ami was a king of Carchemish proposed to have reigned from 1766 BC until 1764 BC.

He was son of Aplahanda, he enjoyed a brief reign of only two
years before being succeeded by his brother Yahdul-Lim.
[1]
He is known to have continued the profitable lumber trade withMari.
Yahdul-Lim was a king of Carchemish proposed to have reigned from 1764 BC until 1745 BC.

He was son of Aplahanda, he succeeded his brother Yatar-
Ami. Little is known about his reign.
Piyassili (died ca. 1315 BC) was a king of Carchemish proposed to have reigned from 1336 BC until 1324 BC.

He was a Hittite prince, and a middle son of
King Suppiluliuma I; younger than the heir Arnuwanda II, but older than the eventual successor Mursili II and probably older than the doomed Zannanza too.
After Suppiluliuma concluded a treaty with Shattiwazza, son of King Tushratta of Mitanni, and married one of his daughters to him, Piyassili led a Hittite army
that put Shattiwazza on the throne of Hanigalbat. According to Hittite sources, Piyashshili and Shattiwazza crossed the Euphrates at Carchemish, then marched
against Irridu, already in Hurrian territory. After having reduced Irridu and Harran, they continued east towards to Washshukanni and perhaps conquered the
capital, Taite, as well. After Shattiwazza had been made a vassal ruler of Hanigalbat, Suppiluliuma gave to Piyassili the Hurrian name Sarri-Kusuh and the
territory of Ashtata (with the cities of Ekalte,Ahuna and Terqa) and Carchemish, formerly belonging to Hanigalbat. "And all of the cities of the land of
Carchemish, Murmurik, Shipri, Mazuwati and urun these fortified cities I gave to my son." (Suppililiuma-Shattiwazza treaty 13). In fact, the whole former
territory of Hanigabat west of the Euphrates seems to have come under direct Hittite rule and was governed by Piyashshili. When the Egyptians attacked Kadesh,
Suppililiuma besieged and retook the town. The people were deported and Suppililiuma made Piyashshili governor of that town as well. Still bearing the name
"Sarri-Kusuh", in ca. 1320 BC Piyashshili came to Mursili's aid in the campaign against Arzawa. Piyassili then returned to Carchemish. Piyashshili fell ill and died
before year 9 of Mursili II. After his death, a rebellion broke out in Kadesh and Nuhasse. After it had been quelled, Piyassili's son was made king of Carchemish
by his uncle Mursili II. Janet Morris wrote a detailed biographical novel, I, the Sun, whose subject was Suppiluliuma I. Piyassili is an important figure in this
novel, in which all characters are from the historical record, which Dr. Jerry Pournelle called "a masterpiece of historical fiction" and about which O.M. Gurney,
Hittite scholar and author of The Hittites, commented that "the author is familiar with every aspect of Hittite culture". Morris' book was republished by The
Perseid Press in April 2013.
Sharrikushukh (Isharruma) was a king of Carchemish proposed to have reigned from 1324 BC until 1315 BC. He was son of Piyassilis, king of Carchemis.
[...]sharruma was a king of Carchemish proposed to have reigned from 1315 BC until 1300 BC.
Shakhurunuwa was a king of Carchemish proposed to have reigned from 1300 BC until 1260 BC. He was son of Piyassilis, king of Carchemish.
Ini-Teshub I was a king of Carchemish proposed to have reigned from 1260 BC until 1210 BC.
Talmi-Teshub was a king of Carchemish proposed to have reigned from 1210 BC until 1185 BC. He was "the great-great-great-grandson of Suppiluliuma I"
and a viceroy at Carchemish in Syria under Suppiluliuma II.
[1]
According to royal seal impressions found at Lidar Hyk found in 1985 on the east bank of the
Euphrates river, Talmi-Teshub was succeeded by his own son, Kuzi-Teshub.
Kuzi-Teshub was a king of Carchemish proposed to have reigned around 1170 BC. Kuzi-Teshub was the son of Talmi-Teshub who was both the last viceroy
of the Hittite Empire at Carchemish under Suppiluliuma II, and a direct descendant of Suppiluliuma I. He succeeded his father in office according to royal seal
impressions found at Lidar Hyk in 1985 on the east bank of the Euphrates river. Kuzi-Teshub then styled himself as "Great King" of Carchemish suggesting
that the central Hittite dynasty at Hattusa had collapsed by his time and that he viewed himself as the one true heir of the line of Suppiluliuma I.
Ini-Teshub II was a king of Carchemish proposed to have reigned from around 1150 BC until 1120 BC.
Cerablus was a king of Carchemish proposed to have reigned from 1120 BC until 1100 BC.
Tudhaliya was a king of Carchemish proposed to have reigned around 1100 BC, either before or after Ini-Teshub II.
Sapaziti was a king of Carchemish proposed to have reigned in 11th century BC.
Uratarhunda was a king of Carchemish proposed to have reigned around 1000 BC.
Suhi I was a king of Carchemish proposed to have reigned around 975 BC.
Astuwalamanza was a king of Carchemish proposed to have reigned in the 10th century BC.
Suhi II was a king of Carchemish proposed to have reigned in the 10th century BC.
Katuwa was a king of Carchemish proposed to have reigned around 900 BC.
Ben-Bitbahiani was a king of Carchemish proposed to have reigned in late 9th century BC.
Sangara was a king of Carchemish proposed to have reigned from 870 BC until 848 BC. He first appears in Assyrian documents as paying tribute to
Ashurnasirpal II in 882 BC. In 857 he paid tribute again, this time to Shalmaneser III, who had just completed his conquest of the Syro-Hittite states.
Astiru was a king of Carchemish proposed to have reigned around 840 BC.
Yariri was regent of Carchemish proposed to have reigned around 815 BC.
Kamani was a king of Carchemish proposed to have reigned around 790 BC.
Sastura was a king of Carchemish proposed to have reigned around 760 BC.
Astiru II was a king of Carchemish proposed to have reigned around 750 BC.
Pisiri was tje last king of Carchemish proposed to have reigned from around 730 BC until 717 BC when he was defeated i by Sargon II.





Bit Agusi
Bit Agusi (also written Bet Agus) was an ancient Aramaean Syro-Hittite state, established by Gusi of Yakhan at the beginning of the 9th century BC. It had
included the cities of Arpad, Nampigi (Nampigu) and later on Aleppo. Arpad was the capital of the state-kingdom. Bit Agusi stretched from the A'zaz area in the
north to Hamath in the south. Arpad later became a major vassal city of the Kingdom of Urartu. In 743 BC, during the Urartu-Assyria War, the Neo-
Assyrian king Tiglath-Pileser III laid siege to Arpad following the defeat of the Urartian army of Sarduri II at Samsat. But the city of Arpad did not surrender
easily. It took Tiglath-Pileser three years of siege to conquer Arpad, whereupon he massacred its inhabitants and destroyed the city. Afterward Arpad served a
provincial capital. The remains of Arpad's walls are still preserved in Tell Rifaat to the height of 8 meters. A coalition of princes which had been allied to the city
was also defeated, including the kings of Kummuh,Quw, Carchemish and Gurgum. Bit Agusi was never repopulated.
List of Rulers of Bit Agusi
Gusi (Gusu) of Yarkhan was a ruler of Bit Agusi around 855 BC.
Arame (Aramu) was a ruler of Bit Agusi from 855 BC until 830 BC.
Atarsumki was a ruler of Bit Agusi around 800 BC.
Mati-Ilu was a ruler of Bit Agusi from 750 BC until 740 BC.

Hamath
Hamath was an important ancient capital at times independent but also having been part of the Mitanni, Hittite and Neo Assyrian Empires, now in Syria. When
the Assyrian king Shalmaneser III (BC 858-824) conquered the north of Syria he reached Hamath (Assyrian: Amat or Hamata) in 835 BC; this marks the
beginning of Assyrian inscriptions relating to the kingdom. Irhuleni of Hamath and Im-idri of Aram (biblical Bar-Hadad) led a coalition of Syrian cities against
the encroaching Assyrian armies. According to Assyrian sources, they were confronted by 4,000 chariots, 2,000 horsemen, 62,000-foot-soldiers and 1,000 Arab
camel-riders in the Battle of Qarqar. The Assyrian victory seems to have been more of a draw, although Shalmaneser III continued on to the shore and even
took a ship to open sea. In the following years, Shalmaneser III failed to conquer Hamath or Aram. After the death of Shalmaneser III, the former allies Hamath
and Aram fell out, and Aram seems to have taken over some of Hamath's territory. An Aramaic inscription of Zakir, dual king of Hamath and La'ash, tells of an
attack by a coalition including Sam'al under Ben-Hadad III, son of Hasael, king of Aram. Zakir was besieged in his fortress of Hazrak, but saved by intervention
of the God Be'elschamen. Later on, Ja'udi-Sam'al came to rule both Hamath and Aram. In 743 BC, Tiglath-Pileser III took a number of towns in the territory of
Hamath, distributed the territories among his generals, and forcibly removed 1223 selected inhabitants to theUpper Tigris valley; he exacted tribute from
Hamath's king, Eni-lu (Eniel). In 738 BC, Hamath is listed among the cities again conquered by Assyrian troops. Over 30,000 natives were deported
to Ullaba and replaced with captives from the Zagros. After the fall of the northern kingdom of Israel, Hamath's king Ilu-Bi'di (Jau-Bi'di) led a failed revolt of the
newly organized Assyrian provinces of Arpad, Simirra, Damascus, andSamara. It was this revolt which led to the deportation of the Ten Lost Tribes of Israel.
List of Rulers of Hamath
Zakir was the King of Hamath and La'ash during 790s BC. An Aramaic inscription of Zakir, dual king of Hamath and La'ash, tells of an attack by a coalition
including Sam'al under Ben-Hadad III, son of Hasael, king of Aram. Zakir was besieged in his fortress of Hazrak, but saved by intervention of the
God Be'elschamen.
Ja'udi-Sam'al was the King of Hamath and Aram around middle 8th century BC.
Eni-lu (Eniel) was the King of Hamath and Aram during 740s BC. In 743 BC, Tiglath-Pileser III took a number of towns in the territory of Hamath,
distributed the territories among his generals, and forcibly removed 1223 selected inhabitants to the Upper Tigris valley; he exacted tribute from Hamath's
king, Eni-lu (Eniel).
Yahu-Bihdi was the King of Hamath and Aram around 720 BC. He was a governor of Hamath appointed by the Assyrian government.
In 738 BC, Hamath is listed among the cities again conquered by Assyrian troops. Over 30,000 natives were deported to Ullaba and
replaced with captives from the Zagros. After the fall of the northern kingdom of Israel, Hamath's king Ilu-Bi'di (Jau-Bi'di) led a failed revolt
of the newly organized Assyrian provinces of Arpad, Simirra, Damascus, andSamara. It was this revolt which led to the deportation of
the Ten Lost Tribes of Israel. He declared himself king of Hamath in 720 BC and led a revolt which was promptly suppressed. Yahu-Bihdi
himself was flayed alive. His revolt occurred roughly shortly after the conquest of the Kingdom of Israel by Sargon II and roughly
simultaneously with revolts in Babylon as well as in Arpad, Damascusand elsewhere in the Levant. His name, with the component Yahu,
suggests that he may have been an Israelite or a worshipper of the Israelite God. Following his defeat, many residents of Hamath were deported to Samaria by the
Assyrians, where they became one of the component groups of the Samaritan people. Hamath itself was destroyed after the siege, but had been rebuilt by the
400's BC.

Kingdom of Lavo
The Kingdom of Lavo was a political entity (mandala) on the left bank of the Chao Phraya River in the Upper Chao Phraya valley from the end
of Dvaravati civilization, around the 7th century, until 1388. The original center of Lavo civilization was Lavoitself, or modern Lopburi, but the capital shifted
southward to Ayodhaya around 11th century, where it remained and became theAyutthaya kingdom, according to recent historical analysis.
Known Ruler of Kingdom of Lavo
Phraya Kalavarnadit was the first king of Lavo Kingdom around AD 450. The legendary first king of Lavo, Phraya Kalavarnadit, was said to have
established the city around 450 CE as one of the Dvaravati city-states. Kalavarnadit established a new era called the Chulasakaraj, which was the era used by the
Siamese and the Burmese until 19th century.
Kingdom of Sedang
The Kingdom of Sedang (French: Royaume des Sedangs; sometimes referred to as the Kingdom of the Sedang) was an ephemeral political entity established in
the latter part of the 19th century by a French adventurer, Charles-Marie David de Mayrna, in part of what is present-day Vietnam.
King of Sedang Kingdom
Marie-Charles David de Mayrna (also known as Charles-Marie David de Mayrna and Marie I, King of Sedang; January 31,
1842 - November 11, 1890), was an eccentric French adventurer who became the self-styled king of the Sedang of the northern Central
Highlands in what is now southern Vietnam. De Mayrna was born in Toulon. He fled Paris for Java in June 1883, fearing prosecution
for embezzlement. The next year, he was expelled from the Dutch East Indies. He returned to Paris and organized an arms shipment
to Aceh. While returning to the East Indies, he stopped in Vietnam and started a plantation. In 1888, the King of Siam began claiming
territory west of French territory. Anxious, theGovernor-General of French Indochina agreed to a proposal from Mayrna to lead an
expedition into the interior in order to negotiate treaties with the local tribespeople. Once there however, he convinced some tribal
chiefs to form a new Kingdom of Sedang - with himself as king. Mayrna, his supporters and some tribespeople claimed that the tribes
were not vassals of the Annamese (Vietnamese) emperor and therefore could form their own kingdom. The Kingdom of Sedang was
founded when Mayrna was elected King by the chiefs of the Bahnar, Rengao, and Sedang tribes in the village of Kon Gung on June 3,
1888. He then assumed the style and title Marie the First, King of Sedang. King Marie declared Roman Catholicism to be the official tribal religion. However, he
did not try to force the conversion of his subjects, most of whom were Muslims; instead, he announced his own adoption of Islam. He designed a national
flag
[2]
and an honorary insigniathe Order of Marie the Firstwhich he had cast by goldsmiths in Hong Kong. He also sought to obtain official diplomatic
recognition of his kingdom, and offered to cede his kingdom to France in exchange for monopoly rights, and hinted that the Prussians were interested if the
French were not. When the French government became understandably chilly, Mayrna approached the English at Hong Kong in 1889. When he was rebuffed
there, Mayrna went to Belgium. In 1889, a Belgian financier named Somsy offered arms and money to Mayrna in exchange for mineral rights. However, the
French Navy blockaded Vietnamese ports to prevent his return, and his arms were seized as contraband at Singapore. Mayrna retired to British Malaya. There,
on November 11, 1890, Marie I died under mysterious circumstances (various reports claim by poisoning, snakebite or as the result of a duel) at Tioman Island.
The Kingdom of the Sedang was subsequently conquered by the French Republic and her protectorate, Annam, without the consent of the government or
people of Sedang. French writer and statesman Andr Malraux wrote an unpublished novel about Mayrna while Malraux' friend and character in La Condition
Humaine, Baron de Clappique, wrote a movie script about him (in Anti-mmoires by Malraux).

Republic of Ezo
The Republic of Ezo ( Ezo Kywakoku
?
) was a short-lived state established by former Tokugawa retainers in what is now known as Hokkaido, the
large but sparsely populated northernmost island in modern Japan. After the defeat of the forces of the Tokugawa Shogunate in the Boshin War (1869) of
the Meiji Restoration, a part of the formerShogun's navy led by Admiral Enomoto Takeaki fled to the northern island of Ezo (now known as Hokkaido), together
with several thousand soldiers and a handful of French military advisors and their leader, Jules Brunet. Enomoto made a last effort to petition the Imperial Court
to be allowed to develop Hokkaido and maintain the traditions of the samurai unmolested, but his request was denied.
[1]
On January 27, 1869 (New Style), the
independent "Republic of Ezo" was proclaimed, with a government organization based on that of the United States, with Enomoto elected as its first president
(sosai). Elections were based on universal suffrage among the samurai class. This was the first election ever held in Japan, where a feudal structure under an
emperor with military warlords was the norm. Through Hakodate Magistrate Nagai Naoyuki, they tried to reach out to foreign legations present inHakodate.
The French and British extended conditional diplomatic recognition, but theMeiji government did not. The Ezo Republic had its own flag, a chrysanthemum
(symbol of Imperial rule) and a red star with seven points (symbol of the new Republic) on a blue background. The treasury included 180,000 gold ry coins
Enomoto retrieved from Osaka Castle following Shogun Tokugawa Yoshinobu's precipitous departure after the Battle of Toba-Fushimi in early 1868. During the
winter of 1868-1869, the defenses around the southern peninsula of Hakodate were enhanced, with the star fortress of Gorykaku at the center. The troops were
organized under a joint Franco-Japanese command, Commander-in-chief Otori Keisuke being seconded by the French captain Jules Brunet, and divided into
four brigades, each commanded by a French officer (Fortant, Marlin, Cazeneuve and Bouffier). The brigades were themselves divided into two half-brigades
each, under Japanese command. Imperial troops soon consolidated their hold on mainland Japan, and in April 1869 dispatched a fleet and an infantry force of
7,000 men to Hokkaido. The Imperial forces progressed swiftly, won the Battle of Hakodate, and surrounded the fortress at Gorykaku. Enomoto surrendered
on June 26, 1869, turning the Gorykaku over to Satsuma staff officer Kuroda Kiyotaka on June 27, 1869. Kuroda is said to have been deeply impressed by
Enomoto's dedication in combat, and is remembered as the one who spared the latter's life from execution. On September 20 of the same year, the island was
given its present name, Hokkaido ("Northern Sea District").
President of Republic of Ezo
Enomoto Takeaki (
?
, 5 October 1836 26 October 1908) was the President of Republic of Ezo from December 15, 1868
until June 27, 1869. He was a samurai and admiral of the Tokugawa navy ofBakumatsu period Japan, who remained faithful to
the Tokugawa shogunate who fought against the new Meiji government until the end of the Boshin War. He later served in the Meiji
government as one of the founders of the Imperial Japanese Navy. Enomoto was born as a member of a samurai family in the direct
service of the Tokugawa clan in the Shitaya district of Edo (modern Taito, Tokyo). Enomoto started learning Dutch in the 1850s, and
after Japan's forced "opening" by Commodore Matthew Perry in 1854, he studied at the Tokugawa shogunate'sNaval Training Center in
Nagasaki and at the Tsukiji Warship Training Center in Edo. At the age of 26, Enomoto was sent to the Netherlands to study western
techniques in naval warfare and to procure western technologies. He stayed in Europe from 1862 to 1867, and became fluent in both the
Dutch and English languages. Enomoto returned to Japan on board the Kaiy Maru, a steam warship purchased from the Netherlands by
the Shogunal government. During his stay in Europe, Enomoto had realized that the telegraph would be an important means of
communication in the future, and started planning a system to connect Edo andYokohama. Upon his return, Enomoto was promoted to Kaigun
Fukusosai (
?
), the second highest rank in the Tokugawa Navy, at the age of 31. He also received the court title of Izumi-no-kami (
?
). During
the Meiji restoration, after the surrender of Edo in 1868 during the Boshin War to forces loyal to the Satch Alliance, Enomoto refused to deliver up his
warships, and escaped to Hakodate in Hokkaid with the remainder of the Tokugawa Navy and a handful of French military advisers and their leader Jules
Brunet. His fleet of eight steam warships was the strongest in Japan at the time. Enomoto hoped to create an independent country under the rule of the
Tokugawa family inHokkaid, but the Meiji government refused to accept partition of Japan. On December 25, 1868 the Tokugawa loyalists declared the
foundation of the Republic of Ezo and elected Enomoto as president. The next year, the Meiji government forces invaded Hokkaid and defeated Enomoto's
forces in the Naval Battle of Hakodate. On 18 May 1869, the Republic of Ezo collapsed, and Hokkaid came under the rule of the central government headed
by the Meiji Emperor. After his surrender, Enomoto was arrested, accused of high treason and imprisoned. However, the leaders of the new Meiji government
(largely at the insistence of Kuroda Kiyotaka) pardoned Enomoto in 1872, realizing that his various talents and accumulated knowledge could be of use.
Enomoto became one of the few former Tokugawa loyalists who made the transition to the new ruling elite, as politics at the time was dominated by men
from Chsh and Satsuma, who had a strong bias against outsiders in general, and former Tokugawa retainers in particular. However, Enomoto was an
exception, and rose quickly within the new ruling clique, to a higher status than any other member of the former Tokugawa government. In 1874, Enomoto was
given the rank of vice-admiral in the fledgling Imperial Japanese Navy. The following year, he was sent to Russia as a special envoy to negotiate the Treaty of St.
Petersburg. The successful conclusion of the treaty was very well received in Japan and further raised Enomoto's prestige within the ruling circles, and the fact that
Enomoto had been chosen for such an important mission was seen as evidence of reconciliation between former foes in the government. In 1880, Enomoto
became Navy Minister (
?
). In 1885, his diplomatic skills were again called upon to assisting It Hirobumi in concluding the Convention of
Tientsin with Qing China. Afterwards, Enomoto held a series of high posts in the Japanese government. He was Japan's first Minister of Communications (1885
1888) after the introduction of the cabinet system in 1885. He was also Minister of Agriculture and Commerce from 18941897, Minister of Education from
18891890 and Foreign Minister from 1891-1892. In 1887, Enomoto was ennobled the rank of viscount under the kazoku peerage system, and was selected as a
member of the Privy Council. Enomoto was especially active in promoting Japanese emigration through settler colonies in the Pacific Ocean and South
and Central America. In 1891, he established - against the will of the cabinet of Matsukata Masayoshi - a 'section for emigration' in the Foreign Ministry, with the
task of encouraging emigration and finding new potential territories for Japanese settlement overseas. Two years later, after leaving the government, Enomoto also
helped to establish a private organization, the 'Colonial Association', to promote external trade and emigration. Enomoto died in 1908 at the age of 72. His grave
is at the temple of Kissh-ji, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo.

Beylik of Tanrbermi
Beylik of Tanrbermi was a small and short-lived principality in western Anatolia (modern Turkey) during the late 11th century. After the battle of Malazgirt in
1071, Oghuz Turkmen (Turkoman) tribes led by ghazi warriors began to settle in hitherto Byzantine-controlled Anatolia. A ghazi named Tanrbermi was one of
them. Beginning by 1074 he founded a beylik (principality) in western Anatolia. His realm included Philadelphia (modern Alaehir) and Ephesus. However,
during the First Crusade in 1098 his territory was recovered by the forces of the Byzantine Emperor Alexios I Komnenos. The Turks weren't able to penetrate as
far as western Anatolia for about two centuries, until the Aydinids. Even after that, Philadelphia wasn't captured by the Turks until 1390.
Ruler of Tanrbermi Beylik
Tanrbermi was a ruler of Beylik of Tanrbermi in late 11th century. Oghuz Turkmen (Turkoman) tribes led by ghazi warriors began to settle in hitherto
Byzantine-controlled Anatolia. A ghazi named Tanrbermi was one of them. Beginning by 1074 he founded a beylik (principality) in western Anatolia. His realm
included Philadelphia (modern Alaehir) and Ephesus. However, during the First Crusade in 1098 his territory was recovered by the forces of the Byzantine
Emperor Alexios I Komnenos. The Turks weren't able to penetrate as far as western Anatolia for about two centuries, until the Aydinids. Even after that,
Philadelphia wasn't captured by the Turks until 1390.

Beylik of Ahis
The Ahis or Akhts (Turkish: Ahiler, plural of Ahi) was a fraternity and guild which for more than half a century was also a beylik in 14th century Turkey. Turks
began settling in Anatolia in the second half of the 11th century. But they mainly preferred rural areas. Seljuk government on the other hand encouraged those
who preferred a settled life in cities. After the Mongols began occupying Khorosan in the early 13th century, people from Khorosan took refuge in Anatolia and
Seljuk government settled some of the newcomers in the cities. So a class of Muslim craftsmen and merchants appeared in the history of Anatolia. Ahi Evren, a
Muslim preacher came to Anatolia shortly before the Mongol invansions in Khorosan. He worked as a leather dealer in Kayseri and began organizing Muslim
craftsmen in the cities. This organization was named after him. He moved to Konya and after Mongol invansions to Denizli and Krehir where he died. After
the battle of Kseda in 1243, Seljuks were puppets of Ilkhanate Mongols and during the power vacuum in Anatolia, various tribes or local war lords established
their principalities as vassals of Ilkhanids. Ahis in Ankara also saw their chance to declare their semi independence under Mongol suzerainty towards the end of
the century (about 1290).
[1]
However, Ahi Beylik, unlike the others, was not ruled by a dynasty. It was a religious and commercial fraternity which can be
described as a republic not much different from the mercantile republics of the medieval Europe. In 1354, Ankara was briefly annexed by Orhan of Ottoman
Empire (then known as beylik) Although Ahis tried to restore their independence after Orhans death, in 1362 Murat Iended the political power of Ahis and they
became the part of Ottoman Empire. In later years, some Ahi leaders even appeared as Ottoman bureaucrats.
List of Rulers of Ahis Beylik
Ahis Ahamd Shah was a ruler of Ahis Beylik in Konya from 1295 until ?.
Ahis Mustafa was a ruler of Ahis Beylik in Konya from ? until 1314.


Islamic State of Indonesia (Daru Islam)
Darul Islam (meaning House of Islam ) or also well known as DI/TII (Indonesian: Darul Islam/Tentara Islam Indonesia, means Darul Islam/Islamic Armed
Forces of Indonesia) and NII (Indonesian: Negara Islam Indonesia, means Islamic State of Indonesia) is an Islamist group in Indonesia that aims for the
establishment of an Islamic state of Indonesia. It was started in 1942 by a group of Muslim militias, coordinated by a charismatic radical Muslim politician,
Sekarmadji Maridjan Kartosuwirjo. The group recognised only Shari'a as a valid source of law. The movement has produced splinters and offshoots that range
fromJemaah Islamiyah to non-violent religious groups.
Imam of the Islamic State of Indonesia
Sekarmadji Maridjan Kartosuwirjo (January 7, 1905 - September 5, 1962) was the Imam of the Islamic State of Indonesia from
August 7, 1949 until June 4, 1962. He was an Indonesian Islamic mystic who led the Darul Islam rebellion against the Indonesian
government from 1949 to 1962, with the objective of overthrowing the secular Pancasila ideology and establishing Negara Islam
Indonesia (Islamic State of Indonesia) based on sharia law. Kartosuwirjo was born in Cepu, an oil-producing town in Central Java, son of
minor government official. His education was mostly in secular and Dutch-medium schools. While attending NIAS (Nederlands-Indische
Artsen School/ Netherlands Indies Medical College) inSurabaya, Kartosuwirjo boarded at the house of Islamist leader Tjokroaminoto
and became actively involved in Tjokrominoto's PSII (Partai Sarekat Islam Indonesia/ Indonesian Islamic Union Party). Kartosuwirjo
abandoned his medical studies to be fully immersed in politics. While touring Malangbong, near Garut in West Java, Kartosuwirjo met
and married daughter of a local PSII leader. He settled down in this area, where he established a madrasa. In 1937, he resigned from
PSII to establish his own political movement advocating a future Islamic State of Indonesia based on Islamic law. During the Japanese occupation of
Indonesia (19421945), Kartosuwirjo established armed militias in Garut area, one of many such groups supported and armed by the Japanese in order to help
them resist any future Allied invasion. During the Indonesian National Revolution, his Darul Islam militia remained in amicable terms with the secular
Republican forces until the latter withdrew from West Java according to the terms of Renville Agreement in 1948, while Kartosuwirjo continued the guerilla
struggle against occupying Dutchforces. After the second Dutch offensive (Operatie Kraai) on December 1948, Republican guerillas slipping back into West Java
was attacked by Kartosuwirjo's militia, resulting in a triangular war between the Republican forces, the Darul Islam, and the Dutch army. On August 7, 1949, he
declared establishment of Negara Islam Indonesia (Indonesian Islamic State) with himself as Imam. After the transfer of sovereignty from the Dutch,
Kartosuwirjo refused to acknowledge returning Republican authority and continue attacking returning Republican forces, eventually culminating to a full-
blown insurgency. During the 1950s, weak central government and uncoordinated military response from the government allowed Darul Islam to flourish,
controlling one-third of West Java and even launching raids as far as the outskirts of Jakarta. Islamic rebels in South Sulawesi and Aceh joined the Darul Islam
and acknowledged Kartosuwirjo as their highest authority through in practice there was little coordination between the rebels in the different provinces. In 1957,
agents sent by Kartosuwirjo unsuccessfully attempted to assassinate Sukarno by grenade attack during a primary school function at Cikini, Central Jakarta.
Declaration of martial law in 1957 and establishment of Guided Democracy by Sukarno in 1959 proved to be a turning point for Darul Islam's fortunes. The
military introduced effective "fence of legs" method to encircle the guerillas' mountain bases and cutting off their supply and escape route, forcing the rebels to
surrender or face annihilation in face of superior firepower. Kartosuwirjo responded by declaring "total war" in 1961, in which Darul Islam guerillas increasingly
used terror tactics and banditry against civilians, further alienating the population. He also sent agents to Jakarta, where on May 1962 they made another
unsuccessful assassination attempt on Sukarno during the Eid al-Adha prayers. In June 1962, Kartosuwirjo was eventually captured in his hideout at Mount
Geber near Garut. In captivity, he issued order for his followers to surrender. The last Darul Islam band in West Java, operating at Mount Ciremai, surrendered
on August 1962. Kartosuwirjo was brought to Jakarta, where he was tried by military court-martial. He was found guilty of rebellion and attempted assassination
of the president, and was sentenced to death. He was executed by firing squad on September 5, 1962.

Bangka, Belitung, and Riau
Bangka, Belitung, and Riau states established in present Indonesia on July 12, 1949 and forming a loose confederation. On April 4, 1950 incorporated into
Republic of Indonesia.
Chairman of the Executive Committee
Masjarif gelar Lelo Bandaharo was the Chairman of the Executive Committee of Bangka, Belitung, and Riau states from July 12, 1947 until April 4,
1950.
Leader of Bangka
Mohammad Jusuf Rasidi was a Leader of Bangka in 1949.
Leader of Belitung
K.A. Mohammad Jusuf was a Leader of Belitung in 1949.
Leader of Riau
Radja Mohammad was a Leader of Riau in 1949.

Banjar
Daerah Banjar (Territory of Banjar) was state in present Indonesia established on January 14, 1948. On April 4, 1950 Incorporated into Republic of Indonesia.
Chairman of the Banjar Council
Mohammed Hanafiah was the Chairman of the Banjar Council from January 14, 1948 until April 4, 1950.
Dayak Besar
Dayak Besar (Great Dayak) was state in present Indonesia established on December 7, 1946 and officially recognized on Janyary 16, 1948. On April 4, 1950
Dayak Besar was incorporated into Republic of Indonesia.
Chairman of the Great Dayak Council
J. van Dyk was the Chairman of the Great Dayak Council from December 7, 1946 until April 4, 1950.




Indonesia Timur
Negara Timur Besar (State of Great East) was state in present Indonesia established on December 24, 1946. On December 27, 1946 Indonesia Timur was
renamed in Negara Indonesia Timur (State of East Indonesia). State terminated with dissolution of United States of Indonesia on August 17, 1950.
President of Negara Indonesia Timur (State of East Indonesia)
Tjokorde Gde Rake Soekawati (Cokorda Gde Raka Sukawati) (b. 1899 - d. 1973) was the President of Negara Indonesia Timur (State of East Indonesia)
from December 24, 1946 until August 17, 1950.
List of Prime Ministers of Negara Indonesia Timur (State of East Indonesia)
Nadjamuddin Daeng Malewa was the Prime Minister of Negara Indonesia Timur (State of East Indonesia) from January 10 until October 11, 1947.
Warouw was the Prime Minister of Negara Indonesia Timur (State of East Indonesia) from January 10 until October 11, 1947.
Ide Anak Agung Gde Agung (1921 - 1999) was the Prime Minister of Negara Indonesia Timur (State of East Indonesia) from December 15, 1947 until
December 27, 1949.
Jan Engelbert Tatengkeng (1907 -1968) was the Prime Minister of Negara Indonesia Timur (State of East Indonesia) from December 27, 1949 until
March 14, 1950.
D.P. Diapari (born 1921) was the Prime Minister of Negara Indonesia Timur (State of East Indonesia) from March 14 until May 10, 1950.
J. Putuhena (Poetoehena) was the Prime Minister of Negara Indonesia Timur (State of East Indonesia) from May 10 until August 17, 1950.

Jawa Tengah
Jawa Tengah (Central Java) was the state in present Indonesia established on March 2, 1949. On March 9, 1950 Jawa Tengah was incorporated into Republic of
Indonesia.
Ruler of Java Tengah (Central Java)
R.V. Sudjito was a ruler of Jawa Tengah (Central Java) in 1949.

Jawa Timur
Negara Jawa Timur (State of East Java) was the state in present Indonesia established on November 26, 1948. On March 9, 1950 Jawa Timur was incorporated
into Republic of Indonesia.
Ruler (Walinegara) of Negara Jawa Timur (State of East Java)
R.T. Achmad Kusumonegoro was a ruler (walinegara) of Negara Jawa Timur (State of East Java) from December 3, 1948 until January 19, 1950.

Kalimantan Tenggara
Kalimantan Tenggara (Southeast Borneo) was state in present Indonesia established on January 8, 1947. On April 4, 1950 Kalimantan Tenggara was
incorporated into Republic of Indonesia.
Chairman of the Borneo Tenggara Council
Abdul Gaffar Noor (1888 - 1979) was the Chairman of the Borneo Tenggara Council from January 8, 1947 until April 4, 1950.

Kalimantan Timur
Daerah Siak Besar (Great Siak Territory) was state in present Indonesia established on August 27, 1947. On February 4, 1948 Kalimantan Timur was renamed
in Federasi Kalimantan Timur (Federation of East Borneo). On April 25, 1950 state was incorporated into Republic of Indonesia.
Chairman of the Council of Rulers of Kilamantan Timur
Adji Muhammad Parikesit (1895 - 1981) was the Chairman of the Council of Rulers of Federasi Kalimantan Timur (Federation of East Borneo) from
August 27, 1947 until April 24, 1950. He was also Sultan of Kutai.
Chairman of the Kalimantan Timur Council
M.D. Saad was the Chairman of the Kalimantan Timur Council from April 12, 1947 until April 24, 1950.
Chairman of the Executive Committee of Federasi Kalimantan Timur (Federation of East Borneo)
Adji Pangeran Sosronegoro was the Chairman of the Executive Committee of Federasi Kalimantan Timur (Federation of East Borneo) from April 12,
1947 until April 24, 1950.

Kota Waringin
Kota Waringin was state in present Indonesia established in 1948. On April 4, 1950 Kota Waringin was incorporated into Republic of Indonesia.
Ruler (Pangeran Ratu) of Kota Waringin
Pangeran Kasuma Anom Alamsyah II (died 1975) was a ruler (Pangeran Ratu) of Kota Waringin from 1948 until April 4, 1950.

Madura
Negara Madura (State of Madura) was state in present Indonesia established on January 23, 1948. On February 20, 1948 officially recognized and on March 9,
1950 incorporated into Republic of Indonesia.
Ruler (Walinegara) of Negara Madura (State of Madura)
Raden R.A.A. Tjakraningrat (1886 - 1953) was a ruler (walinegara) of Negara Madura (State of Madura) from February 20, 1948 until February 1, 1950.

Padang dan sekitarnya
Padang dan sekitarnya (Padang and Surroundings) was state in present Indonesia established in 1947. On March 9, 1950, Padang dan sekitarnya (Padang and
Surroundings) was incorporated into Republic of Indonesia.
Ruler (Walikota) of Padang dan sekitarnya (Padang and and Surroundings)
Abdoel Hakim was a ruler (walikota) of Padang dan sekitarnya (Padang and Surroundings) from 1947 until March 9, 1950.

Pasundan
Republik Pasundan (Sundanese Republic) was state in present Indonesia established on May 4, 1947 but not recognized. In 1947 Republik Pasundan dissolved.
On February 26, 1948 Negara Jawa Barat (State of West Java) established. On April 24, 1948 Negara Jawa Barat (State of West Java) was renamed in Negara
Pasundan (Sundanese State). On March 11, 1950 state was incorporated into Republic of Indonesia.
President of Republik Pasundan (Sundanese State)
Raden Mohammed Suriakartelegawa was the President of Republik Pasundan (Sundanese State) in 1947.
Ruler (Walinegara) of Negara Pasundan (Sundanese State)
Raden Aria Adipati Muharam Wiranatakusumah (1888 -1965) was a ruler (walinegara) of Negara Pasundan (Sundanese State) from March 4, 1948
until February 10, 1950.
List of Prime Ministers of Negara Pasundan (Sundanese State)
Adil Puradiredja was the Prime Minister of Negara Pasundan (Sundanese State) from April 29, 1948 until January 10, 1949.
Djumhana Wiraatmadja was the Prime Minister of Negara Pasundan (Sundanese State) from January 10, 1949 until January 1950.




Sumatera Selatan
Negara Sumatera Selatan (State of South Sumatra) was state in present Indonesia established on August 30, 1948. On March 24, 1950 Sunatera Selatan was
incorporated into Republic of Indonesia.
Ruler (Walinegara) of Negara Sumatera Selatan (State of South Sumatra)
Abdul Malik was a ruler (walinegara) of Negara Sumatera Selatan (State of South Sumatra) from August 30, 1948 until January 1950.

Sumatera Timur
Daerah Istimewa Sumatera Timur (Special Territory of East Sumatra) was state in present Indonesia established on October 8, 1947. On December 25, 1947
state becomes Negara Sumatera Timur (State of East Sumatra). On August 17, 1950 state terminated with dissolution of United States of Indonesia.
Ruler of Daerah Istimewa Sumatera Timur (Special Territory of East Sumatra) and Negara Sumatera Timur (State of East
Sumatra)
Tengku Mansur (1897 - 1955) was a ruler of Daerah Istimewa Sumatera Timur (Special Teritorry of East Sumatra) from November until December 25,
1947 and ruler of Negara Sumatera Timur (State of East Sumatra) from December 25, 1947 until August 17, 1950.

Banjar Sultanate
Sultanate of Banjar was a sultanate located in what is today the South Kalimantan Province of Indonesia. For most of its history, its capital was at Banjarmasin.
The founder of the sultanate, Raden Samudra, was of royal lineage of the Kingdom of Negara Daha. He escaped from the Kingdom of Daha to the Barito
River area, because his safety was in danger, and established a new kingdom at Banjarmasin. With help from Mangkubumi Aria Taranggana, Raden Samudra
converted to Islam on September 24, 1526, changing his name to Sultan Suriansyah. Banjar at first paid tribute to the Sultanate of Demak. That state met its
demise in the mid-16th century, however, and Banjar was not required to send tribute to new powr in Java, the Sultanate of Pajang. Banjar rose in the first
decades of the 17th century as a producer and trader of pepper. Soon, virtually all of the southwest, southeast, and eastern areas of Kalimantan island were paying
tribute to the sultanate. Sultan Agung ofMataram (1613-1646), who ruled north Java coastal ports such as Jepara, Gresik, Tuban, Madura and Surabaya, planned
to colonize the Banjar-dominated areas of Kalimantan in 1622, but the plan was canceled due to inadequate resources. In the 18th century Prince Tamjidullah I
successfully transferred power to his dynasty and set Prince Nata Dilaga as its first Sultan with Panembahan Kaharudin Khalilullah. Nata Dilaga became the first
king of the dynasty as Tamjidullah I in 1772, on the day of his accession calling himself Susuhunan Nata Alam. The son of Sultan Muhammad Aliuddin
Aminullah named Prince Amir, a grandson of Sultan Hamidullah, fled to thePasir, and requested the help of his uncle Arung Tarawe (and Ratu Dewi). Amir
then returned and attacked the Sultanate of Banjar with a large force of Bugis people in 1757, and tried to retake the throne of Susuhunan Nata Alam. Fearing
the loss of his throne and the fall of the kingdom to the Bugis, Susuhunan Nata Alam requested the assistance of the Dutch East India Company(VOC), who
dispatched a force under Captain Hoffman. The combined force defeated the Bugis, sending Amir to flee back to Pasir. After a long time, he tried to meet with
Barito Banjar nobles, who disliked the VOC. Following this, Amir was arrested and exiled to Sri Lanka in 1787, and Banjar became a Dutch protectorate. The
Dutch increased their presence in the 19th century, taking territory from the sultanate and interfering in the appointment of its rulers. Resistance led to
theBanjarmasin War (18591863) and the abolition of the sultanate in 1860. Afterwards, the area was governed by regents in Martapura (Pangeran Jaya
Pemenang) and in Amuntai (Raden Adipati Danu Raja). The regency was finally abolished in 1884. The last claimant to the throne died in 1905.
List of Rulers of the Banjar Sultanate
Suriansyah (died 1546) was the founder and first Sultan of Banjar from 1520 until his death in 1546. The founder of the sultanate, Raden Samudra, was of
royal lineage of the Kingdom of Negara Daha. He escaped from Kingdom of Daha to the Barito River area, because his safety was in danger, and established a
new kingdom at Banjarmasin. With help from Mangkubumi Aria Taranggana, Raden Samudra converted to Islam on September 24, 1526, changing his name to
Sultan Suriansyah.
Rahmatullah bin Sultan Suriansyah (died 1570) was a Sultan of Banjar from 1546 until his death in 1570.
Hidayatullah I bin Rahmatullah (died 1595) was a Sultan of Banjar from 1570 until his death in 1595.
Mustain Billah bin Sultan Hidayatullah I (died 1638) was a Sultan of Banjar from 1595 until his death in 1638.
Inayatullah bin Mustainbillah (died 1647) was a Sultan of Banjar from 1642 until his death in 1647.
Saidullah bin Sultan Inayatullah (died 1660) was a Sultan of Banjar from 1647 until his death in 1660.
Ri'ayatullah/Tahalidullah bin Sultan Mustainbillah (died 1663) was a Sultan of Banjar from 1660 until his death in 1663.
Amrullah Bagus Kasuma bin Sultan Saidullah (died 1679) was a Sultan of Banjar from 1663 until his death in 1679.
Agung/Pangeran Suryanata II bin Sultan Inayatullah (died 1679) was a Sultan of Banjar from 1663 until his death in 1679.
Amrullah Bagus Kasuma bin Sultan Saidullah (died 1700) was a Sultan of Banjar from 1679 until his death in 1700.
Tahmidullah I, Sultan Surya Alam bin Sultan Tahlilullah, Sultan Amrullah (died 1717) was a Sultan of Banjar from 1700 until his death in 1717.
Panembahan Kasuma Dilaga bin Sultan Amrullah (died 1730) was a Sultan of Banjar from 1717 until his death in 1730.
Hamidullah, Sultan Ilhamidullah, Sultan Kuning bin Sultan Tahmidullah I (died 1734) was a Sultan of Banjar from 1730 until his death in 1734.
Tamjidullah I bin Sultan Tahlilullah (died 1759) was a Sultan of Banjar from 1734 until his death in 1759.
Muhammadillah, Muhammad Aliuddin Aminullah bin Sultan Il-Hamidullah, Sultan Kuning (died 1761) was a Sultan of Banjar from 1759 until his death in
1761.
Tahmidullah II, Sultan Nata bin Sultan Tamjidullah I (died 1801) was a Sultan of Banjar from 1761 until his death in 1801.Nata Dilaga became the first king
of the dynasty as Tamjidullah I in 1772, on the day of his accession calling himself Susuhunan Nata Alam.

Chiang Hung Kingdom (L Kingdom)
Mueang Ho Kham Chiang Rung (Thai: , "Mueang of golden hall in Chiang Rung") or L Kingdom was a political entity of Tai L people centered
on the city of Chiang Hung or modern Jinghong the capital of Xishuangbanna Dai Autonomous Prefecture. The kingdom, in its most powerful state in the 13th
century, covered a large area of northern highlands before being overwhelmed by neighboring powers such as Yuan dynasty, Lanna kingdom, and Burmese
Empire. Chinese dynasties recognized the local leaders as tusi of Cheli (Chinese: ).
[1]
In the late 18th century, the Siamese went on the immense
campaign to move the majority of the Tai Lue people into northern Thailand, the former Lanna kingdom. Nowadays, a large number of Tai Lue people can be
found in the northern provinces of Thailand and Laos.
List of known Kings of Chiang Hung Kingdom (L Kingdom)
Inmueng was the King of Chiang Hung Kingdom (L Kingdom) in the early 13th century. King Inmueng greatly expanded Heokam territories. The tributaries
of Heokam kingdom includes Kengtung, Ngoenyang, Meuang Thaeng (modern Dien Bien Phu the capital of Tai Dam people), and Xieng Thong (Luang
Prabang), making Heokam the sole leader of Tai kingdoms in the north. The Tai L people then began scattering throughout Heokams area of influence.
Mahawan (died 1847) was the King of Chiang Hung Kingdom (L Kingdom) in the first half 18th century until his death in 1847.
Manakhanan was the King of Chiang Hung Kingdom (L Kingdom) around middle 19th century. King Mahawan of Chiang Hung died in 1847, to be
succeeded by his son Prince Sarawan. However, Mahawan's uncle Prince Mahakhanan took the throne. Prince Sarawan fled toDali in dismay and sought
supports from Qing dynasty. Sarawan returned and killed Mahakhanan, Mahakhanan's son, Prince Nokam, went to Ava to gain supports from Pagan Min. The
Burmese invaded and took Chiang Hung - culminating a large Tai Lue emigration into Lanna. Prince Nokam was then crowned but was later killed by his own
nobles. Ava then re-installed Sarawan as the king. Sarawan's brother, Oalnawudh, fled to Luang Prabang and proceeded to Bangkok in 1852. The Siamese
nobles then saw this as an opportunity to gain control over Shan states and Chiang Hung and planned to take Kengtung on the way to Chiang Hung. The Siamese
invaded the north but were unable to penetrate the mountainous highlands. In 1855, another attempt was made to march to Chiang Hung but yet failed.
Sarawan was the King of Chiang Hung Kingdom (L Kingdom) around middle 19th century. His father King Mahawan of Chiang Hung died in 1847, to be
succeeded by his son Prince Sarawan. However, Mahawan's uncle Prince Mahakhanan took the throne. Prince Sarawan fled toDali in dismay and sought
supports from Qing dynasty. Sarawan returned and killed Mahakhanan, Mahakhanan's son, Prince Nokam, went to Ava to gain supports from Pagan Min. The
Burmese invaded and took Chiang Hung - culminating a large Tai Lue emigration into Lanna.
[3]
Prince Nokam was then crowned but was later killed by his own
nobles. Ava then re-installed Sarawan as the king. Sarawan's brother, Oalnawudh, fled to Luang Prabang and proceeded to Bangkok in 1852. The Siamese
nobles then saw this as an opportunity to gain control over Shan states and Chiang Hung and planned to take Kengtung on the way to Chiang Hung. The Siamese
invaded the north but were unable to penetrate the mountainous highlands. In 1855, another attempt was made to march to Chiang Hung but yet failed.
Nokam was the King of Chiang Hung Kingdom (L Kingdom) around middle 19th century. King Mahawan of Chiang Hung died in 1847, to be succeeded by
his son Prince Sarawan. However, Mahawan's uncle and Nokam father Prince Mahakhanan took the throne. Prince Sarawan fled toDali in dismay and sought
supports from Qing dynasty. Sarawan returned and killed Mahakhanan, Mahakhanan's son, Prince Nokam, went to Ava to gain supports from Pagan Min. The
Burmese invaded and took Chiang Hung - culminating a large Tai Lue emigration into Lanna. Prince Nokam was then crowned but was later killed by his own
nobles. Ava then re-installed Sarawan as the king. Sarawan's brother, Oalnawudh, fled to Luang Prabang and proceeded to Bangkok in 1852. The Siamese
nobles then saw this as an opportunity to gain control over Shan states and Chiang Hung and planned to take Kengtung on the way to Chiang Hung. The Siamese
invaded the north but were unable to penetrate the mountainous highlands. In 1855, another attempt was made to march to Chiang Hung but yet failed.

Negara Daha
Negara Daha was a Hindu kingdom now located in the Regency of Hulu Sungai Selatan, Province of South Kalimantan, Republic of Indonesia.
List of Rulers of Negara Daha
Raden Sekarsungsang was a ruler of Negara Daha in late 15th century.
Maharaja Sari Kaburangan was a ruler of Negara Daha in late 15th century.
Maharaja Sukarama was a ruler of Negara Daha in early 16th century.
Maharaja Mangkubumi was a ruler of Negara Daha in the first half 16th century.
Maharaja Tumenggung was a ruler of Negara Daha in the first half 16th century.


Ettaiyapuram estate
Ettaiyapuram estate was a zamindari estate situated in the Ottapidaram taluk of the erstwhile Tinnevely district. Ettaiyapuram was located in the north-eastern
corner of Tinnevely district. The estate covered an area of 570 square miles (1,500 km
2
) and 374 villages and in 1901, had a population of 154,000. The
headquarters of the estate was the town ofEttaiyapuram. The estate was ruled by the Telugu Nayak dynasty whose ancestors hailed from Chandragiri in present-
day Andhra Pradesh. During an invasion of Alauddin Khilji, Kumaramuttu Nayak the founder of the dynasty migrated from Chandragiri to Tirunelveli where he
was granted the region comprising the later-established Ettaiyapuram estate. The town of Ettaiyapuram was established in 1567.
List of Rulers (zamindars) of Ettaiyapuram estate
Muthu Jagavira Rama Kumara Ettappa Naicker was a ruler (zamindar) of Ettaiyapuram estate.
Jagavirarama Venkateswara Ettapa Nayakar Aiyan was a ruler (zamindar) of Ettaiyapuram estate.
Jagavirarama Kumara Ettappa Nayakar Aiyan was a ruler (zamindar) of Ettaiyapuram estate.
Jagavira Rama Venkateswara Ettappa Nayaker Aiyan was a ruler (zamindar) of Ettaiyapuram estate.
Muthuswami Jagavira Rama Ettappa Nayakar Aiyan was a ruler (zamindar) of Ettaiyapuram estate.
Jagavira Rama Kumara Ettappa Nayaker Aiyan was a ruler (zamindar) of Ettaiyapuram estate.

Kadambas of Goa Dynasty
The Kadambas were a dynasty who ruled Goa from the 10th to the 14th century CE. They took over the territories of the Silaharas and ruled them at first
from Chandor, later making Gopakapattana their capital.
[1]
Their modern descendants still live in Goa. According to the Talagunda inscription found
in Shimoga in Karnataka, the Kadambas are of Brahmin origin, descended from Mayurasharma. There are many myths regarding their roots, but it is believed
they are of Dravidian origin, later to become Vedic Brahmans. As a feudatory of the Chalukyas, Kadamba Shasthadeva was appointed as the Mahaman
daleshwar of Goa by the Chalukya king, Tailapa II. According to the Savai vere inscription, the Kadambas were allies of the Chalukyas, whom they helped to
defeat the Rashtrakutas. Shashthadeva later conquered the city ofChandrapur from the Shilaharas and established the Goan Kadamba dynasty in 960 CE.
List of Rulers of Kadambas of Goa Dynasty
Shashthadeva I (Kantakacharya) was a ruler of Kadambas of Goa Dynasty around AD 960. Shashthadeva (Kantakacharya) conquered Goa, Port
Gopakapattana and Kapardikadvipa and annexed a large part of South Konkan to his kingdom, making Gopakpattana his subsidiary capital.
Nagavarma was a ruler of Kadambas of Goa Dynasty in the second half 10th century.
Guhalladeva I was a ruler of Kadambas of Goa Dynasty in early 11th century.
Shashathadeva II was a ruler of Kadambas of Goa Dynasty in the first half 11th century.
Guhalladeva II was a ruler of Kadambas of Goa Dynasty around 1038.
Veeravarmadeva was a ruler of Kadambas of Goa Dynasty from 1042 until 1054.
Jayakeshi I was a ruler of Kadambas of Goa Dynasty from 1050 until 1080.
Guhalladeva II alias Tribhuvanamalla was a ruler of Kadambas of Goa Dynasty from 1080 until 1125.
Vijayaditya I alias Vijayarka was a ruler of Kadambas of Goa Dynasty in early 11th century.
Jayakeshi II was a ruler of Kadambas of Goa Dynasty from 1125 until 1148.
Shivachitta paramadideva was a ruler of Kadambas of Goa Dynasty from 1148 until 1179.
Vishnuchitta alias Vijayaditya II was a ruler of Kadambas of Goa Dynasty from 1179 until 1187.
Jayakeshi III was a ruler of Kadambas of Goa Dynasty from 1188 until 1216.
Shivachitta Vajradeva was a ruler of Kadambas of Goa Dynasty from 1193 until 1202.
Sovideva Tribhuvanamalla was a ruler of Kadambas of Goa Dynasty from 1216 until 1238.
Shashthadeva III was a ruler of Kadambas of Goa Dynasty from 1246 until 1265.
Kamadeva was a ruler of Kadambas of Goa Dynasty from 1265 until 1310.

Keladi Nayaka Kingdom
Nayakas of Keladi (14991763) were an important ruling dynasty in post-medieval Karnataka, India. They initially started to rule as a vassal of the Vijayanagar
Empire. After the fall of the empire in 1565, they gained independence and ruled significant parts of present day Karnataka including Shimoga, most areas of the
coastal and the centralTungabhadra districts. In 1763 AD, with their defeat to Hyder Ali, they were absorbed into the Kingdom of Mysore. They played an
important part in the history of Karnataka, during a time of confusion and fragmentation that generally prevailed in South India after the fall of the Vijayanagar
Empire. They were Veerashaivas (Lingayats) by faith.
List of Rulers of Keladi Nayaka Kingdom
Chaudappa Nayaka (died 1530) was a ruler of Keladi Nayaka Kingdom from 1499 until his death in 1530. He was the earliest chieftain to rule the area
surrounding Shimoga was a lingayath
Sadashiva Nayaka (died 1566) was a ruler of Keladi Nayaka Kingdom from 1530 until his death in 1566. He was an important chieftain in the Vijayanagar
Empire and earned the title Kotekolahala from emperor Aliya Rama Raya for his heroics in the battle of Kalyani. The coastal provinces of Karnataka came under
his direct rule. He moved the capital to Ikkerisome 20 km. from Keladi.
Sankanna Nayaka (died 1570) was a ruler of Keladi Nayaka Kingdom from 1566 until his death in 1570.
Chikka Sankanna Nayaka (died 1580) was a ruler of Keladi Nayaka Kingdom from 1570 until his death in 1580. He was an opportunistic ruler who took
advantage of the confusion in the Vijayanagar Empire following its defeat at Tallikota and grabbed a few provinces in Uttara Kannada district.
Rama Raja Nayaka (died 1586) was a ruler of Keladi Nayaka Kingdom from 1580 until his death in 1586.
Hiriya Venkatappa Nayaka (died 1629) was a ruler of Keladi Nayaka Kingdom from 1586 until his death in 1629. He is considered by scholars as ablest
monarch of the clan. He completely freed himself from the overlordship of the relocated Vijayanagar rulers of Penugonda. Italian traveller Pietro Della Valle,
who visited his kingdom in 1623, called him an able soldier and administrator. In his reign the kingdom expanded so that it covered coastal regions,
Malnad regions, and some regions to the east of the western Ghats of present day Karnataka. He is also known to have defeated the Adilshahis of Bijapur in
Hanagal. Though a Virashaivaby faith, he built many temples for Vaishnavas and Jains and a mosque for Muslims.
Virabhadra Nayaka (died 1645) was a ruler of Keladi Nayaka Kingdom from 1629 until his death in 1645. He was faced many troubles from the start,
including competition from rival Jain chieftains of Malenad for the throne of Ikkeri and invasion by the Sultanate armies of Bijapur. Ikkeri was plundered by the
Bijapur army during his time.
Shivappa Nayaka, (Kannada: , died 1660, popularly known as Keladi #India Keladi Shivappa Nayaka, was a notable
ruler of the Keladi Nayaka Kingdom from 1645 until his death in 1660. The Keladi Nayakas were successors of the Vijayanagara
Empire in the coastal and Malnad hill districts of Karnataka, India, in the late 16th century. At their peak, the Nayakas built a niche
kingdom comprising the coastal, hill and some interior districts Bayaluseeme of modern Karnataka, before succumbing to the
Kingdom of Mysore ruled by Hyder Ali in 1763. He was known as Sistina Shivappa Nayaka because he introduced a tax system
called Sist. Shivappa Nayaka is remembered as an able administrator and soldier# He ascended the throne in 1645. During this time,
the last ruler of the diminished Vijayanagara Empire ruling from Vellore, Shriranga Raya III was defeated by the Bijapur Sultanate and
sought refuge with Shivappa.The growing threat of the Portugal|Portuguese was eliminated by 1653 and the ports of Mangalore,
Kundapura and Honnavar were brought under Keladi control. Having conquered the Kannada coast, he marched down to Kasaragod
Town|Kasargod region of modern Kerala and installed a pillar of victory at Nileshvara. The forts of Chandragiri, Bekal and
Mangalore were built by Shivappa Nayaka. Later he invaded north of the Tungabhadra river and captured territory in the modern
Dharwad districtfrom the Bijapur Sultanate. In the south, when he invaded and laid siege to Srirangapatnain modern Mysore district, an epidemic broke out in
his army forcing him the withdraw. Shivappa Nayaka introduced a revenue settlement scheme called Sist, a policy that has found favourable comparison to
revenue schemes formulated by the Mughal Empire|Mogul emperor Akbar According to this scheme, agricultural lands were divided into five types depending
on the type of soil and available irrigational facilities. A unit of sowing capacity called Khanduga was developed and every irrigable land was taxed in varying
amounts based on this unit. The rate of taxation depended on the yield in each one of these five types of land, the rate varying from village to village and
amounting to a third of the total yield.Shivappa Nayaka gave importance to agriculture which resulted in an expanding agrarian economy. A religious and tolerant
man, Shivappa Nayaka performed Historical Vedic religion|Vedic sacrifices and rituals and patronised the HinduAdvaita order of Sringeri. He was tolerant
towards Christians and gave them land to cultivate. He encouraged the mercantile communities of South India such as the Komatis and Konkani
people|Konkanis to settle down and establish businesses in his kingdom. An interesting episode from the time of Shivappa Nayaka's rule goes as follows# A poor
Goud Saraswat Brahmin naed Ganesh Mallya came to Keladi, the capital city, with the intention of finding a job. Having no money, he carried a bag full of home-
grown coconuts. Before entering the city, every traveller had to pass through eight toll gates, each of which collected a tax. Because he carried no cash, Ganesh
Mallya had to part with two coconuts at each toll gate, one as tax and the other as a gift to the official. He also paid with two coconuts at the city entrance#
Frustrated with all the tolls, Mallya boldly set up his own toll gate the ninth toll gate and collected a toll after registering full details of travellers into the city in his
own register# In return for the toll, Ganesh Mallya handed out a receipt with a note new custom station for eighteen coconuts, signature of Ganeshayya Raja of
Kumta. This went on unnoticed for eighteen months before King Shivappa Nayaka heard of it# When summoned by the king, Ganesh Mallya admitted he had
collected an illegal toll to make a livelihoodImpressed by his honesty and business acumen, Shivappa Nayaka took Ganesh Mallya into his service. Shivappa
Nayaka was succeeded on the throne by his younger brother Chikka Venkatappa Nayaka in 1660. Shivappa Nayaka is famed for his revenue settlement and this
is called as Shivappanayakana Sistu. This system of his is compared to that of Raja Thodarmal, the Minister of Akbar. Under this system, Shivappa Nayaka
divided land into five categories in accordance with the fertility of the soil. The five categories are as follows: Uttamam, First Class Land: Black Soil Mixed with
Sand, Madhyamam, Second Class Land: Red Soil Mixed with Sand, Kanishtam, Third Class Land: Mixed Black Soil with a little Water, AdhamamFourth Class
Land: Very Bad waterless hard soil, Adhamadhamam and Fifth Class Land: Barren soil unfit for cultivation. After continuous cultivation for 12 years, the yield of
the soil was valued# A record of the seeds sown and expenditures incurred in cultivation and the value of the yield were calculated# Every type of land having one
Khanduga of sowing capacity was taken as a measuring unit and the highest and lowest rates for that unit were fixed for each of the five categories# For this
purpose, each category of land was marked in every village and cultivation was carried out on an experimental basis and the rate of assessment was fixed as 1/3rd
of the gross revenue# In every village, land was surveyed# The cost of seeds, cultivation expenditure, total produce and its value were all carefully calculated and
perfect accounts were maintained# The total produce for five years and its market value were calculated, 1/3rd of the average value was fixed as the government
share# With regard to the gardens of Arecanut, he fixed 1000 Arecanut trees as one unit. Every tree was to be not less than 18 feet in height for the purpose of
assessment. The assessment was fixed on the area covered by the trees. The assessment was based on the yield of a unit of 1000 trees# It is interesting to note that
Shivappa Nayaka planted trees in his own garden and fixed the assessment based on his own personal experience# The phrase Shivappanayakana Sistu remains
a byword for efficiency and discipline even today. This system remained in vogue for a long time. This revenue system was also praised by the British.
Chikka Venkatappa Nayaka (died 1662) was a ruler of Keladi Nayaka Kingdom from 1660 until his death in 1662.
Bhadrappa Nayaka (died 1664) was a ruler of Keladi Nayaka Kingdom from 1662 until his death in 1664.
Somashekara Nayaka I (died 1677) was a ruler of Keladi Nayaka Kingdom from 1664 until his death in 1677. The King who was once a good
administrator, gave up his interest in administration after his associastion with a dancer named Kalavati. Bharame Mavuta, a relative of Kalavati slow poisoned the
king which eventually led to his death.
Keladi Chennamma (died 1689) was the Queen of Keladi Nayaka Kingdom from 1677 until his death in 1689. She was the daughter of Siddappa Setti, a
native of Kundapur, Karnataka. Keladi Kingdom (also known as Bednur and Ikkeri), was formed after the fall of Vijayanagara Empire. Chennamma married
King Somashekara Nayaka in 1667. After Somashekhara Nayaka's death in 1677, Chennamma efficiently handled the administration of the Keladi
Nayaka dynasty. During her reign of 12 years, she repelled the advances of the Mughal Army led by the infamous Aurangzeb from her military base in the
kingdom of Keladi located in Sagara, Karnataka India. She adopted Basavappa Nayaka, one of her close relatives who succeeded as Hiriya Basappa Nayaka. She
also rendered a trade agreement with the Portuguese involving commodities like pepper and rice. She was given the epithet "the Pepper Queen or Raina da
Pimenta' by the Portuguese. She also permitted Portuguese to establish churches at Mirjan, Honnavara, Chandavara and Kalyanpura. She provided shelter
to Rajaram Chhatrapati, son of Shivaji who was fleeing from the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb, after a meeting with her cabinet and treated Rajaram with
respect, but Aurangazeb attacked Keladi. Keladi Chennamma fought the war without defeat and battle with Mughals ended in a treaty. A subordinate of Keladi
Kingdom, Sadasiva of Swadi also helped Rajaram through a loan. Keladi kingdom was probably the last to lose autonomy to Mysore rulers and subsequently to
British. Her cabinet was headed by Timmanna Nayaka who was the descendent of a commander of Vijayanagra. She is considered as the epitome of
the Kannada women's valor along with Onake Obavva and Kittur Chennamma. Mirjan fort was built by Keladi Chennamarani.
Basavappa Nayaka (died 1714) was a ruler of Keladi Nayaka Kingdom from 1697 until his death in 1714. He was a brave ruler and was adopted by Rani
Chennammaji from their relative Markappa Shetty of Bedanur.
Somashekara Nayaka II (died 1739) was a ruler of Keladi Nayaka Kingdom from 1714 until his death in 1739.
Kiriya Basavappa Nayaka (died 1754) was a ruler of Keladi Nayaka Kingdom from 1739 until his death in 1754.
Chenna Basappa Nayaka (died 1757) was a ruler of Keladi Nayaka Kingdom from 1754 until his death in 1757.
Queen Virammaji (died 1763) was a ruler of Keladi Nayaka Kingdom from 1757 until his death in 1763. He was defeated by Hyder Ali and the Keladi
kingdom merged with the Kingdom of Mysore.

Chitradurga Nayaka Kingdom
Nayakas of Chitradurga (Kannada: ) (13001779 CE) ruled parts of eastern Karnataka. During the rule of Hoysala Empire and Vijayanagara
Empire, they served as a feudatory chiefdom. Later after the fall of the Vijayanagara empire, they ruled at times as an independent kingdom and at other times as
feudatory of the Mysore Kingdom, Mughal Empire and Maratha Empire. Finally it merged into the province of Mysore under the British. According to historian
Barry Lewis, the earliest chieftains of the kingdom were local chiefs (Dandanayakas) under the Hoysala empire, during their rule over what is today Karnataka.
They later won the attention and appreciation of the Vijayanagar kings through their acts of bravery and valor and were appointed as governors of the region
under the Vijayanagara empire. According to historian Suryanath Kamath, the Chitradurga chiefs under the Vijayanagara empire were originally from
the Davangere district in Karnataka. Some Marathi records call them Kala Pyada in admiration for their fighting qualities. The Chitradurga Fort was their
stronghold and the very heart of the province. The Chitradurga Paleyagar family was of the Beda or Boyar caste, and was one of the hill tribes who subsisted by
hunting and tending cattle. The accounts of their origin are somewhat confused. According to one tradition, three Beda families emigrated from Jadikal-durga, in
Tirupati, and settled at Nirutadi near Bharamasangara Nayaka in about 1475. They are said to have belonged to the Kamageti family and Valmiki gotra. The son
and the grandson of one of these, Hire Hanummappa Nayaka and Timmanna Nayaka, settled at Matti in Davangere taluk. The latter, called Kamageti
Timmanna Nayaka, was appointed by the Vijayanagara king, first as the Nayaka of Holalkere, then of Hiriyur, and finally of Chitradurga. He fortified the hill at
Chitradurga and conducted himself in such a manner that a force was sent by the king against him. According to another account, Timmanna Nayaka came with
a small body of armed men from a place called Madakeri below the ghats near Tirupati and entered the service of the Paleyagar of Basavapattana. Later, as some
quarrel arose about a mistress he had kept at Matti, he left the place and took refuge at Mayakonda. Pursued there as well, he escaped to the jungle near Guntur,
and after collecting a band, started plundering the area and erected a small fort called Rangapatna near Haleyur. The neighbouring Paleyagars of Harapanahalli,
Nidugal, and Basavapattana, being annoyed by his depredations, united against him and, with the aid of some Vijayanagara troops, marched upon Rangapatna.
Timmanna Nayaka was then forced to retire to Chitradurga, where he was closely besieged. At that time the following incident occurred, which led to his
recognition as one of the chiefs dependent on Vijayanagara. This was in about 1562.
List of Rulers of Chitradurga Nayaka Kingdom
Timmanna Nayaka (died 1588) was a ruler of Chitradurga Nayaka Kingdom from ? until his death in 1588. He was distinguished himself by stealing into
the camp at night with the intention of carrying off the horse of Saluva Narasinga Raya, the Vijayanagara prince who commanded the forces against him. The
prince awoke, and Timmanna hid in the straw to escape observation. The prince reset the peg for the heel ropes into the ground, and unknowingly impaled
Timmanna's with it. Timmanna remained silent and hidden, and when all was again still, he released himself by cutting off the pinned hand and stole the horse.
This act showed the besieging army that Timmanna could not be intimdated. A peace was said to have been concluded after that. The Vijayanagara king invited
Timmanna to the capital and expressed his great admiration of his courageous exploit. At the request of the king, Timmanna Nayaka next took Gulbarga, which
the Vijayanagara forces had failed to take even after a siege of six months. The king, pleased with this, invited Timmanna to court. Timmanna later incurred the
royal displeasure, and was imprisoned at Vijayanagara, where he died. Timmanna Nayaka was succeeded by his son Obanna Nayaka. He took the name
Madakeri Nayaka, and he declared his independence from the Vijayanagara Empire within a few years taking the throne.
Obanna Nayaka, Madakari Nayaka I (died 1602) was a ruler of Chitradurga Nayaka Kingdom from 1588 until his death in 1602. Timmanna Nayaka was
succeeded by his son Obanna Nayaka. He took the name Madakeri Nayaka, and he declared his independence from the Vijayanagara Empire within a few years
taking the throne. In 1602, Obanna Nayaka was succeeded by his son Kasturi Rangappa Nayaka.
Kasturi Rangappa Nayaka (died 1652) was a ruler of Chitradurga Nayaka Kingdom from 1602 until his death in 1652. In 1602, Obanna Nayaka was
succeeded by his son Kasturi Rangappa Nayaka. His reign was full of conflicts with the neighbouring chiefs. Several battles took place with the Paleyagar of
Basavapattana over various locations, such as Mayakonda, Santebennur, Holalkere, Anaji, and Jagalur, all of which ultimately remained as parts of Chitradurga
territory. At the time of his death in 1652, Obana's possessions yielded a revenue of 65,000 Durgi Pagodas. Rangappa Nayaka was succeeded by his son
Madakari Nayaka II in 1652, who was also credited with a number of victories, particularly in the east.
Madakari Nayaka II (died 1674) was a ruler of Chitradurga Nayaka Kingdom from 1652 until his death in 1674. During his time, the kingdom was divided
into four regions. The local officers in charge of these were Hotte Gurukanna, Karanika Bhunappa, Abbigere Mallanna, and Karanika Appanna. He killed Shah
Adib Allah in 1671 in a battle at Chitradurga. He was died in 1674, leaving a dominion yielding 100,000 Durgi Pagodas.
Obanna Nayaka II (died 1675) was a ruler of Chitradurga Nayaka Kingdom from 1674 until his death in 1675. His rule saw civil unrest. He was killed by his
own men.
Shoora Kantha Nayaka (died 1676) was a ruler of Chitradurga Nayaka Kingdom from 1675 until his death in 1676. His rule saw civil unrest. He was killed
by his own men.
Chikkanna Nayaka (died 1686) was a ruler of Chitradurga Nayaka Kingdom from 1676 until his death in 1686. Madakeri Nayaka had children, and his
adopted son, Obanna Nayaka II, succeeded him to the throne of Chitradurga. Obanna was put to death by the Dalavayis, possibly because he had failed to give
them the customary tributes. Chikkanna Nayaka, a younger brother of Madakeri Nayaka III, was installed in 1676. At this time, the Harapanahalli chief laid siege
to Anaji and killed the local officer, Bhunappa. Chikkanna Nayaka went to Anaji and forced the enemy to stop the siege. Immediately after this, he had to go to
Harihar to defend it against the Muhammadans, who had attacked it under the command of Shamsher Khan. The defence was effected by the following strategy:
during the approach at night, numerous torches were lit and fixed to the branches of trees, and the musicians were asked to play on their instruments as usual at
Chikkanna's encampment on Baregudda hill. The intention was to create the impression that the army had not moved. The Nayaka marched his whole force
through a circuitous route, attacked the fort from the west, and drove off the enemies. Chikkanna formed marriage alliances with the Rayadurga and
Basavapattana chiefs. It is said that the Chitradurga family changed its religious faith twice during the reign of this Nayaka. First, the entire family
embraced Veerashaivism, and the Nayaka even caused a Matha to be built in the fort and a Virakta Jangama named Ugrachannaviradeva to be appointed to act
as a guru to them. Later, almost all are said to have returned to their original faith. Chikkanna Nayaka died in 1686. Chikkanna Nayaka was succeeded by his
elder brother Linganna Nayaka, also known as Madakeri Nayaka III. At this time there was a serious disagreemtn amongst the Dalavayis as to the rightful
successor to the throne.
Lingana Nayaka, Madakari Nayaka III (died 1688) was a ruler of Chitradurga Nayaka Kingdom from 1686 until his death in 1688. Chikkanna Nayaka was
succeeded by his elder brother Linganna Nayaka, also known as Madakeri Nayaka III. At this time there was a serious disagreemtn amongst the Dalavayis as to
the rightful successor to the throne. One group, headed by Panchamara Muddanna, imprisoned and later killed Linganna Nayaka, and placed Donne Rangappa
Nayaka on the throne.
Donne Rangappa Nayaka (died 1689) was a ruler of Chitradurga Nayaka Kingdom from 1688 until his death in 1689. Chikkanna Nayaka was succeeded
by his elder brother Linganna Nayaka, also known as Madakeri Nayaka III. At this time there was a serious disagreemtn amongst the Dalavayis as to the rightful
successor to the throne. One group, headed by Panchamara Muddanna, imprisoned and later killed Linganna Nayaka, and placed Donne Rangappa Nayaka on
the throne. Muddanna remained the strongest man in Chitradurga until another faction headed by Dalavayi Bharamappa took power. Muddanna and his
brothers were soon destroyed, and Donne Rangappa was imprisoned.
Bharamappa Nayaka (died 1721) was a ruler of Chitradurga Nayaka Kingdom from 1689 until his death in 1721. Dalavayi Bharamappa was interested in
the integrity of the state. Without a direct heir to the throne, he, in consultation with the other elders of the court, brought in a distant heir named Bharamappa
Nayaka. The new Nayaka ascended to the throne in about 1689. This was a difficult time for the state; it was during this period that the Mughals overran the
possessions of Bijapur and established their government at Sira, of which Basavapattana and Budihal were made paraganas, and to which Chitradurga and other
neighbouring states of Paleyagars became tributaries. There were many battles during the reign of this Nayaka between both Chitradurga and Harapanahalli as
well as Rayadurga and Bijapur. The Nayaka was successful in all these battles. His long reign of 33 years (16891721) was equally remarkable for the extent of his
benefactions. He is said to have built as many as 30 temples, three or four palaces, five strong forts, and not less than 20 tanks throughout his territory. A part of
the Chitradurga fort and a number of gateways and bastions are also attributed to him. The only thing from which people suffered during this reign was the great
plague in 1703, which took a heavy toll and caused an almost complete evacuation of the capital city for some days. Upon his death in 1721, Bharamappa Nayaka
was succeeded by his son Hiri Madakeri Nayaka.
Madakari Nayaka IV, Hiri Madakeri Nayaka (died 1748) was a ruler of Chitradurga Nayaka Kingdom from 1721 until his death in 1748. Within two or
three years of accession, the young prince had to face the consequences of a famine and the Maratha raid under Piraji. His reign was punctuated with a number
of hostilities against Harapanahalli, Savanur, Bidanur and the Marathas. He was generally successful in his engagements and annexed a large tract of country in
the north-east extending beyond Molakahnuru. There was a great battle in Mayakonda in 174748 between Chitradurga and the confederate forces of Bidanur,
Rayadurga, Harapanahalli, and Savanur. The Chitradurga army met with disaster, and the Nayaka was slain by Somashekhara Nayaka of Harapanahalli. During
the reign of this Nayaka, Chitratlurga rose in prosperity; state revenue reached 300,000 Durgi Pagodas. The chief is remembered for the construction of a
number of temples, but he also made arrangements for a number of worship ceremonies and festivals in different temples.
Kasturi Rangappa Nayaka II (died 1758) was a ruler of Chitradurga Nayaka Kingdom from 1748 until his death in 1758. He was son Madakari Nayaka
IV, who retook Mayakonda. He achieved this with the help of the Maratha Sardar Murari Rao and the Subedar of Advani. Kasturi Rangappa Nayaka is said to
have made various expeditions to the north and south, and in the latter direction gained some possessions in the Budihal region. He is also said to have
maintained a friendship with the Subedar of Sira. He died in 1754 without an heir, and Madakeri Nayaka, called Madakeri Nayaka the last, son of one
Bharamappa Nayaka of Janakal-Durga, was his successor.
Madakari Nayaka or Madakari Nayaka V (died 1779) was the last ruler of Chitradurga Nayaka Kingdom from 1758
until his death in 1779. Nayaka lost Chitradurga in a siege of Mysore byHyder Ali, and was slain by Ali's son Tipu Sultan.
The enemies of Chitradurga again tried to conquer it, but the Bedas remained faithful and defended the Nayaka.
Kalyadurga made an effort alone and met with failure. In 175960, a united front formed by Rayadurga, Harapanahalli,
and Savannr attacked. A battle took place near Ihoskere, with Chilradurga claiming victory, though with some losses. This
was followed by some minor disturbances from the actions of the chiefs of Tarikere and Jarimale in the border areas of the
state. During the reign of Madakari Nayaka, the city of Chitradurga was besieged by the troops of Hyder Ali. Hyder Ali
spotted a woman entering Chitradurga through a gap (kindi) in the rocks and sent his soldiers through it. The guard on
duty of the port near the gap had gone home for lunch. When there was no water at home, wife Obavva left home to bring
some water for her husband. En route, she noticed Hyder Ali's soldiers entering the fort from the gap. She didn't want to wake her husband from the lunch, so
she took an onake (flail for rice), started hitting the soldiers one by one as they were trying to enter the fort. Upon his return from lunch, Obavva's husband was
shocked to see Obavva with a blood-stained onake and hundreds of soldiers lying dead about her. The passage remains as marker of the story, beside the
Tanniru Doni a small water source which holds cold water year round. Chitradurga had become a powerful state in the south, such that the major powers
like Haidar Ali and the Peshwas sought its help against each other. The Nayaka first helped Haidar Ali in his campaigns against Bankapur, Nijagal, Bidanur, and
the Marathas. Despite this, the Nawab had been waiting for an opportunity to attack Chitradurga. In 1777, Haidar was threatened with a formidable invasion by
the allied armies of the Marathas and the Nizam. The Nayaka of Chitradurga changed his allegiance, and Haidar marched upon Chitradurga, rejecting the offers
of the chief to pay a large fine. The siege was maintained unsuccessfully for some months before an arrangement was entered into, and a fine of thirteen lakhs of
pagodas was levied on the Chief. With the Maratha campaign over, Haidar once more approached Chitradurga, which held out against Haidar for months. With
the assistance of treacherous Muhammadan officers in the Paleyagar's service, Chitradurga was taken in 1779. Madakeri Nayaka and his family were sent as
prisoners to Srirangapattana, and 20,000 Beda soldiers from Chitradurga were sent to the island of Srirangapattana (Mysore), with the sole view of breaking up
their power. After the death of the Nayaka, the Chitradurga treasury is said to have yielded to Haidar, inter alia, the following quantities of coins: 400,000 silver;
100,000 royal; 1,700,000 Ashrafi; 2,500,000 Dabolikadali; and 1,000,000 Chavuri.

Chagis Dynasty
The Chagis also known as the Sagis or Tyagis who were Suryavanshi Kshatriyas & also were the rulers of Natavadi (Nellore District) and Vijyavativishayas
(Krishna District) with capitals at Gudimetta (Prakasam District), Vijayananda, and Vinukonda (Guntur District), at different times for nearly three centuries and a
half with interregnums in the middle. The Chagi dynasty owed nominal allegiance to the Cholas, the Kakatiyas and the Gajapatis. The rulers were warriors and
administrators and de-facto independent rulers. Their kingdom was fairly large and made significant political achievements compared to other dynasties
in Vengi at the time. They had their own coinage and contracted diplomatic alliances of marriage with the Kakatiyas and the Kondupadumatis, Haihayas
of Palnadu and the Telugu Cholas. The Kakatiya King Ganapati Deva's sister Melambika was married to the second son of Chagi Buddaraju, who was ruling
Natavadi region.
List of Chagis Dynasty
Chagi Venkana was believed to be the first of the Chagis Dynasty. He was of the solar race and was the lord of the west (Paschimadhisvara) and protector of
the earth.
Muppa I was the first historical ruler member of the Chagis dynasty around 1118. He was also known as Arya. Muppa served Rajendra Choda (Kulottunga I
1070-1118) loyally and successfully in his wars and was rewarded with royal insignias and some tracts to govern, which formed the nucleus of the Chagi kingdom.
Dora I was the ruler of the Chagis dynasty from 1118 until 1160. He had the title Tyagi as one inscription mentions Tyagi Dora, son of king Arya (Muppa I).
Dora was a powerful king. His coins known as Tyagigadyas are heard of as early as 1126.
Pota I was the ruler of the Chagis dynasty from 1161 until 1190. His daughter Prolama Devi was married of to the Natavadis. He was an ally of the Palnadu
Haihayas, participated in the civil war and battle at Karempudi (1178-1186) on the side of the elder line Nalakama. One version of Palnati Vira Charitra mentions
that Sagi Potamaraju, minister Satya, Gundamadeva, and Gobburaju and others came with a vast infantry, (288,000) to join Nalakama in the war. Sagipota is king
Pota I.
Dora II was the ruler of the Chagis dynasty from 1190 until 1199. He was extended the bounds of his kingdom, transferred his capital to Vijayawada. Dora
bore the epithets, Natavati Vishayadhisvara and Tyagiraja. Dora is mentioned simply as king Tyagi in Potas record of AD 1199.
Pota II also known as Narashimha Vardhana Tyagipota was the ruler of the Chagis dynasty from 1199 until 1230.
Ganapaya was the ruler of the Chagis dynasty from 1230 until 1257.
Dora III was the ruler of the Chagi dynasty from 1230 until 1257.
Manma Pota was the ruler of the Chagis dynasty from 1257 until 1268.
Manma Ganpaya was the ruler of the Chagis dynasty from 1257 until 1268.
Manma Chagiraju was the ruler of the Chagi dynasty from 1268 until 1292.
Rudrayachagi also known as Rudraya Tyagi was the ruler of the Chagi dynasty from 1292 until 1305.

Magadai Mandalam
Magadai or Magadai Mandalam was a Tamil dynasty that flourished during the 13th and 14th centuries near the modern-day Aragalur. Aragalurudaiya
Ponparappinan Rajarajadevan, alias Magadesan, was the Bana chief who ruled this region around 1197. There were three important chieftains in this region:
Kadava with capitol at Kudalur near Cuddalore and Sendamangalam, Malaiyamaan with capitol at Tirukkoyilur and Killiyur, Magadai mandalam with its chief
Rajarajan, ponparappina-perumal (Rajarajan's son) and vira Magadan Rajarajadevan pon parappinan Magadaipprumal (second chief of Rajarajan) Another chief
family near Aragalur were the Vanakkovaraiyars with headquarters at Thedavur. The Magadai Mandalam was at the height of their power during the transition
of Chola dynasty to Pandyan and Hoysala. There are a large number of inscriptions about the Magadai chiefs in North (Tiruvannamalai & Vellore) and South
Arcots (Cuddalore and Villupuram), Chingleput and Thanjavur districts. There are Buddha idols in the fields and a 6-foot-tall (1.8 m) Buddha statue in the
temple in Thiyaganur village near Aragalur. There is a possibility that descendants of the Magadhan Empire could have settled in this area on their way south
to Sri Lanka.
List of Rulers of Magadai Mandalam
Rajarajan was a ruler of Magadai mandalam during 13th century.
Ponparappina-Perumal was a ruler of Magadai mandalam during 13th century. He was son of Rajarajan.
Vira Magadan Rajarajadevan pon parappinan Magadaipprumal was a ruler of Magadai mandalam in early 14th century.


Kadava Dynasty
Kadava (Tamil: , Kaadavar) was the name of a Tamil ruling dynasty who ruled parts of the Tamil country during the thirteenth and the fourteenth
century CE. Kadavas were related to the Pallava dynasty and ruled from Kudalur near Cuddalore in Tamil Nadu. The Kadava kingdom was at the height of their
power briefly during the reigns of Kopperunchinga I and Kopperunchinga II. These two rulers were powerful enough to challenge the waning Chola
dynasty during the reign of Rajaraja Chola III and Rajendra Chola III. The two Kopperunchingas have left a large number of inscriptions mostly in the North and
South Arcot districts and in the Chingleput district. The Kadavas, who must have been minor chieftains under the Cholas, began to raise in power during the
reign of Kulothunga Chola III (1178-1218 CE). We have very little reliable information on the various chieftains of the Kadava dynasty.
List of Rulers of Kadava Dynasty
Virasekhara was a ruler of Kadava Dynasty in the second half 12th century. In 1186 Kadava chieftain named Virasekhara occupied Kudalur.
Manavalapperumal was a ruler of Kadava Dynasty in early 13th century. Another chieftain Manavalapperumal, possibly the heir of Virasekara, was
identified as a feudatory of Kulothunga Chola III. Koppernchinga I was probably Manavalaperumal's son and heir.
Kopperunchinga I (died 1242) was a ruler of Kadava Dynasty from 1216 until his death in 1242. He was related to the Cholas through marriage, was an
officer in the court of Kulothunga Chola III. When the Pandya army invaded the Chola country in 1216 CE, Kopperunchinga I strengthened his position by
garrisoning the town of Sendamangalam. From this opportunity, the Kadavas gradually increased their power until Kopperunchinga I could defeat and imprison
the Chola king Rajaraja Chola III with some help from the Lanka king Parakrama Bahu II. Under the reign of Kopperunchinga I's son and successor
Kopperunchinga II (c.1243 - 1279 CE), the Kadava power further expanded.
Kopperunchinga II (died 1279) was a ruler of Kadava Dynasty from around 1243 until his death in 1279. Under the reign of Kopperunchinga I's son and
successor Kopperunchinga II (c.1243 - 1279 CE), the Kadava power further expanded. Hoysalas, who were the allies of the Cholas were absent from the Tamil
country, removing one of the major influences in the region. The last Chola king Rajendra Chola III (1246-1279) came to power with Kopperunchinga II's help.
Their relationship was one of alternating friendship and hostility.

Naga Dynasty of Padmavati
Naga Dynasty, Nagas of Padmavati (Hindi: ) (210 340 CE) was an ancient royal family of central, India that ruled Vidisha, Padmavati, Kantipur and
Mathura. The Naga kings are best known for their coins. Several thousands of them have been found. Bhava Naga is mentioned in a Vakataka inscription which
states that Rudrasena I was a daughters son of Bharasiva Naga family. Ganapati Naga is mentioned in the Allahabad Pillar Inscription of Samudragupta.
Nagasena is mentioned as the ruler of Padmavati in Harshacharita of Babhaa.
List of Rulers of Naga Dynasty of Padmavati
Bhima Naga was a ruler of Naga Dynasty of Padmavati from AD 210 until AD 231.
Skanda Naga was a ruler of Naga Dynasty of Padmavati from AD 231 until AD 245.
Vasu Naga was a ruler of Naga Dynasty of Padmavati from AD 245 until AD 260.
Brihaspati Naga was a ruler of Naga Dynasty of Padmavati from AD 260 until AD 275.
Ravi Naga was a ruler of Naga Dynasty of Padmavati from AD 275 until AD 290.
Prabhakara Naga was a ruler of Naga Dynasty of Padmavati from AD 290 until AD 305.
Bhava Naga was a ruler of Naga Dynasty of Padmavati from AD 305 until AD 320.
Deva Naga, Ganapati Naga was a ruler of Naga Dynasty of Padmavati from AD 335 until AD 345.

Muhammadgarh
Muhammadgarh was a former state in Central India, under the Bhopal Agency. It was situated in the Malwa plateau. It had an area of 29 square miles (75 km
2
),
and a population of 2,944 (as of 1901). Its headquarters were at Muhammadgarh town. The state was originally included in Basoda and Korwai. In 1853,
Ahsanullah Khan, the Nawab of Basoda divided his state between two sons, Bakaulla and Muhammad Khan, the latter founding the town and state of
Muhammadgarh.
Ruler of Muhammadgarh
Muhammad Khan was the founder and ruler of Muhammadgarh state Central India, under the Bhopal Agency in the second half 19th century. The state
was originally included in Basoda and Korwai. In 1853, Ahsanullah Khan, the Nawab of Basoda divided his state between two sons, Bakaulla and Muhammad
Khan, the latter founding the town and state of Muhammadgarh.


Dighapatia Raj Dynasty of Rajshahi
Dighapatia Raj (sometimes called Dighapatia Raj Paribar literally Dighapatia Royal Family) was a zamindari in present dayRajshahi, which was ruled by
this dynasty of 7 generations of Rajas from late 17th century till the mid-20th century; when thedemocratic government took power after the end of the British
Monarchys rule in India, in 1950, the East Pakistan governmentabolished aristocracies and the zamindari system in present day Bangladesh. The family was
seated at the Dighapatia Palace. The family contributed largely to the development in education, infrastructure and culture of Rajshahi and North Bengal. They
were especially famous for their generosity and public spirit. The Rajas built the Varendra Research Museum among other institutions of culture and education.
The Rajas of Dighapatia were seated at the Dighapatia Palace. They received royal titles and titles of honorfrom the Mughal Empire such as Raja, Maharaja and
Raja Bahadur and other titles from the British Crown, such as the Indian Orders of Knighthood.
List of Rulers of Dighapatia Raj Dynasty of Rajshahi
Dayaram Ray (1680 1760) was the first Raja of Dighapatia Raj from early 18th century until his death in 1760. Dayaram Ray, born to minor gentry in
Dighapatia, who became an orphan as a child, received asylum with Raja Ramjivan Ray from his hostile relatives, the first Raja of the Natore Raj family, and
received help from him, later became his Dewan (Administration Head). Raja Dayaram led the army of Raja Ramjivan in aid of the Nawab of Bengal in 1716 and
overthrew the rebellious Raja Sitaram Ray of neighboring Bhusna state. The sack of Muhammadpur, Raja Sitaram's capital, later enabled him to ultimately lay the
foundation of the Dighapatia dynasty. Nawab Murshid Quli Khan, who was then Naib Nazim (Vice Roy) of Bengal under Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb (1617
1707, reigned ca. 1657 1707), conferred on him the title of 'Ray-i-Rayan' and Raja in recognition of his services. For his loyalty, he received large tracts of land
in Rajshahi and Jessore as grants and later acquired territories in Bogura and Maymansingh.
Jagannath Ray was the second Raja of Dighapatia Raj Dynasty of Rajshahi in the second half 19th century.
Prananath Ray was the third Raja of Dighapatia Raj Dynasty of Rajshahi in the first half 19th century.
Prasannanath Ray was the fourth Raja of Dighapatia Raj Dynasty of Rajshahi around middle 19th century.
Pramathanath Ray was the fifth Raja of Dighapatia Raj Dynasty of Rajshahi in the second half 19th century.
Pramadanath Ray was the sixth Raja of Dighapatia Raj Dynasty of Rajshahi in the first half 20th century.
Prativanath Ray (died 1968) was the seventh and last Raja of Dighapatia Raj Dynasty of Rajshahi from first half 20th century until 1947.

Gozo
The island of Gozo, in modern-day Malta was independent for two years between 1798 and 1800. Until June 10, 1798, Malta and Gozo had been administered
by the Order of Saint John. When Napoleon ousted the Knights from the islands, the French took over the Citadel and remained in Gozo for another three
months. When the Maltese rebelled in September 1798, the Gozitans also attacked the Citadel, and with the help of Sir Alexander Ball negotiations were
completed on October 28, 1798. The 217 French soldiers there agreed to surrender without a fight and transferred the island, its fortifications, 24 cannon, a large
quantity of ammunition and 3,200 sacks of flour to the British. Although the island was formally claimed by King Ferdinand of Naples, it was administered by
Archpriest Francesco Saverio Cassar with several British and Maltese representatives, whose first action was to distribute the captured food supplies to the island's
16,000 inhabitants. A day later Cassar requested that Gozo becomes a separate Diocese and state. When the French garrison in Valletta surrendered on 4
September 1800, the British took the whole Maltese archipelago including Gozo under their protection to form the Malta Protectorate, which then became a
colony in 1813.
Ruler of Gozo
Francesco Saverio Cassar was ruler of Gozo, in modern-day Malta from 1798 until 1800. He was with several British and Maltese representatives, make
first action to distribute the captured food supplies to the island's 16,000 inhabitants. A day later Cassar requested that Gozo becomes a separate Diocese and
state. When the French garrison in Valletta surrendered on September 4, 1800, the British took the whole Maltese archipelago including Gozo under their
protection to form the Malta Protectorate, which then became a colony in 1813.

Zeleny Klyn
Zeleny Klyn (Ukrainian: , Russian: , literally: "the green wedge"), also known as the Green Ukraine, is a historical Ukrainian
name of the land in the Russian Far East area between the Amur River and the Pacific Ocean. After the Russian Revolution of 1917, The Ukrainian Republic of
the Far East or Green Ukraine was a projected country in the Russian Far East. After the Bolshevik Far Eastern Republic was established on April 6, 1920, Far
Eastern areas with an ethnic Ukrainian majority attempted to secede and establish an entity called Green Ukraine. The movement quickly proved abortive.
Head of the Krai Secretariat of Zeleny Klyn (Green Ukraine)
Yuri Hlushko-Mova, real name Yuri Kosmych Hlushko (Ukrainian: -, April 4, 1882, . Nova Basan' Chernihiv
Oblast - 1942, Kiev) was a Head of the Krai Secretariat of Zeleny Klyn (Green Ukraine) from June 1918 until 1919 and from January 1920
until 1922. He was Ukrainian public and political figure, one of the organizers of Ukrainian national cultural existence in Green Ukraine
(Zelenyi Klyn). Hlushko's pseudonym was Mova. Hlushko graduated from the Railway Institute in Kiev in 1899. During 1901 - 1903 he
worked as a steamship engineer for Dobroflot steamships serving the Odessa-Vladivostok route. Between 1904 - 1907 he worked for the
Chinese Eastern Railway in Manchuria. From 1907 he lived in Vladivostok, worked as a draftsman and technician. He became active in the
amateur Ukrainian theater society organized by the local Ukrainian community and the Ukrainian student society. Hlushko was mobilized
during the First World War and served at the Caucasian front in 1916-1917. In the spring of 1918 he became the head of the Vladivostok
Ukrainian society "Prosvita" (Ukrainian: "Enlightenment") and the Vladivostok Ukrainian Council. He became the chairman of
3rd Ukrainian Far Eastern Council in the summer of 1918. He organized 4th Ukrainian Far Eastern Council, which proclaimed him head of the Ukrainian Far
Eastern Secretariat. He was arrested by Kolchak's White forces in 1919 for Ukrainian activism. In 1922 he was arrested by Bolshevik authorities. Accused of anti-
Soviet activities and "designs to split Far East from Russia and give it to Japan", Hlushko was sentenced in Chita in 1924 to 5 years imprisonment. After serving the
term he worked as a technician in the Far East and Tajikistan. Hlushko returned to Ukraine in 1930, and died in Kiev in 1942.

Principality of Trinidad
The Principality of Trinidad was declared in 1893, when the American James Harden-Hickey claimed the uninhabited island Trindade and Martim Vaz in the
South Atlantic and declared himself as James I, Prince of Trinidad. According to Harden-Hickey's plans the island would, after being recognized as an
independent country, become a military dictatorship under his leadership. He designed postage stamps, a national flag, and a coat of arms; he established a
chivalric order, the "Cross of Trinidad;" he bought a schooner to transport colonists; he appointed M. le Comte de la Boissiere as Secretary of State and opened a
consular office at 217 West 36th Street in New York, and even issued government bonds to finance construction of infrastructure in the island. Despite his plans,
his idea was ridiculed or ignored by the world. In July 1895, the British tried to take possession of this strategic position in the Atlantic, basing their claim on the
1700 visit by English astronomer Edmund Halley. The British planned to use the island as a telegraph cable station. However, Brazilian diplomatic efforts, along
with Portuguese support,pressed a successful claim to Brazilian sovereignty, based on the island's discovery in 1502 by Portuguese navigators. In order to clearly
demonstrate sovereignty over the island, now part of the State of Esprito Santo, a landmark was built on January 24, 1897. Nowadays, Brazilian presence is
marked by a permanent Brazilian Navy base on the main island.
Self-proclaimed Prince of Trinidad
James Harden-Hickey (December 8, 1854 February 9, 1898) was a Franco-American author, newspaper editor, duellist,
adventurer and self-proclaimed Prince of Trinidad from 1893 until 1895. James Aloysius Harden was born in San Francisco on
December 8, 1854. To avoid the violent city still in the madness of the gold rush, James' French mother took him to live in Paris, then
an Empire under the rule of Napoleon III. The nephew of Napoleon I left his mark on James by making France a wild, flamboyant
stage for ornate theatrical displays and public works, and mystifying ceremonies. As a child, James was fascinated with the French court
and all of its glamor and pomp. Also, because of the lively brilliance of the live theater, he acquired a lifelong liking of adventure.
During boyhood he was taught in Belgium by the Jesuits and later studied law at the University of Leipzig. He entered the French
military academy, Saint-Cyr, at 19. In 1875, he graduated with high marks. Shortly thereafter, his father died. Three years later, Harden-
Hickey married the Countess de Saint-Pery and fathered two children. By then he had mastered French, was accounted a master
swordsman and began writing novels. On November 10, 1878, Harden-Hickey first published the newspaper Triboulet, named for a jester of King Louis XII,
eight years after Napoleon's fall from power. Though popular, the strongly anti-republican stand of this paper involved Harden-Hickey in no fewer than a dozen
duels, several dozen lawsuits and numerous fines. Sadly for Harden-Hickey and his fellow royalists, their funds were exhausted by 1887. As of 1880, he had 11
novels published. Two of the novels are borrowed from Michael Strogoff, by Jules Verne and another is based on "Don Quixote" by Miguel de Cervantes
Saavedra. His novels praise the virtues of monarchies and are anti-democratic. James was made a baron of the Holy Roman Empire (which had legally ceased to
exist in 1806) for his strong defense of the church in his works and in practice. His novels include the following, all published under the pen name Saint Patrice:
Un Amour Vendeen, Lettres d'un Yankee, Merveilleuses Adventures de Nabuchodonosor Nosebreaker, Un Amour dans le Monde and Memoirs d'un
Gommeux. Sometime after, James Harden-Hickey divorced his first wife and renounced Catholicism; he acquired an interest in Buddhism and Theosophy. This
was a turning point in his life, and he took the opportunity to travel around the world, staying a year in India, learning Sanskrit and studying the philosophy of the
Buddha. He returned to Paris and met Annie Harper Flagler, daughter of John Haldane Flagler, head of a successful pipe company and one of Andrew
Carnegie's partners in the steel business. They were married at the Fifth Avenue Presbyterian Church in New York on March 17 (St. Patrick's Day), 1891. He
lived with and off the Flaglers in New York for two years. Traveling to Tibet before his marriage, his crew made a stop in the South Atlantic. Harden-Hickey
noticed that the tiny island of Trinidad in the South Atlantic Ocean had never been claimed by any country and was, legally, "res nullius". He claimed the island
and proclaimed himself James I, Prince of Trinidad. He wanted an independent state with himself as military dictator, and later in 1893, he got just that. The
now-James I was given attention most of it negative and derogatory by various nations and news organs when he started selling Principality of Trinidad
government bonds, opened an office in New York City and began making secretarial appointments, such as M. le Comte de la Boissiere as his Secretary of State.
Trinidad was seized by Great Britain, however, in 1895 as a telegraph cable-relay station, and James I was forced to surrender it to them, leaving him with only a
homemade crown, and a schooner.While the Brazilians and British were threatening war over their respective claims, James I was forgotten, although he had the
prior claim of sovereignty. Appeals to the United States to act as a mediator did nothing for his cause when US Secretary of State John Milton Hay released his
letter appealing for American mediation to the press, opening James I to harsh ridicule in the popular press. After the British invaded "his" Trinidad island in
1895, James I designed a plan to invade England from Ireland and even asked the wealthy Henry Flagler to finance his invasion plan, but Flagler demured, and
denied his request. James I then tried to raise money by selling his ranch in Mexico but failed to assemble enough funds to continue operating. Although
somewhat apocryphal, there is evidence to suggest that during this time, James I was approached by a certain filibuster named Ralston J. Markowe with a plan in
1895 to make him the King of Hawai'i (per Richard Harding Davis, but any such plans as may have existed never came to fruition.) Over the next two years,
Harden-Hickey fell into deep depression. His vision for his island was easily realizable, and it had become the core of his existence, but, despite the validity of his
claim on Trinidad and his seriousness at realizing his dream, he received little real support, only receiving such from his family and friends; and after all of his
attempts at restoring his claim had failed, the world laughed at him for even trying. In truth, his only public support came from the New York Times, which gave
him some praise and compassion. He gave the managing editor and a reporter for the Times the Order of Trinidad for their understanding of his passion. James
Harden-Hickey had once written a book called Euthanasia: The Aesthetics of Suicide, showing that suicide was a powerful art form and "a privilege." He wrote
that life wasn't so important or even worth living if one was to suffer, and stated clearly that "it is of greater moment to live well than to live long, and that often it is
living well not to live long." Destitute and depressed, he lived up to his ideology by living and dying as a strong proponent of suicide: James I, Prince of Trinidad,
Baron of the Holy Roman Empire, took an overdose of morphine on February 9, 1898, in an El Paso, Texas hotel, when he could not sell his Mexican ranch
that he acquired while living with the Flaglers. Found among his effects were a suicide note to his wife and his memorabilia from his glory days with him,
including his hand-made crown.

Franceville
The municipality of Franceville (present-day Port Vila) on Efate or Sandwich island was established during the period when the New Hebrides were a neutral
territory under the loose jurisdiction of a joint Anglo-French naval commission. In order to gain basic legal status, it declared itself independent for a few months
in 1889. In 1878 the United Kingdom and France declared all of the New Hebrides to be neutral territory. The Convention of October 16, 1887, established a
joint naval commission for the sole purpose of protecting French and British citizens, but claimed no jurisdiction over internal native affairs. The lack of a
functional government led to rising discontent among the colonists. The French were especially inconvenienced because French law recognized marriages only
when contracted under a civil authority (the nearest being in New Caledonia), whereas British law recognized marriages conducted by local clergy. On August 9,
1889, Franceville declared itself an independent commune under the leadership of elected mayor/president Ferdinand-Albert Chevillard and with its own red,
white and blue flag with five stars. This community became one of the first self-governing nations in recorded history to practice universal suffrage without
distinction of sex or race. Although the district's population at the time consisted of about 500 natives and fewer than 50 whites, only white males were permitted
to hold office. One of its elected presidents was one R. D. Polk, a native of Tennessee and relative of James K. Polk. The new government was soon suppressed,
and by June 1890 Franceville as a commune was reported to have been "practically broken up." In 1906, the naval commission was replaced by a more structured
British-French Condominium.
List of Mayors/Presidents of Franceville
Ferdinand-Albert Chevillard was Mayor/President of Franceville from August 9, 1889 until 1890. On August 9, 1889, Franceville declared itself an
independent commune under the leadership of elected mayor/president Ferdinand-Albert Chevillard and with its own red, white and blue flag with five stars.
This community became one of the first self-governing nations in recorded history to practice universal suffrage without distinction of sex or race. Although the
district's population at the time consisted of about 500 natives and fewer than 50 whites, only white males were permitted to hold office.
R. D. Polk was Mayor/President of Franceville in 1890. He was native of Tennessee and relative of James K. Polk, President of the USA. The new
government was soon suppressed, and by June 1890 Franceville as a commune was reported to have been "practically broken up."

Islands of Refreshment
Islands of Refreshment was the name given to Tristan da Cunha by its self-proclaimed ruler, Jonathan Lambert, in 1811. At this time American whalers
frequented the neighboring waters and, on December 27, 1810, the Boston ship the Baltic put ashore an American named Jonathan Lambert "late of Salem,
mariner and citizen thereof" along with one Thomas Currie or Tomasso Corri in his employ, and a man named Williams. These three were the first permanent
inhabitants of Tristan, and they were soon joined by one Andrew Millet. Lambert declared himself sovereign and sole possessor of the island group "grounding
my right and claim on the rational and sure ground of absolute occupancy". He renamed the main island "Island of Refreshment", Inaccessible Island "Pintard
Island" and Nightingale Island "Lovel Island". Lambert's sovereignty was short-lived, as he, Williams and Millet were drowned while out fishing on May 17, 1812.
Currie was joined, however, by two other men and they busied themselves in growing vegetables, wheat and oats, and in breeding pigs. War having broken out in
1812 between the United States and the United Kingdom, the islands were largely used as a base by American cruisers sent to prey on British merchant ships.
This and other considerations urged by Lord Charles Henry Somerset, then-governor of Cape Colony in South Africa, led the British government to authorize
the islands being taken possession of as dependencies of the Cape. The formal proclamation of annexation was made on August 14, 1816. This is reported to
have primarily been a measure to ensure that the French would not be able to use the islands as a base for a rescue operation to free the deposed Napoleon I of
France from his prison on Saint Helena.
Self-proclaimed ruler of the Islands of Refreshment
Jonathan Lambert was self-proclaimed ruler of the Islands of Refreshment (Tristan da Cunha) in 1811. At this time American whalers frequented the
neighboring waters and, on December 27, 1810, the Boston ship the Baltic put ashore an American named Jonathan Lambert "late of Salem, mariner and citizen
thereof" along with one Thomas Currie or Tomasso Corri in his employ, and a man named Williams. These three were the first permanent inhabitants of
Tristan, and they were soon joined by one Andrew Millet. Lambert declared himself sovereign and sole possessor of the island group "grounding my right and
claim on the rational and sure ground of absolute occupancy". He renamed the main island "Island of Refreshment", Inaccessible Island "Pintard Island" and
Nightingale Island "Lovel Island". Lambert's sovereignty was short-lived, as he, Williams and Millet were drowned while out fishing on May 17, 1812. Currie was
joined, however, by two other men and they busied themselves in growing vegetables, wheat and oats, and in breeding pigs. War having broken out in 1812
between the United States and the United Kingdom, the islands were largely used as a base by American cruisers sent to prey on British merchant ships. This and
other considerations urged by Lord Charles Henry Somerset, then-governor of Cape Colony in South Africa, led the British government to authorize the islands
being taken possession of as dependencies of the Cape. The formal proclamation of annexation was made on August 14, 1816. This is reported to have primarily
been a measure to ensure that the French would not be able to use the islands as a base for a rescue operation to free the deposed Napoleon I of France from his
prison on Saint Helena.

Zalpuwa
Zalpuwa, also Zalpa, was an as-yet undiscovered Bronze Age Anatolian city of ca. the 17th century BC. Its history is largely known from the Proclamation of
Anitta, CTH 1. Zalpuwa was by a "Sea of Zalpa". It was the setting for an ancient legend about the Queen of Kanesh, which was either composed in or translated
into the Hurrian language: [The Queen] of Kanesh once bore thirty sons in a single year. She said: "What a horde is this which I have born!" She caulked(?)
baskets with dung, put her sons in them, and launched them in the river. The river carried them down to the sea at the land of Zalpuwa. Then the gods took
them up out of the sea and reared them. When some years had passed, the queen again gave birth, this time to thirty daughters. This time she herself reared
them. The river at Kanesh (Sarmsakl ay) drains into the Black Sea, not (for example) Lake Tuz. "Zalpuwa" is further mentioned alongside Nerik in
Arnuwanda I's prayer. Nerik was a Hattic language speaking city which had fallen to the Kaskians by Arnuwanda's time. This portion of the prayer also
mentioned Kammama, which was Kaskian as of the reign of Arnuwanda II. The best conclusion is that Zalpuwa was in a region of Hattian cities of northern
central Anatolia: as were Nerik, Hattusa, and probably Sapinuwa. Zalpuwa was most likely, like its neighbours, founded by Hattians. Ca. the 17th century BC,
Uhna the king of Zalpuwa invaded Nea, after which the Zalpuwans carried off the city's "Sius" idol. Under Huzziya's reign, the king of Nea, Anitta, invaded
Zalpuwa. Anitta took Huzziya captive, and recovered the Sius idol for Nea. Soon after that, Zalpuwa seems to have become culturally Hittite and Nesian-
speaking. Arnuwanda's prayer implies that Zalpuwa was laid waste by Kaskians, at the same time that Nerik fell to them, in the early 14th century BC.
List of known Rulers of Zalpuwa
Uhna was a king of the ancient Anatolian city of Zalpuwa during the 17th century BC, who conquered the Hittite city of Nea. According to Text of Anitta, he
brought the statue of god siusum, from Nea To Zalpuwa. Several years later king Anitta brought this statue back to Nea
Huzziya was the last recorded king of Zalpuwa. He was captured by Anitta the Hittite king of Nea. Anitta had been confronted with what appears to have been
a military alliance of states stretching southwards from Zalpa, an alliance in which Piyusti, the king of Hatti, and Huzziya, the king of Zalpa, played leading roles.
He is attested for in the Anitta Text, which records, all the lands from Zalpuwa by the Sea. Formerly Mr. Una, King of Zalpuwa, carried off our god from
Nea to Zalpuwa. Later I, Anitta, Great King, carried back our god from Zalpuwa to Nea. I brought uzziya, King of Zalpuwa, alive to Nea. Huzziya may have
been an ancestor and possibly grandfather of Huzziya I, Hittite king of the Old Kingdom (c. 15301525).


Punt
The Land of Punt, also called Pwenet, or Pwene by the ancient Egyptians, was an Egyptian trading partner known for producing and exporting gold, aromatic
resins, blackwood, ebony, ivory, and wild animals. The region is known from ancient Egyptian records of trade missions to it.[2] Some biblical scholars have
identified it with the biblical land of Put.At times Punt is referred to as Ta netjer, the "land of the god". The exact location of Punt is still debated by historians.
Most scholars today believe Punt was located to the southeast of Egypt, most likely in the coastal region of what is today Somalia, Djibouti, Eritrea, Northeast
Ethiopia and the Red Sea coast of Sudan. However, some scholars point instead to a range of ancient inscriptions which locate Punt in the Arabian Peninsula. It
is also possible that the territory covered both the Horn of Africa and Southern Arabia.
Only known King of the Kingdom of Punt
Parahu was King of the Kingdom of Punt in 15th century BC. During the reign of Egipty Queen Hatshepsut in the 15th century BC, ships regularly crossed the
Red Sea in order to obtain bitumen, copper, carved amulets, naptha and other goods transported overland and down the Dead Sea to Elat at the head of the gulf
of Aqaba where they were joined with frankincense and myrrh coming north both by sea and overland along trade routes through the mountains running north
along the east coast of the Red Sea. A report of that five-ship voyage survives on reliefs in Hatshepsut's mortuary temple at Deir el-Bahri. Throughout the temple
texts, Hatshepsut "maintains the fiction that her envoy" Chancellor Nehsi, who is mentioned as the head of the expedition, had travelled to Punt "in order to
extract tribute from the natives" who admit their allegiance to the Egyptian pharaoh. In reality, Nehsi's expedition was a simple trading mission to a land, Punt,
which was by this time a well-established trading post. Moreover, Nehsi's visit to Punt was not inordinately brave since he was "accompanied by at least five
shiploads of [Egyptian] marines" and greeted warmly by the chief of Punt and his immediate family. The Puntites "traded not only in their own produce of
incense, ebony and short-horned cattle, but [also] in goods from other African states including gold, ivory and animal skins."According to the temple reliefs, the
Land of Punt was ruled at that time by King Parahu and Queen Ati.

Kingdom of Alashiya
Alashiya or Alasiya was a state which existed in the Middle and Late Bronze Ages, and was situated somewhere in the Eastern Mediterranean. It was a major
source of goods, especially copper, for Ancient Egypt and other states in the Ancient Near East. It is referred to in a number of the surviving texts and is now
thought to be the ancient name of Cyprus, or an area of Cyprus. This was confirmed by the scientific analysis performed in the Tel Aviv University of the clay
tablets which were sent from Alashiya to other rulers. The name of the state translated as "Alashiya" is found on texts written in Egyptian, Hittite, Akkadian,
Mycenean (Linear B) and Ugaritic. A number of the Amarna letters are from the King or ministers of Alashiya. These mostly concern the amount of copper that
has been sent from Alashiya and requests for silver or ivory in return. One letter refers to 500 talents of copper (probably about 12.5 tons) and makes excuses as
to why so little copper has been sent. Pharaoh is also referred to by the King of Alashiya as his "brother", indicating that the king regarded himself as an equal,
probably because of the economic power of his kingdom. Papyrus Anastasi IV, written several centuries later, also refers to copper (as well as cows) sent from
Alashiya to Egypt. Any place identified as Alashiya must therefore have had sizable copper production during the Late Bronze Age. There are a number of other
clues in the texts. The Amarna letters contain references to a ship belonging to the King of Alashiya and the men of Lukki (probably part of the Sea Peoples,
similar to pirates) seizing villages in Alashiya. In other correspondence, the King of Ugarit pleads for help from the King of Alashiya to protect Ugarit from the
Sea Peoples. Another document from Ugarit records the banishment of two princes to "the land of Alashiya". One further text found at Ugarit may contain a
further clue to the location of the capital city of Alashiya, as it could imply that the city was located on a mountain. However, this word has more usually been
translated as shore. The extant ending of the Story of Wenamun records how Wenamun, a priest of Egypt, had been blown off course on the sea journey from
Byblos to Egypt and ended up on Alashiya. Wenamun reports that he was almost killed by an angry mob, but was rescued by Hatbi, the "princess of the town".
Some of the last texts referring to Alashiya are from the Hittite Empire (based in modern Turkey) and boast of quelling Alashiya by force. However, with all such
military reports it is difficult to assess the true outcome.
List of known Rulers of Kingdom of Alashiya
Kumeua was King of the Kingdom of Alashiya between around 1225 BC until around 1215 BC.
Hatiba was Queen of the Kingdom of Alashiya around 1050 BC.


Kingdom of Bit-Istar
Bit-Istar was an Assyrian town and a local kingdom (c.12th cent.- c.710 BC) at western Zagros that according to inscriptions of Tiglath Pileser III and Sargon II
was located close to the source of a river to the east of Dyala. Stronach and Calmeyer proposed Ravansar as a possible candidate for the place of Bit-Istar. Recent
surveys by Y. Hassanzadeh led to discovery of new evidence indicating presence of rich first Mil. remains close to the spring of Ravansar (34 43 0 N, 46 40 0
E). The ruler of this town during reign of Sargon II was Burburazu who brought his tributes to Sargon during his campaign to the region in 714 B.C. A column
base at the edge of Ravansar spring could belong to a temple that was built for Ishtar near "Water hole". Tang-i Var, famous Assyrian inscription from reign of
Sargon II is located about 30 km to north of Ravansar.
King of the Kingdom of Bit-Istar
Burburazu was King of the Kingdom of Bit-Istar during 714 BC when he brought his tributes to Assyrian King Sargon II during his campaign.






Kingdom of Lindsey
The kingdom of Lindsey or Linnuis (Old English Lindesege) was a lesser Anglo-Saxon kingdom, which was absorbed into Northumbria in the 7th century.
Lindsey lay between the Humber estuary and the Wash, forming its inland boundaries from the courses of the Witham and Trent rivers, and the Foss Dyke
between them. A marshy region south of the Humber known as the Isle of Axholme was also included. It is believed that Roman Lindum (Lincoln) was the
capital of Lindsey: the continuity of the place name suggests continuity of settlement traditions: in 625, Bede recounts, the missionary Paulinus of York was
received by the praefectus of Lindum. Place-name evidence indicates that the Anglian settlement known as Lindisfaras spread from the Humber coast. Lindsey
means the 'island of Lincoln': it was surrounded by water and very wet land. Lincoln was in the south-west part of the kingdom. During the Anglo-Saxon
settlement of Britain, from about 450, Lindsey was one of the lesser kingdoms. Although it has its own list of kings, at an early date it came under external
influence. It was from time to time effectively part of Deira, of the Northumbrian kingdom, and particularly later, of Mercia. Lindsey lost its independence long
before the arrival of the Danish settlers. The kingdom's prominence was before the historical period. By the time of the first historical records of Lindsey, it had
become a subjugated polity, under the alternating control of Northumbria and Mercia. Its subjugation may have occurred around AD 500, during the period
when the British leader known as Arthur fought his second, third and fourth battles of twelve in 'Linnuis.' His twelfth victory held back Anglo-Saxon expansion
for fifty years. All trace of Lindsey's separate status had vanished before the Viking assault in the late ninth century. Its territories were absorbed into the historical
English county of Lincolnshire, the northern part of which is called Lindsey. The Anglian collection of genealogies, which was created in the last years of the
reign of Offa of Mercia, listed the rulers of Lindsey. The early rulers names relate either to life in Angeln or to a boastful genealogy arising from gods such as
Woden.None of the individuals can be securely dated. With regard to Aldfri, Frank Stenton referred to the witness list for an Anglo-Saxon charter which
includes an "Ealfrid rex", and dated its writing to some time between the years 787 and 796. Scholars now believe that the name on the witness list should read
"Ecgfri Rex", and refers to Offa's son. He was anointed King of the Mercians in 787, nine years before his succession in 796, and would have been correctly
styled rex. Stenton suggested that the name 'Biscop' came from the title 'bishop' and must post-date Paulinus's mission to Lindsey of 628 CE. But, as Sarah Foot
has pointed out, Biscop does not need to have been derived from an external origin. The other genealogies in the Anglian collection close with historic
personages whose dates are known, such as Edwin of Deira (616-33), Ethelred of Mercia (675-704) and Ethelbert II of Kent (725-62), but this wide range offers
little help in dating Aldfri.
List of Kings of the Kingdom of Lindsey
Geot was King of the Kingdom of Lindsey.
Godulf was King of the Kingdom of Lindsey.
Finn was King of the Kingdom of Lindsey.
Frioulf was King of the Kingdom of Lindsey.
Frealaf was King of the Kingdom of Lindsey.
Woden was King of the Kingdom of Lindsey.
Winta was King of the Kingdom of Lindsey.
Cretta was King of the Kingdom of Lindsey.
Cuelgils was King of the Kingdom of Lindsey.
Caedbaed was King of the Kingdom of Lindsey.
Bubba was King of the Kingdom of Lindsey.
Beda was King of the Kingdom of Lindsey.
Biscop was King of the Kingdom of Lindsey.
Eanfer was King of the Kingdom of Lindsey.
Eatta was King of the Kingdom of Lindsey.
Aldfri was King of the Kingdom of Lindsey.

Frisian Kingdom
The Frisian Kingdom (West Frisian: Fryske Keninkryk), also known as Magna Frisia, was a kingdom in what is now the Netherlands and northern Germany,
established around AD 600. The kingdom came to an end after the Battle of the Boarn (AD 734) where it was defeated by the Frankish Empire. The ancient
Frisii were living in the low-lying region between the Zuiderzee and the River Ems. In the Germanic pre-Migration Period (i.e., before c. AD 300) the Frisii and
the related Chauci, Saxons, and Angles inhabited the Continental European coast from the Zuyder Zee to south Jutland. All of these peoples shared a common
material culture, and so cannot be defined archaeologically. What little is known of the Frisii and their kings is provided by a few Roman accounts about two
Frisian kings visiting Rome in the 1st century: Malorix and Verritus. By AD 400 the Frisii abandoned the land and disappeared from archeological records.
During the Migration Period "new" Frisians (probably a merge of Angles, Saxons, Jutes and Frisii) resettled in the north and the west of the Low Countries. The
Frisians consisted of tribes with loose bonds, centered on war bands but without great power. In the second half of the 7th century the Frisian kingship reached its
maximum geographic development. The earliest Frisian records name four social classes, the ethelings (nobiles in Latin documents) and frilings, who together
made up the "Free Frisians" who might bring suit at court, and the laten or liten with the slaves, who were absorbed into the laten during the Early Middle Ages, as
slavery was not so much formally abolished, as evaporated. The laten were tenants of lands they did not own and might be tied to it in the manner of serfs, but in
later times might buy their freedom.
List of Kings of Frisian Kingdom
Aldegisel, Aldegisl, Aldgillis, Aldgisl, Aldgils or Eadgils (fl. c. AD 678) was the ruler of Frisia (as king or duke) in the late seventh century
contemporarily with Dagobert II and a very obscure figure. All that is known of him is in relation to the famous saint that he harboured
and protected, Wilfrid, but he is the first historically verifiable ruler of the Frisians. What the exact title of the Frisian rulers was depends
on the source. Frankish sources tend to call them dukes; other sources often call them kings. Wilfrid, deposed from his Archdiocese of
York, exiled from Northumbria and on his way to Rome to seek papal support, landed in Frisia in AD 678. and was warmly received by
Aldegisel, who entertained him for several months over the winter, probably at Utrecht. According to Stephen of Ripon, Wilfrid's
biographer, Aldegisel encouraged Wilfrid in his effective evangelism and "[the Frisians] accepted his [Wilfrid's] teaching and with a few
exceptions all the chiefs were baptised by him in the name of the Lord, as well as many thousands of common people." It is possible that
Aldegisel was one of the early converts. However, it has been doubted whether Wilfrid was actually successful in Frisia, since there is no
other evidence of the success of Christianity there before the work of Willibrord. While Wilfrid was at Aldegisel's court, the Frankish
mayor of the palace, Ebroin, offered a bushel of gold coins in return for Wilfrid, alive or dead. Aldegisel himself is said to have torn up
and burned the letter from the Frankish mayor in front of the ambassadors and his household. It has been surmised by some that
Aldegisel's kindness to Wilfrid was a mode of defiance of Frankish domination. His successor and possibly son was Radbod, who
followed the older pagan ways and was an enemy of Charles Martel.
Radbod (or Redbad) (died 719) was the king (or duke) of Frisia from c. AD 680 until his death in AD 719. He is often considered the last independent ruler of
Frisia before Frankish domination. He defeated Charles Martel at Cologne. Eventually, however, Charles prevailed and compelled the Frisians to submit.
Radbod died in AD 719, but for some years his successors struggled against the Frankish power. What the exact title of the Frisian rulers was depends on the
source. Frankish sources tend to call them dukes; other sources often call them kings. Being Germanic pagans, it is likely that they would have been called kings
by their followers, where as the Christianized Franks, who had inherited the Latin literary tradition, would have referred to them as dukes. While his predecessor,
Aldgisl, had welcomed Christianity into his realm, Radbod attempted to extirpate the religion and free the Frisians from subjugation to the Merovingian kingdom
of the Franks. In AD 689, however, Radbod was defeated by Pippin of Herstal in the battle of Dorestad and compelled to cede West Frisia (Frisia Citerior,
meaning Nearer Frisia, from the Scheldt to the Vlie) to the Franks. Between AD 690 and AD 692, Utrecht fell into the hands of Pippin of Herstal. This gave the
Franks control of important trade routes on the Rhine to the North Sea. Some sources say that, following this defeat, Radbod retreated, in AD 697, to the island
of Heligoland, others say he retreated to the part of the Netherlands that is still known as Friesland. Around this time there was an Archbishopric or bishopric of
the Frisians founded for Willibrord and a marriage was held between Grimoald the Younger, the oldest son of Pippin, and Thiadsvind, the daughter of Radbod
in AD 711. On Pippin's death in AD 714, Radbod took the initiative again. He forced Saint Willibrord and his monks to flee and advanced as far as Cologne,
where he defeated Charles Martel, Pippin's natural son, in AD 716. Eventually, however, Charles prevailed and compelled the Frisians to submit. Radbod died in
AD 719, but for some years his successors struggled against the Frankish power. As an example of how powerful King Radbod still was at the end of his life, the
news that he was engaged in assembling an army was enough to fill France with fear and trembling. During the second journey of Saint Boniface to Rome,
Wulfram (or Vulfran), a monk and ex-archbishop of Sens tried to convert Radbod, but not succeeding he returned to Fontenelle. It is said that Radbod was
nearly baptised, but refused when he was told that he would not be able to find any of his ancestors in Heaven after his death, since he preferred spending
eternity in Hell with his pagan ancestors than in Heaven with his enemies, especially the Franks. This legend is also told with Wulfram being replaced with bishop
Willibrord. Willibrord tried this while on a Carolingian-sponsored mission into Frisia with the express purpose of trying to convert the pagan Frisians living there
in the hope that, once they had converted to Christianity, the Franks could gain control of the important trade port Dorestad, which they had up to that point
been unable to do. In Richard Wagner's Lohengrin a certain "Radbod, ruler of the Frisians" is mentioned as Ortrud's father. It is possible that Wagner was
thinking of the historical Radbod, although he died more than 150 years before the birth of Henry the Fowler, another character in the opera, who could not,
therefore, be contemporary of Radbod's daughter. In Harry Harrison's The Hammer and the Cross series of novels, Radbod becomes the founder of "the Way",
an organized pagan cult, created to combat the efforts of Christian missionaries. Black metal band Ophidian Forest recorded a concept album Redbad in 2007.
Dutch folk metal band 'Heidevolk' recorded a song 'Koning Radboud' (King Redbad) on their 2008 album 'Walhalla Wacht' singing about the legend of
Wulfram and Redbad.
Bubo (died AD 734), also spelled Bobbo, Poppo or Popo, was the pagan duke (dux) of the Frisians from AD 719 until his death in AD 734. He is the first
ruler whose name is known after Radbod (died AD 719). He did not recognise Frankish supremacy, and his territory probably only encompassed the north of
Radbod's Frisia. He was defeated in a short war by the forces of Charles Martel, the duke of the Franks, in the so-called Battle of the Boorne. The Frankish
chroniclers, such as the Continuations of Fredegar, Vita Willibroridi of Alcuin and the Annales Mettenses priores, depict Bubo as a rebel and the Frankish
invasion as a just war. There was a rebellionprobably not led by Buboagainst Frankish rule in the region of Westergo in AD 733, which Charles put down.
The inhabitants gave hostages, converted to Christianity and recognised Frankish overlordship, but after Charles left they were punished by their fellow Frisians.
The next year (AD 734), the Frisians rebelled again, this time under Bubo's leadership. Charles gathered a large fleet and army and prepared a naval invasion.
Initial landings on Westergo and Ostergo encountered no resistance, since Charles's aim was to bring Bubo to heel. This time no punitive measures were taken
against the Frisians. Charles and Bubo's armies met on the banks of the river Boorne, perhaps at Oldeboorne, one of the Frisians' chief commercial centers at the
time. The Franks appear to have coveted the trade that passed through there and through Domburg and Dorestad (which they already possessed).The Franks
constructed a fortified encampment (castra) once on shore and the Frisian army was defeated. Bubo was killed in combat. The death of Bubo marked an
important phase in the destruction of Frisian paganism. Charles ordered the shrines (fana) to be destroyed and carried back to Francia "a great mass of spoils"
(magna spolia et praeda). The Latin title victor given him by the chroniclers may indicate that he celebrated a Roman-style triumph on his return home.
Poher
Poher is an ancient principality that emerged in the Early Middle Ages in Cornouaille in west-central Brittany. Its capital was the Gallo-Roman city of Vorgium,
capital of the Osismii, which became Carhaix after the fall of the Roman Empire. Archaeological excavations scheduled since 1999 show that, even if the city lost
its function as capital after the 4th century, it was nonetheless a stronghold and major strategic crossroads.Conomor's name is mentioned many times by Gregory
of Tours as a Breton count who saved Macliauus from the vengeance of his brother, Chanao. He is also an enemy of the Franks who sided with Chram in his
struggle against his brother King Chlothar II. His also appears at different times on the other side of the Channel. The discovery at Castle Dore in Cornwall of an
inscription which reads "Marcus Quonomorus Drustanus" has led some historians, including Christian Kerboul, to identify the king Mark of Cornwall, whose
nephew is the legendary Tristan (Drustanus?), with the Conomor of legend. This hypothesis of a principality established astride the channel in the 6th century
remains unverified. In 871, while Salomon is still king of Brittany, Judicael is indicated as princeps Poucher without anyone knowing that a brand of such dignity
was uncommon at the time. A viscount of Poher, named Bernard, appears in the 11th century, and his lineage appears to have particular significance to the
Sainte-Croix abbey of Quimperi, appearing to supplant the dynasty of Cornouaille which had assumed the ducal dignity since Hoel II in 1066.
List of Rulers of Poher
Alain de Poher was ruler of Poher in late 9th century and in early 10th century.
Mathuedoi I was ruler of Poher from AD 907 until AD 930. He was married a daughter of Alan I, Duke of Brittany, his son was Alan II, Duke of Brittany
Bernard was ruler of Poher in 11th century. A viscount of Poher, named Bernard, appears in the 11th century, and his lineage appears to have particular
significance to the Sainte-Croix abbey of Quimperi, appearing to supplant the dynasty of Cornouaille which had assumed the ducal dignity since Hoel II in
1066.

Domnone
Domnone (Breton: Domnonea) is the modern French version of the Latin name Dumnonia (or Domnonia), which denoted a kingdom in northern Brittany
founded by migrants from Dumnonia (Devon) in Great Britain. The Latin form Domnonia can refer to either the British or the Breton kingdom. In the
Armorican peninsula (Brittany), the kingdom was said to have been founded in the declining phase of the Roman empire. It included Trgor, Dol-de-Bretagne
through to Golo and Penthivre. Its leaders were referred to as Princes, but later obtained the title King of the Bretons. Domnone is said to have been founded
in the 4th century. Domnone retained close political links between the Brythonic (Celtic) territories in Britain (Wales, Cornwall, Devon), and the newly created
Armorican Britain (Brittany), and it hosted many kings, princes, clerics and other leaders who came over from Celtic Britain. The sea was a unifying rather than
divisive factor. In the traditions relating to the settlement of Brittany by the Bretons there are several kingdoms of this kind. A number of legends and
hagiographic lives of Breton saints contain references to the close political ties between religious communities in Wales and Brittany. The close proximity
resulted in possessions on both sides of the Channel by some religious orders. For example, the Abbey of Notre-Dame de Beauport, before Henry VIII, had
parishes on the coast of Golo and in Devon. Reliable information about the history of Domnone is limited. A list of Princes includes Riothamus, who led a
British force against the king of the Goths. In AD 530 the principality became the centre of the Breton kingdom. It has been theorised that a single sovereignty
over the British and Breton branches existed for a period. Conomor, who was killed fighting Clotaire I, king of the Franks, is referred to in stories from both
Britain and Brittany. He would have been a British military leader who was guarding the Channel from attacks by pirates, perhaps in alliance with Childebert I,
son of Clovis. In AD 1034, the term was used to designate the comt of Penthivre said to be the preserve of Eudes, second son of Geoffrey I, Duke of Brittany.
The name disappeared shortly after.
List of Rulers of Domnone
Witol or Guitol, Gwidol ap Gradlon was Prince of the Principality of Domnone around AD 380. He was son of the King of the Bretons.
Deroch I was Prince of the Principality of Domnone around AD 420.
Riotham was Prince of the Principality of Domnone around AD 460.
Riwal Deroc, Ferox, Nicknamed 'the Obstinate/Arrogant' was Prince of the Principality of Domnone from around AD 500 until AD 520.
Deroch II was Prince of the Principality of Domnone from AD 520 until AD 530.
Jonas ap Deroch was King of the Kingdom of Domnone from around AD 530. With the reign of Jonas ap Deroch the principality is raised to a kingdom.
Jonas (Ionas/Wiomarch/Widimacl) was King of the Kingdom of Domnone from AD 530 until AD 540.
Judual ap Ionas (AD 530 - AD 585) was King of the Kingdom of Domnone from AD 540 until AD 550 and from AD 560 until his death around AD 585.
Conomor (died around AD 560), also known as Conomerus or Conomor the Cursed, was an early medieval ruler of Brittany, King of Domnone and Prince
of Poher from AD 550 until his death around AD 560. His name, which has the Welsh cognate Cynfawr, means "Great Dog", but could also indicate "Sea Dog"
in early Brythonic. Conomor was notorious for his cruelty, becoming a legendary villain in Breton culture. He is widely regarded as one of the probable sources
for the myth of Bluebeard and possibly also of Tristan's uncle King Mark of Cornwall. The wife-beating giant Cormoran may also retain a garbled folk memory
of the same character. Conomor was King of Domnone, and Prince of Poher; Domnone was, at this time, expanding to claim control over all Brythonic
territory in Armorica (Brittany). It is difficult to disentangle the Conomor of legend from the historical ruler. As with other early Breton rulers most written
information about him comes from the lives of Breton saints. He is first mentioned in the Historia Francorum by Gregory of Tours as a mid-6th century Breton
count involved in conflicts between the Breton count Chanao and his brother Macliau (in latin, Macliavus), as well as that between the Frankish king Clothar I
and his son Chramm: After this (Macliavus) swore he would be faithful to his brother (Chanao), but from some reason or other he became inclined to break his
oath. Chanao was aware of this and began to attack him again and when Macliavus saw that he could not escape, he fled to another count of that district,
Chonomor by name. When Chonormor learned that Macliavus' pursuers were near at hand, he hid him in a box underground. Chramnus presented himself
before his father (Clothar), but later he proved disloyal. And when he saw he could not escape punishment he fled to Brittany and there with his wife and
daughters lived in concealment with Chonoober (sic) count of the Bretons... During the night Chonoober, count of the Bretons, said to Chramnus: "I think it
wrong for you to fight against your father; allow me to-night to rush upon him and destroy him with all his army." But Chramnus would not allow this to be done...
When they were fighting on equal terms the count of the Bretons fled and was slain. He is listed as "prefectus du roi des Francs" in the life of Saint Tugdual and
in the life of Saint Paul Aurelian he is called ruler of "different peoples of four languages", which may suggest that his territory included both Brittany and
Cornwall. Conomor is said to been count of Carhaix and to have become king by murdering his predecessor Jonas. He married Jonas' widow, but she later fled
from him to seek asylum in the Frankish court with her son Judael. He is later said to have come into conflict with Waroch, count of Vannes, whose daughter
Trphine he had married after his first wife's death. In unclear circumstances he is said to have murdered Trphine and later his son by her, Trmeur. Conomor
is mentioned in Cornish genealogies, and may have established himself in Brittany after a youth in Cornwall, i.e. Dumnonia. Eventually the local bishops were
persuaded by Saint Samson to excommunicate Conomor. Samson also prevailed on the Frankish king Childebert I to abandon his support for Conomor as
protector of the English channel and to release Judael. Judael gathered an army supported by Childebert's brother Chlothar I and killed Conomor in a battle in
the Monts d'Arre near Le Relecq, Plounour-Mnez, which is named from the relics of the victims. The Cynfawr (Conomor) of medieval Welsh tradition is
probably unrelated. An obscure figure with the epithet "Cadgaddug" ("Battle-winner"), he appears in the genealogies and one of the Welsh Triads as a descendant
of Coel Hen from the Hen Ogledd. It is also unclear whether Cornish evidence points to the same individual as the Breton leader, or to an earlier relative with
the same name. In legend Conomor's villainy is extended to include the murders of three wives before Trphine. Trphine refuses to marry him because of his
reputation, but when he threatens to invade her father's lands she agrees, to spare the lives of her father's people. While Conomor is away Trphine finds a secret
room containing relics of the deceased wives. She prays for their souls, and their ghosts appear to her warning her that Conomor will kill her if she becomes
pregnant, since a prophecy states that he will be killed by his own son. When he returns he discovers that she is pregnant. Trphine escapes with magical aid
from the dead wives and gives birth in a forest. She hides her son before Conomor catches her and beheads her. However Saint Gildas finds her and
miraculously restores her to life. She and her son both live lives of saintly retirement, but after Trphine's death Conomor eventually finds Trmeur and kills
him. Both Trphine and her son Trmeur are deemed saints in Brittany, and there are many churches dedicated to them. The village of Sainte-Trphine is
named for the former. It has been suggested that the story of Bluebeard derives from this myth. An inscription in Cornwall which includes the names of
Conomor and Tristan has led to the suggestion that Conomor is the origin of the figure of King Mark in the Tristan legend. It states "Drustanus hic jacit
cunomori filius" (here lies Tristan, son of Conomor). The historian Lon Fleuriot argues that Conomor probably held sway in both Britain and Brittany: He is
often presented as a vassal of Childebert: a praefectus, said the Chronicle of Saint Brieuc: "Comorus tyrannus, praefectus Francorum regis." Comonor appears to
have been a Britto-Roman. The Life of St. Paul refers to "king Marc", or princeps Marc, or, in his full name, Marcus Quonomorius. The writer Jean Markale
developed this argument, suggesting that the Tristan legend originated in Ireland, but that the names of the characters derive from actual people in Cornish
history whose lives involved "the rivalry of a father and son for the same woman", the father being Conomor/Mark and the son Tristan. However, it has also been
argued that this Cornish Conomor was probably the Breton leader's great grandfather.
Judhael ap Iudwal was King of the Kingdom of Domnone from AD 585 until AD 607.
Haeloc ap Iudhael was King of the Kingdom of Domnone from AD 697 until AD 615/635.
Judical was King of the Kingdom of Domnone from AD 635 until AD 657. Under Judical's reign, Bro Erech is merged with Domnone. Judical was
descended on his great grandmother's side from Waroch of Bro Erech.
Judoc was King of the Kingdom of Domnone from AD 657 untl AD 675. He was the brother of Judical - sought to evade his accession by fleeing to Ponthieu
to take up a life as a cleric before eventually moving to Caer-Runic.

Indians
Buckongahelas (c. 1720 May 1805) was a regionally and nationally renowned Lenape chief, councilor and warrior. He was active from the days of the
French and Indian War (Seven Years' War) through the Northwest Indian Wars, after the United States achieved independence and settlers encroached on
territory beyond the Appalachian Mountains and Ohio River. He became involved in the Western Confederacy of mostly Algonquian-speaking peoples, who
were seeking to repel American settlers. The chief led his Lenape band from present-day Delaware westward, eventually to the White River area of present-day
Muncie, Indiana. One of the most powerful war chiefs on the White River, Buckongahelas was respected by the Americans as a chief, although he did not have
the position to do political negotiations. Buckongahelas was born in present-day Delaware to Lenape parents. The British colonists called the people the
Delaware, after the river, which was the heart of their territory. The Algonquian-speaking Lenape lived throughout the mid-Atlantic area. Buckongahelas in the
Lenape language means a "Giver of Presents." He was also known as Pachgantschihilas and Petchnanalas, meaning a "fulfiller" or "one who succeeds in all he
undertakes." Buckongahelas married as a young man and started his family. Under pressure from colonial settlers, he began to move his band westward. He was
believed to have lived some time with his people in what is now Buckhannon in Upshur County, West Virginia. His son Mahonegon was killed there in June
1773 by Captain William White, a native of Frederick County, Virginia. Local legend states that the current Upshur County Courthouse was built over the grave
of Mahonegon. Local legend suggests Buckongahelas took revenge on White after trailing his son's killer for a period of nine years (17731782). The captain was
killed March 8, 1782 within sight of Bush Fort in the vicinity of the Buckhannon River. But, historic documentation places Buckongahelas in Ohio by 1781, as
he was moving his band west to escape European-American encroachment. During the American Revolutionary War, Buckongahelas led his followers against
the Continentals. He broke away from the neutral and pro-American Lenape led by White Eyes. He took his band west to establish a town near the war chief
Blue Jacket of the Shawnee. The two men became close allies. During the war years, a number of Lenape who had converted to Christianity were living in
frontier villages run by Moravian missionaries. In April 1781, at the Ohio village of Gnadenhtten, Buckongahelas warned the Lenape that an American militia
from Pennsylvania was likely to execute any Indians in their path and would not pay attention to whether they were Christians. He urged the Lenape to follow
him further west away from the encroaching colonists. Moving westward "from the rising sun," the people could live where the land was good and his warriors
would protect them. The Delaware did not heed his words. John Heckewelder, a Moravian missionary, wrote in his account that Buckongahelas' oration to the
Christian Indians was told "with ease and an eloquence not to be imitated." He continued, "Eleven months after this speech was delivered by this prophetic chief,
ninety-six of these same Christian Indians, about sixty of them women and children, were murdered at the place where these very words had been spoken, by the
same men he had alluded to, and in the same manner that he had described." On March 8, 1782, state militia attacked and killed the Lenape in what is known as
the Gnadenhtten massacre. After the Revolutionary War, the United States claimed the Ohio Country by right of conquest through its defeat of Great Britain.
In the late 1780s, Buckongahelas joined a Shawnee-led confederacy to try to repel the American settlers who had begun migrating west of the Appalachian
Mountains, using the Ohio River to penetrate the territory. They won several battles against the Americans in the Northwest Indian Wars. Buckongahelas led his
warriors in helping to win the most devastating military victory ever achieved by Native Americans in the United States, in 1791 against General Arthur St. Clair,
who lost 600 troops. The Delaware described Buckongahelas as their own George Washington Standing 5 feet, 10 inches tall, he was strong with powerful
muscles and was said to resemble the statesman Benjamin Franklin. The confederacy were finally defeated at the Battle of Fallen Timbers in 1794. The British
failed to support the Indian confederacy after this battle, and Buckongahelas signed the Treaty of Greenville on August 3, 1795. By this treaty, his band and other
Lenape ceded much land in Pennsylvania and Ohio to the United States.[5] At times, competing tribes tried to control the lands and villages, and it was not clear
that the chiefs who signed the treaties had authority over the lands they were ceding. On June 7, 1803, Buckongahelas signed the Treaty of Fort Wayne in
Indiana; the US set new boundaries for the Lenape and other nations. They also ceded salt springs. Algonquian tribes ceded large land tracts to the United States.
Lastly, he signed the Treaty of Vincennes on August 18, 1804, in Vincennes, Indiana. The Lenape ceded lands between the Ohio and Wabash rivers. The treaty
helped open the Ohio and Indiana territories to European-American settlement. Not able to read and write, Buckongahelas made "X" signatures on the three
treaties. Buckongahelas spent his final years living with his people on the White River near present-day Muncie, Indiana. He died in May 1805 at the age of 85
from smallpox or influenza. Many local Native Americans thought the epidemics of fatal illnesses to be related to witchcraft, as their traditional remedies and
medicine men had no effect on the course of the diseases. They conducted a witch-hunt and executed several Lenape suspected of witchcraft. The conditions of
defeat and despair were the grounds for the rise of the Shawnee prophet Tenskwatawa, who promised renewed power for the American Indians against the
European Americans. His brother Tecumseh became an influential chief leading a new Indian confederacy against the Americans in the early 19th century. Chief
Buckongahelas' loss of his son Mahonegon was memorialized in a 650-pound bronze statue installed in Buckhannons Jawbone Run Park, because settlers
admired his alliance with British colonists during the Seven Years' War. The statue depicts the chief cradling the body of his son. The killing of the chief's son
was represented in the historical romance novel The Scout of the Buckongehanon (1927), written by John Camillus McWhorter (18661937), a judge in
Buckhannon.
Rain-in-the-Face (Lakota: It Omau (in Standard Lakota Orthography) (c. 1835 September 15, 1905) was a warchief of the
Lakota tribe of Native Americans. His mother was a Dakota related to the band of famous Chief Inkpaduta. He was among the Indian
leaders who defeated George Armstrong Custer and the U.S. 7th Cavalry Regiment at the 1876 Battle of Little Big Horn. Born in the
Dakota Territory near the forks of the Cheyenne River about 1835, Rain-in-the-Face was from the Hunkpapa band within the Lakota
nation. His name may have been a result of a fight when he was a boy in which his face was splattered like rain with his Cheyenne
adversary's blood. Late in his life, the chief related that the name was reinforced by an incident when he was a young man where he was
in a battle in a heavy rainstorm with a band of Gros Ventres. At the end of the lengthy combat, his face was streaked with war paint. He
first fought against the whites in the summer of 1866 when he participated in a raid against Fort Totten in what is now North Dakota. In
1868, he again fought the U.S. Army in the Fetterman massacre near Fort Phil Kearny in present-day Wyoming. He again was on the
warpath in 1873 when he took part in the Battle of Honsinger Bluff where he ambushed and killed an army veterinarian Dr. John
Honsinger, an army Private and another civilian near present day Miles City, Montana. He returned to the Standing Rock Reservation,
but was arrested by Captain Thomas Custer in 1874 on orders of General George A. Custer for the murder of Honsinger. He was taken to Fort Abraham
Lincoln and incarcerated. However, he escaped (or was freed by sympathetic Indian policemen) and returned to the reservation, then fled to the Powder River.
In the spring of 1876, he joined Sitting Bull's band and traveled with him to the Little Big Horn River in early June. During the subsequent fighting at the Battle of
Little Big Horn on Custer Hill on June 25, 1876, Rain-in-the-Face is alleged to have cut the heart out of Thomas Custer, a feat that was popularized by American
poet Henry Wadsworth Longfellow in "The Revenge of Rain in the Face". According to the dubious legend, Rain-in-the-Face was fulfilling a vow of vengeance
because he thought Captain Thomas Custer had unjustly imprisoned him in 1874. Some contemporary accounts also claimed that the war chief had personally
dispatched George Custer as well, but in the confused fighting, a number of similar claims have been attributed to other warriors. Late in his life, in a
conversation with writer Charles Eastman, Rain-in-the-Face denied killing George Custer or mutilating Tom Custer. Rain-in-the-Face joined other Hunkpapa as
they fled north into Canada, spending the next several years in exile. He finally led his band in to surrender in 1880 and was transferred to the Standing Rock
Agency the following year. In a census of the Lakota taken at Standing Rock in September 1881, Rain in the Face's band is recorded as numbering 39 families or
180 people. Rain-in-the-Face died in his home at the Bullhead Station on the Standing Rock Reservation in North Dakota after a lengthy illness. On his deathbed
he reputedly confessed to a missionary that he thought that he might have killed Custer, shooting him from so close as to leave powder marks upon his face.

Sasoonan (also known as Allumapees) was a leader of the Delaware (Lenape) people in the Ohio Country and a noted American Indian warrior on the
western frontier in the first half 18th century. He was leader who was regarded by Pennsylvania authorities as the Delaware "king." This title had no traditional
meaning for the Delawares, who lived in autonomous villages. However, since British colonial governments preferred to deal with a single leader rather than
numerous village elders, Sasoonan emerged as the Delaware "king." Pennsylvania officials found Sasoonan useful because he could be induced (with the help of
gifts and abundantly free liquor) to sign away Indian lands. Sasoonan died in 1747, and Pisquetomen was designated as Sasoonan's successor.
Pisquetomen was a leader of the Delaware (Lenape) people in the Ohio Country and a noted American Indian warrior on the western frontier jointly with his
brothers Shingas and Tamaqua during the French and Indian War. Sasoonan died in 1747, and Pisquetomen was designated as Sasoonan's successor. However,
Pisquetomen, who was intelligent, strong-willed, and spoke English, was not easily manipulated, and so Pennsylvania officials refused to recognize him as "king."
As a result, Pisquetomen and his brothers Shingas and Tamaqua abandoned Pennsylvania, leading their people over the Allegheny Mountains and settling at
Kittanning on the Allegheny River. Even on the other side of the mountains, the western Delawares were still caught between three powerful empires: the British
colonies, New France, and the Six Nations of the Iroquois. The Iroquois at this time claimed sovereignty over the Delawares, a dubious claim that British officials
recognized in order to strengthen ties with the Iroquoisusually at the expense of the Delawares. In an attempt to assert control over the western Delawares, a
local Iroquois leader Tanacharison (the "Half-King"), dubbed Shingas the "king" of the Delawares in an important treaty conference at Logstown in May 1752.
British officials approved this "coronation," but would come to regret it, as Shingas proved just as difficult to control as his brother. The great struggle between
Great Britain and France for control of the interior of the North American continent (the "French and Indian War") began near Shingas's village close to the forks
of the Ohio River. Like most Delawares, Shingas and his villagers stayed neutral in the early stages of the conflict, declining to assist George Washington at Fort
Necessity in 1754 and the Braddock Expedition in 1755. The Delawares had no desire to be French subjects either, but when France asserted dominance in the
region after Braddock's defeat, the Delawares reluctantly aligned themselves with the French. Shingas took part in the brutal backcountry war with the British
colonies, leading raids deep into the Pennsylvania and Virginia settlements. Although he was an implacable foe in battle, he was never known to treat a prisoner
with cruelty. The colonies were unable to mount an effective resistance to the hit-and-run tactics of the Indians, though the destruction of Shingas's base of
operations in the Kittanning Expedition in 1756 surprised the Delawares and compelled them to move further west, settling in what is present-day Ohio. A peace
faction led by Shingas's brother Tamaqua soon gained ascendancy. Though the brothers apparently always worked in harmony, Tamaqua, known to the whites as
"the Beaver" or "King Beaver," would eventually eclipse his brothers in fame and influence. In 1758, Pisquetomen was dispatched to the east to help negotiate the
Treaty of Easton, which effectively ended the war for the Delawares, and enabled British General John Forbes to capture Fort Duquesne without interference
from local Indians.
Shingas (died 1763), was a leader of the Delaware (Lenape) people in the Ohio Country and a noted American Indian warrior on the western frontier jointly
with his brothers Shingas and Tamaqua during the French and Indian War. Dubbed "Shingas the Terrible" by Anglo-Americans during the war, Shingas led
devastating raids against white settlements. The colonial governments of both Pennsylvania and Virginia responded by offering rewards to anyone who would kill
him. Shingas, a member of the Delaware Turkey clan (or phratry), was a nephew of Sasoonan (also known as Allumapees), a leader who was regarded by
Pennsylvania authorities as the Delaware "king." This title had no traditional meaning for the Delawares, who lived in autonomous villages. However, since British
colonial governments preferred to deal with a single leader rather than numerous village elders, Sasoonan emerged as the Delaware "king." Pennsylvania officials
found Sasoonan useful because he could be induced (with the help of gifts and abundantly free liquor) to sign away Indian lands. Sasoonan died in 1747, and
Shingas's brother Pisquetomen was designated as Sasoonan's successor. However, Pisquetomen, who was intelligent, strong-willed, and spoke English, was not
easily manipulated, and so Pennsylvania officials refused to recognize him as "king." As a result, Pisquetomen and his brothers Shingas and Tamaqua abandoned
Pennsylvania, leading their people over the Allegheny Mountains and settling at Kittanning on the Allegheny River. Even on the other side of the mountains, the
western Delawares were still caught between three powerful empires: the British colonies, New France, and the Six Nations of the Iroquois. The Iroquois at this
time claimed sovereignty over the Delawares, a dubious claim that British officials recognized in order to strengthen ties with the Iroquoisusually at the expense
of the Delawares. In an attempt to assert control over the western Delawares, a local Iroquois leader Tanacharison (the "Half-King"), dubbed Shingas the "king" of
the Delawares in an important treaty conference at Logstown in May 1752. British officials approved this "coronation," but would come to regret it, as Shingas
proved just as difficult to control as his brother. The great struggle between Great Britain and France for control of the interior of the North American continent
(the "French and Indian War") began near Shingas's village close to the forks of the Ohio River. Like most Delawares, Shingas and his villagers stayed neutral in
the early stages of the conflict, declining to assist George Washington at Fort Necessity in 1754 and the Braddock Expedition in 1755. The Delawares had no
desire to be French subjects either, but when France asserted dominance in the region after Braddock's defeat, the Delawares reluctantly aligned themselves with
the French. Shingas took part in the brutal backcountry war with the British colonies, leading raids deep into the Pennsylvania and Virginia settlements. Although
he was an implacable foe in battle, he was never known to treat a prisoner with cruelty. The colonies were unable to mount an effective resistance to the hit-and-
run tactics of the Indians, though the destruction of Shingas's base of operations in the Kittanning Expedition in 1756 surprised the Delawares and compelled
them to move further west, settling in what is present-day Ohio. A peace faction led by Shingas's brother Tamaqua soon gained ascendancy. Though the brothers
apparently always worked in harmony, Tamaqua, known to the whites as "the Beaver" or "King Beaver," would eventually eclipse his brothers in fame and
influence. In 1758, Pisquetomen was dispatched to the east to help negotiate the Treaty of Easton, which effectively ended the war for the Delawares, and
enabled British General John Forbes to capture Fort Duquesne without interference from local Indians. Fearing retribution because of his actions in the war,
Shingas kept a low profile. The British built Fort Pitt on the ruins of Fort Duquesne, to the consternation of the local Delawares, contributing to the outbreak of
Pontiac's Rebellion in 1763. Fort Pitt was besieged by the Delawares; Shingas may have participated in the fighting at this time. He and Tamaqua unsuccessfully
tried to convince the British at Fort Pitt to withdraw, but the fort was relieved by an expedition led by Henry Bouquet. Shingas and Tamaqua, who advised
accommodation with the British, began to lose influence to more militant Delaware leaders influenced by Neolin, the "Delaware Prophet". Shingas disappears
from the historical record around 1764; some have speculated that he may have contracted smallpox from blankets distributed to the Delawares from Fort Pitt
during the war that killed much of the Native American population, but there is no clear evidence that he died as a result of the incident.
Tamaqua was a leader of the Delaware (Lenape) people in the Ohio Country and a noted American Indian warrior on the western frontier jointly with his
brothers Shingas and Pisquetomen during the French and Indian War. Dubbed "Shingas the Terrible" by Anglo-Americans during the war, Shingas led
devastating raids against white settlements. The colonial governments of both Pennsylvania and Virginia responded by offering rewards to anyone who would kill
him. Shingas, a member of the Delaware Turkey clan (or phratry), was a nephew of Sasoonan (also known as Allumapees), a leader who was regarded by
Pennsylvania authorities as the Delaware "king." This title had no traditional meaning for the Delawares, who lived in autonomous villages. However, since British
colonial governments preferred to deal with a single leader rather than numerous village elders, Sasoonan emerged as the Delaware "king." Pennsylvania officials
found Sasoonan useful because he could be induced (with the help of gifts and abundantly free liquor) to sign away Indian lands. Sasoonan died in 1747, and
Shingas's brother Pisquetomen was designated as Sasoonan's successor. However, Pisquetomen, who was intelligent, strong-willed, and spoke English, was not
easily manipulated, and so Pennsylvania officials refused to recognize him as "king." As a result, Pisquetomen and his brothers Shingas and Tamaqua abandoned
Pennsylvania, leading their people over the Allegheny Mountains and settling at Kittanning on the Allegheny River. Even on the other side of the mountains, the
western Delawares were still caught between three powerful empires: the British colonies, New France, and the Six Nations of the Iroquois. The Iroquois at this
time claimed sovereignty over the Delawares, a dubious claim that British officials recognized in order to strengthen ties with the Iroquoisusually at the expense
of the Delawares. In an attempt to assert control over the western Delawares, a local Iroquois leader Tanacharison (the "Half-King"), dubbed Shingas the "king" of
the Delawares in an important treaty conference at Logstown in May 1752. British officials approved this "coronation," but would come to regret it, as Shingas
proved just as difficult to control as his brother. The great struggle between Great Britain and France for control of the interior of the North American continent
(the "French and Indian War") began near Shingas's village close to the forks of the Ohio River. Like most Delawares, Shingas and his villagers stayed neutral in
the early stages of the conflict, declining to assist George Washington at Fort Necessity in 1754 and the Braddock Expedition in 1755. The Delawares had no
desire to be French subjects either, but when France asserted dominance in the region after Braddock's defeat, the Delawares reluctantly aligned themselves with
the French. Shingas took part in the brutal backcountry war with the British colonies, leading raids deep into the Pennsylvania and Virginia settlements. Although
he was an implacable foe in battle, he was never known to treat a prisoner with cruelty. The colonies were unable to mount an effective resistance to the hit-and-
run tactics of the Indians, though the destruction of Shingas's base of operations in the Kittanning Expedition in 1756 surprised the Delawares and compelled
them to move further west, settling in what is present-day Ohio. A peace faction led by Shingas's brother Tamaqua soon gained ascendancy. Though the brothers
apparently always worked in harmony, Tamaqua, known to the whites as "the Beaver" or "King Beaver," would eventually eclipse his brothers in fame and
influence. In 1758, Pisquetomen was dispatched to the east to help negotiate the Treaty of Easton, which effectively ended the war for the Delawares, and
enabled British General John Forbes to capture Fort Duquesne without interference from local Indians. Fearing retribution because of his actions in the war,
Shingas kept a low profile. The British built Fort Pitt on the ruins of Fort Duquesne, to the consternation of the local Delawares, contributing to the outbreak of
Pontiac's Rebellion in 1763. Fort Pitt was besieged by the Delawares; Shingas may have participated in the fighting at this time. He and Tamaqua unsuccessfully
tried to convince the British at Fort Pitt to withdraw, but the fort was relieved by an expedition led by Henry Bouquet. Shingas and Tamaqua, who advised
accommodation with the British, began to lose influence to more militant Delaware leaders influenced by Neolin, the "Delaware Prophet". Shingas disappears
from the historical record around 1764; some have speculated that he may have contracted smallpox from blankets distributed to the Delawares from Fort Pitt
during the war that killed much of the Native American population, but there is no clear evidence that he died as a result of the incident.
Tanacharison or Tanaghrisson (c. 1700 4 October 1754) was an American Indian leader who played a pivotal role in the
beginning of the French and Indian War. He was known to European-Americans as the Half King, a title also used to describe several
other historically important American Indian leaders. His name has been spelled in a variety of ways. Little is known of
Tanacharison's early life. He may have been born into the Catawba tribe about 1700 near what is now Buffalo, New York. As a child,
he was taken captive by the French and later adopted into the Seneca tribe, one of the Six Nations of the Iroquois Confederacy. He
would later claim that the French boiled and ate his father. His early years were spent on the southeastern shore of Lake Erie in what
is now western New York state. Tanacharison first appears in historical records in 1747, living in Logstown (near present Ambridge,
Pennsylvania), a multi-ethnic village about 20 miles (30 kilometers) downstream from the forks of the Ohio River. Those Iroquois
who had migrated to the Ohio Country were generally known as "Mingos", and Tanacharison emerged as a Mingo leader at this time.
He also represented the Six Nations at the 1752 Treaty of Logstown, where he was referred to as "Thonariss, called by the English the
half King". At this treaty, he speaks on behalf of the Six Nations' Grand Council, but also makes clear that the Council's ratification was
required, in accordance with the Iroquois system of government. According to the traditional interpretation, the Grand Council had named Tanacharison as
leader or "half-king" (a sort of viceroy) to conduct diplomacy with other tribes, and to act as spokesman to the British on their behalf. However, some modern
historians have doubted this interpretation, asserting that Tanacharison was merely a village leader, whose actual authority extended no further than his own
village. In this view, the title "half king" was probably a British invention, and his "subsequent lofty historical role as a Six Nations 'regent' or 'viceroy' in the Ohio
Country was the product of later generations of scholars." In 1753, the French began the military occupation of the Ohio Country, driving out British traders and
constructing a series of forts. British colonies, however, also claimed the Ohio Country. Robert Dinwiddie, the lieutenant governor of Virginia, sent a young
George Washington to travel to the French outposts and demand that the French vacate the Ohio Country. On his journey, Washington's party stopped at
Logstown to ask Tanacharison to accompany them as a guide and as a "spokesman" for the Ohio Indians. Tanacharison agreed to return the symbolic wampum
he had received from French captain Philippe de Joincaire. Joincaire's first reaction, on learning of this double cross, was to mutter of Tanacharison, "He is more
English than the English." But Joincaire masked his anger and insisted that Tanacharison join him in a series of toasts. By the time the keg was empty,
Tanacharison was too drunk to hand back the wampum. Tanacharison traveled with Washington to meet with the French commander of Fort Le Boeuf in what
is now Waterford, Pennsylvania. The French refused to vacate, however, and to Washington's great consternation, they tried to court Tanacharison as an ally.
Although fond of their brandy, he remained a strong francophobe. Tanacharison had requested that the British construct a "strong house" at the Forks of the
Ohio and early in 1754 he placed the first log of an Ohio Company stockade there, railing against the French when they captured it. He was camped at Half
King's Rock on May 27, 1754 when he learned of a nearby French encampment and sent word urging an attack to Washington at the Great Meadows, about five
miles (8 km) east of Chestnut Ridge in what is now Fayette County, Pennsylvania (near Uniontown). Washington immediately ordered 40 men to join
Tanacharison and at sunset followed with a second group, seven of whom got lost in heavy rain that night. It was dawn before Washington reached the Half
King's Rock. After a hurried war council, the English and Tanacharison's eight or nine warriors set off to surround and attack the French, who quickly
surrendered. The French commander, Ensign Joseph Coulon de Jumonville, was among the wounded. With the French words, "Tu n'es pas encore mort, mon
pre!" (Thou art not yet dead, my father), Tancharison sank his tomahawk in Jumonville's skull, washed his hands with the brains, "and scalped him" but not
before eating a portion of Jumonvilles brain. Only one of the wounded French soldiers was not killed and scalped among a total of ten dead, 21 captured, and
one missing, a man named Monceau who had wandered off to relieve himself that morning. Monceau witnessed the French surrender before walking barefoot to
the Monongahela River and paddling down it to report to Contrecoeur, commanding at Fort Duquesne. Tanacharison sent a messenger to Contrecoeur the
following day with news that the British had shot Jumonville and but for the Indians would have killed all the French. A third and accurate account of the
Jumonville Glen encounter was told to Jumonville's half-brother, Captain Louis Coulon de Villiers, by a deserter at the mouth of Redstone Creek during his
expedition to avenge his brother's murder. Washington was without Indian allies at the battle of Fort Necessity, his hastily erected stockade at the Great
Meadows. Tanacharison scornfully called it "that little thing upon the meadow" and complained that Washington would not listen to advice and treated the
Indians like slaves. He and another Seneca leader, Queen Aliquippa, had taken their people to Wills Creek. Outnumbered and with supplies running low,
Washington surrendered the fort, later blaming Captains George Croghan and Andrew Montour for "involving the country in great calamity". Tanacharison was
"one of the sachems who had confirmed Croghan in his land grant of 1749" (Wainwright, 49), 200,000 acres minus about two square miles at the Forks of the
Ohio for a British Fort. Thomas Penn and Pennsylvania planned to build a stone fort, but Croghan realized that his deeds would be invalid if in Pennsylvania and
had Andrew Montour testify before the Assembly in 1751 that the Indians did not want the fort, that it was all Croghan's idea, scuttling the project. In 1752
Croghan was on the Indian council that granted Virginia's Ohio Company permission to build the fort. Tanacharison's introduction of Croghan to the Virginia
commissioners is further evidence that Croghan organized and led the 1748 Ohio Indian Confederation that Pennsylvania recognized as independent of the Six
Nations and appointed Croghan as the colony's representative in negotiations: Brethren, it is a great while since our brother, the Buck (meaning Mr. George
Croghan)has been doing business between us, & our brother of Pennsylvania, but we understand he does not intend to do any more, so I now inform you that he
is approv'd of by our Council at Onondago, for we sent to them to let them know how he has helped us in our councils here and to let you & him know that he is
one of our people and shall help us still & be one of our council, I deliver him this string of wampum. The Ohio Company fort was surrendered to the French by
Croghan's half-brother, Edward Ward, and commanded by his business partner, William Trent, but Croghan's central role in these events remains suppressed, as
he himself was in 1777, when Pittsburgh's president judge, Committee of Safety chairman, and person keeping the Ohio Indians pacificed since Pontiac's
Rebellion was declared a traitor by General Edward Hand and exiled from the frontier. It was to Croghan's Aughwick plantation that Tanacharison and Queen
Aliquippa took their people in 1754 where the old queen died and Tanacharison became seriously ill and was taken to John Harris. Tanacharison moved his
people east to the Aughwick Valley near present Shirleysburg, Pennsylvania. He would take no active part in the remainder of the war. He died of pneumonia on
October 4, 1754 on the farm of John Harris at Paxtang, Pennsylvania (near present-day Harrisburg, Pennsylvania).
Tamanend or Tammany or Tammamend, the "affable", (c. 1625 - c. 1701) was a chief of one of the clans that made up
the Lenni-Lenape nation in the Delaware Valley at the time Philadelphia was established. Tamanend is best known as a
lover of peace and friendship who played a prominent role in the establishment of peaceful relations among the Native
American tribes and the English settlers who established Pennsylvania, led by William Penn. Under the name "Tammany",
he was a popular figure in America, especially in Philadelphia. Referred to as "Patron Saint of America", he became an
emblem of peace and amity. A Tammany society is an annual Tammany festival that was founded in Philadelphia.
Tammany societies elsewhere were established, using his name to stand for the peaceful politics of negotiation. The Treaty
of Penn with the Indians by Benjamin West, depicting Penn negotiating with Tamanen. Tamanend reputedly took part in a meeting between the leaders of the
Lenni-Lenape nation, and the leaders of the Pennsylvania colony held under a large elm tree at Shakamaxon in the early 1680s. There, Tamanend is reported to
have announced that the Lenni-Lenape and the English colonists would "live in peace as long as the waters run in the rivers and creeks and as long as the stars
and moon endure." These words have been memorialized on the statue of Tamanend that stands in Philadelphia today. It is believed that Tamanend died in
1701. Over the next century, many folk legends surrounded Tamanend and his fame assumed mythical proportions among the people of Philadelphia, who
began to call him "King Tammany," "Saint Tammany," and the "Patron Saint of America." The people of Philadelphia also organized a Tammany society and an
annual Tammany festival. These traditions soon spread across America. The reason for Tammany's popular status can be attributed to the need that patriotic
colonists had to express a distinct "American" identity, in place of their former European nationalities. Tammany, an American Indian, provided an apt symbol
for patriotic Americans to identify with. Because of Philadelphia's political significance during the founding of the United States of America, Tammany soon
became a national symbol throughout much of the newly formed country. Tammany Hall on East 14th Street in Manhattan featured a white marble statue of
Tamanend (located in the arch on top of the building). Click on the image for a larger view. In 1772, the original Tammany Society was formed in Philadelphia
(it was originally called the "Sons of King Tammany" but was later renamed the "Sons of St. Tammany"). Soon, Tammany societies began to appear from Georgia
to Rhode Island to the Ohio River. The most famous of these was New York City's Society of St. Tammany, which grew into a major political machine known as
"Tammany Hall." A white marble statue of Tamanend adorned the faade of the building on East 14th Street that housed Tammany Hall. By the early 1770s,
annual Tammany Festivals occurred in Philadelphia and Annapolis. The festivals were held on May 1, replacing the May Day traditions of Europe. The festivals
also continued many of the features of the traditional May Day celebrations. For example, the Saint Tammany Day celebrated on May 1, 1771, in Annapolis had
a may pole decorated with ribbons. People danced in Native American style to music while holding a ribbon and moving in a circle around the pole. On May 1,
1777, John Adams wrote of the Tammany festival in Philadelphia during the American Revolutionary War. Adams, who was in Philadelphia attending the
Second Continental Congress as a delegate from Massachusetts, wrote a letter home to his wife, Abigail Adams, which said: "This is King Tammany's Day.
Tammany was an Indian King, of this past of the Continent, when Mr. Penn first came here. His court was in this town. He was friendly to Mr. Penn and very
serviceable to him. He lived here among the first settlers for some time and until old age. ... The people here have sainted him and keep his day" (Lyman H.
Butterfield, ed., Adams Family Correspondence; Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1963-1973, II, pp. 229230). On May 1, 1778, General George
Washington and the Continental Army held a Tammany festival while camped at Valley Forge. The "men spent the day in mirth and jollity...in honor of King
Tammany" (Military Journal of George Ewing, 1928). After the end of the Revolutionary War, Tammany celebrations spread throughout America, as far away as
Savannah, Georgia. Wherever a Tammany Society had been established, the society would promote a local Tammany festival. Many calendars of the time listed
"Saint Tammany's Festival" on May 1. Tammany celebrations were such important events that, in 1785, George Washington appeared at the Tammany festival in
Richmond, Virginia with Virginia governor Patrick Henry. In 1787, New York City first began to have a Tammany festival. In 2003, two identical concurrent
resolutions were introduced in the United States Congress (Senate Concurrent Resolution 39 and House Concurrent Resolution 123) that sought to establish "St.
Tammany Day" on May 1 as a national day of recognition. The bills were referred for review to the Subcommittee on Civil Service and Agency Organization,
which is a subcommittee of the House Committee on Government Reform. As of December 2006, the Subcommittee has yet to take any action on the bill. In
1794, Ann Julia Hatton's tremendously popular "Tammany: The Indian Chief" premiered on Broadway. It was the first major opera libretto written in the United
States that had an American theme and it was the earliest drama about American Indians. The opera premiered at the John Street Theatre, New York, on March
3, 1794 and featured the English actress and 'grande dame' of American theatre, Charlotte Melmoth. Melmoth refused to speak the opera's epilogue, as she
disapproved of its patriotic sentiments, leading to the New York Journal calling on the public to boycott the play as long as Melmoth was still in the cast. In 1826,
Tammany appeared (as "Tamenund") at the conclusion of The Last of the Mohicans, a novel which was extremely popular in the antebellum United States. The
novel was written by James Fenimore Cooper (one of the first popular American novelists) and was part of the Leatherstocking Tales (which had a significant
impact on both American literary culture and the emerging nation's identity). Philadelphia has a statue of Tamanend located at the intersection of historic Market
Street with Front Street. The statue is located between Old City and Penn's Landing, the riverfront area. The plaque notes that "Tamanend was considered the
patron saint of America by the colonists prior to American Independence." The prominence on Kittatinny Mountain on the northeast (New Jersey) side of
Delaware Water Gap is named Mount Tammany. The Gettysburg Battlefield has a statue of Tamanend on a monument to the Tammany Regiment that fought
at Gettysburg. During the Civil War, the Tammany Regiment was the nickname of the New York 42nd Infantry. The famous "Tecumseh Statue" at the United
States Naval Academy faces Tecumseh Court (in front of Bancroft Hall) where the Brigade of Midshipmen forms the daily Noon Meal Formation. The
"Tecumseh Statue" is a bronze replica of the figurehead of the USS Delaware. This bust, one of the most famous relics on the campus, is commonly known as
Tecumseh. However, when it adorned the American man-of-war, it commemorated not Tecumseh but Tamanend. In times past, the bronze replica was
considered a good-luck "mascot" for the midshipmen, who threw pennies at it and offered left-handed salutes whenever they wanted a 'favor', such as a sports win
over West Point, or spiritual help for examinations. Today it is used as a morale booster during football weeks and on special occasions when "Tecumseh" is
painted in themes to include super heroes, action heroes, humorous figures, a leprechaun (before Saint Patrick's Day) and a naval officer (during Commissioning
Week). St. Tammany Parish is one of nine Louisiana parishes (counties) named for "saints" and the sole one whose eponym is not a "saint" as recognized by the
Roman Catholic Church. Tamanend Middle School, Central Bucks School District, Pennsylvania have his name.
Lame White Man, or V'ho'nhnhe (c.1837 or 1839-1876), was a Cheyenne battle chief who fought at the Battle of the Little
Big Horn, June 25, 1876, and was killed there. He was the only Cheyenne chief to die in the battle. He was also known as Bearded
Man (to the Lakota) and Mad Hearted Wolf (Hahk o ni). He was the husband of Twin Woman and father to Red Hat and Crane
Woman. His grandson John Stands In Timber, born after his death, became the tribal historian of the Northern Cheyenne, and wrote
the book, Cheyenne Memories (1967), based on the oral history of his people. V'ho'nhnhe, Lame White Man was born into the
Southern Cheyenne but moved north after the Sand Creek Massacre of 1864. He was also known as Mad Hearted Wolf (Hahk o ni),
attesting to his bravery. He married Twin Woman and had children with her.mHe became a chief of the Elk Horn Society with the
Northern Cheyenne. He still kept ties with the Southern Cheyenne, serving as council chief. He was part of a delegation to
Washington, DC in 1873. It has been written that during the battle, Lame White Man worn a captured cavalry jacket, which was found
tied to the cantle of a saddle. This account is disputed by his grandson, John Stands In Timber. He stated that he wore nothing during the battle but a blanket
tied to his waist and moccasins. This information was told to him by his grandmother Twin Woman. Lame White Man was shot and killed by soldiers on the
west slope of Battle Ridge, where he had led a charge. Later a Miniconjou Lakota warrior (believed to be Little Crow) mistook him for an Army Indian scout and
scalped him before realizing his mistake. Lame White Man was the only Cheyenne chief to die at the Battle of the Little Bighorn. A red granite memorial stone
was erected in his honor on Memorial Day 1999 at the Little Bighorn Battlefield.

Duchy of Franconia
The Duchy of Franconia was one of the stem-duchies of medieval Germany. The word Franconia, first used in a Latin charter of 1053, was applied like the
words France, Francia and Franken, to a portion of the land occupied by the Franks.[1] Franconia (or Francony) was at first a part of the core Frankish realm of
Austrasia (Eastern Francia) and got its form when the rest of Austrasia became a new realm called Lotharingia. It stretched along the valley of the Main from the
Rhine to Bohemia, and was bordered on the north by Saxony and Thuringia, and on the south by Swabia and Bavaria. It included a district around Mainz,
Speyer and Worms, on the left bank of the Rhine.
Duke of the Duchy of Franconia
Eberhard III (c. 885 939) was Duke of the Duchy of Franconia from 911 until his death in 939. He was a member of the Conradine dynasty, who became
duke of Franconia following the death of his older brother, King Conrad I (or Konrad), in December 918. From 913 he was count of Hessengau and Persgau,
918 count of Oberlahngau, 914918 Margrave, and finally until his death duke of Franconia. From 926 to 928 he was simultaneously duke of Lotharingia. On his
deathbed, in December 918, King Conrad persuaded Eberhard to forgo any ambition for the German crown and to urge the Prince-electors of the Empire to
choose Henry the Fowler, duke of Saxony, as his successor at the Reichstag, which was held in May 919 in Fritzlar. Conrad considered this the only way to end
the long-standing feud between Saxons and Franks and to prevent the dissolution of the Empire into smaller states based on the German tribal duchies. Eberhard
remained loyal to King Henry I, and in 926 Henry also conferred to him the troubled and restless duchy of Lotharingia (926928) which Eberhard quickly
stabilized. After Henry's death, Eberhard soon came into conflict with Henry's son and successor, Emperor Otto I. In 937 Eberhard invested Helmern castle
near Peckelsheim, located within the Franconian duchy near the Saxon border, but garrisoned by a Saxon who refused to swear fielty to any non-Saxon. The
emperor called the feuding parties to a king's court at Magdeburg where Eberhard was ordered to pay a fine and his lieutenants were sentenced to carry dead
dogs in public, a particularly dishonoring punishment. Enfuriated, Eberhard joined Otto's opponents, raising a rebellion in 938 with Otto's halfbrother Thankmar
and the new duke of Bavaria, Eberhard (son of Arnulf of Bavaria). Thankmar was soon killed in battle, and Eberhard of Bavaria was replaced by his uncle
Berthold as duke of Bavaria (938945). Following a brief reconciliation with Otto, Eberhard then allied himself with Giselbert of Lorraine, Archbishop Frederick
of Mainz, and Henry, Otto's younger brother, in a new uprising. On October 23, 939 the rebels were defeated in the battle of Andernach. Eberhard of Franconia
was killed, and his duchy became a direct Imperial possession from 939 to 1024.

Duchy of Bracciano
Bracciano is a small town and former Duchy in the Italian region of Lazio, 30 kilometres (19 miles) northwest of Rome. There is no certain information about
the origins of Bracciano, on the Via Claudia overlooking the lake. It probably rose from one of the numerous towers built in the tenth century as a defence
against the Saracen attacks, as implied by the ancient name of Castrum Brachiani. In the eleventh century the neighbouring territory was acquired by the Prefetti
di Vico family, who turned the tower into a castle. Ferdinand Gregorovius dated the possession of Bracciano by the Orsini to 1234. The area was later acquired
by the Roman hospital of Santo Spirito in Sassia and, from 1375, was a Papal possession. In 1419 the Colonna Pope Martin V confirmed the fief of Bracciano in
the Orsini family branch of Tagliacozzo. Under this powerful family the city developed into a flourishing town, famous in the whole of Italy for its castle, which
was enlarged, starting from 1470, by Napoleone Orsini and his son Virginio. In 1481 it housed Pope Sixtus IV, who had fled from the plague in Rome; the Sala
Papalina in one of the corner towers commemorates the event. Four years later, however, the city and the castle were ravaged by Papal troops under Prospero
Colonna, and subsequently a new line of walls was built. In 1494 Charles VIII of France and his troops marching against Rome stopped at Bracciano. This act
led to the excommunication of the Orsini, and in 1496 the city was besieged by a papal army headed by Giovanni di Candia, son of Pope Alexander VI Borgia,
though it resisted successfully. Cesare Borgia, another of Alexander's natural sons, was unsuccessful in his attempt to take the Orsini stronghold a few years later.
The sixteenth century was a period of splendour for Bracciano. The notorious spendthrift and libertine Paolo Giordano I Orsini, having married in 1558 Isabella
de' Medici, daughter of Cosimo I, Grand Duke of Tuscany, received the title of duke of Bracciano in 1560. The castello received some modernization for the
brief visit of the Medici that year. He hired the most prestigious painter available in Rome, Taddeo Zuccaro, to fresco with allegories and coats-of-arms the
fortress's most prestigious room, the Sala Papalinia that had been occupied by Sixtus IV. Isabella spent the remainder of her life avoiding a return to the castle,
which a modern tourist tradition would have her haunting. The economy was boosted by the exploitation of sulphur and iron, the production of tapestries and
paper. The latter was favoured by the construction of an aqueduct whose ruins can still be seen in the city. Bracciano in this period had some 4,500 inhabitants.
However, the expensive tenor of life of the Orsini eventually damaged the economic conditions of the city. The last great ruler was probably Paolo Giordano II, a
patron of arts and literature who made Bracciano a center of culture in Italy. The decline culminated in 1696 when the castle was sold to Livio Odescalchi,
nephew of Pope Innocent XI; the Odescalchi family still retain the castle.
Orsini Dynasty
Paolo Giordano Orsini (1541 - November 13, 1585) was an Italian nobleman, and the first duke of Bracciano from 1560 until his
death on November 13, 1585. He was a member of the Roman family of the Orsini. The son of Girolamo Orsini and Francesca Sforza, he
was grandson, on his fathers side, of Felice della Rovere (illegitimate daughter of Pope Julius II) and Gian Giordano Orsini and, on his
mothers side, of Count Bosio Sforza and Costanza Farnese, an illegitimate daughter of Pope Paul III. On September 3, 1558 he married
Isabella de' Medici, daughter of Cosimo I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, at Poggio a Caiano. Paolo Giordano lived mostly in Rome
and his castle at Bracciano, rather than with his wife, who stayed mostly at Florence. In 1571 he took part to the battle of Lepanto. A year
later, in October 1572, he served as a general of the Spanish infantry, in a campaign that tried to reclaim the garrison of Navarino in the
Peloponnese. On July 16, 1576 his wife died unexpectedly at the Medici villa of Cerreto Guidi during a hunting holiday. According to her
brother, the grand duke Francesco I de' Medici, this occurred "while she was washing her hair in the morning ... She was found by Signor Paolo Giordano on her
knees, having immediately fallen dead." However, this official version of events was not generally believed, and the Ferrarese ambassador, Ercole Cortile,
obtained information that Isabella was "strangled at midday" by her husband in the presence of several named servants. Isabella was the second sudden death in
an isolated country villa in the Medici family, her cousin Leonora having died of a similar "accident" only a few days before. Most historians assume that Paolo
Giordano killed his wife, in reprisal for carrying on a love affair with his cousin Troilo Orsini, or that he acted on instructions of Isabella's brother, the grandduke.
One scholar, Elisabetta Mori, has argued that Isabella de' Medici died of natural causes and that the rumour that Paolo Giordano murdered her was spread by
enemies of the Medici. After these events Paolo Giordano returned to Rome, where he started a relationship with Vittoria Accoramboni, wife of Francesco
Peretti0, the nephew of the future Pope Sixtus V. Peretti was assassinated, it was believed by Paolo Giordano's order, in April 1581. Wanted by both the Papal
and Florentine police, Paolo Giordano took refuge in northern Italy, first in Venice and then in Abano and Sal with his mistress, whom he married on April 20,
1585. He died at Sal on November 13, 1585. On December 2, 1585 Vittoria was herself assassinated, by Ludovico Orsini of the Monterotondo line, on the
instigation of Grand Duke Francesco. The Medici (Francesco and Cardinal Ferdinando) wished to secure movable assets in possession of Vittoria for their
nephew Virginio Orsini, Paolo Giordano's son from his first marriage and principal heir.
Virginio Orsini (September 1572 - September 9, 1615) was the second Duke of Bracciano from 1585 until his death on Deptember 9,
1615. He was member of the Orsini family and knight of the order of the Golden Fleece. He was the son of Paolo Giordano I Orsini and
Isabella de' Medici, and inherited his father's titles and fiefs after his death in 1585. In 1589 he married Flavia Peretti, a niece of Pope Sixtus V,
by whom he had 11 children. His son Paolo Giordano became a prince of the Holy Roman Empire through his marriage with Isabella
Appiani, princess of Piombino. Virginio Orsini was a supporter of the Earl of Essex but he did not visit England until the English court for the
Christmas revels in December 1600 where he was entertained by Shakespeare's Twelfth Night and the play opens with the character of Duke
Orsino saying the famous line "If music be the food of love, play on." He died in Rome in 1615.
Paolo Giordano II Orsini (1591 - May 24, 1646) was the third Duke of Bracciano from 1615 until his death on May 24, 1646. He was a patron of arts and
literature who made Bracciano a center of culture in Italy.
Flavio Orsini (March 4, 1620 April 5, 1698) was the fourth Duke of Bracciano from 1646 until 1696. He was forced by the huge debts to sell Duchy to
Livio Odescalchi.



Odescalchi Dynasty
Livio Odescalchi (March 10, 1652 - September 8, 1713) was Duke of Bracciano from 1696, Ceri from 1678 and Syrmia from
1683 until his death on September 8, 1713. He was an Italian nobleman of the Odescalchi family. Livio Odescalchi was born in Rome
in 1652, the son of Carlo Odescalchi (1607-1673) and Beatrice Cusani. His paternal uncle was Benedetto Odescalchi, who was
elected to the papacy as Pope Innocent XI in 1676. Since Innocent wanted to put an end to the established nepotism of the Curia, he
did not make his nephew a cardinal, but instead granted Livio his own personal fortune of some forty thousand crowns, and conferred
upon him his own title as Duke of Ceri in 1678. Livio was however eventually made Gonfaloniere and Captain General of the Church
by his uncle. Livio later helped Innocent finance the expedition led by John Sobieski that ended the Turkish siege at the Battle of
Vienna in 1683. Odescalchi himself fought with distinction in the battle and was made an Imperial Prince and given the Hungarian
Duchy of Syrmia, including Ilok Castle, by the grateful Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor. He was also made a Grandee of Spain. In
1696 Odescalchi bought the title Duke of Bracciano from the Bracciano branch of the Orsini family, along with the famous castle. He
built a magnificent tomb in St. Peter's Basilica in Rome to honor his uncle, who died in 1689, which was finished by 1704. Due to his
position as Captain General Livio would also play a significant role during the papal conclave of 1689, which elected Pietro Vito Ottoboni as Pope Alexander
VIII.[ After Sobieski's death in 1696, Odescalchi was one of the candidates in the Polish election of 1697, but Augustus, Elector of Saxony was elected instead.
His connection with Poland had predated the Siege of Vienna, as Odescalchi had been the patron of the painter Jerzy Siemiginowski-Eleuter when he was sent to
Rome by Sobieski in 1677. When Sobieski's widow, Queen Maria Kazimiera visited Rome in 1699, she stayed at the Palazzo Odescalchi. Odescalchi died
without a direct heir in 1713, and his titles and fortune were inherited by his relative Baldassare Erba-Odescalchi (1683-1746), the grandson of Alessandro Erba
(1599-1670) and Lucrezia Odescalchi, the sister of Innocent XI and Carlo Odescalchi.
Baldassare Erba-Odescalchi (1683-1746) was Duke of Bracciano, Duke of Syrmium and Prince of Bassano from 1713 until his death in 1746. He was
relative of Livio Odescalchi and grandson of Alessandro Erba (1599-1670) and Lucrezia Odescalchi, the sister of Pope Innocent XI and Carlo Odescalchi.

Duchy of Gandia
Gandia (Valencian pronunciation: [andi.a]; in Spanish accented as Ganda) is a city and former Duchy in the Valencian Community, Eastern Spain on the
Mediterranean. Gandia is located on the Costa del Azahar, 65 kilometres (40 miles) south of Valencia and 96 km (60 mi) north of Alicante. It was an important
cultural and commercial centre during the 15th and 16th centuries: in the 15th it had a university. It was home to several important poets including Ausis March,
and produced the novelist Joanot Martorell, but it is perhaps best known for the Borja or Borgia, through their family title, Duke of Gandia. The hereditary
Spanish title duke of Ganda (Valencian: Ducat de Gandia, IPA: [dukad de andi.a]) has its origin in the "Manorialism of Ganda" founded in 1323 by James II
of Aragon and was created in 1399 as Duke of Ganda by Martin of Aragon and granted to Alfonso of Aragon and Foix. Later, having no direct descendants, the
title passed from the House of Aragon to the House of Trastmara. The title was re-established in 1483 by Ferdinand II of Aragon. According to the Catholic
Encyclopedia, this was a purchase of a title by Pope Alexander VI for his son Pier Luigi (Pedro Luis). The dukedom went to Pier Luigi's brother (or half-brother,
mothers unknown) Giovanni. He was assassinated, and his young son became Duke. The fourth duke was the religious figure Francesco Borgia. He became a
Jesuit, but after the death of his wife with whom he had a large family; the eldest son Carlos, later viceroy of Portugal, became the fifth duke. The sixth duke's
younger son Gaspar de Borja y Velasco became a bishop and diplomat and cardinal.
House of Aragon
Alfonso de Aragn y Foix (1332 - Gandia, March 5, 1412) also called Alfonso I of Ganda "the old" and Alfonso IV of Ribagorza, was Duke of Gandia
from 1399, Count of Denia from1355, Count of Ribagorza from 1361, Marquis of Villena from 1366 and first Constable of Castile from 1382 until his death on
March 5, 1412. He was the eldest son of the count Pedro de Aragn y Anjou (Pedro IV of Ribagorza) and Juana of Foix. He was the grandson of James II and
cousin of Pedro IV "the Ceremonious". He held the titles of Duke of Gandia (from 1399), Count of Denia (since 1355), Count of Ribagorza (from 1361),
Marquis of Villena (since 1366) and first Constable of Castile. He was also one of the candidates to the Crown of Aragon, claiming best right for being descendant
by straight man of the King Jaime II of Aragon, following the succession crisis triggered death childless Martin the Humane, which would be resolved by the
Compromise of Caspe, although his immediate death did to the shoulders of the candidacy on his brother, Juan of Aragon and Foix.
Alfonso of Aragon and Eiximenis, also known as Alfonso II of Gandia the young or Alfonso V of Ribagorza (c. 1358 - August 31, 1422) was Duke of
Gandia, Count of Denia and Count of Ribagorza from 1412 until his death on August 31, 1422. He was the son of Alfonso of Aragon and Foix and his wife
Violante Jimenez. He were married January 20, 1393 in Tudela, Navarra with Mara of Navarra, daughter of Carlos II of Navarre. After widowed he contracted a
second marriage with Violant of Villafeliche. He had no legitimate children but a son out of wedlock named Jaime of Aragon, whom his father inherited with the
barony of Arens and other places. He was pretender to the throne of the Crown of Aragon during the Caspe Compromise after the death of his father claiming
a better right to the throne being descendant by King Jaime II of Aragon male straight, but had very little support and finished the final vote without any vote in
his favor. He fought beside Fernando of Antequera, who was elected King of Aragon, during the siege of Balaguer when Jaime II of Urgell, one of the pretenders
to the throne, revolted against King Ferdinand, blocking the city portal of Lleida, and negotiating the surrender of the rebels. Alfonso the younger prompted the
construction of important monuments such as the Monastery of Sant Jeroni de Cotalba and the Ducal Palace of Ganda, which were formerly initiated by his
father Alfonso of Aragon and Foix, the old. On his death without legitimate descendants came a lawsuit by the succession of their territories, which was resolved
temporarily giving Gandia to Hugo Cardona and Ribagorza. A few years later, in 1433, Hugo de Cardona Juan II of Aragon must cede the Duchy of Gandia the
infant Juan of Aragon, future. In this way they returned to join the titles of Duke of Gandia and count of Ribagorza.
Hugo de Cardona y de Gandia (died 1433) was Duke of Gandia, Count of Denia and Count of Ribagorza from 1422 until his death in 1433.
House of Borja or Borgia
Pier Luigi de Borgia (Spanish: Pedro Luis de Borja, Latin: Petrus Ludovicus de Boria) (1458 or 1460 - 1488) was Duke of Gandia from 1485 until his death
in 1488. He was a Valencian noble. Pier Luigi was the son of Pope Alexander VI and half-brother of Cesare Borgia, Gioffre Borgia, Giovanni Borgia and
Lucrezia Borgia. He was betrothed to Mara Enrquez de Luna of the House of Enrquez. Due to Pier Luigi's untimely death, she would later wed his younger
brother Giovanni (also known as Juan) in September 1493. Pier Luigi Borgia fought alongside the Spanish armies during the Granada War (Reconquista).
Following his heroic triumph during the Battle of Ronda, King Ferdinand II rewarded him with the title of 'grandee of Spain' on May 18, 1485. The lands of
Gandia, the ancestral home of the Borgia family, were initially inherited by Pier Luigi (Pedro Luis). However, before becoming duke of Ganda, he purchased
the duchy through a financial agreement with local nobles Andrs de Cabrera, Marquis of Moya, and his wife, Beatriz de Bobadilla. Through this agreement, Pier
Luigi was required to provide the marquis an unknown sum, albeit considered small, and accept certain rights pertaining to the crown and of Valencia over the
lands of the duchy. Some sources state that Pedro Luis' father gave him 50,000 ducats in order to purchase the territory. In late 1485, King Ferdinand II officially
elevated Pier Liugi's status to duke of Ganda. In his will, Pier Luigi ceded the duchy to his younger brother Giovanni and demanded a dowry of 10,000 florins to
be given to his sister, Lucrezia.
Giovanni Borgia (c.1476 - June 14, 1497) was Duke of Gandia from 1488 until his death on June 14, 1497. He was a member of
the House of Borgia and the son of Pope Alexander VI, Rodrigo Borgia. He was the brother of Cesare, Gioffre, and Lucrezia Borgia.
Giovanni, commonly known as Juan (or sometimes, Joan), was the eldest of the Pope's four children by Vannozza dei Cattanei. Due to
the contents of a number of papal bulls issued after his murder, it is unclear whether Giovanni was born in 1476 or 1477, but it is long
thought by historians that he was the eldest son, and not Cesare. Giovanni Borgia was probably born in Rome to then-cardinal Rodrigo
Borgia (later to become Pope Alexander VI), and his mistress, Vannozza dei Cattanei, who was married to Domenico da Rignano.
Giovanni married Maria Enriquez de Luna, the Spanish betrothed of his deceased older half-brother, Pedro Luis, in September 1493.
He was made 2nd Duke of Gandia, Duke of Sessa, Grand Constable of Naples, Governor of St. Peter's, and Gonfalonier and Captain
General of the Church. Giovanni and Maria had three children: twins Juan de Borja y Enriquez (known as Juan Borgia), who became
the 3rd Duke of Ganda, and Francisca de Jesus Borja, who became a nun at a convent in Valladolid. The younger Juan was the father
of Saint Francis Borgia. Their third child, Isabel de Borja y Enriquez, was born after her father was killed. She grew up to be abbess of
Santa Clara in Gandia. He was murdered the night of June 14, 1497 near what later became the Piazza della Giudecca in the Ghetto of Rome. He was last seen
alive when he was leaving from a feast that his mother had in his honor at her villa with his other siblings Cesare, Lucrezia, and Gioffre, Gioffre's wife Sancha of
Aragon, their cousin Juan Borgia Lanzol, and Vannozza's husband, Carlo Canale, all in attendance. The next morning his horse came back without its rider and
with one of the stirrups cut. He was reported missing. A search party found his body in the Tiber with his throat slit, and about nine stab wounds on his torso. His
grief-stricken father launched an intensive investigation into the murder, only to end it abruptly a week later. While the Orsini family had ample motive to kill
Giovanni, it was later rumored that his own brother Cesare Borgia had him murdered. However, there is another rumor which says that his younger brother
Gioffre Borgia murdered him due to Giovanni's relationship with Gioffre's wife, Sancha.[citation needed] His richly-attired body was recovered from the Tiber
River with 30 golden ducats untouched in the purse at his belt. To the immense grief of the pope, this act occasioned the epigram by Sannazzaro on the pope as
"fisher of men". Borgia's only attendant was also slain, so there were no known witnesses. In most adaptations, he is referred to by his Spanish name, Juan. In
Mario Puzo's historical novel The Family, Giovanni Borgia's murder by his younger brother Geoffre is central to the drama and plot of the story. In the 2010
animated short film, Assassin's Creed: Ascendance, a fictionalised version of Juan's death is depicted at the hand of Cesare Borgia, who hires a prostitute to
murder him. In the 2011 Showtime series, The Borgias, Juan is played by David Oakes. He is killed by his brother, Cesare, in the second season of the series, in
"World of Wonders". In the 2011 French/German series, Borgia, Juan is played by French actor Stanley Weber. He is a main character in the first season and
dies in that season's finale "The Serpent Rises". In this adaptation, his murder is perpetrated primarily by Lucreziawith the help of her lover, Perotto Calderon.
The CBBC television show Horrible Histories features a song portraying the Borgia family, with Ben Willbond as Giovanni Borgia.
Juan de Borja y Enrquez de Luna (1493 - 1543) was Duke of Gandia from 1497 until his death in 1543.
Francis Borgia, S.J., (Valencian: Francesc de Borja, Spanish: Francisco de Borja) (October 28, 1510 - September 30, 1572) was
Duke of Gandia from 1543 until his death on September 30, 1572. He was also Grandee of Spain, a Spanish Jesuit, and third Superior
General of the Society of Jesus. He was canonized on 20 June 1670 by Pope Clement X. He was born Francesco Borgia de Candia
d'Aragon in the Duchy of Ganda, Valencia on October 28, 1510. His father was Juan Borgia, 3rd Duke of Ganda, the son of
Giovanni Borgia, the son of Pope Alexander VI (Rodrigo Borgia). His mother was Juana, daughter of Alonso de Aragn, Archbishop
of Zaragoza, who, in turn, was the illegitimate son of King Ferdinand II of Aragon. His brother, Toms de Borja y Castro, also became
a clergyman, becoming the Bishop of Mlaga, and later the Archbishop of Zaragoza. Although as a child he was very pious and wished
to become a monk, his family sent him instead to the court of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor (who was also King Charles I of
Spain), where he was welcomed as a kinsman. He distinguished himself there, accompanying the Emperor on several campaigns. In
September 1526, he married a Portuguese noblewoman in Madrid, Leonor de Castro Mello y Meneses. They had eight children:
Carlos in 1530, Isabel in 1532, Juan in 1533, lvaro circa 1535, Juana also circa 1535, Fernando in 1537, Dorotea in 1538, and
Alfonso in 1539. Charles V appointed him Marquess of Lombay, master of the hounds, and equerry to the empress. In 1539, he
convoyed the corpse of Isabella of Portugal, Philip II of Spain's mother, to her burial place in Granada. In that same year (1539), he
became Viceroy of Catalonia, replacing Fadrique de Portugal y Noroa, though he was only 29. He delighted above all in ecclesiastical compositions, and these
display a remarkable contrapuntal style and bear witness to the skill of the composer, justifying indeed the assertion that, in the sixteenth century and prior to
Palestrina, Borgia was one of the chief restorers of sacred music. In 1543 upon the death of his father, the 3rd Duke, Francis became the 4th Duke of Ganda.
Francis diplomatic abilities came into question when his attempt to arrange a marriage between Prince Philip and the Princess of Portugal failed, thus ending an
attempt to bring these two countries together and resulting in his retirement. By then 33 years old he had retired to his native place and devoted himself to
religious activities. In 1546 his wife Eleanor died, and Francis then decided to enter the newly formed Society of Jesus, after making adequate provisions for his
children. He put his affairs in order circa 1551, renounced his titles in favour of his eldest son Luis de Borja-Aragon y de Castro-Melo, and became a Jesuit
priest. He helped in the establishment of what is now the Gregorian University in Rome. Upon Francis return from a journey to Peru, Pope Julius III made
known his intention to make him a cardinal. To prevent this, Borgia decided, in agreement with St. Ignatius, to leave the city secretly and go to the Basque
Country, where it was thought he would be safe from the papal desires. He felt drawn to spend time in seclusion and prayer, but his administrative talents also
made him a natural for other tasks. In time, however, his friends persuaded him to accept the leadership role that nature and circumstances had destined him for:
in 1554, he became the Jesuit commissary-general in Spain, where he founded a dozen colleges. After only two years, St. Francis was also given responsibility for
missions in the East and West Indies. In 1565, he was elected the third "Father General" or Superior General of the Society of Jesus, after the death in January
1565 of Diego Laynez, (Almazn, Spain, 1512 - January 1565). His successes during the period 1565-1572 have caused historians to describe Francis as the
greatest General after Saint Ignatius. He founded the Collegium Romanum, which was to become the Gregorian University, advised kings and popes, and closely
supervised all the affairs of the rapidly expanding order. Yet, despite the great power of his office, Francis led a humble life, and was widely regarded in his own
lifetime as a saint. Francis Borgia died on September 30, 1572, in Rome. He was beatified in Madrid on November 23, 1624, by Pope Gregory XV. He was
canonized nearly 35 years later on June 20, 1670, by Pope Clement X. His liturgical feast was inserted into the General Roman Calendar in 1688 for celebration
on October 3, the date then free from other celebrations that was closest to that of his death. Owing to the limited importance of his feast worldwide, his
commemoration was removed in 1969 from the General Roman Calendar, but kept in the Roman Martyrology for celebration on his dies natalis (his birth into
Heaven), September 30. Some traditionalist Catholics continue to observe pre-1970 calendars. Parishes are dedicated to St. Francis Borgia in Chicago, Illinois,
Sturgis, Kentucky, Washington, Missouri, Nebraska, and Wisconsin, also the village of Isio in the town of Cauayan, Negros Occidental, Philippines. The jesuit-
founded city of So Borja, in southern Brazil, is named after him. Saint Francis Borgia Regional High School is located in Washington, Missouri. He had three
children: Juan de Borja y Castro, Toms de Borja y Castro and Gaspar de Borja y Velasco. As the great-great grandfather of Doa Luisa de Guzman, queen
consort of King John IV of Portugal, he is an ancestor of many of the royal houses of Europe.
Carlos de Borja y Aragn (1530 - June 16, 1592) was Duke of Gandia from 1572 until his death on June 16, 1592.
Francisco Toms de Borja Aragn y Centelles (1551 - 1595) was Duke of Gandia from 1592 until his death in 1595.
Francisco Carlos de Borja Aragn y Centelles (died 1632) was Duke of Gandia from 1595 until his death in 1632.
Francisco Diego Pascual de Borja Aragn y Centelles (died 1665) was Duke of Gandia from 1632 until his death in 1665.
Pascual Francisco de Borja Aragn y Centelles (died 1716) was Duke of Gandia from 1665 until his death in 1716.
Luis Ignacio Francisco Juan de Borja Aragn y Centelles (died 1740) was Duke of Gandia from 1716 until his death in 1740.
Mara Ana Antonia Luisa de Borja Aragn y Centelles (died 1748) was Duke of Gandia from 1740 until his death in 1748.
Pimentel Dynasty
Francisco Alfonso-Pimentel Vigil de Quiones de Borja Aragn (died 1784) was Duke of Gandia from 1748 until his death in 1784.

Banat Republic
The Banat Republic (Romanian: Republica Bnean, German: Banater Republik, Serbian: Banatska republika / , Hungarian: Bnti
Kztrsasg) was a short-lived state proclaimed in Timioara on November 1, 1918, the day after the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Recognized
only by Hungary, the republic was invaded by the army of neighboring Serbia on November 15. The next year, its territory was divided primarily between
Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes and Romania.
President of the Banat Republic
Otto Roth was President of the Banat Republic from November 1 until November 15, 1918. On October 31, 1918, military councils
were established by the ethnic groups living in the Banat region: Romanian, Hungarian, German, Jewish and Serb. At a meeting, Dr.
Otto Roth, a member of the Social Democratic Party, proposed the creation of an autonomous Banat People's Council, with
representatives from each ethnic group, but Romanian officers distanced themselves from this objective as long as there was no resolution
on the matter from the Romanian National Council. The leading members of the Social Democratic Party decided however to proclaim
the republic the day after, and on November 1, 1918, Roth proclaimed the Republic of Banat from the balcony of the Timioara local
council. The civil leader of the Republic was Dr Roth, while the military commander was the Hungarian Albert Bartha (who would also
serve as Minister of Defense of the Hungarian Democratic Republic starting with November 9, 1918). The government of Hungary
recognized the independence of the Banat Republic. The same day, the founding meeting of the Banat People's Council took place, with
20 members drawn from the city council, 60 members from the military national councils, 40 representatives from the workers councils,
and 70 from the bourgeois parties. An executive committee of 20 members was elected. However, the Romanians, the largest ethnic
group, did not want autonomy, but rather unification with Romania. The Banat National Council organized military squads and a civil guard on November 4 to
establish control over the territory of the Banat. However, on November 15, 1918 Serbian troops entered the Banat and put an end to the Republic. The national
councils were dismantled by the newly formed Serb-Croat-Slovene administration on February 21, 1919. A few months later, following the Alba-Iulia Resolution
and Great People's Assembly in Novi Sad, the Banat region was divided primarily between Romania and the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes.

Sovereign Council of Asturias and Len
The Sovereign Council of Asturias and Len (Spanish: Consejo Soberano de Asturias y Len, Asturian: Conseyu Soberanu d'Asturies y Llin), was an
unrecognized state in northern Spain during the Spanish Civil War. Proclaimed on September 6, 1936, it was self-declared sovereign on August 24, 1937, while
the region was occupied on October 20, 1937 by Franco's military forces. Belarmino Toms was the Sovereign Council's first and only President. The capital of
the short-lived state was Gijn. The organism was born on September 1936 as the Interprovincial Council of Asturias and Len, by accord of anarchists and
socialists, and with representation of all the republican forces in Asturias. On December 23, 1936, the Second Spanish Republic government recognized the
Interprovincial Council of Asturias and Len as well as other councils in the country (the Regional Defence Council of Aragon and the Interprovincial Council of
Santander, Palencia and Burgos) as autonomous entities. Independence was declared on August 24, 1937, when the city of Santander fell to Nationalist forces,
leaving the remaining republican forces in Asturias isolated several hundred miles from those republican forces in the southern and eastern parts of Spain. The
leaders of the new nation claimed that action of declaring independence was not be a move of defiance against the Republican government, but rather an attempt
to concentrate the local defense against Franco's forces in the War in the North campaign. Aid to continue resistance against Franco's forces was requested of the
Republican government, then based in Valencia, and although military aid was sent, it arrived the day before the fall of Gijn to the Nationalist forces and the end
of the provisional government on October 20, 1937. The city of Gijn proudly proclaims its resistance to Franco's forces and its temporary role as the seat of anti-
Franco resistance in northern Spain to this day.
President of the Sovereign Council of Asturias and Len
Belarmino Toms lvarez (April 29, 1892, Aguilar de Campos, Province of Valladolid September 14, 1950, in Mexico) was
President of the Sovereign Council of Asturias and Len from September 6, 1936 until his death on October 20, 1937. He was a socialist
politician, secretary of the Sindicato Minero Asturiano (the local coal miners' branch of the Unin General de Trabajadores, UGT), and a
delegate to the International Miners' Federation. As a prominent labor organizer, Toms led militias formed by workers during the
"Revolution of Asturias" of October 1934, being the president of the new revolutionary state (October 5 15, 1934). He was a revolutionary
not just to face only the right-wing government,but also the Second Spanish Republic. He subsequently took part in the elections of 1936 as a
candidate for the Popular Front, being elected a deputy with the election victory the Front carried. When the Spanish Civil War erupted,
Belarmino Toms led the miners' militias attacking Oviedo (held by Francisco Franco's forces). He was voted President of the Consejo Soberano de Asturias y
Len upon its creation on August 24, 1937. In Gijn on October 20, 1937 the day the city was taken by Franco's forces, Toms left for the Republican zone and
continued fighting on several fronts, exiling himself when the Popular Front was defeated in early 1939.He was also popular because of the Belarminos, the
money that was used in this declarated-state during his presidency.








Serb-Hungarian Baranya-Baja Republic
The Serb-Hungarian Baranya-Baja Republic (Hungarian: Baranya-Bajai Szerb-Magyar Kztrsasg, Serbian: - -,
Srpsko-maarska republika Baranja-Baja) was a short-lived, Soviet-oriented mini-state, proclaimed in Pcs on August 14, 1921, on occupied Hungarian territory
during the peacemaking aftermath of the first World War, tolerated and fostered by the newly proclaimed Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. Its territory
included the geographical region of Baranya and the northern part of Baka region.
President of the Serbo-Hungarian Baranya-Baja Republic
Petar Dobrovi (Pcs, 1890 - Belgrade, 1942, Serbian Cyrillic: , Hungarian: Dobrovits Pter) was President of a
short-lived, small Serbo-Hungarian Baranya-Baja Republic from August 14 until August 20, 1921. He was a famous Serbian painter and
politician born in Austro-Hungarian Empire (today Hungary). A proponent of Serbian colorism, he was known for portraits and
landscapes. He had earlier worked in impressionism and cubism. He was briefly the President of a short-lived, small Serbo-Hungarian
Baranya-Baja Republic in 1921, and later lived in Kingdom of Yugoslavia. He died during the German occupation of Belgrade in Second
World War and was buried in Novo groblje in Belgrade.




Chita Republic
The Chita Republic (Russian: ) was a short-term workers and peasants' dictatory republic in Chita. Chita, a city in eastern Siberia,
Russia and place of exile for early revolutionaries, was a center for worker unrest in the early years of the 20th century. During the Russian Revolution of 1905
armed revolutionaries under the leadership of the RSDRP headed by Viktor Kurnatovsky ( ) took control over the
city and declared the Chita Republic in December 1905. The leaders of the republic tried to organize and establish administration in the city and its outskirts, and
the new periodical Zabaykalsky Rabochy was issued in Chita on December 7, 1905, but the republic was fated to fail after the suppression of uprisings in Moscow
and Saint Petersburg. Troops loyal to the regime, led by Paul von Rennenkampf and general Miller-Zakomelsky, were sent to suppress the rebellious territory; it
was quickly subjugated and Chita was occupied by government troops on January 22, 1906. The six leaders of the Chita Republic were shot on the slope of
Titovsky sopka. In the memory of the leaders of the Chita Republic, several central streets of Chita were named after them (Babushskinskaya street, Kurnatovsky
street, etc.).
President of the Chita Republic
Viktor Kurnatovsky (June 28, 1868 - October 19, 1912) was President of the Chita Republic from December 7, 1905 until January 22, 1906. During the
Russian Revolution of 1905 armed revolutionaries under the leadership of the RSDRP headed by Viktor Kurnatovsky (
) took control over the city and declared the Chita Republic in December 1905. The leaders of the republic tried to organize and establish
administration in the city and its outskirts, and the new periodical Zabaykalsky Rabochy was issued in Chita on December 7, 1905, but the republic was fated to
fail after the suppression of uprisings in Moscow and Saint Petersburg. Troops loyal to the regime, led by Paul von Rennenkampf and general Miller-
Zakomelsky, were sent to suppress the rebellious territory; it was quickly subjugated and Chita was occupied by government troops on January 22, 1906. The six
leaders of the Chita Republic were shot on the slope of Titovsky sopka. In the memory of the leaders of the Chita Republic, several central streets of Chita were
named after them (Babushskinskaya street, Kurnatovsky street, etc.). He was died in Paris on October 19, 1912.

Croatian Republic of Herzeg-Bosnia
The Croatian Republic of Herzeg-Bosnia (Croatian: Hrvatska Republika Herceg-Bosna) was an entity in Bosnia and Herzegovina that existed between 1991 and
1994 during the Bosnian war. It was proclaimed on November 18, 1991 under the name Croatian Community of Herzeg-Bosnia, and claimed to be a separate or
distinct "political, cultural, economic and territorial whole" in the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Herzeg-Bosnia never proclaimed seccession from Bosnia
and Herzegovina nor declared such a goal in any official statement, officially recognizing sovereignty of Bosnia and Herzegovina. In spite of that, the International
Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) concluded that Herzeg-Bosnia was founded with the intention to secede from Bosnia and Herzegovina and
unite with Croatia. According to ICTY, these aspirations, supported by the Republic of Croatia, were manifest, among other things, by Herzeg-Bosnia's use of
Croatian currency and Croatian language and the granting by the Republic of Croatia of Croatian citizenship to Croats of Bosnia and Herzegovina.The
Constitutional Court of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina declared the Croatian Community of Herzeg-Bosnia illegal on September 14, 1992. Herzeg-
Bosnia ceased to exist in 1994 when it was joined to the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina upon the signing of the Washington Agreement by the authorities
of Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina. The official capital city of Herzeg-Bosnia was western Mostar. However, since Mostar was a war zone, the effective
control centre was in Grude.
President and Prime Minister of the short-lived and self-proclaimed Croatian Republic of Herzeg-Bosnia
Mate Boban (February 12, 1940 - July 7, 1997) was a Herzegovinian Croat politician and the President of the short-lived and
self-proclaimed Croatian Republic of Herzeg-Bosnia from August 28 until November 19, 1993 during the Bosnian War. In May
2013, the ICTY, in a first-instance verdict against Jadranko Prli, found that Boban took part in the joint criminal enterprise
against the non-Croat population of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Mate Boban was born on February 12, 1940 in a large family in
Sovii in the Municipality of Grude in Herzegovina. He finished elementary school in Sovii and later he attended seminary in
Sinj and gymnasium in akovo. In 1958 right after he became an adult, Boban joined League of Communists of Yugoslavia and
after that he attended Higher College of Economics in Zagreb where he became a master of science. He was retiring and
unambitious, and his students remember that he always emphasized the Communist Party badge on his suit. After shorter work in Grude, he employed in
Imotski in 1966 where he was leader of trading company "Napredak", which becomes very successful under his leadership. In 1980 he was jailed in Split because
of economic frauds, even though he claimed during the 1990s that he was imprisoned because of his nationalism and political ineligibility. His political associates
also lied that he was imprisoned because of nationalism, more correctly because he visited grave of Ante Paveli in Madrid. At the end of the 1980s he was
director of Tobacco Factory Zagreb. The most loyal Boban's associates were also former Communist Party members. Vladimir olji was party secretary in iroki
Brijeg, Valentin ori in itluk, Pero Markovi in apljina, Branko Kvesi was investigative judge in Mostar who was known for imprisoning kids for singing
Ustae songs, Bruno Stoji was also member of the Communist Party, while Jadranko Prli was vice-president of the last communist government. On November
12, 1991, Mate Boban and Dario Kordi held the Joint Meeting of the Crisis Staffs of Herzegovina and Travnik Regional Communities. The two communities
decided that Croats in Bosnia and Herzegovina should institute a policy to bring about "our age-old dream, a common Croatian State" and should call for a
proclamation of a Croatian banovina in Bosnia and Herzegovina as the "initial phase leading towards the final solution of the Croatian question and the creation
of sovereign Croatia within its ethnic and historical borders". On November 18, 1991, Boban proclaimed the existence of the Croatian Community of Herzeg-
Bosnia, as a separate "political, cultural, economic and territorial whole", on the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina. This was in line with Karaorevo
agreement between Croatian president Franjo Tuman and Serbian president Slobodan Miloevi (then of Yugoslavia) to divide Bosnia and Herzegovina
between Croatia and Serbia. Boban met with Bosnian Serb president Radovan Karadi during May 1992 in Graz, Austria where they agreed on mutual
cooperation in the division of Bosnia and Herzegovina that became known as the Graz agreement (the pair met again on September 2, 1993 in Montenegro in
order to coordinate their actions after the Bosniaks rejected the Vance-Owen peace plan). Boban said "the Serbs are our brothers in Christ, but the Muslims are
nothing to us, apart from the fact that for hundreds of years they raped our mothers and sisters." The deal called for the Serbs to aid the Croats in defeating the
Bosniaks and carving a piece of Bosnia and Herzegovina and incorporating it into Croatia. Tensions mounted from June 1992 until early 1993. After many
provocations and hostile acts by Croats, open warfare broke out in April 1993 between Croats and Bosniaks. The Croat militia, the HVO, attacked and expelled
Bosniaks all over central and southern Bosnia and Herzegovina, all the while they committed many atrocities against civilians. Examples of this include the
massacres in Stupni Do and Ahmii. The US forced a peace treaty, known as the Washington Accords, which was signed in March 1994. Subsequently Pope
John Paul II and the US government forced the ouster of Boban. Boban ordered the assassination of Bosnian-Herzegovinian Croats who opposed his plans. The
most well known were Stjepan Kljui, Bla Kraljevi and Tomislav Dretar. Kraljevi was lured to a meeting on August 9, 1992 and was assassinated along with
eight of his deputies. Dretar survived assassination attempts but was isolated in the Biha enclave throughout the war and as such could not oppose Boban
effectively. Stjepan Kljui remained opposed to Boban for the duration of the war. After the Washington accords ended Herzeg-Bosnia Boban went into
retirement. On July 4, 1997 he had a stroke and died three days later at a hospital in Mostar. His funeral attracted no foreign dignitaries, but did attract many like
minded Croats such as Gojko uak. There are persistent but unproven rumors that his death was faked to avoid being tried for war crimes. A street in
downtown Grude was named after him. Memorial plaque in his honor and Herzeg Bosnia was placed also in the same street in Grude. Streets named after him
can also be found in Kupres, apljina, Livno, Posuje, Ljubuki and some other places with Croatian ethnic majority.
Jadranko Prli (born 1959) is a Croatian politician and the former Prime Minister of the self-proclaimed wartime state of
Herzeg-Bosnia from August 14, 1992 until August 14, 1996 convicted by the International Criminal Tribunal for the former
Yugoslavia (ICTY) of mass war crimes and ethnic cleansing primarily against the Bosniak (Bosnian Muslim) but also Serb
population. He was also Foreign Minister of Bosnia and Herzegovina from January 1996 until February 2001. He was found
guilty and sentenced to 25 years imprisonment on May 29, 2013. Tribunal found him and five other high-ranking officials
guilty for participation in a joint criminal enterprise that included the President of Croatia Franjo Tuman, defence minister
Gojko uak, general Janko Bobetko and Mate Boban. Around 1975, he joined the League of Communists. In 1987, he
received his doctorate from the Faculty of Economics in Sarajevo. He passed through all levels of professorship before
becoming a full professor. In 1988, he became a mayor of Mostar and in 1989 he became the Vice-President of the state
Executive Council of Bosnia and Herzegovina. During and immediately after the 1990 elections he held the position of Acting President of the Bosnia and
Herzegovina Government. In early March 1992, Prli travelled to the United States to study the American approach to market economics. Upon his return to
Mostar the city was under siege and Prli joined the Croatian Defence Council and took active participation in war. The International Criminal Tribunal for the
former Yugoslavia indictment states that as a leading politician of the Croatian Defence Council or HVO in the early 1990s Prli had almost total power and
control of the Croatian Republic of Herzeg-Bosnia government. Therefore as the leader of the HVO government he had the power to remove, military civilian
commanders who had taken part of ordered crimes against humanity. He also had the power to close HVO concentrations camps. He was charged with: nine
counts of grave breaches of the Geneva conventions (wilful killing; inhuman treatment (sexual assault); unlawful deportation of a civilian; unlawful transfer of a
civilian; unlawful confinement of a civilian; inhuman treatment (conditions of confinement); inhuman treatment; extensive destruction of property, not justified by
military necessity and carried out unlawfully and wantonly; appropriation of property, not justified by military necessity and carried out unlawfully and wantonly),
nine counts of violations of the laws or customs of war (cruel treatment (conditions of confinement); cruel treatment; unlawful labour; wanton destruction of
cities, towns or villages, or destruction not justified by military necessity; destruction or wilful damage done to institutions dedicated to religion or education;
plunder of public or private property; unlawful attack on civilians; unlawful infliction of terror on civilians; cruel treatment), and eight counts of crimes against
humanity (persecutions on political, racial and religious grounds; murder; rape; deportation; inhumane acts (forcible transfer); imprisonment; inhumane acts
(conditions of confinement); inhumane acts). On May 29, 2013, Prli was sentenced to 25 years in prison. The court ruled that Croatia was responsible for
helping purge the Herceg-Bosna state of Bosniaks and Serbs. It also said that then Croatian President Franjo Tuman also believed ethnic cleansing was a
necessary step to make a pure state and could then be a part of Croatia proper. Presiding Judge Jean-Claude Antonetti said that the national armed forces had
carried out murders, rapes and deportations. "The crimes were not the random acts of a few unruly soldiers. They were the result of a plan...to permanently
remove the Muslim population of Herceg-Bosna." Tribunal found five other war time leaders guilty as well in a joint trial defence minister of Herceg-Bosna
Bruno Stoji (20 years in jail), militia heads Slobodan Praljak (20 years) and Milivoj Petkovi (20 years), military police commander Valentin ori (20 years) and
head of prisoner exchanges and detention facilities Berislav Pui (16 years).

Couto Misto
Couto Misto (Portuguese: Couto Misto, Galician: Couto Mixto, Spanish: Coto Mixto) was an independent microstate on the border between Spain and Portugal.
It was composed of the villages of Santiago de Rubis, Rubis (now in the Spanish municipality of Calvos de Randn), and Meaus (now in the Spanish
municipality of Baltar), all located in the Salas Valley, Ourense, Galicia. The territory of the Couto Misto also included a small uninhabited strip now part of the
Portuguese municipality of Montalegre. As a result of complex medieval manorial relations, this land eluded both Portuguese and Spanish control for centuries,
actually operating as a sovereign state of its own right until the 1864 Treaty of Lisbon that partitioned the territory between Spain (which annexed most of the land
including the three villages) and Portugal (which remained with a smaller uninhabited strip of land). As a de facto independent country, the inhabitants of the
Couto Misto had numerous privileges, including exemption from military service and taxes, and could grant asylum to outsiders and deny access to any foreign
military contingent.
"Juiz" (head of state) of the Couto Misto
Delfim Modesto Brando (1835 ?), also spelt with Spanish orthography as Delfn Modesto Brandn, was the second to last "Juiz" (head of state) of the
Couto Misto, taking office in January 1863, according to his memoirs, and followed by one last "Juiz" whose mandate ceased with the partition and formal
annexation of the territory by Spain and Portugal on June 23, 1868. He was born in Tourm, a parish of the Portuguese municipality of Montalegre, but moved
to the bordering Couto Misto. At the age of 28 he assumed the position of "Civil and Governative Judge" (formal title of the heads of state of the Couto Misto),
being elected to put an end to continuous abuses and breaches of the microstate's sovereignty by Portuguese and Spanish authorities. He resigned from office
when the partition and annexation of the territory was imminent. In 1904 he completed a memoir with his account of the last decades of the Couto Misto up to
its extinction. These memoirs were published in Spanish in 1907 as Interesante Historieta del Coto Mixto. He served as an officer ("Oficial quinto") in the
Spanish postal administration of Aguadilla, Puerto Rico between 1881 and 1885.

Gurian Republic
The Gurian Republic or the Gurian peasant republic was an insurrection that took place in the western Georgian province Guria (then part of the Imperial
Russia) prior to and during the Russian Revolution of 1905. Underdeveloped and rather poor part of the Kutais guberniya Guria, officially called the Ozurgeti
district (Ozurgetsky uyezd), was known not only for its oppositionist stance towards the Russian rule, but also for the unprecedented support for the Social
Democratic/Menshevik party. The unrest began as the peasants' boycott of the local estate of Prince Machutadze in 1902. The so-called agrarian movement
involving landless peasants evolved almost into an overt revolt early in 1903. The peasants stopped paying taxes and refused to work for the landlords. After a
harsh official reaction, the peasants initiated a boycott of all government services. By summer, local government in the area had almost completely disintegrated.
Nicholas II took no action against Guria throughout 1904, assuming that the cost of dealing with the rebellion would not be justified. After the beginning of the
1905 Revolution, however, the revolt began spreading throughout Georgia and the Gurian revolution proceeded even in a more radical way. The peasants sent
away all the authorities, and, nominating their own judges, they organized independent village communities and armed red detachments also known as forest
brothers, embodying a whole territory. The Gurian peasant women at village meetings adopted resolutions demanding political equality with men. The
revolutionaries largely used terrorism against the Tsarist officers and loyal landlords. By February the whole of Guria was in the power of the revolutionaries,
perhaps the worlds first Marxist national-liberation movement. On February 20 1905 a Tsarist official warned that the government had lost control of much of
the area. In March, the government declared martial law and a force of 10,000 soldiers was sent to the rebellious province. The Gurians offered a fierce
resistance to the expedition and General Alikhanov-Avarsky, unable to regain control, had to withdraw in July. Several attempts to negotiate the conflict yielded
no result. The Russian forces returned in October, but were severely defeated at Nasakirali. In December 1905 the rebels took control of Ozurgeti, Gurias chief
town. On January 10, 1906 Colonel Krilovs strong reinforcements of all arms attacked the province and ruthlessly crushed the insurrection putting an end to the
Gurian Republic.
Head of the Peasant Government of the Gurian Republic
Benia Chkhikvishvili (also spelled Bnia Tchkhikvichvili) (Georgian: ) (died 1924) was the de facto Head of the
Peasant Government of the Gurian Republic from 1905 until 1906. He was a Georgian politician who was involved in the Social Democratic
movement in the early 20th century. An active member of the Menshevik party, he led the 1905 revolution in Guria ("Gurian Republic"), a
Georgian province on the Black Sea. He became a de facto head of the peasant government, sometimes described by the contemporary
observers as a "Gurian president" or even "Gurian king". During the short-lived independent Democratic Republic of Georgia, he served as a
mayor of Tiflis, the capital of Georgia (19191920). After the Soviet invasion of Georgia, he immigrated to France, where he became an
official owner of the Leuville chateau, a residence of the Georgian government-in-exile. He returned to Georgia in 1923 to take part in the
preparations for a general uprising against the Bolshevik regime. He was arrested, however, and executed in 1924.

Finnish Socialist Workers' Republic
The Finnish Socialist Workers' Republic (Finnish: Suomen sosialistinen tyventasavalta, Swedish: Finlands socialistiska arbetarrepublik); the more commonly
used name Red Finland, was a short-lived precursor of a Finnish socialist state, established during the Finnish Civil War, on January 28, 1918 by the Finnish
People's Delegation of the Finnish Social Democratic Party, after the socialist revolution of January 26, 1918 in Finland. The name FSWR for Red Finland was
proposed by V.I. Lenin during negotiations for Finnish-Russian Red Treaty of March 1, 1918. The geographical area of Red Finland as well as the front line
between White and Red Finland took shape approximately between January 28 and February 3, 1918, and it remained largely unchanged until general offensive
of the Whites in March 1918. The Finnish People's Delegation, mainly Otto Ville Kuusinen, formulated and set forth, on February 23, 1918, a draft for a
constitution of Red Finland/FSWR, on the basis of the Finnish Social Democratic principles and mentality. The Marxist concept of dictatorship of the proletariat
was absent from the program. Instead, it represented an idea of democratic socialism and it was influenced by the constitutions of Switzerland and United States,
and French Revolution. The constitution model included most of democratic civil rights for the Finnish citizens, including an extensive use of referendum in
political decision making, but private property rights were excluded and given to state and local administration. The draft was never finally formulated and
approved in Red Finland, before the defeat of FSWR in the 1918 war. The power political situation after the January Revolution in Finland raised a major
question in terms of the constitution draft, among the Finnish (moderate) socialists: would the power gained via revolution allow democracy a true chance in
Finnish society? Finally, militant, political terror, carried out by the Red Guards during the Finnish civil war, led to marked controversy between the principles of
democracy and true life. The warfare between the Reds and Whites took major attention and energy of the Red leadership. Therefore, formation of the local
Red civil administration remained unfinished and waited for the result of the Civil War. The top and middle rank civil servants of the pre-civil war administration
refused to co-operate with the Reds, and a new leadership had to be chosen and trained from the lower rank servants. The Finnish Civil War ended in the defeat
of the Finnish Red Guards and FSWR on May 5, 1918. After the war, the initially powerful and well-organized Finnish Social Democrats, born and bred in the
relatively free and nationalistic social atmosphere, within the Scandinavian and Russian culture, and affected primarily by socialist ideas of Germany, Austria and
Czechoslovakia (pre-WWI Austria-Hungary), were split in two. The moderate socialists continued their pre-1918 political culture, adhered to the society and
political system of Finland, while the far-left faction formed the Communist Party of Finland in August 1918 in Moscow, with the main leaders living in exile in
Russia and a marked part of the common supporters living in Finland.
Chairman of the Finnish Socialist Workers' Republic
Kullervo Achilles Manner (October 12, 1880 in Kokemki, Finland - January 15, 1939 in Ukhta-Pechora, the USSR) was
Chairman of the Finnish Socialist Workers' Republic from January 29 until May 5, 1918. He was a Finnish journalist and politician, and
later a Soviet politician. He was a member of the Finnish parliament, serving as its Speaker in 1917. He was also chairman of the Social
Democratic Party of Finland from 1917 until 1918. During the Finnish Civil War, he led the Finnish People's Delegation, a leftist
alternative to the established Finnish government. After the war, he escaped to the Soviet Union, where he co-founded the Finnish
Communist Party. Manner was born a priest's son in Kokemki. His father Gustaf Manner worked in various parishes, including those
of Lappi and Vampula. After graduating from high school in 1900, Manner worked as a journalist in Porvoo and later in Helsinki. In
1911, Manner received a prison sentence for lse majest (a lesser crime similar to treason) against Nicholas II. He was elected to the
Finnish Parliament as a Social Democrat from Uusimaa in 1910 and 1917. He was appointed Speaker of the Parliament in 1917.
Manner's brother Arvo was governor of Viipuri and Kymi provinces from the 1920s to the 1950s. On January 28, 1918, during the
Finnish Civil War, Manner was appointed Chairman of the Finnish People's Delegation. On April 10 of the same year, Manner was appointed commander-in-
chief of the Red Guards as well as head of state of its short-lived government, "The People's Deputation. He was given dictatorial powers. After the Civil War,
Manner fled to Soviet Russia where he became the second chairman of the Finnish Communist Party after Yrj Sirola. He also became an official of the
Comintern. In the 1930s, Manner and his wife Hanna Malm fell out of favor with Otto Wille Kuusinen. Manner was dismissed from most of his duties in May
1934. He continued to work as a Comintern rapporteur on Latin American affairs until July 1935. In 1935, Manner and Malm were arrested and sentenced
individually to ten years hard labor. Manner was taken to a Gulag labor camp in Ukhta-Pechora in Komi Republic. Hanna Malm also received a ten-year
sentence. She was taken to a labor camp in the Solovetsky Monastery island, where she later committed suicide by drowning. Manner died in the Ukhta-Pechora
labor camp on January 15, 1939. The official cause of death was tuberculosis. However, according to historian Aleksandr Popov, the real cause of Manner's
death was radiation poisoning which he developed when working in a radium mine. Manner was rehabilitated in 1962.

Markovo Republic
Markovo Republic was a self-proclaimed peasant state, located in Russia, 150 kilometers outside Moscow in the Volokolamsk area. It was proclaimed on
October 18, 1905, when during the Russian Revolution of 1905 peasants took control of the local government in the village Markovo. It had existed until July 18,
1906. The village elder (starosta) P. A. Burshin was its first and only "president".
President of the Markovo Republic
P. A. Burshin was the first and only President of the Markovo Republic from October 18, 1905 until July 18, 1906.

Principality of the Pindus
The Principality of the Pindus (also Pindo or Pindos, sometimes Pindus and Moglena; Aromanian: Printsipat di la Pind; Greek: ; Italian:
Principato del Pindo) was an attempt to establish an autonomous puppet state set up under fascist Italian and later German control in northwest Greece in the
regions of Epirus, Thessaly and West Macedonia during World War II. It was proclaimed during the Italian occupation of northern Greece in the summer of
1941 as the fatherland of ethnic Aromanians, but was never able to assert itself over the local population until its de facto disbandment in 1943. The capital of the
statelet was Metsovo (Aminciu in Aromanian), but the national assembly sat in Trikala.
Prince and Regent of the Principality of the Pindus
Alchiviad Diamandi di Samarina or Alkiviadis Diamandi or Alcibiade Diamandi (sometimes spelled Diamanti, Diamandis,
Diamanthis or Diamantis) (Samarina, Greece, August 13, 1893 Bucharest, July 9, 1948) was Prince of the Principality of the Pindus,
Aromanian puppet state from 1941 until 1942. He was an Aromanian (Vlach) political figure of Greece, active during the First and
Second World Wars in connection with the Italian occupation forces. Diamandi was born in Samarina (at over 1,600 metres, the
village situated at the highest altitude in Greece) to a family of wealthy Aromanian merchants. After attending the Romanian primary
school in Samarina, he studied at the Greek Lyceum in Thessaloniki (at that time still part of the Ottoman Empire) and on the eve of
the Balkan Wars in 1912 he left (as many other Vlachs of Greece) for Romania, where he enrolled at the Commercial Academy
(Academia Comercial) in Bucharest, and graduated from it. As Romania entered World War I in 1916, Diamandi volunteered for
military service, briefly serving as officer. It is not clear whether he was discharged from the Romanian Army or rather dispatched by
the Romanians to Albania where, under the Italian and French tutelage (see Birth of Albania), he became in 1918 co-founder of the
short-lived Republic of Koryts (Kor in Albanian, Curceaua in Aromanian, Corizza in Italian language), which was supposed, under the makeshift name of the
'Republic of Pindus' to be the first autonomous state of the Vlachs of Epirus. While in Albania, Diamandi befriended the Albanian political figure Fan S. Noli,
whose political ideals he shared. After the withdrawal of the Italians, he sought refuge for a while at Sarand in Albania, from where he fled to Romewhere he
become involved with Benito Mussolini's Fascist political movement. He contacted the Romanian Legation and was issued a Romanian passport, with which he
was able to travel to Greece. According to the Greek author Stavros Anthemides, Diamandi was 'pardoned' by the Greek authorities in 1927 for his resistance to
Greek authorities. Shortly after the presumed amnesty, he arrived in Athens as the "vice president of the National Petroleum Company of Romania", as an oil
importer. This was coupled with importing lumber from Romania to Greece and some other business ventures. He rented a flat in the fashionable Kolonaki
district, and frequented the bars and cafes of Piraeus, where he was involved in a brawl with a Greek navy captain. During the squabble, Diamandi was wounded
by a bottle flung in his direction by his adversary, and the resulting scar was used to identify him later on when he was on the run. Diamandi frequently traveled to
Rhodes (which was at the time an Italian possession), managing to attract the attention of the Greek Counter-intelligence Services. It is widely assumed that the
Greek government was aware that Diamandi was an undercover Romanian agent who was trying to incite the Aromanians against the Greek state. During Ioannis
Metaxas's regime, Diamandi was served with an expulsion order, but he managed to avoid being forced out and continued his activities. When the Greco-Italian
War started, at the end of October 1940, Diamandi was already in Konitsa on the Albanian-Greek border. The invading Italians offered him the rank of
Commandatore, and he served as translator and assistant to the Italian Chief of Staff General Alfredo Guzzoni. After Italy's initial defeat, Diamandi was forced to
seek refuge in Tirana (at that time under Italian rule) and re-entered Greece with the Italian armies five months later in the spring of 1941. This time he went on
to form the so-called "Autonomous State of the Pindus" ( ) or "Autonomous Vlach State" ( ) in
the territory of Epirus, Thessaly and parts of Macedonia, which was supposed to constitute a "Vlach Homeland". He started self-styling himself Principe and
sketched the outlook of the "Principality of Pindus" for the Vlach region. Diamandi's deputy and right-hand was the Larissa-based lawyer Nicola Matushi, while
the third in the hierarchy of the nascent state was Rapoutikas Vassilis. The model for the Vlach state were the Swiss cantons, united into a confederationwhich
meant, in this case, the "Principality". In June 1941, Diamandi found himself in Grevena and then he went to Metsovo, where he founded the "Party of the
Kutso-Vlach Community" ( ) which was part of the "Union of Romanian Communities" (
). A "Vlach Parliament" was summoned in Trikala, but no laws were adoptedsince the Parliament was mostly for show; the Italians were not keen
on sharing power in the region. Nevertheless, the parliament did issue a series of local regulations aimed at restricting the use of the Greek language in favour of
Aromanian. It also carried out Dimanadi's wish to have the town and village entry signs in Greek replaced with new ones in Aromanian and Italian. Thus,
Metsovo became Aminciu in Aromanian and Mincio in Italian, Nympheon became Nevesca and Nevesa, Samarina was made into Santa Maria etc. On March 1,
1942, Diamandi issued an ample Manifesto which was published in the local press and republished by Stavros Anthemides in 1997 (in his book on the Vlachs of
Greece; see bibliography). Two Vlachs of Albania and Bulgaria, Vasilis Vartolis and the Samarina born writer Ziko Araias, known also as Zicu Araia also
endorsed the Manifesto. In Romania, it was co-signed by the Veria-born George Murnu, a professor at the University of Bucharest. Diamandi travelled to
Bucharest shortly after he met Murnu, and together they attended a meeting with the then Leader (Conductor) of Romania Marshal Ion Antonescu, and the
Foreign Minister Mihai Antonescu. The status of the Principality of Pindos was discussed. One option favoured by Diamandi was to put the Principality under
the sovereignty of the Romanian Crown (as an associated "free state"). Diamandi, as a Prince, would then have the right to attend the Consilii de Coroan ("Crown
Councils"), which were to be held in Bucharest or in the Transylvanian Alps mountain spa and ski resort of Sinaia. Another option was to link the principality to
the ruling Italian House of Savoy. None of these options was to be realised. Towards the second year of the Italian occupation, guerilla actions broke out in the
area, between the Greek Resistance supported by the Allied Forces and the Italo-German side. The chaos that ensued drove Diamandi to leave (either that or he
was ordered back) to Romania. Diamandi was arrested by the Romanian police on February 21, 1948. He died in the Prefecture of Police in Bucuresti some
month later. After Dimandi's abdication a nobleman of Hungarian-Aromanian descent named Gyula Cseszneky was proclaimed Prince of the Pindus as Julius I,
but neither Prince Julius, nor his brother Michael ever set foot on the territory of the state - nevertheless, some Aromanian leaders governed in their name.
Matoussi escaped, first to Athens than to Romania too, while Rapoutikas was shot dead by one of the Greek factions involved in guerilla activities just outside
Larissa (the Greeks then tied his corpse on the back a donkey and paraded him through the Vlach villages of the Pindus - this was intended in order to scare the
local populace and as a final proof that the Pindus Principality had reached its end). There are many gaps in the biography of the secretive Prince Diamandi, and
he is scarcely mentioned in most of the few books that deal with the period. According the to the German scholar Dr. Thede Kahl (see bibliography), Diamandi
was for a while Kingdom of Romania's Consul in the Albanian port Vlor just opposite across the strait of the Italian town of Otranto. The Greek historians
usually avoid mentioning him altogether, while other scholars who give vague reference to him (such as Lena Divani at the Wayback Machine (archived August
18, 2007) or Mark Mazower) make sure that they clearly distance themselves from Diamandi hence bestowing upon him apelatives like "extremist" and
"shameful", failing to bring to the surface new data or impartial information as to the personality of Diamandi. Alkiviadis Diamandi is given mention in 1995 by
the British author Tim Salmon in his book about the Vlachs of Greece (see bibliography) as follows: A pro-Mussolini teacher called Dhiamantis who returned to
Samarina during the Occupation and tried to set up a fascist Vlach state the Principality of Pindus. It is possible that the idea of autonomy struck a chord in some
nationalistic Vlach breasts but they certainly were not the collaborators he accused them of being. The author finds the precedents of Diamandi's movement in
the Vlachs' desire of separateness, which he sees as a sign of "strength". Other passages of his book emphasize this aspect as well. He writes: Up to the 1920s the
Vlakholoi - the Vlach clan as it were- had been so strong that the government could not really interfere with them. There had been Romanian schools (financed
from Romania from around the Treaty of Berlin in 1881 which forced the Turks to cede Thessaly to Greece, drawing the frontier through Metsovo and thus
dividing the Greek Vlachdom in Yannina, Thessaloniki and Grevena up until 1940. In fact, there was one in Samarina itself. The Legion Diamandi had gathered
under his leadership made reference to the Roman Empire's Legio V Macedonica. Chosen for the common belief that Legions were the factors behind the
modern-day Romance languages and Latin Europe, the name particularly enhanced the connection with Romania - as the Vth Legion had spent time in both
Macedonia province and Dacia - and presumably complimented Italian Fascism and its claim to Imperial dominance). The names of the main institutions and of
the Principality itself were given in Greek and, where possible, Romanian. Reference in Aromanian was not available.
Nicola Matushi (Greek: / (); Samarina, 1898 - Athens, after 1981) was an Aromanian lawyer, politician and Regent of the
Principality of Pindus, an Italian-sponsored Aromanian puppet state from 1942 until 1943 during World War II. Nicola Matushi was born in Samarina in the
Pindus mountains. He was a devoted Aromanian nationalist and from 1923 he was the general secretary of the Communist Party in Trikala. However in 1926 he
was excluded by the party. Then he went to Larissa where he was active in Yannis Sofianopoulou's Rural Party. He practised law in Larissa before joining the
Roman Legion of his compatriot, Alchiviad Diamandi di Samarina, formed upon the onset of the Axis Occupation of Greece. In 1941 he was appointed prime
minister of the Principality of Pindus, an Italian-sponsored attempt to create an Aromanian secessionist state in north-western Greece. In June 1942, after
Diamandi's abdication, Matushi became Regent of the autonomous state. Then he went to Athens, but he was obliged to flee to Romania like Diamandi the next
year, when he was substituted by a Hungarian adventurer, Count Gyula Cseszneky, Baron of Milvny. Matushi was sentenced in Communist Romania for 20
years in prison on a Danube island. In 1964 he appeared in Greece where he was declared innocent of war crimes. In 1976 his civil rights were completely
restored by a Greek court. Up to 1981 he lived in Athens.

Republic of Tamrash
The Republic of Tamrash (Bulgarian: , Tmrka republika), also called the Pomak Republic, was a short-lived self-governing
administrative structure of the Pomaks, living in the Tamrash region of the Rhodope Mountains. It existed from 1878 to 1886. The territory spanned over the
area locked between the Vacha River and the Chepelare River. The rebel territory initially consisted of 17 villages but its number increased up to 21 in 1880.
Some of those villages were Trigrad, Mugla, Beden, Mihalkovo, Skoblevo, Churukovo and Devin. The self-governing territory emerged as the Pomaks of the
Tamrash region struggled to avoid the influence and the rule of the Christian Bulgarians and the Russians after the Russo-Turkish War. President of the territory
was Ahmed Agha Tamrashlyata. After the Russian army withdrew from the hard to supply Rhodope Mountains, the agha and his party returned to their villages
to establish the self-governing territory. The republic survived until 1886, when Eastern Rumelia was incorporated into Bulgaria.
President of the Republic of Tamrash
Ahmed Agha Tamrashlyata (1820 - 1895) was President of the Republic of Tamrash from 1878 until 1886. After the Russian army withdrew from the
hard to supply Rhodope Mountains, He and his party returned to their villages to establish the self-governing territory. The republic survived until 1886, when
Eastern Rumelia was incorporated into Bulgaria.

Republic of Tarnobrzeg
The Republic of Tarnobrzeg (Polish: Republika Tarnobrzeska, IPA: [rpublika tarnbska]) was a short-lived entity, proclaimed November 6, 1918 in the
Polish town of Tarnobrzeg. Its main founders were two socialist activists - Tomasz Dabal and Father Eugeniusz Okon, a Roman Catholic priest. The idea of the
Republic had its roots in mass demonstrations of peasants, which were taking place almost on daily basis in the fall of 1918. Tarnobrzeg had been part of the
Austrian Empire (province of Galicia) and dissolution of this entity created a political unrest. On November 6, 1918 after a demonstration with some 30,000
people, local peasants decided to take advantage of it and seize power. As news of the Russian Revolution came to Tarnobrzeg, the people decided to follow
Communist ideas. They demanded liquidation of capitalist government and introduction of a land reform, which would result in taking away land from rich
owners and giving it to the poor peasantry. Also, directed by Okon and Dabal, the peasants started to organize local administration as well as a peasants' militia.
The Republic of Tarnobrzeg was suppressed by units of the freshly created Polish Army at the beginning of 1919. Father Okon was arrested but soon released,
when the locals elected him to the Polish Parliament.
List of Leaders of the Republic of Tarnobrzeg
Eugeniusz Okon (December 25, 1881 - January 19, 1949) was Leader of the Republic of Tarnobrzeg jointly with Tomasz Dabal
from November 6, 1918 until January 1919. The idea of the Republic had its roots in mass demonstrations of peasants, which were
taking place almost on daily basis in the fall of 1918. Tarnobrzeg had been part of the Austrian Empire (province of Galicia) and
dissolution of this entity created a political unrest. On November 6, 1918 after a demonstration with some 30,000 people, local
peasants decided to take advantage of it and seize power. As news of the Russian Revolution came to Tarnobrzeg, the people
decided to follow Communist ideas. They demanded liquidation of capitalist government and introduction of a land reform, which
would result in taking away land from rich owners and giving it to the poor peasantry. Also, directed by Okon and Dabal, the
peasants started to organize local administration as well as a peasants' militia. The Republic of Tarnobrzeg was suppressed by units of the freshly created Polish
Army at the beginning of 1919. Father Okon was arrested but soon released, when the locals elected him to the Polish Parliament.
Tomasz Dbal (December 29, 1890 - August 21, 1937) was a Polish communist activist and Leader of the Republic of Tarnobrzeg jointly
with Eugeniusz Okon from November 6, 1918 until January 1919. In 1909-1914, he studied law in Vienna and medicine in Krakw, and he
joined the Polish Peasant Party (1911). In 1917, he was a member of the Polish Legions in World War I. With Eugene Perch, he was founder
of the Republic of Tarnobrzeg. He was a politician in the PSL, deputy to Polish Sejm (1918-1921). He eventually joined the Polish Communist
Party (in 1920), for which in 1921 he was accused of subversive activities, stripped of his immunity as a member of the parliament and in 1923 extradited to the
Soviet Union. There he continued his career as a communist activist, particularly in the Polish Autonomous District "Marchlewszczyzna", until - like most of the
Polish communist activists in the Soviet Union - he was arrested and executed during the Great Purge. He was exonerated in 1956.

Ukrainian State (Hetmanate)
Ukrainian State (Ukrainian: , Ukrayinska Derzhava) (sometimes also called The Hetmanate (Ukrainian: , Hetmanat)) was an
anti-socialist government that existed on most of territory of Ukraine (except for West Ukraine) from April 29, 1918 until December 1918. It was installed after
the socialist-leaning Central Council of the Ukrainian People's Republic was dispersed on April 28, 1918. Ukraine turned into a provisional dictatorship of
Hetman of Ukraine Pavlo Skoropadskyi, who outlawed all socialist oriented political parties, creating an anti-Bolshevik front. It collapsed in December 1918,
when Skoropadskyi was deposed and the Ukrainian People's Republic returned to power in the form of the Directorate. The establishment of the Ukrainian
State led to unification of most of Ukraine in its contemporary borders, disbanding all Soviet quasi states sanctioned by the Bolshevik Petrograd such as the
Odessa Soviet Republic, Donetsk-Krivoi Rog Soviet Republic and others. More assertive foreign policy and military support from the Central Powers saw some
improved stabilization within the country.
Hetman of Ukrainian State (Hetmanate)
Pavlo Petrovych Skoropadskyi (Ukrainian: ; Russian:
, tr. Pavel Petrovi Skoropadskij; German: Paul Petrowitsch Skoropadskyj; May 3, 1873 - April 26, 1945) was Hetman
of Ukrainian State (Hetmanate) from April 29 until December 1, 1918. He was a Ukrainian and Russian aristocrat, military and state
leader, decorated Imperial Russian Army and Ukrainian Army general of Cossack heritage. Skoropadsky became a conservative leader
in Ukraine following the Russian Revolution of 1917, a founder of a hetman dynasty and Hetman of Ukraine. Skoropadsky was born
in a family of Skoropadskie, the Ukrainian military leaders and statesmen that distinguished themselves since the 17th century when
Fedir Skoropadsky participated in the Battle of Zhovti Vody. The father of Pavlo Pyotr Ivanovich Skoropadsky (18341885) was a
Cavalry Guard Colonel and a veteran of the Caucasian War (Subjugation of Circassia, 1863). Afterwards he served as a speaker
(marshal) for the Starodub County Council (zemstvo) (18691885) until his death. Pavlo's aunt Yelyzaveta (18321890) was a public
activist and was married to Lev Myloradovych whose mother was from the Kochubey family. The grandfather Ivan (18041887) also
served as a speaker for the Pryluky County (18441847) and Poltava Governorate (18471852) councils. He also was known for
building the Trostyanets Arboretum (today in Chernihiv oblast). Pavlo's father Pyotr Ivanovich was also a descendant of the Tarnowski
family, while Pavlo's mother was a descendant of Miklaszewski and Olsufiev families. Pavlo grew up at his father's estate in Trostianets, Pryliuky uyezd, Poltava
Governorate. He attended a gymnasium in Starodub and later graduated from the Page Corps cadet school in Saint Petersburg. In 1893 Skoropadsky graduated
from the Page Corps and was assigned as a cornet (meaning the 2LT in cavalry) to the Chevalier Guard regiment where he was put in charge of a squadron. After
two years he was assigned a duty of the Regimental adjutant in the same regiment. In December 1897 he was promoted to Poruchik (1LT). In 1897 Skoropadsky
also married Oleksandra Petrivna Durnovo, a daughter of Pyotr Pavlovich Durnovo, the General Governor of Moscow (see Durnovo). Skoropadsky's first major
assignment was a sotnia (company) commander in the 2nd Chita Cossack Regiment of the Trans-Baikal Cossack Host in Chita during the Russo-Japanese War.
Later he became an adjutant to the commander of the Russian forces on the Far East General Nikolay Linevich. During the war Skoropadsky was awarded the
George's Weapon and several orders. In December 1905 Tsar Nikolai II made him a Fliegel-Adjutant in a rank of Colonel. On September 4, 1910 Colonel
Skoropadsky was commissioned as the commander of the 20th Finnish Dragoon Regiment still continuing to be a Fliegel-Adjutant of the H. I. M. Retinue. On
April 15, 1911 he was reassigned to the Leib-Guard Cavalry Regiment. Leib-Guards were the elite Russian military forces assigned for a personal protection of
the emperor. On December 6, 1912 Skoropadsky was promoted to the Major General of the H. I. M. Retinue. At the start of World War I Skoropadsky was
put in charge of the reorganized 1st Brigade of the 1st Cavalry Guard Division (General Nikolai Kaznakov) as part of the 1st Army commanded by General Paul
von Rennenkampf. Skoropadsky already worked for von Rennenkampf during the Russo-Japanese War when the last was commanding Trans-Baikal Cossack
Host. On August 6, 1914 his regiment distinguished itself in battles near Kraupishken as part of the Russian invasion of East Prussia. Later he was appointed as a
commander of the United Cavalry Guard Division which distinguished near Kaushen. General Skoropadsky also commanded the 5th Cavalry Division. On April
2, 1916 he was promoted to Lieutenant General and was commissioned the 1st Cavalry Guard Division. From January 22 to July 2, 1917 he is in charge of the
34th Army Corps. In July 1917 the decommissioned 34th Army Corps was transformed into the 1st Ukrainian Corps. In October 1917 at the first Congress of
the Free Cossacks he was awarded a title of the honorary Otaman. From October to November 1917 his 60,000-man Army Corps successfully defended the
railway corridor stretching through Podolie to Polissya, Vapniarka Zhmerynka Koziatyn Shepetivka and defended against the attacks from the Romanian
front particularly the 2nd Guard Corps that was headed by Yevgenia Bosch. On April 29, 1918, a coup d'etat toppled the Ukrainian People's Republic and
Skoropadsky became Hetman of Ukraine. The same day he was chrismated by bishop Nykodym in Saint Sophia Cathedral as the Hetman of Ukraine. The coup
d'tat had been sanctioned by the Imperial German Army, which in the spring of 1918 had occupied Kiev and other parts of Ukraine. The Ukrainian Republic
was intent upon repelling an invasion by the Bolshevik Red Army. In return, the Republican government pledged food stocks, which were to be expropriated
from the peasants. The German General Staff was dissatisfied with the inefficiency and incompetence of the Republican government, which repeatedly failed to
deliver the supplies on time. Skoropadsky was accused by other Ukrainian nationalists of being a German collaborator supported by wealthy landowners. He was
also considered too pro-Russian and dictatorial. Among other things, Skoropadsky formed a cabinet of mainly Russian speakers, Tsarists, and Slavophiles.
Simultaneously, he committed Ukraine to federation with a restored Russian Empire. Despite these criticisms, by contrast with the earlier socialist Rada, his
government was given credit for having created an effective administrative organization, established diplomatic ties with many countries, concluded a peace treaty
with Soviet Russia, and built many schools and universities, including the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine. In November 1918 Skoropadsky was
removed from power in an uprising led by the social democrat Symon Petliura and the withdrawal of German forces from Kiev. The uprising nominally restored
the Ukrainian People's Republic, but power was vested in a Directoria, a provisional government of five directors chaired by Volodymyr Vynnychenko.
Skoropadsky abdicated on December 14, 1918 and fled to Berlin. While living in Weimar Germany, Skoropadsky maintained close personal friendships with
senior government and army officials originating as far back as his military-college days. In later years, however, he consistently refused offers to collaborate with
the Nazis. During World War II, Skoropadsky fled before advancing Soviet forces along with the retreating German army. He died at Metten Abbey in Germany
after being wounded by an Allied bombing near Regensburg, and was buried in Oberstdorf. His movement continued into the early 1980s, influencing a
Ukrainian monarchist program based on the Cossack State model. It ended gradually with the aging of eastern-Ukrainian migr communities. Skoropadsky's
daughter, Olena Skoropadska-Ott, resides in Switzerland, has visited Ukraine several times, and has been honored for her historical writings. He receiving
following Honours: Order of Saint Anne Ribbon.PNG Order of St. Anne 4th degree, 1904, Order of Saint Anne Ribbon.PNG Order of St. Anne 3rd degree
with swords and bow, 1904, Order of Saint Stanislaus Ribbon.PNG Order of St. Stanislaus 2nd class with swords, 1905, Saint vladimir (bande).png Order of St
Vladimir, 4th degree with swords and bow, 1905, Gold Sword for Bravery, 1905, Order of Saint Anne Ribbon.PNG Order of St. Anne 2nd degree with swords,
1906, Saint vladimir (bande).png Order of St Vladimir, 3rd degree, 1900, OrderStGeorge4cl rib.png Order of St. George, 4th class and PRU Roter Adlerorden
BAR.svg Order of the Red Eagle, 1918 (Prussia) On January 11, 1898, Pavlo Skoropadsky was married to the Russian noblewoman Aleksandra Durnovo, a
daughter of the Russian soldier and statesman Pyotr Durnovo (of a notable family of Russian statesmen and landowners) and Maria Vasiliyevna (of a Tatar noble
family of Kochubei). The couple had six children: Maria (1898-1959), who married Adam de Montrsor, Yelyzaveta (1899-1975), who married a Mr.Kuzhym; a
painter, sculptor, leader of Hetman Movement (1959-?), Petro (1900-1956), who suffered from epilepsy, Danylo (1906-1957), Pavlo (1915-1918), who died from
disease, Olena (1919present), who married Gerd Ginder (died on April 10, 1945) on August 31, 1943, and married Ludwig Ott on March 20, 1948; her two
children are: Alexandra (born in 1954) and Irene (born in 1954).

West Ukrainian People's Republic
The West Ukrainian People's Republic (Ukrainian: , Zakhidnoukrayinska Narodna Respublyka, ZUNR) was a
short-lived republic that existed in late 1918 and early 1919 in eastern Galicia. It included the cities of Lviv (Polish: Lww), Przemyl (Ukrainian: Peremyshl),
Kolomyia (Polish: Koomyja) and Stanislaviv (Polish: Stanisaww, now Ivano-Frankivsk) and claimed parts of Bukovina and Carpathian Ruthenia. Politically, the
Republic was dominated by the Ukrainian National Democratic Alliance, a party guided by varying degrees of Greek Catholic, liberal and socialist ideology.
Among the other parties represented were the Ukrainian Radical Party and Ukrainian Democratic Party (1904). The coat of arms of the West Ukrainian People's
Republic showed a yellow lion against a blue background looking to the left. The colors of the flag were blue and yellow.
Chairman of State Secretariat and President of the West Ukrainian People's Republic
Kost Levytsky (Ukrainian:

; November 18, 1859 - November 12, 1941) was a Ukrainian politician and Chairman
of State Secretariat of West Ukrainian People's Republic from November 9, 1918 untl January 4, 1919. He was a founder of the
Ukrainian National Democratic movement and the leader of the State Representative Body of the Ukrainian government declared on
June 30, 1941 Levytsky was born on November 18 1859 in the settlement of Tysmenytsia of todays Ivano-Frankivsk Oblast into the
family of a Greek Catholic priest Antin Levytsky. After finishing the Stanislaviv gymnasium he studied at Law faculties of Lviv and Vienna
Universities. In 1884 he was awarded the Doctors degree in law, and in 1890 opened the barristers office in Lviv. Kost Levytsky took
active part in public and political life in his student years, he was one of the leaders of Academic Fraternity, the Circle of Law. From the
first years of his barristers practice K. Levytsky was a practical advocate of the rights and freedoms of people. He united his professional
activity with that in the sphere of Ukrainian enterprises, he was a co-founder and leading figure in the economic associations Zorya,
Peoples trade, Dniester, Province Credit Union. At the same time he was a well-known scientist in law, translated foreign laws into
Ukrainian, worked with Ukrainian law terminology; he had published German-Ukrainian Law Dictionary, a series of popular works in law for the broad circles of
Galician people, founded such professional editions as Chasopys pravnycha (Law periodical) and Zhyttia i pravo (Life and Law) and was their editor. Kost
Levytsky was a patriarch of Ukrainian political life, leader of the land's first political organization Narodna Rada (Peoples Council, 1885), a cofounder and a head
of Ukrainian National Democratic Party. In 1907 he was elected an ambassador of the Austrian parliament, in 1908, that of Galician Sejm, headed the
ambassadors clubs. He fought for the national aspirations of Ukrainian people. K. Levytsky was the author of the conception of the national movement
development through evolution, organic work and broad political work in masses; he was the adherent of the strategic course for Galicia autonomy as the first
step to ward statehood. He favoured development of the mass Ukrainian societies, units of intellectuals, peasants, youths, the Sokol-Sitch movement. At the onset
of the World War I he headed the Supreme Ukrainian Council (1914) in Vienna, which defined Tsarist Russia as the main enemy of the nation, and called
Ukrainians to the struggle against it for the restoration of a united Ukrainian state. In 1916, as a prosecutor for the Austro-Hungarian Empire, he played a role in
the sentencing to death of Ukrainian Russophiles, and sent others to imprisonment in Talerhof. In autumn 1918, in the course of disintegration of the Austro-
Hungarian empire K. Levytsky became a member of the Ukrainian National Council, which announced formation of the Ukrainian state on October 19, and on
November 1 the Council headed a victorious armed rebellion in Lviv, Galicia and Bukovyna, which resulted in formation of the West Ukrainian Peoples
Republic (ZUNR). Being an experienced public and political figure, K. Levytsky headed the first government State Secretariate which developed under the
war the state and army formation activity for independence against Poland. After K. Levytskys resignation in December 1918 he was a head of the commission
on elaboration of the election reform, a representative in the affairs of press and propaganda, in foreign affairs; he also headed diplomatic missions of ZUNR
which were sent to Riga (1920), Geneva (1921), he was a member of the ZUNR delegation in Genoa (1922), headed a Committee of political emigration. In 1923
he came back to Lviv after liquidation of the exile government. In the years between wars he was a member of the Central Committee of the Ukrainian National
Democratic Association (19251939), was a director of Centrobank, head of the Union of Ukrainian Barristers, author of fundamental scientific works including
The History of the Liberation Struggles of the Galician Ukrainians since the War of 19141918 (Parts IIII. Lviv, 19291930), The Great Derangment: On the
History of Ukrainian State in March-November 1918 on the Basis of Recollections and Documents (Lviv, 1931). After the Soviet Army entered Western
Ukraine, in September 1939, he was arrested by the Peoples Commissariate of Internal Affairs and incarcerated in Lubyanka prison in Moscow. Joseph Stalin,
Nikita Khrushchev, Vyacheslav Molotov, and Lavrentiy Beria were involved in the proceedings concerning his case. In the spring of 1941, he was released and
returned to Lviv. After the start of the Soviet-German War, an independent Ukrainian State was proclaimed on June 30, 1941. K. Levytsky headed the State
Representative Body a Council of Seniors (Ukrainian National Council), and defended the interests of Ukrainians. He worked to curb the excesses of the
occupational regime, carried on negotiations with the administration of the district of Galicia, petitioned to end groundless repressions, and pleaded for the
release of prisoners, often with positive results. Kost Levytsky died that same year on November 12, 1941, and was buried at Yanivsky cemetery in Lviv.
Yevhen Petrushevych (Ukrainian: ) (June 3, 1863 in Busk, Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria, Kronland of
Austro-Hungary August 29, 1940 in Berlin, Germany) was a Ukrainian lawyer, politician, and President of the Western Ukrainian
People's Republic from October 18, 1918 until November 1919. He was born on June 3, 1863, in the town of Busk, of Galicia in the
clerical family of a Greek-Catholic priest of noble background. After graduating from the Academic Gymnasium he studied law at the Lviv
University, where he was one of the leaders of the student movement and headed the Academic Fraternity. After earning a doctorate in law,
he started a practice in Sokal. He was regarded with favor by the people because of his professionalism in defending them from the self-will
of powers. At the same time he headed the district Prosvita educational society and was an organizer of the cultural and educational life. He
became an active member of Ukrainian National Democratic Party formed in 1899. In 1907 Yevhen Petrushevych was elected to the
Imperial Council of Cisleithania (Reichsrat). He became one of the leaders and then a head of Ukrainian Parliament Club. In 1910 he was
elected to the Galician Sejm in Lviv from the Stryj district. Being a leading figure of the Ukrainian Sejm Club, he headed the determined fight for a new election
law and achieved the increase of the quota of Ukrainian mandates in the Sejm from 12 to 34, and then to 62. During World War I as head of the Ukrainian
Parliament representation he struggled against the plans of Galicia annexation by Poland and was an adherent of the territory autonomy within Austria. Being the
head of the Galician delegation in Brest-Litovsk in February 1918, he favored the introduction of Austrias liability of granting autonomy to Galicia into the secret
appendix of the International conference resolution. Jointly with Czech and Slovakian parliamentarians he worked out a project about the formation of national
states united with Austria on the Empires lands and submitted it for Kaiser consideration. The manifest of Kaiser Karl on October 18, 1918 proclaimed the right
of peoples to self-determination. On October 19,, 1919 the representative Ukrainian Constituent in Lvov approved the resolution on formation of the
independent Ukrainian State in the western ethnic territory. To implement the resolution they elected the Ukrainian National Rada (Council); Yevhen
Petrushevych became its president. Being an adherent of the peaceful power transfer to Ukrainians he carried out negotiations with officials in Vienna. But in
connection with the threat on the part of Poles, Lvov delegation of the National Council headed by Kost Levytsky seized power under arms and on November 1
proclaimed the formation of the Western Ukrainian People's Republic (ZUNR). Levytskys government was formed on November 9 and started the construction
of the national state. After the outbreak of the Polish-Ukrainian War and a defeat at Lviv, the ZUNR government remained in Stanislaviv. Being the president of
the National Council, Petrushevych mainly performed representative functions, but owing to his political culture and parliamentary experience he had influence
on making the most important decisions in the state. The National Council elaborated a number of necessary laws, which regulated the socio-political and
economical life, laid the legal foundation of the state and guarded it from acute social conflicts and destructive manifestations. On June 9, 1919 by decision of the
top state authorities Petrushevych was granted the title of dictator, which meant that he acted both as a president and a head of the government. When in July
1919 the Galician army retreated over the Zbruch into the Ukrainian People's Republic, the ZUNR government settled in Kamyanets-Podilskyi. The relations
between Petrushevych and the chairman of Directory Symon Petlura deteriorated during this period, and Petrushevych was dismissed from the Directory for his
opposition to the Ukrainian-Polish alliance. In autumn 1919 Petrushevych left for Vienna, where the exile government continued its diplomatic activity for the
restoration of ZUNR independence. The president sent Ukrainian delegations to international talks in Riga and Geneva, sent notes and messages in the address
of the League of Nations, got a resolution, which recommended a Council of Ambassadors in Paris to review the Galician problem. With the aim to determine
the aspirations of Ukrainians he elaborated a fundamental draft of the Constitution of Ukrainian Galician Republic. In 1922 Petrushevych headed Ukrainian
delegation to Geneva where the international conference took place. But on March 15, 1923 the Council of Ambassadors approved a resolution according to
which the West Ukrainian lands were annexed by Poland without reservation. After the liquidation of the exile government Petrushevych continued diplomatic
and propagandistic actions in defense of the oppressed Ukrainian Galician people, spread notes and protests, and continued publishing the ZUNR organ,
Ukrainsky prapor (Ukrainian Banner). As a result of his disappointment over the March decision he adopted an openly Sovietophile position. He maintained
contacts with the Soviet representatives in Vienna and Berlin, where he had moved in 1923. In 1923 the Politburo of the All-Union Communist Party decided in
favour of funding Petrushevych's activities, and two years later the Ukrainian Politburo made a similar decision. Petrushevych continued receiving financial
support at least until the end of the 1920s. In spite of the emigrants life difficulties, in old age he collaborated with Ukrainian National Association, maintained
relations with Hetman Pavlo Skoropadsky. Petrushevych died on August 29, 1940 and was buried at Berlin cemetery of St. Hedwig's Cathedral.

Autonomous Province of Western Bosnia
The Autonomous Province of Western Bosnia (Bosnian: Autonomna Pokrajina Zapadna Bosna) was a small unrecognized state that existed in the northwest of
Bosnia and Herzegovina between 1993 and 1995. It consisted of the town of Velika Kladua (its capital) and a few nearby villages. It was proclaimed as a result of
secessionist politics by Fikret Abdi against the Bosnian central government during the Bosnian War. Briefly in 1995 it was known as the Republic of Western
Bosnia.
President of the Autonomous Province of Western Bosnia
Fikret Abdi (born September 29, 1939) is former President of the Autonomous Province of Western Bosnia from
September 27, 1993 until August 7, 1995. He is a Bosniak politician and businessman who first rose to prominence in the 1980s
for his role in turning the Velika Kladua-based agriculture company Agrokomerc into one of the biggest conglomerates in SFR
Yugoslavia. In the early 1990s, during the Bosnian War, Abdi declared his opposition to the official Bosnian government, and
established Autonomous Province of Western Bosnia, a small and short-lived province in the northwestern corner of Bosnia
and Herzegovina, which was composed of the town of Velika Kladua and nearby villages. The mini-state existed between 1993
and 1995 and was allied with the Army of Republika Srpska. In 2002 he was convicted on charges of war crimes against
Bosniaks loyal to the Bosnian government by a court in Croatia and sentenced to 20 years imprisonment, which was later
reduced on appeal to 15 years by the Supreme Court of Croatia. On March 9, 2012, he was released after having served two thirds of his reduced sentence.
Fikret Abdi was born in the village of Donja Vidovska, Velika Kladua, Kingdom of Yugoslavia on September 29, 1939. Before the war, Abdi was the director
of Agrokomerc, a company from Velika Kladua that he raised from an agricultural cooperative into a modern food combine, which employed over 13,000
workers, and which boosted the well-being of the entire area. Agrokomerc changed the Velika Kladua from a poverty stricken region to regional powerhouse.
Local residents of Velika Kladua called him Babo (Dad)." He ran the company with strong political backing from influential politician Hamdija Pozderac and his
brother, Hakija. In the late 1987, just before Hamdija Pozderac, Raif Dizdarevi[who?] was about to take over annual Presidency of Yugoslavia, a scandal arose,
and Abdi found himself imprisoned for the alleged financial malversations, and Hamdija Pozderac resigned. The scandal shook not only the Socialist Republic
of Bosnia and Herzegovina, but the whole of Yugoslavia. Another of his controversial moves was erecting a monument to a Bosnian bablkba from the
Ottoman Army Mujo Hrnjica on a hill above Velika Kladua. After his release from prison, he joined the Party of Democratic Action just 24 hours before the
1990 elections were scheduled and ran for the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Under the erstwhile constitution, voters elected seven members to the
presidency; two Bosniaks, two Serbs, two Croats and one Yugoslav.[citation needed] He and his future rival Alija Izetbegovi ran for the two Bosniak positions,
and were both elected. Once the positions were filled, the members of the presidency elected a President of the Presidency who acted as its head. Abdi won
more popular votes than Izetbegovi but did not assume office for reasons which remain unclear. According to NIN, when the Bosnian War broke out, Abdi
briefly appeared in Sarajevo hoping to assume presidency after Izetbegovi had been arrested by the Yugoslav People's Army. However, he was preempted as
Izetbegovi had already named Ejup Gani for that position. A few months later, Abdi decided to return to Biha and lead the people there. Popular locally,
having ties to both Belgrade and Zagreb, Abdi was concerned with business interests in his fiefdom, and opposed Izetbegovi's government He formed the
Autonomous Province of Western Bosnia, a move which the government characterized as treason. He made peace deals with Croat (September 14, 1993) and
Serb leaders (October 22, 1993) who were satisfied to weaken Bosnian government in the light of Karaorevo and Graz agreements which aimed to partition
Bosnia and Herzegovina between them. Fikret Abdi established concentration camps for Bosniak population loyal to the government such as Drmeljevo and
Miljkovii. Detainees at the camps were subjected to killings, torture, sexual assaults, beatings and otherwise cruel and inhuman treatment. In addition to the
Fikret Abdi forces, a paramilitary unit from Serbia known as the Scorpions participated in the war crimes on Bosniaks. When the government 5th Corps of
Army of Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, based in the south part of the Biha pocket in western Bosnia tried to end the existence of APWB, Abdi raised
an army which was supplied, trained, financed by (and fought alongside) the Army of Republika Srpska and Serbian counterintelligence against the Army of the
Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina (ARBiH) and Bosniaks loyal to Izetbegovi. The Serbs took advantage of the situation and strengthened their and Abdi's
positions. In August 1995, an ARBiH offensive ended the Republic of Western Bosnia forcing him to flee to Croatia. Lord Owen, a British diplomat and co-
author of the Vance-Owen and Owen-Stoltenberg peace plans described Abdi as "forthright, confident and different from the Sarajevan Muslims. He was in
favour of negotiating and compromising with Croats and Serbs to achieve a settlement, and scathing about those Muslims who wanted to block any such
settlement." After the war he was granted political asylum and citizenship by the Croatian President Franjo Tuman, and lived near Rijeka. The government of
Bosnia-Herzegovina charged him with the deaths of 121 civilians, three POWs and the wounding of 400 civilians at Biha. Croatia refused, however, to extradite
him. After Tuman's death in 1999, and the change in government in Croatia the following year, Croatian authorities arrested and tried him. In 2002 he was
sentenced to 20 years in prison for war crimes committed in the area of the "Biha pocket. In 2005 the Croatian Supreme Court reduced the sentence to 15
years. Abdi ran for the position of Bosniak member of the Bosnian presidency in 2002 on the Democratic People's Community party ticket in 2002 and won
4.1% of the vote. Bosnian law does not bar him from running for office since his conviction is in Croatia. He was released from prison on March 8, 2012, after
serving 10 out of his 15 year sentence.

Republic of Aras
The Republic of Aras (Azerbaijani: Araz Respublikas; also known as the Republic of Araks or the Araxi Republic) was a short-lived and unrecognized state in
the South Caucasus, roughly corresponding with the territory that is now the Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic of Azerbaijan. Named after the Aras River that
formed its southern border, the republic was declared in December 1918 by Jafargulu Khan Nakhchivanski with support from the Azerbaijan Democratic
Republic's ruling party, the Musavat Party, and the Young Turk government of the Ottoman Empire. The creation of the Republic of Aras was in response to a
border proposal by Sir John Oliver Wardrop, British Chief Commissioner in the South Caucasus, that would have assigned the area to the Armenian Republic.
Its existence was ended when troops from the Democratic Republic of Armenia advanced into the region and succeeded in taking control over it in mid-June
1919 during the Aras War. However, this triggered an advance into the Nakhichevan region by the army of the Azerbaijan Republic, and by the end of July
Armenia had lost control of the region.
President of the Government of Republic of Aras
Cafer Kuli Han was President of the Government of Republic of Aras from December 1918 until June 1919.

People's Republic of Zanzibar and Pemba
The People's Republic of Zanzibar and Pemba was a state consisting of the islands of the Zanzibar Archipelago. It existed for less than a year before it merged
with Tanganyika to create the United Republic of Tanzania.
President of People's Republic of Zanzibar and Pemba
Abeid Amani Karume (August 4, 1905 - April 7, 1972) was the first President of Zanzibar from April 26, 1964 until his
death on April 7, 1972 and President of People's Republic of Zanzibar and Pemba from January 23, 1964 until April 24, 1964.
He obtained this title as a result of a violent revolution which led to the deposing of the last Sultan of Zanzibar Sultan Jamshid bin
Abdullah in January 1964. Three months later, the United Republic of Tanzania was founded, and Karume became the first Vice
President of the United Republic with Julius Nyerere of Tanganyika as president of the new country. He was the father of
Zanzibar's former president Amani Abeid Karume. Allegedly born at the village of Mwera in 1905, Karume had little formal
education and worked as a seaman before entering politics. He left Zanzibar in the early years of his life, traveling among other
places to London, where he gained an understanding of geopolitics and international affairs through exposure to African thinkers
such as Kamuzu Banda of Malawi. Karume developed an apparatus of control through the expansion of the Afro-Shirazi Party
and its relations with the Tanganyika African National Union party. On December 10, 1963, the United Kingdom granted full
independence to Zanzibar after the Zanzibar National Party (ZNP) and Zanzibar and Pemba People's Party won the elections.
The Sultan was a constitutional monarch. Initial elections gave government control to the ZNP. Karume was willing to work within the electoral framework of the
new government, and actually informed a British police officer of the revolutionary plot set to take place in January. Karume was not in Zanzibar on January 12,
1964 the night of the revolution and was instead on the African mainland. The instigator of the rebellion was a previously unknown Ugandan, John Okello.
The revolution was violent, short, and the revolutionaries prevailed. Thousands of Zanzibaris, mostly Zanzibari Arabs & Indians, were murdered, with relatively
few casualties on the revolutionary side. The Zanzibar Revolution brought an end to about 500 years of Arab domination on the island during which the Arab
Slave Trade, most significantly, had resulted in a strong resentment among the majority African population. Having taken control of the island, John Okello
invited Abeid Karume back to the island to assume the title of President of the People's Republic of Zanzibar and Pemba. Other Zanzibaris in foreign territory
were also invited back, most notably the Marxist politician Abdulrahman Mohammad Babu, who was appointed to the Revolutionary Council. John Okello
reserved for himself the title of "Field Marshal", a position with undefined power. What followed was a three month long internal struggle for power. Karume
used his political skills to align the leaders of neighboring African countries against Okello, and invited Tanganyikan police officers into Zanzibar to maintain
order. As soon as Okello took a trip out of the country, Karume declared him an "enemy of the state" and did not allow him to return. Given the presence of
Tanganyikan police and the absence of their leader, Okello's gangs of followers did not offer any resistance. Karume's second important political move came
when he agreed to form a union with Tanganyikan president Julius Nyerere in April 1964. The union ensured that the new country, to be called Tanzania, would
not align itself with the Soviet Union and communist bloc, as A.M. Babu had advocated. Given the new legitimacy of Karume's government (now solidly backed
up by mainland Tanganyika), Karume marginalized Babu to the point of irrelevance. The Marxist leader was eventually forced to flee Tanzania after being
charged with masterminding the assassination of Karume in 1972. Karume was assassinated in April 1972 in Zanzibar Town. Four gunmen shot him dead as he
played bao at the headquarters of the Afro-Shirazi party. Some people celebrated his death[citation needed], as different parts of the country did not like the self-
proclaimed president who was never a person from Zanzibar by origin. It is believed he came from Uganda. Reprisals followed against people suspected to have
been opposed to Karume's regime. Amani Abeid Karume, Abeid's son, was elected two times as the president of Zanzibar, in 2000 and 2005 by a popular
majority and handed over power in late 2010 to his successor Ali Mohamed Shein.

Mohli
Mohli, also known as Mwali, is one of the three islands which make up the nation of Comoros. On August 11, 1997, Mohli seceded from the Comoros, a
week after Anjouan. Mohli's secessionist leaders were Said Mohamed Soefu who became President, and Soidri Ahmed, who became Prime Minister.
President and Prime Ministers of Mohli
Said Mohamed Soefu was President of Mohli from August 11, 1997 until 1998.
Soidri Ahmed was Prime Minister of Mohli from August 11, 1997 until 1998.

Anjouan
Anjouan (also known as Ndzuwani or Nzwani, or, historically, as Johanna) is an autonomous island in the Indian Ocean that forms part of the Union of the
Comoros. Its capital is Mutsamudu and, as of 2006, its population is around 277,500. The total area of the island is 424 square kilometers (163 square miles).In
1997, the islands of Anjouan and Mohli seceded from the Comoros. On August 3, 1997, Anjouan declared itself the independent State of Anjouan (tat
dAnjouan) with Foundi Abdallah Ibrahim as president. The island then asked to be integrated again into the French Republic; but France refused. A
constitution was adopted for Anjouan in a referendum on February 25, 1998.
List of Presidents of Anjouan
Foundi Ibrahim Abdallah was President of Anjouan, one of the three autonomous islands that make up the Union of the Comoros, from 1997until 1999.
Sad Abeid Abdrmane was President of Anjouan, one of the three autonomous islands that make up the Union of the Comoros, from 1999 until August
2001.
Mohamed Bacar (born May 5, 1962 in Barakani, Anjouan, then a French colony) was President of Anjouan, one of the
three autonomous islands that make up the Union of the Comoros, from April 14, 2002 until April 28, 2007, the first time,
following the military putsch of August 2001 and from June 14, 2007 until March 25, 2008. He is a former chief of police on
Anjouan and has studied extensively in France and the United States. He was part of a military coup on Anjouan in August
2001 and soon became President. It is alleged he rigged the elections to become the first president of Anjouan in March 2002,
in part due to his leading role in the separatist movement. He was ousted by the combined forces of the Government of the Union of Comoros and the African
Union in the March 2008 invasion of Anjouan. On April 26, 2007, the country's Federal Constitutional Court proclaimed the Presidency of Anjouan vacant,
declaring Bacar's period in office after his first term ended on April 14, 2007 to be illegal. Two days later, Comorian President Ahmed Abdallah Sambi, with the
support of the African Union (AU), appointed M. Dhoihirou Halidi as interim President of Anjouan. However, he was never allowed to take office and Bacar, in
defiance of both the Union of Comoros government and the AU, independently organised a presidential election. The Union government withheld election
material from Anjouan to try and prevent the poll from taking place, but Bacar printed his own ballot papers, went ahead with the vote on June 10,2007 and
claimed a landslide victory of 90 percent. He was inaugurated for a second term as the President of Anjouan on June 14, 2007. Both the AU and the Union
government said if an election were held on Anjouan it would be declared "illegal". Bacar's inauguration ceremony deepened the electoral crisis, making it highly
unlikely that the official Anjouan poll, postponed to June 17, 2007 would be held. In his inauguration speech, Bacar declared himself "the president of all
Anjouan" and appealed to the Union government "not to throw oil onto the fire". France, the country's former colonial power, expressed its support for the Union
government and the AU stance against Bacar in a statement released on June 15, 2007 and noted that the 10 June election was only the first round in the
presidential elections, with the second round scheduled for June 24, 2007. The statement urged Bacar to respect the June 17, 2007 date for holding Anjouan's
official election, and allow it to be supervised by AU troops and monitored by international observers. Since this time the situation had deterioted markedly and
the government of Comoros determined that talks had failed and a military solution was required. During February and March 2008 troops from the Comoros
with support from the African Union began massing for an amphibious assault of the island of Anjouan and the termination of the presidency of Mohamed
Bacar. Agence France-Presse reported that 'the first batch' of African Union troops arrived in the Comoros Islands on March 20, 2008, while the BBC reported
that the first African Union troops arrived on March 11, 2008. In an interview with Agence France-Presse on March 12, 2008, Bacar said that he had "always
been open to dialogue" and that there should be a round table to discuss Comoran problems. He said that holding a new election in Anjouan would be
acceptable if a round table was in favor of it. According to Bacar, some of the countries backing military intervention are undemocratic themselves, and it was
hypocritical for them to try to "give [Anjouan] lessons in democracy"; he said that an invasion would ultimately solve nothing and that he was ready to fight and die
if necessary. A tense period punctuated by several incidents of military incursions on Anjouan continued from the beginning of March 2008 with notable events
including an abortive Comoron raid on Domoni in the south of the island, the seizure of two Anjouan soldiers on the coast close to Sima and the crash of a
French military helicopter also near Sima. The end came when, in the early hours of March 25, 2008 the island was invaded by a combined Comoros and
African Union force. The island's capital, airport, seaport and second city were all overrun by dawn to scenes of jubilation from the local population. Early
reports indicated that the government of Mohamed Bacar had fled to the interior of the island and were in hiding; however, later reports from the Comoros
government on March 25, 2008 stated that Bacar had fled the island incognito seeking exile in Mayotte: "Colonel Mohamed Bacar has been spotted in the village
of Sadanpoini where he is heading without doubt for a place to flee on board a kwassa (small canoe) towards Mayotte island, it seems, according to various
sources, that he is dressed as a woman." - Abdourahim Said Bacar, Comoran government spokesman. Soon afterwards, the French government confirmed that
Bacar had fled to Mayotte.He requested that France grant him political asylum, and the French government said that it was considering the request. The
Comoran government asked France to hand him over so that it could put him on trial; it had issued an international arrest warrant for Bacar.Subsequently, the
French moved Bacar to the nearby island of Runion on the night of March 2728, 2008 along with 23 of his supporters who accompanied him when he fled to
Mayotte. It was thought that he would be charged on Runion with weapons possession and illegal entry due to his arrival on Mayotte by speedboat. Comoran
President Ahmed Abdallah Sambi said that if the French objected to extraditing Bacar to Comoros, where the death penalty is allowed, then it could send him to
the International Criminal Court in The Hague for trial. Thousands of Comorans participated in a protest on March 28, 2008 to demand that Bacar be
extradited; it was widely believed in the Comoros that France secretly worked to protect him.[8] In its extradition request, the Comoran government accused
Bacar of "embezzlement of public funds, homicide, rape, torture and other abuses against the people of Anjouan". The case against Bacar and his 23 supporters,
based on illegal entry and weapons possession, was dismissed by a court in Saint-Denis, Runion on March 29. 2008. However, they were ordered to be placed
in administrative detention; they were kept at air base 181. An order (reconduite la frontire) to expel Bacar and his men back to the Comoros was issued on
March 28, 2008 but it was subsequently revoked. On March 31, Bacar and his men requested political asylum. Bacar's lawyers also requested a temporary
residence permit for them, but this was rejected by the court in Saint-Denis. On April 1, 2008 a new order was signed for the expulsion of Bacar and his men. At
a court hearing on April 2, 2008 Bacar said that he had "confidence in French justice"; his lawyers said that they would appeal the order for his expulsion. On
April 2, 2008 the Assembly of the Union of the Comoros accused France of taking Bacar from Anjouan to Mayotte. Replying to this allegation, French Foreign
Ministry spokesman Pascale Andrani said on April 3, 2008 that Bacar had managed to flee Anjouan "under unclear circumstances". Andrani said that Bacar
was under house arrest on Runion and that his request for asylum was being reviewed. On April 5, 2008 he and his men were detained at the request of the
Saint-Denis public prosecutor. Bacar was moved to a different cell on April 7, 2008 due to threats he had received from other inmates. Bacar appealed his
detention, and on April 18 the Saint-Denis Court of Appeal ordered that he and his men be released, although they were to be kept under house arrest at air
base 181. The Comoran government was given "until May 4, 2008 to send a file documenting its extradition request". Reports on May 15, 2008 said France
rejected Bacar's request for asylum. Nevertheless, the French refugee office ruled that he could not be extradited to Comoros because of the risk of persecution.
France's State Secretary for Overseas, Yves Jgo, said France would support the Comoran government's efforts. "We will continue to act in consultation with the
Comoros so that the law can be applied and Col Bacar can be tried." In his trial for weapons possession and illegal entry at the Saint-Denis Court of Appeal,
Bacar's lawyers argued that Bacar and his men had needed the weapons for self-defense when they travelled from Anjouan to Mayotte and that they had
surrendered the weapons to the police on Mayotte upon arrival. On June 5, 2008, Bacar was acquitted on the charge of illegal entry but was given a suspended
sentence of three months imprisonment for entering the country with weapons. On June 24, 2008, the Saint-Denis Court of Appeal ruled against extraditing
Bacar to the Comoros. With all his appeals exhausted, Bacar, his brother, and two of his men were expelled from Runion on the morning of July 19, 2008.
They were taken to Cotonou, Benin, on a French government flight; the Beninese government had agreed to allow Bacar to stay in Benin. Bacar said that on this
occasion that he intended to stay there for as long as his presence was allowed, and he expressed a desire to "reflect on our past errors". Comoran government
spokesman Abdourahim Said Bakar said that the government was "disappointed" by the expulsion of Bacar to Benin, reiterating the government's position that he
should face trial in the Comoros or before an international court. With the decree (EG) Nr. 243/2008 from March 17, 2008 the European Commission
introduced restrictive measures against Bacar's former government. All financial and commercial resources of Mohamed Bacar, Jaffar Salim, Mhamed Abdou
Madi, Ali Mchindra, Houmadi Souf, Rehema Boinali, Dhoihirou Halidi and Abdou Bacar are frozen. This also affects all companies, corporations, foundations
and so on of these persons. Every payment or financial or commercial help to these people has to be approved. A person who gives money or other resources to
these people may be prosecuted in Germany as a criminal according to 34 Abs. 4 Nr. 2 German foreign trade law. Other European countries have different
laws on this purpose.
Kaambi Houmadi was Interim President of Anjouan, one of the three autonomous islands that make up the Union of the Comoros, from April 28 until
May 11, 2007.
Dhoihirou Halidi was Interim President of Anjouan, one of the three autonomous islands that make up the Union of the Comoros, from May 11 until June
14, 2007.
Lailizamane Abdou Cheik was Interim President of Anjouan, one of the three autonomous islands that make up the Union of the Comoros, from March
31 until July 7, 2008.
Moussa Toybou (born November 28, 1962) is the President of the autonomous island of Anjouan one of the three
autonomous islands that make up the Union of the Comoros since July 7, 2008. Toybou won the June 2008 Anjouan
presidential election, which was held to replace Mohamed Bacar following the March 2008 invasion of Anjouan. Toybou won
52.42 percent of the vote in the 29 June presidential run-off, defeating Mohamed Djaanfari. Prior to entering politics, Toybou
was trained as a civil engineer in Algeria. In the 2008 election, he was backed by Union President Ahmed Abdallah Sambi.
Toybou said that he knew how to "lift Anjouan out of under-development", and he supported allowing some of those who
served under Bacar to remain in administrative roles due to their experience and the need for reconciliation


Republic of the Rif
The Republic of the Rif (full name The Confederal Republic of the Tribes of the Rif; Berber: Tagduda n Arif; Arabic: ) was created in September
1921, when the people of the Rif (the Riffians) revolted and declared their independence from Spanish occupation as well as from the Moroccan sultan. Its
capital city was Ajdir, its currency the Rif Republic's Riffan, its national Independence Day was held on 18 September, and its total population was an estimated
550,000 people. The independence of the Rif was proclaimed on September 18, 1921, with Mohand Abd el-Krim as its president or leader. The Republic of the
Rif was formally constituted February 1, 1923, with Abd el-Krim as head of state. Its prime minister, from July 1923 until May 27, 1926, was ben Hajj Hatmi and
General Driss Riffi Temsamani was named Basha or Governor of the Rif. It was dissolved by Spanish and French occupation forces on May 27, 1926, after long
and bloody battles of the Rif War in which German-designed chemical weapons were used against the Berber populations by Spanish occupation forces.
Gardiner's notes make prominent use of the English language and currency neither of which would have meant anything to the population of the Rif, while
languages they would have known, Spanish and Berber, are missing. The English spelling of "Riff" is very prominently incorrect. The Berbers fiercely resisted
both Spanish and French incursions into Morocco. However, the Berbers had been unable to consolidate power, and had continually returned to ethnic fighting
and tribal division. The Great Revolt of 1912 against French rule ended in failure because the tribal alliances created during the Great Revolt came apart within
months. Muhammad Ibn 'Abd al-Karim al-Khattabi, previously a court judge, became the leader of the Berbers in the Rif. Having created a command and power
structure, Abd el-Krim defeated the Spanish many times and drove them back to a few coastal outposts. He wanted to create a stable state for the Berbers to give
them a break from the long years of fighting. Abd el-Krim sent diplomatic representatives to London and Paris to try to establish diplomatic relations with
Europe. This did not work very much because the French were anxious about the growing strength of Abd el-Krim's young republic, which could in the future
drive the French occupation completely out of Morocco, if it had some time to gather forces and weapons. Abd el-Krim's rhetoric concentrated on the right to
freedom of all people, an unwelcome message to the European colonial forces. In late 1925, the French and Spanish created a joint task force of half a million
men supported by tanks and aircraft. They attacked the new Republic territories with massive bombing raids, in some of which German-designed chemical
weapons were used by the Spanish. The Rif Republic collapsed in May 1926. Guerrilla elements of the army continued fighting until 1927.
President and Prime Minister of the Republic of Rif
Abd el-Krim (188283, Ajdir - February 6, 1963, Cairo) (full name: Muhammad Ibn 'Abd el-Karim El-Khattabi,
Arabic: , Berber name: Muend n abd Krim Lxeabi or Moulay Muend) was
President of the Republic of Rif from 1921 until 1926. He was a Riffian political and military leader. Together with
his brother Mhemmed, he led a large-scale revolt by a broad coalition of major Rif tribes against French and
Spanish colonial occupation of the Rif, a large Berber-speaking area in northern Morocco, culminating in the
establishment of the short-lived Republic of the Rif. His guerrilla tactics are known to have influenced Ho Chi
Minh, Mao Zedong, and Che Guevara. Abd el-Krim was born in Ajdir, Morocco, the son of Abd al-Karim El-
Khattabi, a qadi (Islamic judge) of the Aith Yusuf clan of the Aith Uriaghel (or Waryaghar) tribe. Abd el-Krim
received a traditional education at a mosque school in Ajdir, followed by a period at a religious institute at Tetouan.
At the age of twenty, it appears he studied for two years in Fez at the Attarine and Seffarine medersas, in order to
prepare to enter the famous Qaraouiyine university. Both he and his brother, M'Hammad received a Spanish education, with his brother studying mine
engineering in Malaga and Madrid. Both spoke fluent Spanish and Riffian. After his studies, in 1906, Abd el-Krim was sent to Melilla by his father. He worked
there as a teacher and translator (until 1913), working for the OCTAI the Spanish 'native affairs' office and became a journalist for the Spanish newspaper
Telegrama del Rif (19061915). Abd el-Krim entered the Spanish governmental structure, and was first assigned as a secretary in the Bureau of Native Affairs,
then he was appointed chief qadi (Muslim judge) for Melilla in 1915. He taught at a Hispano-Arabic school and was an editor for a the Arab section of the
newspaper, El Telegrama del Rif. During the war Abd el-Krim was punished by the Spanish government for anticolonial activities including an alleged conspiracy
with the German consul Dr. Walter Zechlin (18791962). He was imprisoned in Chaouen from 1916 to 1917, and escaped in 1918. After escaping he regained
his job as a judge in Melilla. At the end of the war, Abd el-Krim briefly resumed publishing in a Spanish-language newspaper, but soon, fearful of extradition to
the French for punishment, he returned to his home at Ajdir in January 1919. He was alarmed by the appearance of Spanish agents in Ayt Weryaghel tribal
territory and was determined to fight for his tribe's independence. The following year, Abd el-Krim, together with his brother, began a war of rebellion against the
Spanish incursions. His goal was now to unite the tribes of the Rif into an independent Republic of the Rif to undermine the entire French-Spanish colonial
project in Morocco. In 1921, as a byproduct of their efforts to destroy the power of a local brigand, Raisuli, Spanish troops approached the unoccupied areas of
the Rif. Abd-el-Krim sent their commander, General Manuel Fernndez Silvestre, a warning that if they crossed the Ameqqran river he would consider it an act
of war. Silvestre is said to have laughed, and shortly afterwards set up a military post across the river to establish an outpost at the hills of Abarran mountains. In
June 1921 a sizable Riffian force attacked this post killing 179 Spanish troops of the estimated 250. Soon afterwards, Abd el-Krim directed his forces to attack the
Spanish lines at Anwal with great success. In three weeks of fierce battles, 8,000 Spanish troops were killed, and by July, the Spanish army of 13,000 was forced to
flee to the coast, and into Melilla, defeated by an army of 3,000 Rifian fighters. During the attack on Anwal, General Silvestre either committed suicide or was
killed defending the post. This colossal victory established Abd el-Krim as a master and pioneer of guerrilla warfare,[10] and the president of the Republic of the
Rif. The embarrassing defeat of the Spanish forces at Anwal created a political earthquake in Spain that subsequently led to General Miguel Primo de Rivera's
coup d'tat of September 13, 1923, the installation of a military dictatorship in Spain (19231930), and the eventual collapse of the Spanish Monarchy in April
1931. By 1924, the Spanish had been forced to retreat, due to more defeats at the hands of el-Khattabi, to their two isolated enclaves along the Moroccan coast.
France, which in any case laid claim to territory in the southern Rif, realized that allowing another North African colonial power to be defeated by the native
Berbers would set a great threat to their controlled territories, and after Abd el-Krim invaded French-occupied Morocco in April 1925, and made it as far as Fes,
grew concerned. The French, in 1925, after conferencing with the Spanish in Madrid, sent a massive French force under Marshal Henri Philippe Ptain and a
Spanish army, with a combined total of 250,000+ soldiers supported with large numbers of aircraft and artillery, began operations against the Rif Republic.
Intense combat persisted for ten months, but eventually the combined French and Spanish armies using, among other weapons, chemical bombs against the
population defeated the forces of Abd el-Krim and inflicted extensive damage on the local Berber population. On May 26, 1926 Abd el-Krim surrendered to
the French at his then headquarters of Targuist (Targist). As a consequence, he was exiled to the island of Runion (a French territory in the Indian Ocean) from
1926 to 1947, where he was "given a comfortable estate and generous annual subsidiary". It is in this exile that he continued his fierce anti-Western rhetoric, and
the push to keep western trends from encroaching on Moroccan culture. He is quoted as saying "The tie is the white man's noose upon society, so let them hang
themselves, not us." In 1947, Abd el-Krim was given permission to live in the south of France, after being released for health concerns, he however succeeded in
gaining asylum in Egypt instead, where he presided over the Liberation Committee of the Arab West. After Morocco gained independence, Mohammed V of
Morocco invited him back to Morocco. He refused as long as French forces were on North African soil. He died in 1963, just after seeing his hopes of a
Maghreb independent of colonial powers completed by the independence of Algeria.
Hajj Hatmi was Prime Minister of the Republic of Rif from 1923 until 1926.





Republic of Manitobah
The Republic of Manitobah was a short-lived, unrecognized state founded in June 1867 by Thomas Spence at the town of Portage la Prairie in what is now the
Canadian province of Manitoba. During this time the future province was still part of Rupert's Land, a territory owned by the Hudson's Bay Company. It was
soon to become a part of the Northwest Territories when Canada purchased Rupert's Land from "the Bay" in 1869. As Portage la Prairie had no government,
laws or taxation at the time, Spence and a group of local settlers wrote to Queen Victoria asking for recognition as a political entity. There was no reply. Spence
organized the community as the "Republic of Caledonia" in January 1868. The name was later changed to the Republic of Manitobah, after a local lake. The
republic never had clearly defined borders, and could not persuade local Hudsons Bay Company traders to pay their taxes. By late spring 1868, the Republic
had been informed by the Colonial Office in London that its government had no power. The Republic's problems were compounded by misappropriation of tax
funds, and a botched treason trial. The Republic of Manitobah collapsed before it had a chance to blossom. Thomas Spence served in the council for Louis
Riels Provisional Government, whose actions led to the formation of the Province of Manitoba within Canada on May 12, 1870. The story of the Republic of
Manitobah was made into a humorous animated short by the National Film Board of Canada in 1978, as a part of the Canada Vignettes series.
Leader of the Republic of Manitobah
Thomas Spence (1832 1900) was Leader of the Republic of Manitobah, short-lived, unrecognized state founded in June 1867 at the
town of Portage la Prairie in what is now the Canadian province of Manitoba and reigned until 1869. During this time the future province
was still part of Rupert's Land, a territory owned by the Hudson's Bay Company. It was soon to become a part of the Northwest Territories
when Canada purchased Rupert's Land from "the Bay" in 1869. As Portage la Prairie had no government, laws or taxation at the time,
Spence and a group of local settlers wrote to Queen Victoria asking for recognition as a political entity. There was no reply. Spence
organized the community as the "Republic of Caledonia" in January 1868. The name was later changed to the Republic of Manitobah, after
a local lake. The republic never had clearly defined borders, and could not persuade local Hudsons Bay Company traders to pay their
taxes. By late spring 1868, the Republic had been informed by the Colonial Office in London that its government had no power. The
Republic's problems were compounded by misappropriation of tax funds, and a botched treason trial. The Republic of Manitobah
collapsed before it had a chance to blossom. Thomas Spence served in the council for Louis Riels Provisional Government, whose actions led to the formation
of the Province of Manitoba within Canada on May 12, 1870.

Republic of the North Solomons
The Republic of the North Solomons (also Republic of North Solomons or North Solomons Republic) was an unrecognised state that existed for about six
months in what is now the Autonomous Region of Bougainville, Papua New Guinea (PNG). On September 1, 1975, the North Solomons unilaterally declared
independence from the Australian-administered territory of Papua and New Guinea, which itself was due to become independent on September 16, 1975. Papua
New Guinea's Chief Minister, Mr Michael Somare, initially showed no outward concern at Bougainville's stand. The Roman Catholic Church, the most powerful
organization in Bougainville, officially announced its support for the breakaway move.[citation needed] (Bougainvilleans have experienced German, British, and
Australian colonial administrations and missionaries.) Papua New Guinea, Australia and the United Nations did not recognize the secession and PNG
government officials on the island simply ignored it. Through their district council, the Western Islands District of the British Solomon Islands Protectorate
comprising a third of the population of the Solomon Islands asked to join independent Bougainville. The Bougainville islanders have always regarded
themselves as a separate entity in Papua New Guinea.[citation needed] The people have very dark skins in contrast to the lighter shades of Papuans. The island is
1,000 kilometres east of the mainland and, geographically, is nearer the Solomon Islands, forming part of the Solomon Islands archipelago. The declaration of
independence followed the discovery sometime previously of the world's largest deposits of copper in the region. The Papua New Guinea Government had then
established the Bougainville Copper mine company in Panguna, central Bougainville. Bougainville Copper was a subsidiary of Conzinc Rio Tinto of Australia,
which in turn was controlled by the British company Rio Tinto Group. When the mining started, the Australia administration, backed by armed police, gave
access to prospectors while informing residents that their land was being taken over without discussion. Bougainville rejoined Papua New Guinea as the
Autonomous Region of Bougainville early in 1976. Secession was revived in 1990, under the name of the Bougainville Interim Government, by Francis Ona and
the Bougainville Revolutionary Army. Although these groups' grievances were based on the activities of Bougainville Copper, the conflict eventually descended
into a civil war along tribal lines. By the time peace was negotiated in 1998, the conflict had taken between 15,000 and 20,000 lives.
List of Presidents of the secessionist Republic of the North Solomons
Alexis Holyweek Sarei, CBE (born March 24, 1934) is a Papua New Guinean politician from Bougainville. He governed North Solomons Province
(Bougainville) as district commissioner from 1973 to 1975, as President of the secessionist Republic of the North Solomons that existed from 1975 to 1976 and
as premier twice, from 1976 to 1980 and again from 1984 to 1987. Between premierships, he also served as Papua New Guinean High Commissioner to the
United Kingdom.
Francis Ona (c. 1953 July 24, 2005) was a Bougainville secessionist leader who led an uprising against the Government of Papua
New Guinea, motivated at least initially by his concerns over the operation of the Panguna mine by Bougainville Copper, a subsidiary
of Rio Tinto Group. He proclaimed himself "King of Meekamui" in May 2004. Ona was, in one stage of his life, employed by
Bougainville Copper at the mine but he was increasingly critical of its impact on the environment and what he claimed was the low
level of royalties paid the landowners. From the mid-1980s, he and others challenged the leadership of the Panguna Landowners
Association (PLA) claiming that they were not representing the interests of all of the traditional landowners. By early 1988, Ona and
his associates including his cousin Peputua Serero had formed the New PLA supported by both mineworkers and the traditional
opponents of the Panguna mine Damien Dameng's Me'ekamui Pontuku Onoring. The New PLA made a number of claims including
monetary compensation for the impacts of the mine, a 50 per cent share of mine revenue to the landholders and a transfer of
ownership to Bougainville. The PNG Government set up an independent inquiry which, incredibly, dismissed the claims about the
environmental impact but was critical of other parts of the mine's operation. In response, Ona established the Bougainville
Revolutionary Army (BRA) which conducted numerous acts of sabotage against the mine including the destruction of the mine's power supply leading to the
mine's closure in May 1989. Ona rejected an initial compromise deal by Bougainville Copper and the Government. Ona became the acknowledged leader of the
BRA after the death of Serero in 1989 with Sam Kauona, a former soldier in the army leading military operations. The Papua New Guinea Government sent in
the police and then the army under Jerry Singirok to quell the uprising but they were unable to do so. The island was placed under a State of Emergency under
the control of the PNG Police Commissioner while there were increased complaints about human rights abuses by PNG forces which initially strengthened
support for the BRA. In January 1990, Bougainville Copper announced that they were placing the mine in mothballs.[clarification needed] The PNG
Government announced that they would withdraw troops and for international observers to verify the disarmament of the BRA. The police fled fearing for their
lives in the absence of the army while there was an attempted coup in Port Moresby over the deal. In response to a blockade imposed by the PNG Government
later in 1990, Ona declared himself to be the head of the Bougainville Interim Government declaring independence for the island. The island then descended
into anarchy with several armed factions seeking power with the PNG Government supporting the militias. The BRA fell out with Joseph Kabui, the Premier of
Bougainville, who had previously been a supporter. During Prime Minister Paias Wingti's term, the PNG Government renewed military efforts with troops
capturing Arawa, the provincial capital in 1993 and recapturing the Panguna mine. Sir Julius Chan, Wingti's successor tried to broker a deal but neither Ona and
the BRA nor Kabui would sign a deal. Frustrated, Chan ordered a full-scale invasion in 1996 but neither Australia nor New Zealand would support it. Chan then
hired Sandline International mercenaries leading to the military threatening to arrest them on their arrival and the resignation of Chan to forestall a coup. A
ceasefire was arranged later in 1997 between new Prime Minister Bill Skate and Joseph Kabui with a multinational Peace Monitoring Group commencing
operations on the island. Though Ona and the BRA controlled 90% of the island, the break with Kabui meant that they were not involved in the talks. Ona
continued to see the New Zealand brokered peace talks as unwarranted outside interference with Bougainville governance, and did not participate. In an
interview with Australian film maker Wayne Coles Janess, who made an acclaimed documentary film about the Bougainville Crisis and whom the PNG
government attempted to murder, Ona declared: We have already had other forms of autonomy. The provincial government system in 1975 we were promised.
Bougainvillians were promised that after 5 years or after a few years, the provincial government will be replaced by the independent nation of Bougainville. So
with this in mind, with this past history , we don't trust Papua New Guinea any more.... .... 90% of Bougainvillians are supporting me. And I want to summon
Prime Minister of PNG and PNG government , if 90% is not supporting me, let them carry out a referendum and we'll see. Ona was subsequently ignored in the
creation of the Autonomous Bougainville Government. At this time Ona agreed with Noah Musingku to establish a funding source for Bougainville which would
allow true sovereignty. This system became the U-Vistract system, which sought to utilize the untapped natural resources of Bougainville to finance
reconstruction. Ona remained isolated in the Panguna region that BRA controlled for the next 16 years. The Bougainville conflict is estimated to have cost
between 10,000 and 15,000 lives mainly due to disease and starvation. A tribal reconciliation process started in 2000 and appears to have been successful. The
PNG government promised in 2001 to hold a referendum on independence within the next ten to fifteen years. As of 2011 the referendum has not been held.
Ona was never captured and refused to participate in the process. His forces still controlled over half of the island. On May 17, 2004, Ona declared himself as
"King of Bougainville" or Mekamui. He was crowned King Francis Dominic Dateransy Domanaa, head of state of the Royal Kingdom of Meekamui.
Meekamui, meaning holy or Holy Land, is an old tribal name for Bougainville.[6][7] Elections for the Autonomous government in 2005, which he opposed,
brought Ona out of his safe haven into the public eye for the first time in 16 years. He also sanctioned the establishment of a Central Bank run by Noah
Musingku. Both Joseph Kabui and Sam Kauona stated that Ona was being used by Musingku and his outsiders. Ona declared that Bougainville was already
independent and capable of running its own affairs. Perhaps as a result of Onas continued influence in Bougainville, only 3% of the eligible voters participated in
the elections of the New Zealand-brokered Autonomous Government in May 2005, a number that in no way can be considered a mandate for the Autonomous
government. His Royal Highness, told the people that the fact that only 3% of the eligible voters on Bougainville voted in the May Autonomous Government
elections means that the remaining 97% support his government, and as such, it is the only government they can turn to, to advance their push for development
regardless of various differences. In 2005 a local newspaper run by Noah Musingku reported the World Bank contacted Ona as King of Meekamui and offered
financial assistance. The bank recognized his governments existence and was standing by to provide financial assistance, in the event that it may need such help.
Members of the Lihiri Mining Area Landowners Association in New Ireland, as well as other mining projects in Fiji and Solomon Islands contacted Ona for
assistance in dealing with foreign mining concerns.Ona died on July 24, 2005 of malaria in his village. He was succeeded as King of Meekamui by Noah
Musingku, reigning as King David Peii II.

Current Presidents and Prime Ministers
Youcef Yousfi (Arabic: ) (born October 2, 1941) is an Algerian politician who has been Minister of Energy and Mines since
2010. He briefly served as Acting Prime Minister of Algeria from March 13 until April 29, 2014. Yousfi was Algeria's Permanent
Representative to the United Nations from 2006 to 2008. Born in Batna, Yousfi graduated from the cole nationale suprieure des industries
chimiques (National School of Chemical Engineering) in France, and obtained a PhD in physics from the Universit de Nancy. He also has a
degree in economics. Yousfi was a senior lecturer, then a professor of chemical engineering at the National Polytechnic School, and then the
Houari Boumediene University of Sciences and Technologies, both in Algiers. He was also director of the chemistry institute there. He was
also an oil adviser at the Ministry of Industry and Energy. In the late 1970s, Yousfi was appointed as marketing vice-president at Sonatrach, and
in 1985, he became its CEO. In 1996, he became chief of staff to Algerian President, Liamine Zroual. In 1997, he was appointed as Minister
of Oil and Energy and was also first elected as a member of the People's National Assembly. In early 1999, Yousfi became president of the Organization of the
Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC). On December 23, 1999 he was appointed as Minister of Foreign Affairs. He was replaced by Abdelaziz Belkhadem in
the post in August 2000, when Yousfi moved on to become Minister-Delegate to Prime Minister, Ali Benflis. In April 2001, Yousfi was nominated as
Ambassador of Algeria to Canada, before becoming Permanent Representative to the United Nations in 2006. Yousfi is married and has three children.

Gaston Browne (February 9, 1967) is the current Prime Minister of Antigua and Barbuda, in office since June 13, 2014. He led the
Antigua Labour Party to victory in the 2014 general election. He was born in Potters Village on the island of Antigua. Led by Browne, the
ALP returned to power in the June 2014 general election after 10 years in opposition, winning 14 out of 17 seats. Browne was sworn in as
Prime Minister on June 13, 2014.



Hovik Argami Abrahamyan (Armenian: , born January 24, 1958) is an Armenian politician.
A member of the ruling Republican Party, he is the current Prime Minister of Armenia, appointed on April 13, 2014. Previously he
was the Speaker of the National Assembly of Armenia. Abrahamyan, born in Mkhchyan village in Armenia's Ararat Province, began
his professional career in 1990 as the department head of the Burastan Brandy Factory and later as the president of Artashat wine-
brandy factory. In 1995 he became a member of the Armenian parliament. He became Mayor of Artashat in 1996, and the governor
of Ararat Province in 1998. Under President Robert Kocharyan's administration, in 2002 he was appointed Minister of the Territorial
Administration (which oversees regional government structures), serving until 2008 when he resigned in order to be appointed in April
2008 by the newly elected President Serzh Sargsyan as head of his presidential staff. In August 2008 he was re-elected in an
uncontested election (in a seat vacated by the resignation of Abrahamian's older brother, Henrikto) to the National Assembly (fourth
convocation), and in September 2008 he was elected as Speaker of the National Assembly of Armenia. He resigned as speaker in
November 2011 and was re-elected to the National Assembly on May 6, 2012 as a member of the Republican Party of Armenia. He
opposed his predecessor's asset declaration draft law that would have required Armenian politicians and senior public officials to
declare their business holdings and business interests. He was appointed as Prime Minister in April 2014 following the resignation of Tigran Sargsyan for
officially unknown reasons (though the controversial pension reform law caused widespread criticism). Abrahamyan was nominated for the role of prime minister
by President Serzh Sargsyan calling him a "very effective new prime minister." He was congratulated by Russian Prime Minister Dmitry Medvedev. Abrahamyan
has been disparagingly nicknamed "Muk" (), literally meaning "mouse". In an interview, Abrahamyan stated that the nickname was given to him by his
grandmother, because he used to steal candy from her. In various cables sent in 2008, Joseph Pennington, Deputy Chief of Mission at the US Embassy in
Yerevan, characterized Abrahamyan as being "regarded by outside observers - and many Armenians - as an unpolished, poorly educated and parochial figure, a
crass nouveau riche whose brand of dirty-money politics, abuse of state "administrative resources", and cunning opportunism is in the worst tradition of recent
Armenian politics", as "an oily, machine politician ... at the center of a purposeful effort to abuse agencies and offices of local government to arm-twist every vote
he possibly can for the prime minister", the "chief operating officer of the dirtiest and most coercive tactics of Serzh Sargsian's presidential election campaign", and
"an unsophisticated thug" whose "instincts are not progressive". Also in 2008, US Ambassador to Armenia Marie Yovanovitch described Abrahamian as a
politician who uses his political power to promote his business interests. He has also been reported as owning more than two dozen companies, including three
sand mines on the Araks river; 1,500 hectares of grape fields in Artashat; more than 10 gas stations outside Yerevan; one third of "Ararat Cement"; casinos; petrol
stations; and a $7 million summer home in the Crimea. He opposed his predecessor's asset declaration draft law that would have required Armenian politicians
and senior public officials to declare their business holdings and business interests. Argam Abrahamyan is married to a daughter of Gagik Tsarukyan, oligarch
and Prosperous Armenia party leader.

Anthony John "Tony" Abbott (born November 4, 1957) is the 28th and current Prime Minister of Australia since September 18,
2013 and has been the Leader of the Liberal Party since 2009. Abbott is the Member of Parliament representing the Sydney-based
Division of Warringah, having first been elected at a 1994 by-election. Abbott was born in London, England, to an Australian mother and
English-born father who returned to Sydney in 1960. Prior to entering Parliament, he studied for a Bachelor of Economics and a
Bachelor of Laws at the University of Sydney, and later for a Master of Arts in Philosophy, Politics and Economics as a Rhodes Scholar at
The Queen's College, Oxford. After graduating, Abbott trained as a Roman Catholic seminarian, later working as a journalist, manager
and political advisor. In 1992, he was appointed director of Australians for Constitutional Monarchy, a position he held until 1994, when
he was successfully elected to parliament at the Warringah by-election. Abbott was first appointed to Cabinet following the 1998 election,
as part of the Second Howard Ministry, becoming Minister for Employment, Workplace Relations and Small Business. In 2003, he
became Minister for Health and Ageing, retaining this position until the defeat of the Howard Government at the 2007 election. Initially
serving in the Shadow Cabinets of Brendan Nelson and then Malcolm Turnbull, he resigned from the frontbench in November 2009 in
protest against Turnbull's support for the Rudd Government's proposed Emissions Trading Scheme (ETS). Forcing a leadership ballot on the subject, Abbott
defeated Turnbull by 42 votes to 41 to become the party's leader and Leader of the Opposition. Abbott led the Coalition at the 2010 election, which resulted in a
hung parliament. Following negotiations, Labor formed a Government with the support of one Green MP and three independent MPs, and Abbott was re-
elected as Liberal Leader unopposed. He went on to lead the Coalition to victory at the 2013 election, and was sworn in as the 28th Prime Minister of Australia
on 18 September 2013. Abbott was born in London, England, on November 4, 1957, to an Australian mother, Fay Abbott (ne Peters), who was born in Sydney,
and an English father, Richard Henry "Dick" Abbott, born in Newcastle upon Tyne and raised in a nearby village. At sixteen Richard emigrated to Australia with
his English parents in 1940, during World War II. The first of Abbott's ancestors to arrive in Australia was his maternal great-grandmother, Willemina
Bredschneijder, who emigrated to Australia from the Netherlands in 1912 with her five-year old son, Anthony Peters (Abbott's future grandfather). His maternal
grandmother, Phyllis Lacey, was born in Wales. After the war, Dick Abbott returned to the UK where he subsequently met and married Fay Peters, an
Australian dietitian. On September 7, 1960, Abbott and his family left the UK for Australia on the Assisted Passage Migration Scheme ship Oronsay. His family
first lived in Bronte and later moved to Chatswood, both suburbs of Sydney, New South Wales. Dick Abbott established what was to become one of the largest
orthodontics practices in Australia,retiring in 2002. Tony Abbott attended primary school at St Aloysius' College at Milson's Point, before completing his
secondary school education at St Ignatius' College, Riverview (both Jesuit schools). He graduated with a Bachelor of Economics (BEc) and a Bachelor of Laws
(LLB) from the University of Sydney where he resided at St John's College, and was president of the Student Representative Council.Subsequently he attended
The Queen's College, Oxford as a Rhodes Scholar, where he graduated from in June 1983 with a Bachelor of Arts in Philosophy, Politics and Economics (PPE)
and on October 21, 1989 with a Master of Arts in PPE. Following his time in Britain, he returned to Australia and advised his family of an intention to join the
priesthood. During his university days, Abbott gained media attention for his political stance opposing the then dominant left-wing student leadership. On one
occasion he was even beaten up at a university conference. A student newspaper editor with political views opposed to those of Abbott took him to court for
indecent assault after he touched her during a student debate; these charges were dismissed by the court. According to the Sun-Herald newspaper, it was "an ugly
and often violent time", and Abbott's tactics in student politics were like "an aggressive terrier". Abbott organised rallies in support of Governor-General John Kerr
after he dismissed the Whitlam Government in November 1975, as well as a pro-Falklands War demonstration during his period at Oxford. Abbott was a
student boxer, earning two Blues for boxing while at Oxford. Abbott was a heavyweight with modest height and reach. When Abbott was 19, his girlfriend
became pregnant and claimed Abbott was the biological father. The couple did not marry and put the child up for adoption. For 27 years, Abbott believed that
he fathered this child. In 2004, the boy sought out his biological mother and it was publicly revealed that the child had become an ABC sound recordist who
worked in Parliament House, Canberra, and was involved in making television programs in which Abbott appeared. The story was reported around the world,
but DNA testing later revealed that Abbott was not the man's father. In 1984, aged 26, Abbott entered St Patrick's Seminary, Manly. At St. Ignatius College,
Riverview, Abbott had been taught and influenced by the Jesuits. At university, he encountered B. A. Santamaria, a noted and controversial Catholic layman and
political activist who had led a movement against Communism within the Australian trade union movement and Labor Party a generation earlier, which had
resulted in a long, bitter and heavily sectarian split in both Victoria and Queensland. Abbott did not complete his studies at the seminary, leaving the institution in
1987. Interviewed prior to the 2013 election, Abbott said of his time as a trainee priest: "The Jesuits had helped to instil in me this thought that our calling in life
was to be, to use the phrase: 'a man for others'. And I thought then that the best way in which I could be a 'man for others' was to become a priest. I discovered
pretty soon that I was a bit of a square peg in a round hole ... eventually working out that, I'm afraid, I just didn't have what it took to be an effective priest.
Following his departure from the seminary, Abbott met and married Margaret "Margie" Aitken, a New Zealander working in Sydney. Abbott and his wife have
three daughters: Louise, Bridget and Frances. Abbott worked in journalism, briefly ran a concrete plant and began to get involved in national politics.Throughout
his time as a student and seminarian, he was writing articles for newspapers and magazinesfirst for Honi Soit (the University of Sydney student newspaper) and
later The Catholic Weekly and national publications such as The Bulletin. He eventually became a journalist and wrote for The Australian. Abbott began his
public life when he was employed as a journalist for The Bulletin, an influential news magazine, and later for The Australian newspaper. While deciding his
future career path, Abbott had developed friendships with senior figures in the New South Wales Labor Party, and was encouraged by Bob Carr, as well as Johno
Johnson, to join the Labor Party and run for office. Abbott felt uncomfortable with the role of unions within the party however, and wrote in his biography that
he felt Labor "just wasn't the party (for me)". For a time he worked as a plant manager for Pioneer Concrete before becoming press secretary to Liberal Leader
John Hewson from 1990 to 1993, helping to develop the Fightback! policy. Prime Minister John Howard wrote in his autobiography that Abbott had considered
working on his staff prior to accepting the position with The Bulletin, and it was on Howard's recommendation that Hewson engaged Abbott. According to
Howard, he and Abbott had established a good rapport, but Hewson and Abbott fell out shortly before the 1993 election, and Abbott ended up in search of work
following the re-election of the Keating Government. He was approached to head Australians for Constitutional Monarchy (ACM), the main group organising
support for the maintenance of the Monarchy in Australia amidst the Keating Government's campaign for a change to a republic. Between 1993 and 1994,
Abbott served as the Executive Director of ACM. According to biographer Michael Duffy, Abbott's involvement with ACM "strengthened his relationship with
John Howard, who in 1994 suggested he seek pre-selection for a by-election in the seat of Warringah." Howard provided a glowing reference and Abbott won
pre-selection for the safe Liberal seat. Despite his conservative leanings, Abbott has acknowledged he voted for Labor in the 1988 NSW state election as he
thought "Barrie Unsworth was the best deal Premier that New South Wales had ever had". Nevertheless, Abbott then clarified that he has never voted for Labor
in a federal election. Abbott won Liberal preselection for the federal Division of Warringah by-election in March 1994 following the resignation of Michael
MacKellar. He easily held this safe Liberal seat in the Liberals' traditional North Shore heartland, suffering only a 1 percent swing in the primary vote.He easily
won the seat in his own right in Australian federal election, 1996, and has only dropped below 59 percent of the two-party vote once, in 2001; that year
independent Peter Macdonald, the former member for the state seat of Manly, held Abbott to only 55 percent. He served as the parliamentary secretary to the
Minister for Employment, Education, Training and Youth Affairs (199698), Minister for Employment Services (19982001), Minister for Employment and
Workplace Relations and Small Business (2001), Minister for Employment and Workplace Relations (200103) and Minister for Health and Ageing from 2003
to November 2007. From late 2001 to November 2007, he was also Manager of Government Business in the House of Representatives. As a Parliamentary
Secretary, Abbott oversaw the establishment of the Green Corps program which involved young people in environmental restoration work. As Minister for
Employment Services, he oversaw the implementation of the Job Network and was responsible for the government's Work for the Dole scheme. He also
commissioned the Cole Royal Commission into "thuggery and rorts" in the construction industry and created the Office of the Australian Building and
Construction Commissioner in response and to lift productivity. The Liberal Party allowed members a free choice in the 1999 republic referendum. Abbott was
one of the leading voices within the Party campaigning for the successful "No" vote, pitting him against future Parliamentary colleague and leading Republican
Malcolm Turnbull. When Abbott was promoted to the Cabinet in 2000, Prime Minister Howard described him as an effective performer with an endearing style,
whereas the Opposition described him as a "bomb thrower."Howard appointed Abbott to replace Kay Patterson as Minister for Health in 2003, during a period
of contentious Medicare reform and a crisis in Medical Indemnity Insurance, in which the price of insurance was forcing doctors out of practice. The Australian
Medical Association was threatening to pull out all Australian doctors. Abbott worked with the states to address the crisis and keep the system running. Health
care initiatives instigated by Abbott include the Nurse Family Partnership, a long term scheme aimed at improving conditions for indigenous youth by improving
mother-child relationships. The scheme was successful in reducing child abuse and improving school retention rates. In 2005, Abbott was holidaying with his
family in Bali when the Bali bombings occurred. Abbott visited the victims of the bombings in hospital, and, in his capacity as health minister organised for
Australians who required lifesaving emergency surgery and hospitalisation to be flown to Singapore. Abbott was involved in controversy in 2006 for opposing
access to the abortion drug RU486, and the Parliament voted to strip Health Ministers of the power to regulate this area of policy. During this time Abbott
likened the act of having an abortion to committing a murder, saying "... we have a bizarre double standard, a bizarre double standard in this country where
someone who kills a pregnant woman's baby is guilty of murder but a woman who aborts an unborn baby is simply exercising choice". He introduced the
Medicare Safety Net to cap the annual out-of-pocket costs of Medicare cardholders to a maximum amount. In 2007 he attracted criticism over long delays in
funding for cancer diagnostic equipment (PET scanners). According to Sydney Morning Herald's political editor, Peter Hartcher, prior to the defeat of the
Howard Government at the 2007 election, Abbott had opposed the government's centrepiece WorkChoices industrial relations deregulation reform in Cabinet,
on the basis that the legislation exceeded the government's mandate; was harsh on workers; and was politically dangerous to the government. John Howard wrote
in his 2010 autobiography that Abbott was "never a zealot about pursuing industrial relations changes" and expressed "concern about making too many changes"
during Cabinet's discussion of Workchoices. Abbott campaigned as Minister for Health at the 2007 election. On October 31, 2007 he apologised for saying "just
because a person is sick doesn't mean that he is necessarily pure of heart in all things", after Bernie Banton, an asbestos campaigner and terminal mesothelioma
sufferer, complained that Abbott was unavailable to collect a petition. The Coalition lost government in 2007 and Abbott was re-elected to the seat of Warringah
with a 1.8% swing toward the Labor Party. Following Peter Costello's rejection of the leadership of the Parliamentary Liberal Party, Abbott nominated for the
position of party leader, along with Malcolm Turnbull and Brendan Nelson. After canvassing the support of his colleagues, Abbott decided to withdraw his
nomination. He seemingly did not have the numbers, noting that he was "obviously very closely identified with the outgoing prime minister."He said he would not
rule out contesting the leadership at some time in the future. Ironically of the three candidates, Abbott was the only one who had previous experience in
Opposition. Nelson was elected as Liberal leader in December 2007, and Abbott was assigned the Shadow Portfolio of Families, Community Services and
Indigenous Affairs. As indigenous affairs spokesman, Abbott said that it had been a mistake for the Howard Government not to offer a National Apology to the
Stolen Generations; spent time teaching at remote Aboriginal communities; and argued for the Rudd Government to continue the Northern Territory National
Emergency Response which restricted alcohol and introduced conditional welfare in certain Aboriginal communities. During this period in Opposition, Abbott
wrote Battlelines, a biography and reflection on the Howard Government, and potential future policy directions for the Liberal Party. In the book, Abbott said
that in certain aspects the Australian Federation was "dysfunctional" and in need of repair. He recommended the establishment of local hospital and school
boards to manage health and education; and discussed family law reform; multiculturalism, climate change; and international relations. The book received a
favourable review from former Labor Party speech writer Bob Ellis and The Australian described it as "read almost universally as Abbott's intellectual application
for the party's leadership after the Turnbull experiment". The number of unauthorised boat arrivals to Australia increased during 2008. Abbott claimed that this
was an effect of the Rudd Government's easing of border protection laws and accused Kevin Rudd of ineptitude and hypocrisy on the issue of boat arrivals,
particularly during the Oceanic Viking affair of October 2009, and said "John Howard found a problem and created a solution. Kevin Rudd found a solution and
has now created a problem". During November 2009, Abbott resigned from shadow ministerial responsibilities due to the Liberal Party's position on the Rudd
Government's Emissions Trading Scheme (ETS), leading to the resignation of other shadow ministers. On December 1, 2009, Abbott was elected to the position
of Leader of the Liberal Party of Australia over Turnbull and Shadow Treasurer Joe Hockey. Abbott proposed blocking the government's ETS in the Senate
whereas Turnbull sought to amend then pass the bill which the majority of the Liberal Party did not support. Abbott named his Shadow Cabinet on December 8,
2009. Abbott described Prime Minister Rudd's Emission Trading plan as a 'Great big tax on everything' and opposed it. The Coalition and minor parties voted
against the government's ETS legislation in the Senate and the legislation was rejected. Abbott announced a new Coalition policy on carbon emission reduction in
February, which committed the Coalition to a 5 per cent reduction in emissions by 2020. Abbott proposed the creation of an 'emissions reduction fund' to
provide 'direct' incentives to industry and farmers to reduce carbon emissions. In April, Rudd announced that plans for the introduction his ETS would be
delayed until 2013. When appointed to the Liberal leadership, the subject of Abbott's Catholicism and moral beliefs became a subject of repeated media
questioning. Various commentators suggested that his traditionalist views would polarise female voters. He told press gallery journalist Laurie Oakes that he does
not do doorstop interviews in front of church but regularly faces pointed questions about his faith which were not being put to the prime minister, Kevin Rudd,
who conducted weekly church door press conferences following his attendances at Anglican services. In a 60 Minutes interview aired on March 7, 2010, Abbott
was asked: "Homosexuality? How do you feel about that?". He replied: "I'd probably feel a bit threatened ... it's a fact of life and I try to treat people as people and
not put them in pigeonholes." In later interviews Abbott apologised for the remark. Unknown to journalists at the time, Abbott has a lesbian sister, for whom he
has subsequently voiced public support. In March 2010, Abbott, announced a new policy initiative to provide for six months paid parental leave, funded by an
increase in corporate tax by 1.7 per cent on all taxable company income of more than $5 million. Business groups and the government opposed the plan,
however it won support from the Australian Greens. During his time as Opposition Spokesman for Indigenous Affairs, Abbott spent time in remote Cape York
Aboriginal communities as a teacher, organised through prominent indigenous activist Noel Pearson. Abbott has repeatedly spoken of his admiration for
Pearson, and in March 2010, introduced the Wild Rivers (Environmental Management) Bill to Parliament in support of Pearson's campaign to overturn the
Queensland government's Wild Rivers legislation. Abbott and Pearson believed that the QLD law would 'block the economic development' of indigenous land,
and interfere with Aboriginal land rights. Abbott completed an Ironman Triathlon event in March 2010 at Port Macquarie, New South Wales and in April set
out on a 9-day charity bike ride between Melbourne and Sydney, the annual Pollie Pedal, generating political debate about whether Abbott should have
committed so much time to physical fitness. Abbott described the events as an opportunity to "stop at lots of little towns along the way where people probably
never see or don't very often see a federal member of Parliament." In his first Budget reply speech as Opposition Leader, Abbott sought to portray the Rudd
Government's third budget as a "tax and spend" budget and promised to fight the election on the new mining "super-profits" tax proposed by Rudd. On June 24,
2010, Julia Gillard replaced Kevin Rudd as Australian Labor Party leader and Prime Minister. The replacement of Rudd was unusual in Australian political
history and the Rudd-Gillard rivalry was to remain a vexed issue for the Gillard Government into the 2010 election and its subsequent term and remainder of
Abbott's term as opposition leader. On July 17, 2010 Gillard called the 2010 federal election for August 21, 2010. Polls in the first week gave a view that Labor
would be re-elected with an increased majority, with Newspoll showing a lead of 10 points (5545) two party preferred and the Essential poll similarly reflecting
Newspoll. The two leaders met for one official debate during the campaign. Studio audience surveys by Channel 9 and Seven Network suggested a win to Gillard.
Unable to agree on further debates, the leaders went on to appear separately on stage for questioning at community fora in Sydney and Brisbane. In Sydney on
August 11, 2010 Abbott's opening statement focused on his main election messages of government debt, taxation and asylum seekers. An audience exit poll of
the Rooty Hill RSL audience accorded Abbott victory. Gillard won the audience poll at Broncos Leagues Club meeting in Brisbane on August 18, 2010. Abbott
appeared for public questioning on the ABC's Q&A program on August 16, 2010. Labor and the Coalition each won 72 seats in the 150-seat House of
Representatives,[ four short of the requirement for majority government, resulting in the first hung parliament since the 1940 election. Abbott and Gillard
commenced a 17-day period of negotiation with the crossbenchers over who would form government. On the crossbench, four independent members, one
member of the National Party of Western Australia and one member of the Australian Greens held the balance of power. Following the negotiations, the
incumbent Gillard Labor government formed a minority government with the support of an Australian Greens MP and three independent MPs on the basis of
confidence and supply, while another independent and the WA National gave their confidence and supply support to the Coalition, resulting in Labor holding a
7674 tally of votes on the floor of the Parliament. The Coalition finished with 49.88 percent of the two party preferred vote, obtaining a national swing of around
2.6%. During negotiations, the Independents requested that both major parties' policies be costed by the apolitical Australian Treasury. The Coalition initially
resisted the idea, citing concerns over Treasury leaks, however the Coalition eventually allowed the analysis. Treasury endorsed Labor's budget costings but
projected that Coalition policies would only add between $860 million and $4.5 billion to the bottom line (the Coalition had projected that its promises would
add about $11.5 billion to the budget bottom line over the next four years).The close result was lauded by former Prime Minister John Howard, who wrote in
2010 that Abbott had shifted the dynamic of Australian politics after coming to the leadership in 2009 and "deserves hero status among Liberals". Following the
2010 election, Abbott and his deputy, Julie Bishop, were re-elected unopposed as leaders of the Liberal Party. Abbott announced his shadow ministry on
September 14, 2010 with few changes to senior positions, but with the return of former leadership rival Malcolm Turnbull, whom he selected as
Communications spokesman. Abbott announced that he wanted Turnbull to prosecute the Opposition's case against the Gillard Government's proposed
expenditure on a National Broadband Network. Following the 20102011 Queensland floods, Abbott opposed plans by the Gillard government to impose a
"flood levy" on taxpayers to fund reconstruction efforts. Abbott said that funding should be found within the existing budget. Abbott announced a proposal for a
taskforce to examine further construction of dams in Australia to deal with flood impact and food security. In February 2011, Abbott criticised the Gillard
government's handling of health reform and proposal for a 5050 public hospitals funding arrangement with the states and territories, describing the revised
Labor Party proposal as "the biggest surrender since Singapore". Abbott considered a carbon tax the best way to set a price on carbon but a year year later
opposed Prime Minister Gillard's February 2010 announcement of a proposal for the introduction of a "carbon tax", and called on her to take the issue to an
election. Abbott said that Gillard had lied to the electorate over the issue because Gillard and her Treasurer Wayne Swan had repeatedly ruled out the
introduction of a carbon tax in the lead up to the 2010 election. In April 2011, Abbott proposed consultation with Indigenous people over a bipartisan Federal
Government intervention in Northern Territory towns like Alice Springs, Katherine and Tennant Creek, which would cover such areas as police numbers and
school attendance in an effort to address what he described as a "failed state" situation developing in areas of the Northern Territory. April saw Abbott announce
a $430 million policy plan to improve the employment prospects of people with serious mental health problems Australia. Following the first Gillard
Government budget in May 2011, Abbott used his budget-reply speech to reiterate his recent critiques of government policy and call for an early election over the
issue of a carbon tax. Rhetorically echoing Liberal party founder, Robert Menzies, Abbott addressed remarks to the "forgotten families". In June 2011, Abbott for
the first time led Gillard in the Newspoll as preferred Prime Minister. In September 2011, he announced a plan to develop an agricultural food bowl in the north
of Australia by developing dams for irrigation and hydroelectricity. Coalition task force leader Andrew Robb claimed that Australia currently produced enough
food for 60 million people, but that the coalition plan could double this to 120 million people by 2040. The head of the Northern Australia Land and Water
Taskforce expressed concerns with the economic and environmental viability of this plan as well as its effects on the indigenous Australian communities in
northern Australia. Reflecting on indigenous issues on the occasion of the 40th anniversary of the Aboriginal Tent Embassy on Australia Day 2012, Abbott said
that there had been many positive developments in indigenous affairs in recent decades including Rudd's apology and moves to include indigenous Australians in
the Australian Constitution. Later that day, Abbott became the target of protesters from the "Embassy" after one of Gillard's advisers contacted a union official
who advised Tent Embassy protesters of Abbott's whereabouts and misrepresented Abbott's views on Aboriginal affairs to them, saying he intended to "pull down"
the embassy. A major security scare resulted, which was broadcast around the world, and resulted in Gillard and Abbott being rushed to a government car amid a
throng of security and fears for their safety. In an address to the National Press Club on January 31, 2012, Abbott outlined some of his plans for government if
elected. These included an intent to live one week of every year in an indigenous Australian community, and to prune government expenditure and cut taxes.
Abbott also announced "aspirational" targets for a disability insurance scheme and a subsidised dentistry program once the budget had been restored to "strong
surplus". Abbott responded to the February 2012 Labor leadership crisis by criticising the cross bench independents for keeping Labor in power and renewed his
calls for a general election to select the next Prime Minister of Australia. In criticising the Gillard Government on foreign policy, Abbott said that "foreign policy
should have a Jakarta rather than a Geneva focus". Following his attendance at the 10th anniversary commemoration of the Bali bombing in Bali, Abbott travelled
to Jakarta with his Shadow Ministers for Foreign Affairs and Immigration for a meeting with Indonesian President Yudhoyono and Foreign Minister Marty
Natalegawa. In April, Rudd announced that plans to introduce the ETS would be delayed until 2013. Abbott promised a "no-surprises principle" for dealings with
Indonesia. The presidential reception was an unusual occurrence for an opposition leader. In November 2012, Abbott launched his fourth book, A Strong
Australia, a compilation of nine of his "landmark speeches" from 2012, including his budget reply and National Press Club addresses. At the federal election on
September 7, 2013, Abbott led the Liberal/National coalition to a victory over the incumbent Labor government, led by Kevin Rudd. Abbott and his ministry
were sworn in on September 18, 2013. On his first day as Prime Minister, Abbott introduced legislation into Parliament to repeal the Carbon Tax, and
commenced Operation Sovereign Borders, the Coalition's policy to stop illegal maritime arrivals, which received strong public support. Abbott announced a
Royal Commission into trade union governance and corruption on 11 February 2014. This was followed by amendments to the Fair Work Act, and a "Repeal
Day", where more that 10,000 "Red Tape" regulations were repealed. Abbot has called for more Chinese investment in Australia and would welcome Chinese
participation in joint military exercises in the Northern Territory. The 2014 Australian federal budget was released on May 13. Abbott has an active interest in
Indigenous Affairs. As Opposition Leader, Abbott said that he would prioritise indigenous affairs, saying: "There will be, in effect, a prime minister for Aboriginal
affairs". As Prime Minister, Abbott reformed the administration of the portfolio, moving it into the Department of Prime Minister. As Health Minister Abbott
established the Nurse Family Partnership to improve conditions for indigenous youths. Before becoming Opposition Leader, he served as Shadow Minister for
Indigenous Affairs. He has worked closely with Cape York Aboriginal activist Noel Pearson. He has volunteered as a teacher in remote Aboriginal Communities
and gave a commitment to continue to live one week a year in such communities if elected Prime Minister. He actively supports recognition of Aboriginal people
in the Australian constitution. In contrast to his mentor John Howard, as Opposition Leader, Abbott has praised Rudd's National Apology to the Stolen
Generation. While the Coalition and Labor parties were engaged in negotiations with crossbenchers to obtain minority government in 2010, Noel Pearson
lobbied Rob Oakeshott to back Abbott as a "once-in-a-generation" conservative who could lead the way on reconciliation and described his policies as "more
progressive on the question of Aboriginal rights than the Labor and Greens position". Rising to support the passage of the Gillard Government's historic
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples Recognition Bill through the House of Representatives in 2013, Abbott said: Australia is a blessed country. Our
climate, our land, our people, our institutions rightly make us the envy of the earth, except for one thingwe have never fully made peace with the First
Australians. This is the stain on our soul that Prime Minister Keating so movingly evoked at Redfern 21 years ago. We have to acknowledge that pre-1788 this
land was as Aboriginal then as it is Australian now. Until we have acknowledged that we will be an incomplete nation and a torn people ... So our challenge is to
do now in these times what should have been done 200 or 100 years ago to acknowledge Aboriginal people in our country's foundation document. In short, we
need to atone for the omissions and for the hardness of heart of our forebears to enable us all to embrace the future as a united people. In November 2012,
Abbott flew to Alice Springs to back Aboriginal Country Liberal Party MLA Alison Anderson to run in the federal seat of Lingiari and become the first
indigenous woman to enter Parliament. Abbott said that he was very proud that West Australian MP Ken Wyatt, whom he described as "urban", was sitting with
the Coalition as the first Indigenous Australian in the House of Representatives, and that it would be "terrific" to also have "an Aboriginal person from central
Australia, an authentic representative of the ancient cultures of central Australia in the parliament. West Australian state Labor MP Ben Wyatt (nephew of Ken
Wyatt) claimed this was "offensive", and an "attack" on Ken Wyatt which demonstrated that Abbott had "no understanding at all about Aboriginal and non-
Aboriginal history. To suggest that Ken is not a sufficient Aboriginal for Tony Abbott because he's not a man of culture." In April 2010 while on the panel of
Q&A, Tony Abbott was asked whether his vision for Australia involved any kind of republican model, and whether he agreed that Indigenous Australians cannot
celebrate Australia Day. Abbott stated his support for existing constitutional arrangements in Australia, and said that, "I know that there are some Aboriginal
people who aren't happy with Australia Day. For them it remains Invasion Day. I think a better view is the view of Noel Pearson, who has said that Aboriginal
people have much to celebrate in this country's British Heritage. I know not everyone agrees with him, but I think there's much to be said for that view and I
think that Aboriginal heritageAustralia's Aboriginal heritage should be important to all of us and I think that Australia's British and western heritage should also
be important to all of us." In July 2010, when speaking about ending disadvantages faced by indigenous Australians, Abbott stated: "There may not be a great job
for them but whatever there is, they just have to do it, and if it's picking up rubbish around the community, it just has to be done. The statement was later used in
an advertisement launched by GetUp! in its advertising campaign against Abbott at the 2013 Australian federal election. Abbott is a supporter of the constitutional
monarchy in Australia. Prior to entering Parliament, he was Executive Director of Australians for Constitutional Monarchy from 199394. Arguing against the
case for a republican system of government in Australia in 1999, Abbott outlined his beliefs on conservatism and the monarchy: There are some people who
believe that any republic would be better than what we have now. "Republic or bust" zealots are incapable of perceiving any difficulties. Conservatives, however,
don't change anything lightly. Conservatives approach issues with instinctive respect for institutions and approaches that have stood the test of time. "If it is not
necessary to change" the conservative ethos runs, "it is necessary not to change". "If it ain't broke, don't fix it" say conservatives, "and if it is broke, recycle it, don't
throw it away". Abbott supports the argument espoused by former Prime Minister John Howard and Justice Michael Kirby that Australia is presently and should
remain a crowned republic. He predicted in his 2009 book Battlelines that Australia would still be a crowned republic in 2020. In March 2014 Abbott
reintroduced Knight and Dame honours to the Order of Australia, without discussing it in the Cabinet, and despite stating a few months earlier that had no plans
to do so. The titles of Knight and Dame of the Order of Australia were initially introduced in 1976 by the Fraser Government and discontinued by the Hawke
Government in 1986. Restoring these honours has been described as "anachronistic" both by the leader of the opposition Bill Shorten and former Liberal prime
minister Howard. Prior to becoming Opposition Leader, Tony Abbott initially supported proposals by Liberal leaders Howard and Turnbull to introduce
floating prices to reduce carbon emissions, but also expressed some doubts as to the science and economics underlying such initiatives. In 2009 Abbott
announced his opposition to Turnbull's support for the Rudd Government's Emissions Trading Scheme proposal, and successfully challenged Turnbull for the
Liberal leadership, chiefly over this issue. As Opposition Leader, Abbott declared that he accepted that climate change was real and that humans were having an
impact on it, but rejected carbon pricing as a means to address the issue, proposing instead to match the Labor government's 5% emissions reduction target
through implementation of a "direct action" climate plan, involving financial incentives for emissions reductions by industry, and support for carbon storage in
soils and expanded forests. On the eve of the 2013 Election, Abbott told the ABC: [J]ust to make it clear... I think that climate change is real, humanity makes a
contribution. It's important to take strong and effective action against it, and that is what our direct action policy does... The important thing is to take strong and
effective action to tackle climate change, action that doesn't damage our economy. And that is why the incentive-based system that we've got, the direct action
policies, which are quite similar to those that president Obama has put into practice, is - that's the smart way to deal with this, a big tax is a dumb way to deal with
it. Abbott on ABC TV Insiders prior to 2013 election. Abbott's predecessor as Liberal leader, Turnbull, wrote that Abbott had described himself as a
'weathervane' in relation to climate change policy in the months prior to his becoming leader of the Liberal Party. Prior to becoming Opposition Leader in
November 2009, Abbott told the ABC's 7:30 Report in July, that though he thought the science of climate change was "highly contentious" and that he thought
that the economics of an ETS was "a bit dodgy", he nevertheless thought that the Opposition should pass the Rudd government's ETS as he did not think it would
be "a good look for the Opposition to be browner than Howard going into the next election". At an October 2009 meeting in the Victorian town of Beaufort,
Abbott was reported to have said: "The argument is absolute crap ... However, the politics of this are tough for us. 80% of people believe climate change is a real
and present danger". On December 1, 2009, when questioned about that statement, he said he had used "a bit of hyperbole" at that meeting rather than it being
his "considered position". In November, Abbott outlined his objections to the Rudd Government's carbon pricing plan on the ABC's Lateline program: I am
always reluctant to join bandwagons. I think there are fashions in science and in the academe, just as there are fashions in so many other things. But look, we
should take reasonable precautions against credible threats. I think it is perfectly reasonable to take action against climate change. The problem with the Rudd
Government's position is that Australia could end up impoverishing itself through this dramatic ETS, and not do anything for the environment if the rest of the
world does not adopt an ETS or something like it. Abbott on ABC TV Lateline, November 2009. Upon becoming Leader of the Opposition, Abbott put the
question of support for the Government's Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme (CPRS) to a secret ballot and the Liberal Party voted to reject support for the
policy overturning an undertaking by Turnbull, to support an amended version of the government's scheme. Under Abbott, the Coalition joined the Greens
and voted against the CPRS in the Senate, and the bill was defeated twice, providing a double dissolution trigger. Abbott's alternative 'direct-action' climate policy
involved a 5% reduction in emissions by means of creating a $2.5bn fund to provide incentives for industry and farmers to reduce emissions and through
measures like storing carbon in soil; planting 20 million trees over the next decade; and providing $1000 rebates to homes for installation of solar cells. However
estimates by Federal Treasury put the likely cost of such a scheme at A$10 billion a year or more. The Rudd government eventually deferred its CPRS legislation
until 2013. With Abbott as Opposition Leader, the Liberal party opposed a carbon emissions tax and an Emissions Trading Scheme and said that, in the absence
of a global market-based mechanism, "direct action" is the better approach for Australia. Abbott predicted in March 2012 that the Gillard government's carbon tax
would be the world's "biggest". A January 2013 OECD report on taxation of energy use measured Australia's effective tax rate on carbon at July 1, 2012 as among
the lower rates in the OECD. In July 2011, Abbott criticised the proposed powers of the government's carbon tax regulator, telling John Laws that policing of the
carbon tax would be difficult: "carbon dioxide is invisible, it's weightless and it's odourless. How are we going to police these emissions... this carbon cop is going
to be an extraordinarily intrusive instrumentality". Although opposing the Labor party's environmental policies, claiming that Labor would increase electricity
prices, the Liberal party is in bipartisan support for the Mandatory Renewable Energy Targets, which would see an increase to electricity prices. Abbott is an
opponent of embryonic stem cell research and euthanasia. He has said that abortion should be "safe, legal and rare". He tried, but failed, to block the
introduction of the abortion pill RU-486, but promised not to change abortion law if elected. As Health Minister, Abbott said he saw reducing the number of
abortions performed each year as a national priority. He promised to launch an investigation into a product called Pink or Blue, produced by the American firm
Consumer Genetics. This test is one of several pre-natal blood tests designed to detect the sex of a fetus as early as six weeks into pregnancy. Some ethicists and
anti-abortion campaigners have raised concerns that it could be used for sex-selective abortion. Abbott opposed allowing the introduction of embryonic stem cell
research or therapeutic cloning in another conscience vote. He argued, "There are very important ethical questions here and even the very best end does not
justify every possible means." In his 2009 book Battlelines, Abbott proposed that consideration should be given to a return to an optional at-fault divorce
agreement between couples who would like it, similar to the Matrimonial Causes Act, which would require spouses to prove offences like adultery, habitual
drunkenness, cruelty, desertion, or a five-year separation before a divorce would be granted. Abbott said that this would be a way of "providing additional
recognition to what might be thought of as traditional marriage". Abbott opposes euthanasia. Addressing a 2009 Intelligence squared debate, he said, "Love, not
death, is our obligation and our duty [to the sick]. I would be slow to judge anyone who helped the passage to death [who really needed it] ... Let's not make bad
laws on hard cases." In his argument, he feared that legalised euthanasia could result in doctors avoiding complex responses and that there was, in some cases, a
danger of unscrupulous relatives who might abuse the practice in the interests of gaining an inheritance. In 2010, when Abbott told the ABC's Q&A program that
an Abbott-led government would not amend Australian law to recognise gay marriage, he said, "I certainly want to see just a general principle. I want to see
stable, committed relationships, but I do think that a marriage, by definition, is between a man and a woman." In the first few months of his Prime Ministership,
the Australian Capital Territory Legislative Assembly passed the Marriage Equality (Same Sex) Act 2013, a bill to allow same-sex couples to legally marry. Abbott
announced that the federal government would challenge this decision in the High Court. The case was heard on December 3, 2013. Nine days later, on
December 12, 2013, the High Court gave judgement that the Same Sex Act would be dismantled as it clashed with the Federal Marriage Act 1961. Abbott is a
Roman Catholic. Prior to the 2013 Election, Abbott spoke of his religious outlook: The Jesuits helped to instill in me this thought that our calling in life was to
be... 'a man for others'... I am a pretty traditional Catholic... I'm not an evangelical, a charismatic Christian, I'm not. I try to attend Mass, but I don't get there every
Sunday any more... Faith has certainly helped to shape my life, but it doesn't in any way determine my politics...". Tony Abbott on ABC TV's Kitchen Cabinet;
September 2013. As a former Catholic seminarian, Abbott's religiosity has come to national attention and journalists have often sought his views on the role of
religion in politics. According to John Warhurst, of the Australian National University, academics have at times placed an "exaggerated concentration on the
religious affiliation and personal religious background of just one of [the Howard government's] senior ministers, Tony Abbott." Journalist Michelle Grattan wrote
in 2010 that while Abbott has always "worn his Catholicism on his sleeve", he is "clearly frustrated by the obsession with [it] and what might hang off that". Abbott
has said that a politician should not rely on religion to justify a political point of view: We are all influenced by a value system that we hold, but in the end, every
decision that a politician makes is, or at least should, in our society be based on the normal sorts of considerations. It's got to be publicly justifiable; not only
justifiable in accordance with a private view; a private belief. Abbott on ABC TV Four Corners', March 2010. Various political positions supported by Abbott
have been criticised by church representatives, including aspects of Coalition industrial relations policy, asylum seeker and Aboriginal affairs policy. After
criticisms of Liberal Party policy by clergy, Abbott has said, "The priesthood gives someone the power to consecrate bread and wine into the body and blood of
Christ. It doesn't give someone the power to convert poor logic into good logic." Abbott is an active volunteer member for the Davidson, NSW Rural Fire
Service. Abbott participates in the Pollie Pedal, an annual 1,000 km charity bike ride. In April 2007, he launched the tenth annual Pollie Pedal, to raise money
for breast cancer research. In 2008 Abbott spent three weeks teaching in a remote Aboriginal settlement in Coen on Cape York, organised through indigenous
leader Noel Pearson. He taught remedial reading to Aboriginal children, worked with an income management group helping families manage their welfare
payments. In 2009 he spent 10 days in Aurukun on Cape York, working with the truancy team, visiting children who had not been attending school. Abbott's
stated goal for these visits was to familiarise himself with indigenous issues. Abbott has published four books. In 2009, he launched Battlelines; a personal
biography, reflections on the Howard Government and discussion of potential policy directions for the Liberal Party of Australia. Previously he had published
two books in defence of the existing constitutional monarchy system, The Minimal Monarchy and How to Win the Constitutional War. In 2012, he released a
compilation of key speeches from that year, entitled A Strong Australia. He was published following works: 1995 - The Minimal Monarchy: and why it still makes
sense for Australia, 1997 - How to Win the Constitutional War: and give both sides what they want, 2009 - Battlelines. Carlton Victoria Australia: Melbourne
University Press and 2012 - A Strong Australia. On January 1, 2001, he received Honour Medal, Centenary Medal for service as Minister for Employment and
Workplace Relations.

Abdul Hamid (Bengali: ; born January 11, 944) is the 16th and current President of Bangladesh since April 24, 2013.
Prior to this position, he served as the Speaker of the National Parliament from January 25, 2009 until April 24, 2013. He was the acting
President after the death of Zillur Rahman from March 20 until April 24, 2013. Hamid took oath as president on April 22, 2013. Hamid
was born in Kamalpur village, Mithamain Upazila under Kishoreganj District to Hazi Md. Tayebuddin and Tomiza Khatun. Hamid
passed I.A. and B.A. from Gurudayal Government College in Kishoreganj. He later earned his LLB degree from Central Law College
under University of Dhaka. He then became a practising lawyer in the Kishoreganj Judge Court. He was appointed the President of
Kishoreganj Bar Association several times. Hamid started his political career whilst a student in Kishoreganj, as the vice president of
Gurudayal Government College. He was elected 7 times as a member of Parliament from 1970 to 2009. He was the deputy speaker of the National Parliament
of Bangladesh when Awami League formed the government in 1996. In 2001, he was appointed as the deputy leader of the opposition party at the National
Assembly. On January 25, 2009, he became the Speaker of the National Parliament of Bangladesh. For his contribution to Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971,
he was awarded Independence Day Award in 2013. Hamid was appointed acting President of Bangladesh on March 14, 2013 while President Zillur Rahman was
in hospital in Singapore. Rahman died six days later. Hamid is married and he has three sons and one daughter.

Philippe or Filip (French: Philippe Lopold Louis Marie, Dutch: Filip(s) Leopold Lodewijk Maria; born April 15, 1960) is the King of
the Belgians, having ascended the throne on July 21, 2013. He is the eldest child of King Albert II, whom he succeeded upon Albert's
abdication for health reasons, and Queen Paola. He married Countess Mathilde d'Udekem d'Acoz (now Queen Mathilde), with whom
he has four children. King Philippe's elder daughter, Princess Elisabeth, is next in the line of succession. At age 54, Philippe is Europe's
third youngest reigning monarch, following the 47-year-old Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands and the 46-year-old Felipe VI of
Spain. His godparents were his paternal grandfather, King Leopold III, and his maternal grandmother Donna Luisa, Princess Ruffo di
Calabria. From 1978 to 1981, King Philippe was educated at the Belgian Royal Military Academy in the 118th "Promotion Toutes
Armes". On September 26, 1980, he was appointed second lieutenant and took the officer's oath. He continued his education at Trinity
College, Oxford and he attended graduate school at Stanford University, California, where he graduated in 1985 with an MA degree in
political science. He obtained his fighter pilot's wings and his certificates as a parachutist and a commando. In 1989, he attended a series
of special sessions at the Royal Higher Defence Institute. The same year, he was promoted to Colonel. On March 25, 2001, the Prince
was appointed to the rank of Major-General in the Land Component and the Air Component and to the rank of Rear-Admiral in the Naval Component.
Philippe married Mathilde d'Udekem d'Acoz, daughter of a Walloon Count of Belgian noble family and female line descendant of Polish noble families such as
the Princes Sapieha and Counts Komorowski, on December 4, 1999 in Brussels, in a civil ceremony at the Brussels Town Hall and a religious ceremony at the
Cathedral of Saint Michel in Brussels. They have four children: Princess Elisabeth Thrse Marie Hlne, Duchess of Brabant, (born October 25, 2001), Prince
Gabriel Baudouin Charles Marie, (born August 20, 2003), Prince Emmanuel Lopold Guillaume Franois Marie, born (October 4, 2005) and Princess Elonore
Fabiola Victoria Anne Marie, (born April 16, 2008). On August 6, 1993, the government named Prince Philippe as Honorary Chairman of the Belgian Foreign
Trade Board (BFTB). He succeeded his father, who had been Honorary Chairman of the BFTB since 1962. On May 3, 2003, Prince Philippe was appointed
Honorary chairman of the board of the Foreign Trade Agency, replacing the BFTB. In this capacity, Prince Philippe has headed (alone "P", or with Princess
Mathilde since 2000 "P&M") more than 60 important economic missions which include: 1993: Spain, Saudi Arabia, 1994: Japan, Vietnam, Argentina, 1995:
South Africa, India, Sweden, Malaysia, Argentina, 1996: Philippines (March), China, 1997: Turkey,, Japan, United Arab Emirates, Germany, 1998: Mexico,
Poland, India (December), 1999: Egypt, Brazil, 2000: China & Hong-Kong (May, P&M), Argentina & Uruguay, South Korea, Hungary, United States - New
York, 2001: Thailand (February), the Federation of Russia (June, P), Morocco, 2002: Malaysia, Chile, Saudi Arabia & Kuwait (October 1824, P), Australia and
New Zealand (November 1627, P&M), 2003: Mexico & California (February 1525, P&M), Vietnam (October 1117 , P) and Poland (November 1621 ,
P&M), 2004: United Arab Emirates & Oman, Turkey (May 26 , P&M), Algeria & Tunisia (October 48, P) and China ( November 2028, P&M), 2005: India
(March 1219 , P&M), Japan (June 1118 , P), Brazil (November 1926, P), 2006: South Africa (March 1118 , P&M), Russia (26 June 1 July, P&M), Canada
(November 511 , P), Bulgaria & Romania (December 1013 , P&M), 2007: China (June 1525, P&M), Bahrain & Qatar ( November 26, P&M), 2008:
Seattle/Vancouver (March 713, P), Egypt (May 2428 , P), Argentina & Uruguay (October 410, P), Indonesia / Singapore (November 2128, P&M), 2009:
Mexico/Panama (March 2127 , P&M), South Korea (May 915, P), Saudi Arabia & United Arab Emirates (Ocober 2227(P)-28(&M)), Morocco (November
2226 , P&M), 2010: India (March 2027 , P&M), Brazil (May 1522, P&M), Kazakhstan (October 1115, P), Ukraine (November 2124 , P), 2011: Russia
Moscow St Pet. (April 38, P&M), United States New York, Washington & Boston (June 2230 , P&M), China (October 2029, P&M), Chile (December 3
7 , P), 2012: Vietnam (March 1016, P&M), Japan (June 1115 , P&M), Turkey (October 1519, P&M), Australia & New Zealand (November 1630 , P), 2013:
Thailand (March), United States Los Angeles, San Francisco & San Diego (June). Upon his accession as seventh King of the Belgians, this role was taken over
by his sister Princess Astrid. King Philippe and Queen Mathilde wave to the crowds in Brussels after Philippe's swearing in as new Belgian monarch. King Albert
II announced on July 3, 2013 that he would abdicate in favour of Philippe on July 21, 2013. Approximately one hour after King Albert's abdication, King
Philippe was sworn in as King of the Belgians. Owing to the amendment to the laws of succession changing from the rule of agnatic primogeniture (the Lex
Salica, or Salic law) to absolute primogeniture (in which the eldest child is always heir apparent), Princess Elisabeth is next in the line of succession after her
father, followed by her younger brothers, Prince Gabriel and Prince Emmanuel, and her younger sister Princess Elonore. King Philippe has received numerous
honours throughout his life. On his 30th birthday, he was awarded, by his uncle, King Baudouin of the Belgians, the highest Belgian honour: Grand Cordon of
the Order of Leopold (April 15, 1990). From his accession to the throne, he is the following: Grand Master of the Order of Leopold, Grand Master of the Order
of the African Star (dormant order), Grand Master of the Royal Order of the Lion (dormant order), Grand Master of the Order of the Crown, Grand Master of
the Order of Leopold II. He have following Foreign honours: 1993 - Netherlands - Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Orange-Nassau, 1994 - Argentina -
Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Liberator General San Martn, Japan - Knight Grand Cordon of the Order of the Chrysanthemum, 1995 - Holy See
Holy See - Knight Grand Cross of the Equestrian Order of the Holy Sepulchre of Jerusalem, 1996 - Bolivia - Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Condor of
the Andes, 1997 - Portugal - Knight Grand Cordon of the Military Order of Aviz, 2005 Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Christ, 1998 - Germany - Knight
Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic, 1999 - Luxembourg -Knight of the Order of the Gold Lion of the House of Nassau, 2000 - Spain -
Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Isabella the Catholic, 2001 - Sweden - Knight of the Royal Order of the Seraphim, 2002 - Denmark - Knight of the Order of
the Elephant, 2003 Norway - Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St. Olav, 2004 Finland - Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the White Rose of Finland,
Poland - Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Republic of Poland, 2005 - Greece - Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Honour, 2008 - Hungary -
Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Republic of Hungary, Civilian Class, Sovereign orders: 1998 - Grand Cross of Honour and Dvotion of the
Sovereign Military Order of Malta, Former sovereign families - 2010 - House of Habsburg - Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece (House of Habsburg) and
2010 - International Military Sports Council - Knight Grand Cordon of the IMSC Order of Merit.

Tshering Tobgay (born September 19, 1965) is a Bhutanese politician who has been Prime Minister of Bhutan since July 30, 2013. He
was the Leader of Opposition party in National Assembly from March 2008 till April 2013. He is also leader of the People's Democratic
Party.Tobgay was a founding member of the Peoples Democratic Party and was responsible for establishing the Party as Bhutans first
registered political party. Tobgay received a bachelor of science degree in mechanical engineering from the University of Pittsburgh's
Swanson School of Engineering in 1990 and later received a master's in public administration from Harvard University in 2004. He
received his secondary schooling in India, at Dr. Graham's Homes School in the city of Kalimpong, near Darjeeling, in the eastern
Himalayas. He was a civil servant before he engaged politics. He began his career in 1991 with the Technical and Vocational Education
Section under the Department of Education. In 1998 he established and headed the National Technical Training Authority and served as a
director in the Ministry of Labour and Human Resources from 2003 until 2007.

Plamen Vasilev Oresharski (Bulgarian: ; born February 21, 1960) is a Bulgarian politician and
former Prime Minister of Bulgaria since May 29, 2013 until July 23, 2014. Oresharski was Minister of Finance from August 17, 2005
until July 27, 2009 in the Cabinet of the Triple Coalition with Prime Minister Sergei Stanishev. Oresharski was born on 21 February 1960
in Dupnitsa, Bulgaria. In addition to his native Bulgarian, he speaks English and Russian. In 1985, Oresharski graduated from the
University of National and World Economy. Between 1988 and 1992, Oresharski completed a dissertation on the topic of "Investments
and Investment Analysis", earning the equivalent of a doctoral degree.From 1993, Oresharski was Director of the Division for the State
Treasury and Debt of the Ministry of Finance. Between 1995 and 1997, he served on the Governing Council of the Bulgarian Stock Exchange, and from 1997 to
2000 on the board of the UniCredit Bulbank. When Ivan Kostov became Prime Minister in 1997, Oresharski served under his administration as Deputy
Minister of Finance, a position he held until the 2001 election, when he decided to lecture at the Higher Institute of Finances and Economics. In 2003, he was
nominated by the UDF as a mayoral candidate for Sofia. In the same year, Oresharski left the UDF and was for a while part of the BZNS-NS, DP and
"Gergyovden" coalition. In 2004, he was a member of the group that was in charge of drafting the economic reports for president Georgi Parvanov. Oresharski
returned to politics in 2005 as Finance Minister in the Socialist-led government of Sergei Stanishev, a position he held until Boyko Borisov replaced Stanishev as
Prime Minister in 2009. Oresharski was elected as an MP in the list of Bulgarian Socialist Party (Burgas) in 2009. After the May 2013 parliamentary election,
which was held earlier than initially expected because of the resignation of the Borisov cabinet, the latter's right-wing party, GERB, won a plurality. However, as it
did not possess a majority in parliament and failed to secure backing from another party, the mandate was instead given to the second party: the Bulgarian
Socialist Party (BSP). In May 2013 Oresharski was given a mandate to form a cabinet for the BSP by President Rosen Plevneliev. Following his announcement in
media of his proposed cabinet there was a strong dislike amongst some towards Oresharski and his ministers, which led to anti-Oresharski cabinet protests even
before the election of such cabinet. Green protesters organized themselves in May 27 and protested on May 28, 2013. Nonetheless the cabinet was elected (with
one change: Ivan Danov replaced Kalin Tiholov) and he became Prime Minister after a 120-97 vote in Parliament. Hours after the election new national protests
were organized for June 2, 2013. However, national protesters reached thousands rallying on streets on June 14, 2013 after the appointment of Delyan Peevski,
controversial figure, media mogul and previously investigated for corruption, for a head of Bulgarian security agency (DANS). After the first day of protests
against his appointment, Peevski gave his resignation, but demonstrators continued demanding the resignation of the whole cabinet. On July 23, 2014, Oresharski
deposited the resignation of his cabinet, a little more than a year after its election.The next day parliament voted 180-8 (8 abstained and 44 were absent) to accept
the government's resignation. Oresharski is married to cardiologist Elka Georgieva and they have one son, Desislav. Oresharski's hobbies include mountaineering
and badge collecting from various public events.

Catherine Samba-Panza (born June 26, 1954) is the interim President of the Central African Republic since January 23,
2014 and the first woman to hold the post. Prior to becoming Head of state, she was appointed Mayor of Bangui from June 14,
2013 until January 23, 2014. Samba-Panza was born in Fort Lamy, French Equatorial Africa, to a mother from the Central African
Republic (CAR) and a Cameroonian father. Prior to politics, she was a businesswoman and corporate lawyer. She moved to the
CAR at the age of 18. She was trained in law at Panthon-Assas University. She was appointed Mayor of Bangui, the capital of the
CAR, by the National Transitional Council (CNT) during the 201213 conflict June 14, 2013. Her appointment was accepted by
both sides in the conflict, as well as by French President Francois Hollande. She is a non-partisan. Following the Central African
Republic conflict under the Djotodia administration and President Michel Djotodia's resignation after a CEEAC summit on
January 10, 2014, Alexandre-Ferdinand Nguendet served as acting president until the CNT elected her as interim president from a list of eight candidates who
had to prove they had no links to either the Slka or the Anti-balaka. She will lead the country to the 2015 election. Of the MPs who voted in the election, 129
of the 135 MPs were in parliament. After beating Desire Kolingba in a second round ballot, she said: "I call on my children, especially the anti-balaka, to put
down their arms and stop all the fighting. The same goes for the ex-Slka - they should not have fear. I don't want to hear any more talk of murders and killings.
Starting today, I am the president of all Central Africans, without exclusion." Her call for talks between both sides to the conflict was welcomed by the parties. She
was sworn in as president on January 23, 2014. Andr Nzapayek was appointed as prime minister to serve during her tenure. She presided over a period that
was said to be without law, a functioning police and courts. Comparisons were drawn in asking if this would be the "next Rwanda;" although Al Jazeera's Barnaby
Phillips suggested the Bosnian Genocide's aftermath may be more apt as people were moving into religiously cleansed neighbourhoods. Samba-Panza suggested
poverty and a failure of governance was the cause of the conflict.

Andr Nzapayek (born August 20, 1951) is the Interim Prime Minister of the Central African Republic since January 25,
2014. Nzapayek was born on 20 August 1951 in Bangassou, French Equatorial Africa. A technocrat, Nzapayek rose to
secretary-general of the African Development Bank and vice president of the Development Bank of Central African States. He is
a Christian. He was appointed prime minister during the 201214 conflict in January 2014 and following the Central African
Republic conflict under the Djotodia administration. His appointment followed that of President Catherine Samba-Panza and the
resignation of Nicolas Tiangaye. Samba-Panza nominated him for the office; while he too is tasked with leading the country to the
2015 election. He said his first priority would be to stop the massacres and other atrocities within the country for months as the
key step to restoring the writ of the state and then help the one million displaced persons. I am going to be speaking with the different groups so that we
immediately stop certain... atrocities being carried out in this country. We have to put a stop to all that quickly. There's a certain number of very clear actions the
government is going to tackle starting this week. [I will] put a team in place that's going to deal with the question of national reconciliation. We have to tackle that
quickly, it will make the security question easier. [We will seek help from] friends in the international community.- Andr Nzapayek.

Kalzeubet Pahimi Deubet is a Chadian businessman and politician who has been Prime Minister of Chad since November 21,
2013. Deubet was the head of the state-owned cotton parastatal. Deubet served in the government as minister of the civil service and
minister of communication. Following the resignation of Prime Minister Djimrangar Dadnadji over allegations of ordering arbitrary
arrests, Deubet was appointed as Prime Minister on November 21, 2013.


Luis Guillermo Sols Rivera (born April 25, 1958) is a Costa Rican politician who has been President of Costa Rica since May 8,
2014. He is a member of the center-left Citizens' Action Party (PAC). Sols led the field in the 2014 presidential election, and he was
effectively handed the presidency after the runner-up in the first round, San Jos mayor Johnny Araya Monge, ceased active
campaigning. Sols has a long academic and political career, culminating in his election as the first President of Costa Rica to be a
member of the PAC. Sols was born in San Jos, Costa Rica to Vivienne Rivera Allen, an educator, and Freddy Sols Avendao, an
uneducated shoemaker. Both his parents lived in Turrialba, and as such many residents consider him Turrialban. His family has Afro-
Caribbean and Chinese roots, coming from Jamaica to Costa Rica in the early 1900s. Sols grew up in San Pedro de Montes de Oca and
Curridabat, neighborhoods of San Jos. He attended Methodist High School in San Jos, where he was president of the student body,
before studying history at the University of Costa Rica, where he earned a degree with academic honors in 1979. He earned a Masters
degree in Latin American Studies at Tulane University in New Orleans. Sols has held various academic and consulting positions.
Between 1981 and 1987, he was an associate professor at the University of Costa Rica. In addition, he was a Fulbright Scholar at the
University of Michigan from 1983 to 1985. During this time, Sols worked with the Arias administration and eventually became director
of the Center for Peace and Reconciliation (CPR for its Spanish initials). From 1992 to 1995, Sols worked with the Academic Council of the United Nations
System. Starting in 1999, Sols worked for Florida International University as coordinator in the Center for the Administration of Justice and as a researcher for
the Latin American and Caribbean Center, where he analyzed political and social events in Latin America. A writer and editorial writer, Sols has published
numerous essays and books about national and international affairs. In the 1990s, he wrote for La Repblica, a daily newspaper based in San Jos. His writing has
been published by Foreign Affairs Latinoamrica, Frontera Norte, Espacios and Global Governance. His writing has focused on civil society, international
relations, and trade. While still at UCR, Sols joined the National Liberation Party (PLN for its Spanish initials) in 1977. Sols was an adviser to scar Arias in the
Foreign Ministry, working on the Esquipulas Peace Agreement for which Arias would later win a Nobel Peace Prize. Sols served as Director of International
Relations for the PLN. During Jos Mara Figueres Olsen's time in office, Sols was ambassador of Central American Affairs. In 2002, Sols followed Rolando
Gonzlez Ulloa as General Secretary of the PLN, a position he resigned from the following year, citing his disappointed with the Alcatel-Lucent bribery scandal
that many PLN leaders were involved in. In 2005, he denounced the PLN for irregularities and corruption during party elections, along with a host of former
PLN members. Sols went as far as to call the PLN leadership "Napoleonic" and "anti-democratic". He officially renounced his affiliation with the party and
returned to academics. After the 2006 election, Sols' name began to come up in PAC circles, particularly at meetings of the "ungroup," an informal gathering of
PAC officials, led by former deputy and former Vice President of the National University of Costa Rica Alberto Salom Echeverra. Ottn Sols, one of PAC's
founders and three-time presidential candidate, suggested that Luis Guillermo Sols run as a vice presidential candidate in 2010. Luis Guillermo Solis rejected the
offer because he was working for the General Secretariat of Ibero-America (SEGIB for its Spanish initials), and employees of SEGIB were not allowed to
participate in elections. In 2009, Luis Guillermo Sols began his official affiliation with PAC.[3] He began attending meetings of the "ungroup" in 2010. Within the
party, PAC leader Mara Eugenia Venegas recognized Sols' potential and pushed for him to be elevated within the party. Sols undertook several trips around the
country to meet with national and provincial PAC leaders. Sols announced his candidacy for president on November 27, 2012. In the PAC's primary, he ran
against Epsy Campbell Barr, Juan Carlos Mendoza Garca, and Ronald Sols Bolaos, winning with 35 percent of the vote, only 110 votes more than Juan Carlos
Mendoza Garca. In October 2013, he chose Helio Fallas and Ana Helena Chacn Echeverra as his Vice-Presidential running mates. Among his aims, Sols
claimed he would clean up corruption, create major investments in infrastructure, and shore up Costa Rica's universal health care and social security system. He
also promised to continue initiatives to keep Costa Rica environmentally friendly. He said that he would "put the brakes" on new free trade agreements and would
begin correctly administrating current free trade agreements. As such, Sols received a tremendous amount of political support from the country's trade unions
Costa Rica's trade unions. On February 2, 2014, Sols won the most votes in the election with 30.95 percent. PLN candidate Johnny Araya came second with
29.95 percent of the vote. Most of Sols' support came from the Central Valley provinces of San Jos, Alajuela, Heredia and Cartago. Because no candidate
exceeded 40 percent of the vote, a second round of voting occurred on April 6, 2014 as required by the constitution. Before that, on March 5, 2014 Araya
announced that he would abandon his campaign after polls showed him far behind Sols. However, under Costa Rican law the runoff still had to take place, and
Sols won with over 77 percent of the vote, the largest margin ever recorded for a free election in Costa Rica. Unlike the first round, Sols earned a majority in
every province, including Puntarenas, Limn, and Guanacaste. When he takes office on May 8, 2014 he will be the first president in 66 years not to come from
the PLN or what is now the PUSC. Immediately after the election, Sols thanked Costa Rican voters. He received congratulatory notes from world leaders,
including US Secretary of State John Kerry, Ecuadoran President Rafael Correa, Mexican President Enrique Pea Nieto, Venezuelan President Nicols Maduro,
Bolivian President Evo Morales, and the spokesperson from the French Ministry of International Affairs. For his part, Araya congratulated Sols on his victory,
calling for national unity. With a little over a week before taking office, in April 2014, Sols announced the creation of his cabinet. His cabinet will consist of
mostly PAC members or non-aligned citizens. However, two PUSC members will also be added: Mara del Roco Senz, Abel Pacheco's former health minister,
will head the Costa Rican Social Security System (Caja Costarricense del Seguro Social). Delia Villalobos, another former health minister, will head the Social
Protection Council (Consejo de Seguridad). Sols took office on May 8, 2014, amid festive fanfare. Delegations from more than 80 countries attended his
inauguration at La Sabana Metropolitan Park, including Prince Felipe de Borbn of Spain, Evo Morales of Bolivia, Rafael Correa of Ecuador, and the Secretary
General of the Organization of American States, Jos Miguel Insulza. Sols said, in Costa Rican vernacular, that he is taking over a "weed farm" (finca
encharralada), pointing out growing income inequality and poverty, as well as a national teachers' strike. The past generated two different economies: one very
dynamic, modern and generally oriented toward international markets, with limited possibilities for new sources of employment, and the other, traditional, which
created many jobs with low pay where small and medium-sized businesses concentrated. Like most members of PAC, Sols identifies himself as a progressivist.
His Plan Rescate, or Rescue Plan, outlines his political beliefs. This plan focused on three central issues: anti-corruption, economic growth, and reducing income
inequality. Sols claims that economic neoliberalism has created too much income inequality for Costa Rica. Past governments have avoided collecting taxes on
large companies and high-income earners, leading to budget deficits which Sols claims his administration will fix through better enforcement. Banks should not
encourage exports at the expense of income growth among the poor, according to Sols. He believes that economic liberalization has generally harmed women
more than men because they have traditionally had less access to higher-income jobs. Part of that liberalization, he claims, included ignoring the financial and
growth needs of the agricultural industry. Sols supports environmental protections, which he believes Costa Rica has forgotten. As such, Sols believes that water
must be safeguarded from private development and mismanagement, something that has caused water shortages in many of the country's municipalities. Sols
claims that he will prosecute violators of the Water Resources Management Bill. In addition, Sols supports increased rights for rights for lesbians, gays, bisexuals,
and transsexuals. In May 2014, he ordered that a rainbow flag be flown over the Presidential House as a show of solidarity with gays on International Day Against
Homophobia and Transphobia. Sols is a Catholic. As a presidential candidate, he visited the basilica of Our Lady of Angels, home to the Costa Rican patron
saint La Negrita, a traditional pilgrimage for many Costa Ricans and tourists. He supports the separation of church and state despite Catholicism being the
country's official religion. With regard to ethical issues, he also supports civil unions, and in-vitro fertilization. Sols is married to Mercedes Peas. They have six
children. Peas said that she hopes to be active as an adviser to Sols, who called her "Jiminy Cricket." Saying that some of her duties as First Lady are machista,
she will nevertheless greet dignitaries and perform other obligations. In addition to public service and academics, Sols enjoys farming.

Ji Rusnok (born October 16, 1960) is a Czech politician and economist who served as Prime Minister of the Czech Republic from
June 25, 2013 until January 29, 2014. Previously he served in the government of the Czech Republic as Minister of Finance from 2001
to 2002 and as Minister of Industry and Trade from 2002 to 2003. On June 25, 2013, he was appointed as Prime Minister by
President Milo Zeman. Rusnok replaced Petr Neas, who resigned over a corruption and spying affair. Rusnok was Zeman's
economic advisor before the appointment. He is also a member of the National Economic Council (NERV) of the Czech Republic.
Rusnok was born in Ostrava-Vtkovice.[4] He studied at the University of Economics in Prague, graduating in 1984. Later, he worked
for Sttn plnovac komise (State Planning Commission) and Federln ministerstvo pro strategick plnovn (Federal Ministry for
Strategic Planning). Before the so-called Velvet Revolution, he was a candidate for membership in the Communist Party of
Czechoslovakia. In the 1990s, he worked as director of a department of the Czech-Moravian Confederation of Trade Unions (1992
1998). He joined politics in 1998 as a member of the Czech Social Democratic Party (SSD). Prime Minister Milo Zeman appointed
Rusnok to his cabinet as Finance Minister in June 2001. He continued as Minister of Industry and Trade in the cabinet of Vladimr pidla; however, he resigned
his post and parliamentary mandate and left politics in March 2003, after disagreements with pidla. After that, he worked in the private sector. President Milo
Zeman appointed Rusnok as Prime Minister of a caretaker government in June 2013 in a move that was criticized by political parties in the Czech Republic. It
was called irresponsible by the parties of the former coalition government (ODS and TOP 09), while the opposition (SSD) called for early elections. On August
7, 2013, Chamber of Deputies denied support to the caretaker government of Rusnok. His cabinet got support of 93 legislators, compared to 100 against, while
seven legislators abstained. A majority of voting legislators was required. Following the vote, TOP 09 stated that due to a lack of support for a potential renewed
ODS-TOP 09-LIDEM government, they would instead support an early election. The SSD and KSM also supported an early election. In reaction, Rusnok
signaled his intention to resign the next day: "I think this result is positive, as far as further political development in our country is concerned. It will lead to the
dissolution of the parliament."
Bohuslav Sobotka (born October 23, 1971 in Telnice) is a Czech politician who has been Prime Minister of the Czech Republic
since January 29, 2014. He has also been chairman of the Czech Social Democratic Party (SSD) since 2011. He comes from Telnice.
His family moved to Slavkov u Brna in early 80's. There he completed Primary School Tyrova.He studied on Gymnasium Buovice
from 1986 to 1990. He was student of Masaryk University and gained a Magister degree of Law. Sobotka was first elected to the Chamber
of Deputies in 1996. From 2002 to 2006, he was Finance Minister of the Czech Republic. Sobotka was also a Deputy Prime Minister
from 2003 to 2004 and from 2005 to 2006. As a minister he formed an advisory body of economists. It later became National Economic
Council of Czech government. His austerity policy included dismissal of employees and restrictions on building savings and health
benefits. The same policy he later criticised. Whn Ji Paroubek became the new Prime Minister in 2005, Sobotka reduced his
restrictions which led to the increase the deficit. Sobotka was elected to the Chamber again in 2006 but his party lost the election and went in opposition. Sobotka
became a Minister of Finance in a Shadow Cabinet of Social democrats. His party won legislative election in 2010 but failed to form a governing coalition,
remained in opposition. Sobotka then served as interim leader of SSD after the resignation of Ji Paroubek following the election. He also briefly served as
interim chairman in 2006, after the resignation of Stanislav Gross. Sobotka was elected the Chairman of the party on March 18, 2011 when defeated Michal
Haek who became the First Deputy Chairman. On March 18, 2011, Sobotka was officially elected the party chairman. Sobotka led his party to legislative
election in 2013. The party won the election and gained 20.45% of votes. The formation of a new government was remarked by a conflict beetween Bohuslav
Sobotka and Michal Haek who along his allies from the Party attended a secret post-election meeting with the Czech President Milo Zeman. They called on
Sobotka to resign due to the party's poor election result. Haek and his allies also eliminated Sobotka the team negotiating the next government. The esecret
meeting was later reveaaled and Haek accused of publicly lying about it. It led to public protests in the country for support of Sobotka which led to Haek's
retreat and a creation of a new negotiation government-formation team led by Sobotka. Sobotka was designated as Prime Minister on January 17, 2014 and
appointed, alongside his Cabinet, by President Milo Zeman on January 29, 2014. His cabinet consists of members of the SSD, ANO 2011 and Christian and
Democratic Union Czechoslovak People's Party.

Charles Angelo Savarin (born 1943) is a politician from Dominica. He is a member of the Dominica Labour Party and a
non-elected government member of the Dominican Parliament. He served as Minister for National Security, Immigration, Labour
and the Public Service and is currently serving as President of Dominica since October 2, 2013. Following the demise of the
Patrick John government (in which Savarin played and integral role) Savarin was made Chairman of the Committee for National
Salvation (CNS). This body comprising members of the greater cross section of Dominican Society, was tasked with overseeing the
transition to an interim government. Savarin contested the 1980 General Elections on a Dominica Freedom Party ticket losing to
Mike Douglas in a four way race. Savarin polled 405 votes to Douglas's 531 votes. In 1983, Savarin was appointed as Minister
without Portfolio in the Prime Minister's Office with special responsibility for Trade, Industry and Tourism. In 1986, Savarin was
appointed Ambassador/Permanent Representative to the European Union. He also served as principal ambassadorial spokesman
for African/Caribbean/Pacific States on bananas. That assignment ended in 1993, when he returned to Dominica to become
General Manager of the National Development Corporation (NDC). When Dame Eugenia Charles decided to walk away from
politics, Savarin contested the Leadership of the Dominica Freedom Party losing to Brian Alleyne. He however replaced Dame
Eugenia as the party's flag bearer in the Roseau Central Constituency. Savarin emerged victorious at the polls with some 1013 votes
to Norris Prevo's 759. When Brian Alleyne resigned as DFP Leader and Leader of the Opposition in 1996, Savarin again entered the leadership race. On
Saturday April 20, 1996, Savarin received 86 out of 107 votes at the party's General Council. He served as Leader of the DFP until 2007 where mounting
criticism of his leadership forced him to resign. During his first term as Roseau Central MP Savarin championed the cause of "equal educational opportunities"
for children in the Roseau catchment area. He was again re-elected as MP for Roseau in the 2000 General elections this time by a much reduced margin. Savarin
entered into a coalition arrangement with the Roosie Douglas led Dominica Labout Party. He was appointed Minister for Tourism. After Douglas died some
eight months later, Pierre Charles was appointed Prime Minister. He added the responsibilities of Enterprise Development and The Public Service to Savarin's
portfolio. Savarin was one of the most vocal defenders of the Pierre Charles government, often acting for Charles when the later was overseas. He was also
Chairman of the cabinet sub-committee on the economy. This placed him in the forefront of discussions and negotiations with the International Monetary Fund
and other donor agencies. Savarin was also one of the main speakers at town hall style meetings of the government to inform the public on the serious difficulties
facing the economy. Following the death of Pierre Charles on January 6, 2004, Savarin remained as Tourism Minister following the appointment of Roosevelt
Skerrit as Prime Minister. The Freedom Party continued to decline and won no seats in the May 2005 General Elections. Savarin was however rewarded for his
loyalty to the coalition and was named Minister for Foreign Affairs, Trade and Labour. In a 2008 Cabinet reshuffle Savarin was made Minister of Public Utilities,
Ports and The Public Service. Savarin joined the Labour Party and was instrumental in the public campaign for the 2009 General Elections. He co-hosted a
popular night time show alongside Attorney Anthony Astaphan and DLP stalwart Eddie Lambert. Savarin known for his platform oratory skills was also a key
figure on the DLP political platform. He served as General Secretary of the Civil Service Association (CSA) for nearly two decades and almost single-handedly
organised public service employees into the most powerful trade union in Dominica. During the public service protest action over a 5% salary cut in 2003,
Savarin was at the forefront in defending government's action. This aggravated the PSU Leadership with General Secretary Thomas Letang threatening to revoke
Savarin's lifetime membership to the Union. Savarin who had gained nationwide recognition for two CSA-Ied strikes; the 1973 public service strike over the
transfer of radio personality Daniel "Papa Dee" Cauderion, and the SeptemberOctober, 1977 CSA general strike which had virtually crippled the island.' Savarin
had grown in stature and was the most notable trade union leader on the island. The CSA's orientation was middle class, not working class. Though its
membership came from the formerly disenfranchised Dominican working class which had gained socio-economic ascendancy through earlier Labour Party
reform, most of the CSA leadership was now sympathetic to the Freedom Party. Indeed, the CSA and other local trade union now followed the pro business and
neo-colonial philosophy of the US AFL-CIO which had pursued a fiercely anti-Leftwing policy in Latin America. Charles Savarin is no stranger to controversy. In
2003 as acting Prime Minister Savarin announced the plans by a foreign company to build a billion dollar oil refinery in Castle Bruce Dominica. However
attempts by the media to contact the company resulted in the plan being dismissed as a farce. Several attempts to contact to the company by the media were
answered by an answering machine. In 2010, Savarin caused quite a stir when he called for the boycott of a local business after the proprietor Jerry Brisbane
wrote to international organization complaining about government. Brisbane in turn launched a petition to have Savarin removed from office. The petition
presented to Prime Minister Skerrit yielded no results. Savarin has also been the subject of many calypsos including the famous "you marry the girl Charlie" by the
Rabbit which spoke of Savarin's early morning wedding in the early 1980s, and more recently Third Eye's 'two tongue man".
Hazem Abdel Aziz Al Beblawi (also spelled el Beblawi; Arabic: pronounced [zem
bdel.ziz elbeblwi]; born October 17, 1936) is an Egyptian economist and politician who was interim Prime
Minister of Egypt from July 16, 2013 until March 1, 2014 (Interim Prime Minister of Egypt from July 9 until July 16,
2013). Previously he served as Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Finance of Egypt from July 17 until December 1,
2011. After the July 2013 ouster of President Mohammed Morsi and his government, Beblawi was named interim Prime
Minister. On February 25, 2014, Beblawi announced his resignation. Beblawi was born in Cairo, Egypt on October 17,
1936. He studied law at Cairo University and graduated in 1957. He obtained a postgraduate degree in economics from
the University of Grenoble in 1961.[2] He also holds a PhD in economics, which he received from the University of Paris
1 Pantheon-Sorbonne in 1964. Beblawi began his career as a lecturer at the University of Alexandria in 1965 and taught
economy-related courses at several universities, including the University of Southern California, until 1980. He became a
manager at the Industrial Bank of Kuwait in 1980, serving there until 1983. From 1983 to 1995, he was chairman and chief executive of the Export Development
Bank in Egypt. Then he worked at the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia (ESCWA) as executive secretary from 1995 to 2000.
Next, he served as an advisor to the Arab Monetary Fund in Abu Dhabi from 2001 to 2011. After the JanuaryFebruary 2011 Egyptian revolution, Beblawi
became a founding member of the Egyptian Social Democratic Party. He was appointed to the government as Deputy Prime Minister for Economic Affairs, as
well as Minister of Finance, in a cabinet reshuffle on July 17, 2011. He succeeded Samir Radwan, who had served as finance minister since January 2011. The
cabinet was headed by Prime Minister Essam Sharaf. After nearly four months in office, Beblawi resigned from office in October 2011 when Coptic Christians
were killed by security forces. However, his resignation was not accepted by the ruling military council. Beblawi's tenure lasted until December 2011, when he was
replaced by Momtaz Saeed as finance minister; Saeed had served as Beblawi's deputy at the Ministry of Finance. Beblawi was one of the nominees for prime
minister after the 2012 presidential election, together with Mohamed ElBaradei and Farouk El Okdah. Following the removal of President Mohammad Morsi
from office by the Egyptian military on July 3, 2013, Beblawi was appointed as interim Prime Minister on July 9, 2014. He subsequently suspended his
membership in the Egyptian Social Democratic Party. His cabinet was sworn in on July 16, 2013. On February 24, 2014, Prime Minister Al Beblawi announced
the resignation of his cabinet in a press conference. Beblawi defended the military's crackdown on Morsi supporters after the 2013 Egyptian coup d'tat as
necessary and restrained in August 2013. He proposed the legal dissolution of the Muslim Brotherhood on August 17, 2013. Beblawi is the author of several
books mostly about banking, finance, international trade and development.] He also writes articles in a column for Al Ahram. His books include: 2012 - Arba
Shohour Fi Qafas Al Hokouma (Four Months in the Governments Cage'), 1987 - The Rentier State and 1984 - The Arab Gulf Economy in a Turbulent Age.
He had following awards: Legion Honneur Chevalier ribbon.svg Chevalier de la Lgion d'honneur from France in 1992, BEL Order of Leopold II -
Commander BAR.png Commander, the order of Leopold II from Belgium in 1992 and Order of the Cedar - Grand Officer (Lebanon) Ribbon.png Grand
Officier, National Order of the Cedar from Lebanon in 2000.
Abdel Fattah Saeed Hussein Khalil el-Sisi (Arabic: Abd al-Fatt Sad usayn
Khall as-Ss, IPA: [bdel.ftt sid esen xlil essisi]; born November 19, 1954) is the sixth President of Egypt, in
office since June 8, 2014. Previously he was Commander-in-Chief of the Egyptian Armed Forces, as well as Minister of Defence,
from August 12, 2012 until March 26, 2014.As head of the armed forces, he played the leading role in ousting Islamist President
Mohamed Morsi following mass protests against Morsi and his government. El-Sisi was subsequently appointed as First Deputy
Prime Minister, while remaining Minister of Defense from July 26, 2013 until Marc 26, 2014. El-Sisi resigned from the military on
March 26, 2014, announcing he would stand as a candidate in the 2014 presidential election.The poll, held between May 26 and
May 28, 2014, resulted in a resounding victory for el-Sisi. El-Sisi was born on November 19, 1954 in Cairo. He grew up in
Gamaleya, near the al-Azhar Mosque, and in a quarter where Muslims, Jews and Christians resided, and in which he has recalled
hearing church bells and watching Jews flock to the synagogue unhindered. His family originated from Monufia Governorate, and
was known for its discipline, zeal and resulting wealth. He is the second of eight siblings (his father later had six additional children
with a second wife). His father, a conservative but not radical Muslim, had a wooden antiques shop for tourists in the historic bazaar
of Khan el-Khalili. Often described as disciplined, quiet and devout, el-Sisi preferred to concentrate on his studies or helping his
father rather than participate in soccer with neighborhood children. He and his siblings would study at the nearby library at al-Azhar
University. Unlike his brothers one of whom is a senior judge, another a civil servant el-Sisi went to a local army-run secondary
school, where concurrently his relationship with his maternal cousin Entissar Amer started to develop. They were married upon el-Sisi's graduation from the
Egyptian Military Academy in 1977. He attended the following courses: General Command and Staff Course, Egyptian Command and Staff College, 1987;
General Command and Staff Course, Joint Command and Staff College, United Kingdom, 1992; War Course, Fellowship of the Higher War College, Nasser
Military Academy, Egypt, 2003; War Course, US Army War College, United States, 2006; Egyptian Military Attach in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia and Basic Infantry
Course, USA. El-Sisi received his commission as a military officer in 1977 serving in the mechanized infantry, specializing in anti-tank warfare and mortar
warfare. He became Commander of the Northern Military Region-Alexandria in 2008 and then Director of Military Intelligence and Reconnaissance. El-Sisi was
the youngest member of the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces of Egypt. While a member of the Supreme Council, he made controversial statements
regarding allegations that Egyptian soldiers had subjected detained female demonstrators to forced virginity tests. He is reported to have told Egypt's state-owned
newspaper that "the virginity-test procedure was done to protect the girls from rape as well as to protect the soldiers and officers from rape accusations."[4] He was
the first member of the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces to admit that the invasive tests had been carried out. He hold main command positions:
Commander, 509th Mechanized Infantry Battalion, Chief of Staff, 134th Mechanized Infantry Brigade, Commander, 16th Mechanized Infantry Brigade, Chief
of Staff, 2nd Mechanized Infantry Division, Chief of Staff, Northern Military Zone, Deputy Director, Military Intelligence and Reconnaissance Department,
Director, Military Intelligence and Reconnaissance Department and Minister of defense. On August 12, 2012, Egyptian President Mohamed Morsi made a
decision to replace Mohamed Hussein Tantawi, the head of the Egyptian Armed Forces, with then little-known el-Sisi. He also promoted him to the rank of
colonel general. Sisi was then described by the official website of FJP as a "Defense minister with revolutionary taste". El-Sisi also took the post of Minister of
Defense and Military Production in the Qandil Cabinet. After el-Sisi was appointed as minister of defense on August 12, 2012, there were concerns in Egypt
regarding rumors that General el-Sisi was the hand of the Muslim Brotherhood in the army, though el-Sisi has always declared that the Egyptian army stands on
the side of the Egyptian people. On April 28, 2013, during celebrations for Sinai Liberation Day, el-Sisi said that, "the hand that harms any Egyptian must be cut".
This statement was taken by Morsi opponents as a clarification that the Army is in support of the people. However, the statement was interpreted by Morsi
supporters as a warning to Morsi opponents that el-Sisi would not allow an overthrow of the government. He remained in office under the new government
formed after the deposition of Morsi, and led by Hazem al-Beblawi. He was also appointed Deputy Prime Minister of Egypt. On January 27, 2014, he was
promoted to the rank of field marshal. On June 30, 2013, in response to the Tamarod movement, mass demonstrations took place in Tahrir Square and
Heliopolis Palace in Cairo as well as in other Egyptian cities including Alexandria, Port Said and Suez. Clashes took place around Egypt. Soon afterwards, the
Egyptian Army issued a 48-hour ultimatum which aired on television that gave the country's political parties until July 3, 2013 to meet the demands of the anti-
Morsi demonstrators. The Egyptian military also threatened to intervene if the dispute was not resolved by then. On July 2, 2013, the presidency rejected the
Egyptian Army's 48-hour ultimatum and Morsi made a late speech declaring that he would "defend the legitimacy of his elected office with his life and he won't
step down". On July 3, 2013, the Egyptian Army declared that as the political parties had failed to meet the deadline and Morsi had failed to build a national
consensus for his leadership, they had to overthrow Morsi. The Egyptian Army then installed Adly Mansour as the interim head of state in his place, and ordered
the arrest of many members of the Muslim Brotherhood on charges of "inciting violence and disturbing general security and peace." El-Sisi announced on
television that the president had "failed to meet the demands of the Egyptian people" and declared that the constitution would be suspended, which was met by
acceptance from anti-Morsi demonstrations and condemnation from pro-Morsi supporters in Rabaa al-Adawiya. Many Islamist movements, such as the Muslim
Brotherhood, al-Wasat Party and al-Gama'a al-Islamiyya, rejected the change of regime as a military coup, which they described as "illegitimate" and "anti-
democratic". On July 24, 2013, during a speech at a military parade, General el-Sisi called for mass demonstrations to grant the Egyptian military and police a
"mandate" to crack down on terrorism. Some interpreted this to mean that el-Sisi felt the need of the people to prove to the world that it wasn't a coup but the
popular will, while the statement was seen by others as contradicting the military's pledges to hand over power to civilians after removing Morsi and as indicating
an imminent crackdown against Islamists. The reactions to el-Sisi's announcement ranged from open support from the Egyptian presidency and the Tamarod
movement to rejection, not only by the Muslim Brotherhood, but also by the Salafi Nour Party, the moderate Strong Egypt Party, the revolutionary April 6 Youth
Movement and Egyptian human rights groups. However, on July 26, 2013, millions rallied across Egypt, responding to el-Sisi's call, a gathering which was
described as "the largest crowds in 2 years of upheaval" and even bigger numbers than June's 30 numbers. During the August 2013 Egyptian raids, the Egyptian
military under el-Sisi's command joined with the national police in removing camps of Muslim Brotherhood supporters from sit-ins being held throughout the
country. This action resulted in rapidly escalating violence that eventually led to the deaths of 638 people, of whom 595 were civilians and 43 police officers, with
at least 3,994 injured. Some liberal activists who had supported the ousting of Morsi publicly voiced their concerns: "I'm not happy when they use violence. And
I'm worried about them using it again," said Gamal Eid, a well-known human rights activist. Robert Fisk described General el-Sisi as at a loss, but that a massacre
would go down in history as an infamy. Lee Smith concluded that "Egypts New Leader Is Unfit to Rule". In a file published by the State Information Services, the
government explained the raids by claiming that police went on to use force dispersing the sit-in on August 14, 2013, with the least possible damage, causing
hundreds of civilians and police to fall as victims, while Muslim Brotherhood supporters imposed a blockade for 46 days against the people in an-Nahda and
Rabaa al-Adawiya squares under the name of sit-in where tens of protesters took to the street daily hindered the lives of the Egyptians, causing unrest and the
death or injury of many victims as well as damage to public and private properties. A poll by the Egyptian Centre for Public Opinion Research later showed that
67 percent of Egyptians were satisfied concerning the methods by which the Rabaa al-Adawiya and an-Nahda sit-ins had been dispersed. On August 3, 2013, el-
Sisi gave his first interview since the overthrow of President Mohamed Morsi. Speaking to The Washington Post, he criticized the U.S. response and accused the
Obama administration of disregarding the Egyptian popular will and of providing insufficient support amid threats of a civil war, saying, "You left the Egyptians.
You turned your back on the Egyptians, and they won't forget that." On the October 6, 2013 war anniversary, el-Sisi announced that the army was committed to
the popular mandate of July 26, 2013: "We are committed, in front of God, to the Egyptian and Arab people that we will protect Egypt, the Egyptians and their
free will." During the anniversary celebration, General el-Sisi invited the Emirati, Iraqi, Bahraini, Moroccan and Jordanian defense ministers to celebrate with
Egypt. During his speech he said in a warning way that the Egyptian people "will never forget who stood with them or against them". El-Sisi described October 6,
2014 as "a day to celebrate for all Arabs", hoping for the "unification of Arabs". He also thanked "Egypt's Arab brothers, who stood by its side." El-Sisi commented
on the relationship between the Egyptian army and Egyptian people, saying that it is hard to break. El-Sisi said: We would die before you [the Egyptian people]
would feel pain". He also compared the Egyptian army to the Pyramid, saying that "it cannot be broken". The anti-Morsi demonstrators on the streets welcomed
el-Sisi's overthrow of Morsi with celebrations and carried posters of el-Sisi, chanting "The Army and the People are one hand" and supporting General el-Sisi. On
social networks, thousands of Egyptians changed their profile pictures to pictures of el-Sisi, while others started campaigns requesting that El-Sisi be promoted to
the rank of field marshal, while others hoped he would be nominated in the next presidential elections. Cupcakes, chocolate and necklaces bearing the "CC"
initials were created, restaurants in Egypt named sandwiches after him, blogs shared his pictures, and columns, op-eds, TV shows and interviews discussed the
"new idol of the Nile valley" in the Egyptian mainstream media. On December 6, 2013, el-Sisi was named "Time Person of the Year" in Time magazine's annual
reader poll. The accompanying article noted "Sisi's success reflected the genuine popularity of a man who led what was essentially a military coup in July against
the democratically elected government of then President Mohammed Morsi." "Kamel Gemilak" (Finish your Favor) and "El-Sisi for president" are campaigns that
were started aiming to gather signatures in order to press el-Sisi, who has said he has no desire to govern, to run. Many politicians and parties including Egyptians
and non-Egyptians had announced their support for el-Sisi in the event of his running for president, including the National Salvation Front, Tamarod, Amr
Moussa, a previous candidate for the presidency, Abdel-Hakim Abdel-Nasser (son of President Gamal Abdel Nasser), unsuccessful presidential candidate
Ahmed Shafik, Prime Minister Hazem Al Beblawi, Naguib Sawiris, the Free Egyptians Party, the Revolutionary Forces Bloc,and the Russian president Vladimir
Putin. However, Hamdeen Sabahi may run against him in a future presidential race. Subsequently, Sabahi issued criticisms of Sisi and his potential candidacy by
expressing doubt about Sisi's commitment to democracy, arguing that the general bears a measure of direct and indirect responsibility for the human rights
violations carried out during the period of the interim government. He also denounced what he deemed to be the transitional government's hostility toward the
goals of the revolution. Kamel Gemilak claimed to have collected 26 million signatures asking Sisi to run for president. On January 21, 2014, Kamel Gemilak
organized a mass conference call in Cairo International Stadium to call on el-Sisi to run for president. In February 6, 2014, the Kuwaiti newspaper al-Seyassah
announced that el-Sisi would run for president, saying that he had to meet the wishes of the Egyptian people for him to run. Colonel Ahmed Ali, the Egyptian
army's spokesperson, later denied the news, saying that it's not accurate through his official Facebook page. El-Sisi confirmed on March 26, 2014 that he would
run for president in the presidential election. Shortly after his announcement, popular hashtags started for and against el-Sisi presidential bid. The presidential
election, conducted over May 26, 27 and 28, 2014, saw el-Sisi win in a landslide, capturing 22 million of the nearly 23 million votes counted. President Sisi was
sworn into office on June 8, 2014. The event was marked by an impromptu public holiday in Egypt in conjunction with festivals held nationwide. Tahrir Square
was prepared to receive millions of Egyptians celebrating Sisi's winning while police and army troops shut down the square outlets with barbed wires and
barricades, as well as electronic portals for detecting any explosives that could spoil the festivities. Sisi's oath was held in the morning in Egypt's Supreme
constitutional court in front of deputy head of the constitutional court, Maher Sami, who described el-Sisi as a "rebel soldier" and a "revolutionary hero"; ex-
president Adly Mansour; other constitutional court members; and a group of Egypt's top politicians. Sisi later removed to the Heliopolis Palace, where a 21-gun
salute welcomed the new president, before the ex-president received Sisi near the palace's stairway. Sisi then presided over a reception for the presidents, emirs,
kings, and official delegations who had been invited. Turkey, Tunisia and Qatar weren't invited because of their critical stances regarding then-recent events in
Egypt. Israel also wasn't invited. Sisi later gave a speech in front of the attendees and signed with the ex-president Adly Mansour, for the first time in the Egyptian
history, the handover of power document. after Heliopolis Palace's ceremony el-Sisi moved to Koubbeh Palace where the final ceremony was held and el Sisi
gave the final speech of the day, in front of 1200 attendees Representing different spectrums of the Egyptian people and the provinces of Egypt, presenting the
problems facing Egypt and his plan saying "In its next phase, Egypt will witness a total rise on both internal and external fronts, to compensate what we have
missed and correct the mistakes of the past,". Sisi also issued the first Presidential decree giving ex-president the Order of the Nile. el-Sisi made an African tour
marking Algeria his first abroad destination after taking office seeking Algeria's support to counter Islamist militancy in north Africa in a short visit, shortly before
Sisi arrives in Malabo, Guinea to participate in the 23rd ordinary session of the African Union summit where he gave his speech blaming the AU for freezing
Egypt's membership a year before. el-Sisi also announced the establishment of an Egyptian partnership agency for Africa's development. he also concluded the
tour with a few hours' visit to Sudan. President Sisi, who repeatedly during his presidential campaign encouraged Egyptians to work harder and to wake up on
5pm, urged Egyptians to be ready for what he have called "The hard work phase". In his first meeting with his cabinet, Sisi told his ministers they must set an
example by being in the office by 07:00. Sisi in first street appearance after the cabinet sworn in, participated in a surprising 20-kilometer bike marathon wearing
sporting gear and followed by his cabinet ministers, many actors, singers, military and police students to encourage low consumption of fuel which is costing the
government billions of dollars every year. Sisi encouraged Egyptians to help rebuilding the Egyptian economy saying that he will give the example announcing that
he is donating half his salary and half his personal assets including his inheritance to support the Egyptian economy. a move that will force senior officials and
prominent businessmen to do the same. after his call, Colonel General Sedki Sobhi announced that the Egyptian Armed Forces would help supporting the
economy by donating $140m (82m). Sisi has also ordered the ministry of finance to enforce rules on maximum wages estimated at 42,000 EGP ($5,873) per
month. Sisi has expressed his personal concerns about the sexual assaults issue in the country, Sisi was photographed on a hospital visit to a woman receiving
treatment after an assault during celebrations in Cairo's Tahrir Square ordering the army, the police, and the media to counter the issue. Sisi, who is reportedly
facing a severe economic ordeal in Egypt, has decided to raise fuel prices by 78 percent as an introduction to cut the subsides on basic food stuffs and energy
which eat up nearly a quarter of the state budget which the Egyptian government has always provided as a crucial aid to millions of people who live in poverty
fearing people's anger, in 5 years time. Egypt has spent $96 billion on energy subsidies in a decade which made petrol in Egypt among the world's cheapest.
cutting the energy subsidies will save 51 billion pounds from the new measures. the government hopes decision will benefit services such as health and education.
Sisi also raised taxes on alcohol and cigarettes applying a flat tax on local and imported cigarettes to between 25 and 40 cents per pack, new property taxes, and
plans to introduce a new scheme for value-added taxes. chicken prices reportedly would rise by 25 percent after days of the decision because of added
transportation costs, Mini-bus and taxi fares were raised by about 13 percent. the decision was welcomed by anger from some. a smattering of protests broke out
after the announcement. Dozens of drivers and passengers blocked the road in the middle-income Cairo neighborhood of Shoubra el-Kheima. Slashing
subsidies was recommended by international financial institutions, although no Egyptian leader has managed to broach the issue, fearing unrest in a country
where nearly 50 percent of the population live in poverty and rely on government aid. President Sisi defended the decision to raise fuel prices saying it was "bitter
medicine" that should have been taken before and was "50 years late" but was not as governments feared the possible backlash like what have happened in 1977.
Sisi who previously accepted only the half of his own pay, called on Egyptians to make sacrifices vowing to repair an economy growing at the slowest pace in two
decades describing raising energy prices as the only way to save the nation from drowning in debt,. Sisi warned Egyptians of more pain over the next two years
from economic problems that he said had accumulated over the last four decades and need to be fixed. Unlike previous leaders, el-Sisi has been protective of
the privacy of his family. He is married and the father of three sons and one daughter. He comes from a religious family and frequently inserts Quranic verses
into informal conversations; El-Sisi's wife wears the traditional Islamic Hijab. He is known to be quiet and is often called the Quiet General. His interests include
reading about history and law. El-Sisi was often called "General Sisi" when he was young due to his perceived orderly demeanor. According to Sherifa Zuhur, a
professor at the War College, when el-Sisi attended, many American officers expressed doubts that Muslims could be democratic. El-Sisi disputed this opinion;
he and others were critical of decisions made in Iraq. Zuhur also had the impression that el-Sisi supported a gradual move towards pluralism. He have following
medals and decorations April 25 Decoration (Liberation of Sinai), Distinguished Service Decoration, Military Duty Decoration, Second Class, Military Duty
Decoration, First Class, Longevity and Exemplary Medal, Kuwait Liberation Medal (Kuwait), Kuwait Liberation Medal (Egyp), Silver Jubilee of October War
Medal, Golden Jubilee of 23 July Revolution, Silver Jubilee of the Liberation of Sinai Medal, January 25 Revolution Medal, Military Courage Decoration, The
Republic's military Decoration,The Training's Decoration and The Army's Day Decoration.

Ibrahim Mahlab (Arabic: ) (born 1949) is the Prime Minister of Egypt, having taken office on March 1, 2014.
Previously he served as Minister of Housing. Mahlab was a member of the Policies Committee of the National Democratic
Party prior to the 2011 Egyptian revolution. Following the 2013 Egyptian coup d'etat, Hazem el-Beblawi was made interim
Prime Minister and Mahlab was appointed as Minister of Housing. Following the surprise resignation of el-Beblawi's
government, Mahlab was tasked with forming an interim government. He said that his administration would "work together to
restore security and safety to Egypt and crush terrorism in all corners of the country." He also vowed to rebuild the economy.
The day after being sworn in he said that security is the main issue and called for a halt to protest and strikes. He was
reappointed on June 17, 2014. Mahlab is married and speaks English and French.
Salvador Snchez Cern (born June 18, 1944) is a Salvadoran politician who has been President of El Salvador since June 1, 2014. He
previously served as Vice President from 2009 to 2014. In the 2014 presidential election, he ran as the candidate of the left-wing Farabundo
Mart National Liberation Front (FMLN) and was elected as President. He took office on June 1, 2014. Snchez Cern was born in
Quezaltepeque. The ninth of twelve children, three of his siblings died at young age. His parents struggled to raise nine children. His father
Antonio Alfonso Snchez a carpenter and his mother Dolores Rodas a market seller worked hard to give their children a better future.
Salvador Snchez Cern at a young age had to work with his family to help the family survive. At a young age he was exposed to collective
work. His working-class background has always characterized Salvador Snchez Cern as a man of communal living, anti-free trade, and
redistribution of wealth. He attended Escuela de Varones Jose Dolores La Reynaga for his middle school education. He attended Alberto Masferrer School
(school for teachers) in San Salvador and it was there where his political consciousness and participation developed. After graduating he taught for ten years in
public and rural schools. His political ideology derives from the various democratic and revolutionary organizations of which he was a member. He became
politically active in the late 1960s when he was a student at Alberto Masferrer School, but he was not part of any political organization until he was introduced to
the Unified Popular Action Front (FUAR or Frente Unido de Accion Revolucionaria). The FUAR exposed him for the first time to the political arena and
allowed his involvement in the student movement. He was a member of the PRAM (Partido Revolicionario Abril y Mayo), a political party that was against the
dictatorship and advocated anti-imperialism. Then he joined (UDN) Union Democratica Nacionalista and PAR (Partido Accion Renovadora). He was also a
participant of the (UNO) Union Nacional Oppositora as member of the UDN. In essence his experience and the things he learned in San Salvador at Masferrer
school from his peers he took back to his town and began to implement it. He was an active member of the ANDES 21 de Junio, a teachers union that practiced
and believed in the ideas of Paulo Freire and his analysis on pedagogy. In the 1970s he joined the Fuerzas Populares de Liberacin "Farabundo Mart" (FPL), one
of the five left-wing organizations, all of differing Marxist-Leninist tendencies, that later merged to form the Frente Farabundo Mart para la Liberacin Nacional
(FMLN). With the start of the Salvadoran Civil War in 1980, Snchez Cern adopted the pseudonym Commander Leonel Gonzlez, as he was also appointed to
the position of "comandante" or commander. In 1984 Snchez Cern became a Commanding General of the FMLN, until the signing of the Chapultepec Peace
Accords in 1992, when the guerrillas surrendered their weapons and became a legal political party. Under the leadership of Snchez Cern, the FMLN
conducted itself in the following manner, according to US Ambassador Charles Glazer in a classified diplomatic cable: The FMLN leadership described its
ideology during the war in a document called "Fundamental Programs for the Salvadoran Revolution," a guerrilla manifesto captured from FMLN Commander
Nidia Diaz (who would join Snchez Cern as an FMLN politician in the Salvadoran legislature) in April 1985. The FMLN's "fundamental programs" included
the following points in 1991: "To establish economic, political, cultural, technical and social bases to build the construction of socialism," "The construction of
democracy and socialist." "Our organization is a working class party. Our ideology is Marxism-Leninism." In 2000, Snchez Cern was elected as a deputy for the
FMLN in the Legislative Assembly and was re-elected in 2003 and 2006. Between 2001 and 2004 he served as the general coordinator of his party. In 2006,
following the death of Salvadoran Communist Party leader and FMLN Commander Schafik Handal, he succeeded Handal as head of the legislative portion of
the FMLN. In April 2007 he was chosen as the running mate of Mauricio Funes in the 2009 presidential election. Funes and Snchez Cern defeated the
Nationalist Republican Alliance (ARENA). Salvador Snchez Cern was sworn in as vice-president. El Salvador held presidential elections. Snchez Cern was
the FMLN's presidential candidate, and gained support. It is possible that Snchez Cern attained the leading votes in the elections on February 2 but not the
majority enough to win so he and Quijano competed in the second-round. Snchez Cern received 50.11% of the vote, compared with 49.89% for Norman
Quijano.

Taavi Rivas (born September 26, 1979) is an Estonian Reform Party politician, Prime Minister of Estonia since March 26, 2014
and leader of Reform Party since April 6, 2014. Before his term as Prime Minister, Rivas was Minister of Social Affairs (20122014).
On March 14, 2014, he was nominated as successor to Prime Minister Andrus Ansip by President Toomas Hendrik Ilves and began to
head talks between the Reform Party and the Social Democratic Party to form a new government. The coalition agreement was signed
on March 20, 2014 and the nomination was confirmed by the Riigikogu on March 24, 2014. He became Prime Minister after the
President approved his proposed cabinet on March 26, 2014. Rivas is the youngest government leader in the European Union. Rivas
joined the Reform Party in 1998. His political career began as an advisor to Minister of Justice Mrt Rask from 1999 to 2002. He was
mayor of Haabersti district of Tallinn 2004-2005 and advisor to Minister of Population Affairs Paul-Eerik Rummo from 2003 to 2004.
In 2005 he became an advisor to Andrus Ansip, Prime Minister and Reform Party leader. He was elected to Tallinn city council in 2005
and to Riigikogu in 2007 and again in 2011. In December 2012, Rivas became the youngest member of the government as Minister of
Social Affairs, replacing Hanno Pevkur. Pevkur in turn replaced Kristen Michal as Minister of Justice; Michal had resigned due to
corruption allegations by fellow party member Silver Meikar. In February 2014, Prime Minister Andrus Ansip announced he would
resign a year before elections in 2015 and hand his post to European Commissioner Siim Kallas, former Reform Party leader and Prime Minister 2002-2003.
Kallas began coalition talks with the Social Democratic Party, deciding to replace the conservative Union of Pro Patria and Res Publica as Reform Party's
coalition partner. On March 12, 2014 Kallas unexpectedly announced he would not seek the post, due to media scrutiny of his actions as President of the Bank
of Estonia in the early 1990s. On the same day, the leadership of the Reform Party chose Rivas as the new candidate for Prime Minister. Rivas speaks
Estonian, English, Finnish and Russian. Rivas is partnered with pop singer Luisa Vrk; they have a daughter.

Mulatu Teshome Wirtu (Amharic: ?, born 1955 or 1956) is an Ethiopian politician who has been President
of Ethiopia since October 7, 2013. Mulatu was born in Arjo town in Welega Province. He was educated in China, receiving his
bachelor's degree in philosophy of political economy and doctorate in international law at Peking University. He taught at
some "foreign universities and institutions", according to Speaker Abadula Gemeda. In the "mid-1990s" he was Deputy Minister
of Economic Development and Cooperation under Girma Birru, and he was appointed as Minister of Agriculture and Rural
Devolpment of Ethiopia from October 30, 2001 until July 17, 2003. He was also Speaker of the House of Federation from
2002 to 2005. He served as Ethiopia's Ambassador to China, Japan, and Turkey. While serving as Ambassador to Turkey, he
was elected as President of Ethiopia by a unanimous parliamentary vote on October 7, 2013. Girma Seifu of the Unity for Democracy and Justice, the sole
opposition member of parliament, welcomed his election. Like his predecessors Girma Wolde-Giorgis and Negasso Gidada, he is Oromo. Mulatu has one son.

Cai-Gran Alexander Stubb (born April 1, 1968) is the Prime Minister of Finland since June 24, 2014, and Leader of the National
Coalition Party. From 2004 to 2008, Stubb was a Member of the European Parliament. He was Minister for Foreign Affairs of Finland
from April 4, 2008 until June 22, 2011 and Minister for European Affairs and Foreign Trade of Finland from June 22, 2011 until June 24,
2014. He was elected as the Leader of the National Coalition Party and Finnish Prime Minister in June 2014. Stubb was born in Helsinki
to a bilingual family, where the father was a native Swedish speaker and the mother a native Finnish speaker. His father Gran Stubb
worked in the world of professional ice hockey and was the CEO of the Finnish Ice Hockey Association from 1976 to 1983. In 1986,
Stubb graduated from Mainland High School in Daytona Beach, Florida, and graduated two years later from the Gymnasiet Lrkan in
Helsinki. After completing his military service, he won a golf scholarship to Furman University in South Carolina, where he intended to
study for a business degree. He later switched to political science, graduating with a Bachelor of Arts in 1993. The following year he gained
a Diploma in French Language and Civilisation from the Sorbonne in Paris. In addition to his native languages Swedish and Finnish (as a
bilingual Swedish-speaking Finn), Stubb speaks English, French and German. In 1995 he gained a Master of Arts in European Affairs from the College of
Europe, Belgium. He went on to pursue a PhD in Philosophy and International Politics at the London School of Economics and Political Science, attaining it in
1999. Between 1995 and 1997 he was a researcher at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and then at the Finnish Academy from 1997 to 1999. In 1997 he also started
his work as a columnist, which he continues today. Between 1999 and 2001 he was a special researcher at Finland's representation to the European Union in
Brussels, as well as a member of the Finnish government's delegation to the intergovernmental negotiations for the Treaty of Nice. In 2000, he became a
professor at the College of Europe. Following the IGC's conclusion in 2001 he became an adviser to the President of the European Commission (then Romano
Prodi) and a member of the Commission Task Force on the European Convention. In 2003 he returned to Finland's representation to the EU as a special expert
and to the intergovernmental negotiations, this time for the European Constitution. When that ended in 2004, he stood for the National Coalition Party in the
elections to the European Parliament. Stubb lived in Genval, Belgium, with his wife, Suzanne Innes-Stubb who is a British-born lawyer, until they moved to
Tapiola, Espoo. She works for the media group Sanoma. They have two children, a daughter named Emilie and a son called Oliver Johan. A "confessed sports
nut", Stubb regularly competes in marathons, triathlons and has finished an Ironman Triathlon. Stubb served as an MEP for Finland from 2004 to 2008. He was
elected in 2004 with 115,225 votes (the second highest number of votes in Finland for that election) as a member of the National Coalition Party. As that party
was a member of the EPP, he sat in the European People's Party-European Democrats group. During this time he became one of the most well-known members
of the Parliament. Stubb was a member of the Committee on Budgetary Control and a vice-president of the Committee on Internal Market and Consumer
Protection. He was a substitute member of the Committee on Constitutional Affairs and the Delegation to the EU-Turkey Joint Parliamentary Committee (as of
August 2007). In 2006 he wrote a report for the Parliament on the EU's interpretation costs, which was adopted by the Parliament. He called for greater
awareness of the costs of translation, which he calculated as 511 million euros in 2005 for the Parliament, Commission and Council together. Despite the costs
and the need for some changes, he underlined that multilingualism is one of the EU's main assets. On April 1, 2008, Stubb's 40th birthday, the Finnish
government announced that Stubb would be appointed as its new Minister for Foreign Affairs following a scandal surrounding his predecessor, Ilkka Kanerva.
Stubb was sworn in on April 4, 2008. The decision to appoint him was unanimous and his seat in the European Parliament was taken up by Sirpa Pietikinen, a
former environment minister. Stubb is seen as a competent politician and has been a supporter of Finland's accession to NATO, stating he does not understand
Finland's non-alignment policy. In 2011 when Stubb was Foreign Minister, leaked diplomatic cables from the US embassy in Helsinki released by Wikileaks
stated that Stubbs then advisor Jori Arvonen had promised the United States that if the National Coalition Party were to win the elections Finland would join
NATO. At the time Stubb refused to comment on any Wikileaks documents. He also does not believe the President of Finland needs to attend meetings of the
European Council in addition to the Prime Minister. Jyrki Katainen, the Finnish Finance Minister and chairman of National Coalition Party, supported Stubb
stating he was surprising, courageous and that he "puts a smile on one's face". As the Foreign Minister of Finland, Stubb was the Chairman-in-Office of the
Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe from April 5, 2008 until December 31, 2008. The Russian-Georgian war occurred during this period, and
OSCE brokered an agreement to send military observers to the area. In 2011 Stubb stood for election to the Finnish Parliament for the first time and was elected
MP. He was the second-most-popular candidate in the election, in which the National Coalition Party became the largest party. In the government negotiations
the Foreign Affairs ministerial portfolio went to another party. Stubb became Minister for Europe and Foreign Trade in Jyrki Katainen's cabinet. During the
crises in Crimea and Eastern Ukraine Stubb expressed reluctance to adopt sanctions against Russia, arguing that a three percent drop in the Russian economy
would result in a half percent drop in the Finnish economy. He went on to argue that money should be used as a force for good in geo-political relations, stating:
"As I have said before, money is the best peace mediator and Money should be given the Nobel Peace Prize. When Jyrki Katainen announced that he was
stepping down after three years as Prime Minister and ten years as National Coalition Party chairman, Stubb announced his intention to run for party leadership.
In June 2014 the party congress chose him to be party chairman over his two rivals, Paula Risikko and Jan Vapaavuori. He formed a five party government
coalition, and was officially appointed Prime Minister by President Niinist on June 24, 2014. Stubb has stated that he has "always been of the opinion that
matters must be discussed openly and honestly", hence he is an active columnist. He has also authored a number of academic articles and nine books about the
European Union. Stubb has a blog, which he maintained post-election despite some other Finnish political figures largely abandoning theirs. He is also known as
an active tweeter. His book Alaston totuus ja muita kirjoituksia suomalaisista ja eurooppalaisista The Naked Truth and other stories about Finns and Europeans
(ISBN 9789510351758), a collection of his columns for the Finnair in-flight magazine Blue Wings, was published in a bilingual FinnishEnglish edition by
WSOY in 2009.

Manuel Carlos Valls Galfetti (French: [ma.ny.l vals]; born August 13, 1962) is a French politician who has been the Prime
Minister of France since March 31, 2014. He was the Minister of the Interior of France from May 15, 2012 until April 1, 2014. He is
a member of the Socialist Party. Born in Barcelona to a Spanish father and a Swiss mother, Valls was Mayor of vry from 2001 to
2012 and was first elected to the National Assembly of France in 2002. He is regarded as belonging to the Socialist Party's social
liberal wing, sharing common orientations with Scandinavian-style social democracy and Blairism. Valls' paternal grandfather was the
editor-in-chief of a Catholic Republican newspaper in Spain. During the Spanish Civil War he sheltered priests who were persecuted
by Trotskyists and anarchists. After Francisco Franco's victory, he was forced out of his job as editor. Valls' father was the Barcelona-
born painter Xavier Valls (19232006). In the late 1940s, he moved to Paris and met his future wife, Luisangela Galfetti, a Swiss
citizen and the sister of architect Aurelio Galfetti. He won in 1955 the prize for best still life in the third Spanish-American Art
Biennial inaugurated by Franco. He was also the second cousin to Manuel Valls Gorina, who composed Cant del Bara, the anthem
for FC Barcelona. Valls was born in Barcelona and lived there until he moved to France as a teenager. In 1980, at the age of 17, Valls
joined the French Socialist Party (PS) to support Michel Rocard. Within the PS, he defended the 'Second left' (La Deuxime gauche),
rather than the more pragmatic left of Franois Mitterrand. (The Second left could be compared to the 1960s 'New Left' opposed to
party lines and bureaucracy, anti-statist, supportive of anti-colonialist and anti-imperialist movements worldwide, favoring direct action politics.) While studying
history at the University of Paris I, Tolbiac campus, he was a member of the UNEF-ID, a progressive student union. In 1980, he met two other student
supporters of Rocard with whom he became close friends: Alain Bauer (Bauer is the godfather of Valls' second son), and Stphane Fouks. Between 1983 and
1986 Valls was a parliamentary attach for the member for Ardeche, Robert Chapuis. In 1986 he was elected to the regional Council for the Ile-de-France and
served until 1992. In 1988, he succeeded Henri Kaminska as head of the Socialist Party in Argenteuil-Bezons and deputy mayor. From 1988 to 1991 he was
responsible for function of the Prime Minister's Cabinet. From 1991 to 1993 he was an inter-ministerial delegate to the 1992 Winter Olympics in Albertville. In
1995, he became the Secretary of Communications for the national Socialist Party and in 1997 responsible for communications and media relations for the
Prime Minister's Cabinet. In 1998 he was elected vice president of the regional Council for the Ile-de-France which he held until 2002. While vice president of
the regional Council, he was also elected as mayor of vry in 2001, until 2012. In 2002, he became the Deputy for the First Electoral District in Essonne and in
2008, the President of the tri-city jurisdiction vry-Centre-Essonne. In the 2008 elections to choose the head of the Socialist Party, Valls supported the former
presidential candidate Sgolne Royal over her former civil-union partner Franois Hollande, who eventually won. The election results were controversial. There
were irregularities and claims of electoral fraud in the strongholds of North and Seine-Maritime, which favored the candidate Martine Aubry. On June 13, 2009,
Manuel Valls announced his intention to run for the Socialist Presidential Primary in 2011 for the 2012 election. On June 30, 2009 he founded a political
organization with the slogan "The Left Needs Optimism," to provide legal and financial support the Socialist Primary candidates. On June 7, 2011, he confirmed
his candidacy for the Socialist primary. On the evening of the first primary round, 9 October 2011, Manuel Valls achieved only 6% of the vote, just behind
Sgolne Royal. He was therefore eliminated. On the night of his defeat, he endorsed Franois Hollande for the second round. During the 2012 presidential
election, he was the communications director of the PS nominee Franois Hollande, becoming one of the pillars of the campaign team. Valls was appointed
Minster of the Interior in the Ayrault Cabinet in May 2012. In March 2014, following major losses to centre-right and extreme-right political parties in French
municipal elections, President Francois Hollande appointed Valls to the post of Prime Minister. He replaced Jean-Marc Ayrault who had resigned earlier that
day. The Valls Cabinet was formed on April 2, 2014, consisting of 16 ministers from the Socialist Party and one minister from the Radical Party of the Left. He is
regularly classified as being in the "right wing" of the Socialist Party, with a similar approach to the German and Dutch Social Democratic Parties. During the 2011
presidential primary, he defined himself as "Blairiste" or "Clintonien", and described his position as "in the tradition of Pierre Mendes France, Lionel Jospin and
Michel Rocard". He advocates an "economically realistic" political speech without any "demagoguery". He voices his dissent in the party by his vision of individual
responsibilities ("The new hope that the Left must carry is individual self-realization: to allow everyone to become what which he [she] is") and his positions
against a system where some people live only from national solidarity. Describing himself as "reformist rather than revolutionary," he wants to "reconcile the left to
the liberal approach". Asked in July 2011 on his attendance at a meeting of the Bilderberg Group, he confirmed that he was invited to Washington two years ago,
while considering that this group was too "Atlanticist" and was open to the world. Similarly, he considers that "it would have to be too large leftist organizations,
political, social," in European and global level. Valls has always been a supporter of Israel in the Israeli/Palestinian conflict and has stated on many occasions,
both on and off records, that he was "eternally attached to Israel". In his book To Put the Old Socialism to Rest ... And Finally be Left-Wing, he declared support
for immigration "quotas". On Sunday June 9, 2009, while visiting a market in vry, of which he was then mayor, he was caught on camera suggesting that the
presence of more white people would give a better image of the city. In October 2013, his stance in the highly controversial Dibrani case met with high approval
by public opinion, with a global approval rate of 74% (57% approval rate from the left, and 89% from the right, even though the government and Parliament are
mostly Socialist). Valls supported the extension of the years of required pension-contribution to 41, as advocated and achieved by the Sarkozy administration.
The extension means that due to the maximum mandatory retirement age of 62, only immigrants receiving the right to legally work around the age of 21 would
be allowed to receive the pension to which they would have contributed throughout their careers. In 2002, as mayor of vry, he opposed a branch of the national
grocery store chain Franprix, located in a predominately Muslim neighborhood, deciding to sell only halal-certified meat/products and products that do not
contain alcohol. Valls favours banning muslim veils from universities, but supports the right to wear the Jewish kippa. When Catholics protested against "Golgota
Picnic", Valls supported the theater director in the name of freedom of speech. When Dieudonn's quenelle gesture became viral in 2013, Valls said he would
consider "all legal means" to ban Dieudonn's "public meetings", given that he "addresses in an obvious and insufferable manner the memory of victims of the
Shoah." On October 12, 2009, Manuel Valls expressed "total disagreement" with the proposed decriminalization or legalization of cannabis proposed by Daniel
Vaillant, whose plan involved depriving traffickers of a source of income. Valls argued that: "The question of drugs that produce considerable damage in some
neighbourhoods and nourish the underground economy, cannot be handled this way. There is a certain number of rules that cannot be removed." In 1987, Valls
married Nathalie Souli, with whom he had 4 children before divorcing. On July 1, 2010, he married Anne Gravoin, a violinist and winner of the Conservatoire
de Paris' prestigious Premier Prix for Violin and Chamber Orchestra. Due to his family background, Manuel Valls is fluent in French, Spanish, Catalan and
Italian. He wrote following publications: Les habits neufs de la gauche, ditions Robert Laffont, 2006, La lacit en face, a dialog with Virginie Malabard, ditions
Descle de Brouwer, 2005 and Pour en finir avec le vieux socialisme... et tre enfin de gauche, a dialog with Claude Askolovitch, Robert Laffont, 2008. He was
also Member of the National Assembly from Essonne's 1st Constituency since June 19, 2002.

Daniel Ona Ondo (born July 10, 1945) is a Gabonese politician who has been Prime Minister of Gabon since January 27, 2014. He
previously served as Minister of Education and First Vice-President of the National Assembly. He is a member of the Gabonese
Democratic Party (Parti dmocratique gabonais, PDG). Ona Ondo taught at the Omar Bongo University in Libreville and was appointed
as an adviser to President Omar Bongo in 1990; he also became Rector of Omar Bongo University in 1990. He was elected to the
National Assembly in the December 1996 parliamentary election, and he was then appointed to the government as Minister-Delegate
under the Minister of Health and Population in 1997. Subsequently he was Minister of Culture, Arts, Popular Education, Youth, and
Sports from 1999 to 2002 before being appointed as Minister of National Education on January 27, 2002. In a partial parliamentary
election held on May 26, 2002, he won the fourth seat from Woleu Department as a PDG candidate, receiving 65.62% of the vote. He was
elected to the National Assembly in the December 2006 parliamentary election as the PDG candidate for the fourth seat in Woleu
Department. Following that election, he was elected as First Vice-President of the National Assembly on January 26, 2007. On June 25, 2009, following the death
of President Bongo, Ona Ondo said on Radio France Internationale that he intended to seek the PDG's nomination as its candidate for the planned presidential
election. He was the first person to confirm that he intended to seek the nomination. Although he said that he intended to only run if he won the PDG
nomination, it was noted that he made the announcement publicly without adhering to party guidelines intended to ensure unity and discipline. Ona Ondo was
re-elected as First Vice-President of the National Assembly on February 27, 2012. Following local elections in December 2013, President Ali Bongo appointed
Ona Ondo as Prime Minister on January 24, 2014, replacing Raymond Ndong Sima. He took office on January 27, 2014.

Giorgi Margvelashvili (Georgian: ; born September 4, 1969) is a Georgian academic and politician
who has been President of Georgia since November 17, 2013. A philosopher by education, he was twice the rector of the Georgian
Institute of Public Affairs from 2000 to 2006 and again from 2010 to 2012. In October 2012, he became a member of the newly
formed cabinet of Bidzina Ivanishvili as Minister of Education and Science of Georgia from October 25, 2012 until July 18, 2013. In
February 2013, he was additionally appointed as First Deputy Prime Minister. Margvelashvili was named by the Ivanishvili-led
Georgian Dream coalition as its presidential candidate in May 2013 and he won the October 2013 presidential election with 62% of
votes. Margvelashvili is not a member of any political party. Giorgi Margvelashvili was born in Tbilisi in the family of Teimuraz
Margvelashvili (born 1938), an engineer, and Mzeana Gomelauri (born 1933), a psychologist.[2] Margvelashvili graduated from the
Tbilisi State University in 1992 with a degree in philosophy. He continued his post-graduate education at the Central European
University in Budapest, Hungary (19931994) and the Institute of Philosophy, Georgian Academy of Sciences (19931996). In 1998,
he obtained a doctorate degree in philosophy from the Tbilisi State University.[3] Early in the 1990s he worked as a mountain guide
at the Caucasus Travel agency. He joined National Democratic Institute's Tbilisi office as a program consultant in 1995 and worked for it before becoming
affiliated with the Georgian Institute of Public Affairs (GIPA), a joint GeorgianUnited States educational establishment, in 2000. Margvelashvili twice served as a
rector of the GIPA from 2000 to 2006 and, again, from 2010 to 2012. In between his two tenures as a rector, he headed the GIPA's research department from
2006 to 2010. During these years, he was a frequent commentator on politics and society of Georgia. Margvelashvili was not a household name in Georgia until
2012. His first direct involvement in politics briefly came in 2003, when he joined the opposition election bloc Burjanadze-Democrats prior to the November
2003 parliamentary election, being in the top ten of the bloc's list of candidates. After the allegation of electoral fraud brought about street protests and a change
of power in the Rose Revolution, the Burjanadze-Democrats merged with the Mikheil Saakashvili-led United National Movement, and Margvelashvili quit
politics. In 2008, Margvelashvili was again associated with Nino Burjanadze, the former parliamentary chairwoman, this time as a member of the board of
advisers of Burjanadze's think-tank Foundation for Democracy and Development. By 2012, Margvelashvili had become a critic of Mikheil Saakashvili's
government. He publicly supported the Georgian Dream coalition set up by the billionaire tycoon Bidzina Ivanishvili, but he was not directly involved in the
coalition's election campaign. After the victory over Saakashvili's party in the October 2012 parliamentary election brought Ivanishvili to the premiership of
Georgia, Margvelashvili, described by Ivanishvili as "a personal friend" and "an intellectual", became Minister of Education and Science on October 25, 2012. In
February 2013, Ivanishvili appointed Margvelashvili as First Deputy Prime Minister, replacing Irakli Alasania, the Defense Minister. Margvelashvili's program as a
minister envisaged several changes in the educational system, including a model of school graduation exams, the role of schools, and the financial independence
of universities. During his tenure, Margvelashvili came to public attention several times. In March 2013, he was accused by the opposition and student groups of
political meddling in academia after his ministry revoked authorization of the Tbilisi-based Agrarian University, run by a foundation founded by Kakha
Bendukidze, an entrepreneur and ex-minister in the Saakashvili government. Within two weeks, the authorization to the Agrarian University was renewed after
the ministry said that the shortcomings had been addressed. In April 2013, Margvelashvili's announcement that the government would provide to country's
650,000 school students with text books free of charge was denounced by publishers as a blow to the publishing business and by political opponents as a populist
move in violation of intellectual property rights. In May 2013, Margvelashvili was again in media headlines after he slammed proposed amendments to the labor
code, calling them a "nightmare" for businesses. On May 11, 2013, the Georgian Dream coalition named him as its candidate for the October 2013 presidential
election. The leader of the coalition, Ivanishvili, claimed the decision was unanimous. The outgoing president of Georgia, Mikheil Saakashvili, expressed
skepticism about the nomination, comparing it to Caligula's alleged naming of "his horse to the senate." Both Margvelashvili and Ivanishvili rejected claims by
opponents that Margvelashvili was "a puppet" in the hands of a wealthy prime minister. Although not obligated by the law, Margvelashvili resigned, as he put it, to
avoid allegations of misuse of administrative resources during the election campaign. On July 18, 2013, he was succeeded by Tamar Sanikidze in his ministerial
position. Margvelashvili campaigned aggressively, with Ivanishvili frequently appearing by his side and expressing support in his public appearances. On October
17, 2013 Margvelashvili announced, following Ivanishvili's "advice" earlier that day, that he would withdraw from the race in case of a runoff. On October 27,
2013, Margvelashvili won the presidential election, getting 62% of the vote and beating the United National Movement's David Bakradze by about 40 percentage
points. After the election, Margvelashvili stressed that deepening ties with Europe would remain Georgia's priority and the government would work towards
defusing tensions with Russia in collaboration with the country's international partners. Margvelashvili was sworn in as the fourth President of Georgia at a
ceremony in the courtyard of the Parliament's old building in Rustaveli Avenue, Tbilisi. With this, a new constitution came into effect which devolved significant
power from the President to the Prime Minister. Margvelashvili's inauguration was not attended by his predecessor Mikheil Saakashvili, who cited disrespect by
the new government towards its predecessors and opponents. Margvelashvili initially refused to move to the luxurious presidential palace built under Saakashvili
in Tbilisi, opting for more modest quarters in the building of the State Chancellery until a 19th-century building once occupied by the U.S. embassy in Georgia is
refurbished for him. However, he later started to occasionally used the palace for official ceremonies. This was one of the reasons for which Margvelashvili was
publicly criticized, in a March 2014 interview with Imedi TV, by the ex-Prime Minister Ivanishvili, who said he was "disappointed" in Margvelashvili. Beyond his
native Georgian, Margvelashvili is fluent in English and Russian. His hobby is knitting. Margvelashvili has rarely commented on his private life. He has a
daughter, Anna (born 1995), who studied in Moscow. Margvelashvili is unmarried and in a relationship with a makeup artist, Maka Chichua (born 1965), a
sometime singer-actress.
Irakli Garibashvili (Georgian: , also transliterated as Gharibashvili) (born June 28, 1982) is
the Prime Minister of Georgia since November 20, 2013, and is a former business executive. Garibashvili entered
politics with his long-time associate, the businessman Bidzina Ivanishvili, in October 2012. He served as Minister of
Internal Affairs of Georgia in the cabinet of Bidzina Ivanishvili from October 25, 2012 until November 17, 2013.
Ivanishvili named Garibashvili as his successor as Prime Minister when he voluntarily stepped down in November 2013.
At 32 years of age, he is the 2nd youngest state leader in the world after Kim Jong-un. Born in Tbilisi, Irakli Garibashvili
graduated from the Tbilisi State University (TSU) with a degree in International Relations in 2004. He also studied at the
Pantheon-Sorbonne University from 2002 to 2004 and obtained a master's degree in International Relations from the
TSU in 2005. Since 2004, he has worked with the multi-billionaire Bidzina Ivanishvili, becoming Director General of
Ivanishvili's charity foundation Cartu in 2005, a member of the supervisory board of Ivanishvili's Cartu Bank in 2007 and director of the label Georgian Dream
founded by Ivanishvili's pop-star son Bera in 2009. Gharibashvili became involved in the politics of Georgia when Ivanishvili founded his political party Georgian
DreamDemocratic Georgia in February 2012. He was included in the party list of MP candidates for the October 2012 parliamentary election. After Georgian
Dream's victory in the 2012 parliamentary election, Garibashvili was appointed as Minister of Internal Affairs in the cabinet of Prime Minister Ivanishvili on
October 25, 2012. Garibashvili, then 30 years old and described by the Georgian media as "Ivanishvili's right-hand man", became the youngest member of
Georgia's new government. Reforming the Interior Ministry, a powerful agency overseeing police, security and intelligence services, as well as the border guard
and navy, was a part of the Georgian Dream's pre-election agenda. From 2012 through 2013, the Interior Ministry arrested several high-ranking officials from the
previous government, including the former ministers Bachana Akhalaia and Ivane Merabishvili. This led to concerns regarding selective justice and political
vengeance and drew criticism from the domestic opposition and the international media. Garibashvili's agency also faced the post-election spike in crime in
Georgia. Garibashvili defended the arrests as being in strict accordance with the law and justice and claimed that the rate of minor crime, albeit increased, was not
alarming. On November 2, 2013, Prime Minister Bidzina Ivanishvili, who had declared his intention to quit the government following the October 2013
presidential election, named Garibashvili as his successor. He and his cabinet won in a vote of 93-19 in the Parliament of Georgia on November 20, 2013.
Garibashvili thus occupied the most powerful political office in the country as the constitution amendments had transferred power from the president to the
prime minister and the government. At heated parliamentary debates with the United National Movement minority during the vote, Garibashvili promised
economic improvement and stressed that Georgia's EU and NATO aspiration would remain his foreign priorities. On November 24, 2013, he was elected
chairman of the Georgian DreamDemocratic Georgia party, succeeding Ivanishvili. Garibashvili is married to Nunu Tamazashvili (born 1983), with two sons,
Nikoloz (born 2005) and Andria (born 2010). His father-in-law, Tamaz Tamazashvili, is a former police general who was arrested on charges of illegally carrying
and keeping weapon and explosives in October 2011. Garibashvili, a member of then-opposition Georgian Dream party, claimed the arrest was politically
motivated. After the Georgian Dream acceded to power in October 2012, Tamazashvili was released from prison.

Jos Mrio Vaz (born December 10, 1957) is the President of Guinea-Bissau, who took office on June 23, 2014.
Mrio Vaz was named by President Malam Bacai Sanh as the country's Finance Minister in 2009, though he and the
other ministers were ousted in the 2012 Guinea-Bissau coup d'etat. He is a member of the African Party for the
Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde and won the right to represent the party in the 2014 presidential election by
besting eleven hopefuls during a two-day primary in March 2014. In the first round of the election on April 13, 2014,
he won 40.9% of the votes, and entered a runoff with the second leading vote-getter, Nuno Gomes Nabiam, who was
backed by the country's military. In the second round, on May 18, 2014, he received 61.9% of the vote. Though
Gomes Nabiam initially contested the result, he conceded the election on May 22, 2014. During the election, Mrio
Vaz promised to focus on reducing poverty and increasing investment in agriculture, as well forgiveness for
participation in the sorts of criminal actives that have turned Guinea-Bissau into a haven for drug traffickers. After the 2012 coup, he fled to Portugal, but
returned in February 2013 and spent three days under arrest. He was accused of being involved in the disappearance of 9.1 million in aid donated to the
country by Angola, a charge he denies, and it remains unclear if the donation was ever sent. Popularly known by the nickname "Jomav," he was born in 1957 to
Mrio Vaz and Amelia Gomes in Calequisse, outside the city of Cacheu in northern Guinea-Bissau, and is married with three children. He was trained as an
economist in Lisbon at the Office of Economic Studies of the Banco de Portugal in 1982. In 2004, he was elected as mayor of the city of Bissau, a position he
held until his appointment as Financial Minister.
Domingos Simes Pereira (born 1964) is the current Prime Minister of Guinea-Bissau, in office since July 3, 2014. Pereira
was born in Farim, Guinea-Bissau. He has experience in civil engineering and political science. He was the Executive Secretary of
the Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP) between 2008 and 2012. He was elected leader of the African Party for
the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde (PAIGC) on February 9, 2014.


Juan Orlando Hernndez Alvarado, often written as JOH, (born October 28, 1968 in Gracias, Lempira) is a Honduran
politician and businessman who is the current President of Honduras since January 27, 2014 following his victory in the 2013
Honduran presidential election. A member of the conservative National Party of Honduras, he was the actual President of the National
Congress of Honduras from January 25, 2010 until June 13, 2013 when he was given permission by the Congress to absent himself
from all responsibilities in the Congress to dedicate himself to his presidential campaign. Juan Orlando Hernndez is a lawyer who
graduated from the Universidad Nacional Autnoma de Honduras, where he was President of the Association of Students from 1988 to
1989. He is a graduate in social and legal sciences with a master's degree in public administration, at the State University of New York,
and studied legislation at the Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Honduras. He is a lawyer and a notary. He is a businessman in coffee
cultivation in his native Gracias and in the radio and television industries as well as being an owner of hotels. He gained notoriety in
Honduras when Liberal leader Rafael Pineda Ponce described him as a cipote malcriado (spoiled kid). Juan Orlando Hernndez,
who represented Lempira Department since 2001, was elected head of a National Congress where the National Party had a comfortable
majority, on January 21, 2010, and took office four days later. In 2012 he fought a campaign against Ricardo lvarez to try and become
the 2013 presidential nationalist candidate, and won the internal election of November 2012. A poll conducted in May 2013 saw him in
3rd place with a projected 18% of the vote. He began his presidential campaign in July 2013 in Intibuc and La Paz with a campaign entitled El Pueblo Propone
(The People Propose in English).[8] He campaigned for the military to police the streets, and claimed that his closest rival Xiomara Castro wanted to remove the
Polica Militar (English: Military Police) which were already in Honduras' two main cities. He won the election, beating Castro by 250,000 votes.




Narendra Damodardas Modi (born September 17, 1950) is the 15th and current Prime Minister of India since
May 26, 2014. Modi, a leader of the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), also served as the Chief Minister of Gujarat from 2001
14. He is currently the Member of Parliament (MP) from Varanasi. Modi was a key strategist for the BJP in the successful
1995 and 1998 Gujarat state election campaigns. He became Chief Minister of Gujarat in October 2001 and served longer
in that position than anyone else to date. Modi was a major campaign figure in the 2009 general election, which the BJP-led
National Democratic Alliance lost to the Congress-led United Progressive Alliance (UPA). He led the BJP in the 2014
general election, which resulted in an outright majority for the BJP in the Lok Sabha (the lower house of the Indian
parliament) the last time that any party had secured an outright majority in the Lok Sabha was in 1984. Modi is a Hindu
Nationalist and a member of the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS). He is a controversial figure both within India as well
as internationally as his administration has been criticised for the incidents surrounding the 2002 Gujarat riots. Modi has
been praised for his economic policies, which are credited with creating an environment for a high rate of economic growth
in Gujarat. However, his administration has also been criticised for failing to make a significant positive impact upon the
human development of the state. Modi was born on September 17, 1950 to a family of grocers belonging to the backward
Ghanchi-Teli (oil-presser) community, in Vadnagar in Mehsana district of erstwhile Bombay State (present-day Gujarat),
India. He was the third of four children born to Damodardas Mulchand Modi and his wife, Heeraben. He helped his
father sell tea at Vadnagar railway station. As a child and as a teenager, he ran a tea stall with his brother near a bus terminus. In 1967, he completed his schooling
in Vadnagar, where a teacher described him as being an average student, but a keen debater who had an interest in theatre. That interest has influenced how he
now projects himself in politics. At the age of eight, Modi came in contact with RSS and he began attending its local shakhas where he came in contact with
Lakshmanrao Inamdar, popularly known as Vakil Saheb, who is known as his political guru and mentor. Inamdar inducted Modi as a balswayamsevak, a junior
cadet in RSS. During his morning exercise session at the keri pitha shakha of RSS, he also came in contact with Vasant Gajendragadkar and Nathalal Jaghda,
leaders of the Jan Sangh who later founded the BJP's Gujarat state unit in 1980. Modi's parents arranged his marriage as a child, in keeping with the traditions of
the Ghanchi caste. He was engaged at the age of 13 to Jashodaben Chimanlal and the couple were married by the time he was 18. They spent very little time
together and were soon estranged because Modi decided to pursue an itinerant life, and reportedly the marriage was never consummated. Modi kept the
marriage secret for most of his career only acknowledging the existence of his wife when filing his nomination for a parliamentary seat in the 2014 general
elections. As per Modi in Kishore Makwana's Common Man Narendra Modi, published in 2014, after leaving home at 17, he went to Ramakrishna Mission
ashram in Rajkot and then to the Belur Math near Kolkata. Then he went to Guwahati and later joined another ashram set up by Swami Vivekananda in Almora,
in the Himalayan foothills. Two years after, he returned to Vadnagar and after a brief halt at his house, Modi left again for Ahmedabad, where he lived and
worked in a tea stall run by his uncle where he again came in contact with Lakshmanrao Inamdar who was then based at Hedgewar Bhavan, the RSS
headquarters in the city. He then worked in the staff canteen of Gujarat State Road Transport Corporation until he became a fulltime pracharak (campaigner) of
the RSS in 1970.[23] In 1978, Modi graduated with an extramural degree through Distance Education in political science from Delhi University. In 1983, while
remaining as a pracharak in the RSS, completed his Master's degree in political science from Gujarat University. He still continues to visit Belur Math
occasionally and talks about his reverence for the Ramakrishna Mission. Modi became a member of the RSS after the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971.After Modi
had received some RSS training in Nagpur, which was a prerequisite for taking up an official position in the Sangh Parivar, he was given charge of Sangh's student
wing, Akhil Bharatiya Vidyarthi Parishad, in Gujarat. During 19751977, when Prime Minister Indira Gandhi declared a state of the emergency, political
opponents were jailed and political organisation including RSS were banned. Modi went underground in Gujarat and to evade arrest was occasionally disguised as
a Sikh, saint, elderly man etc. and printed and sent booklets against the central government to Delhi. He also organised agitations and covert distribution of the
Sangh's pamphlets. He also participated in the movement against the Emergency under Jayaprakash Narayan. He was made the general secretary of the Gujarat
Lok Sangharsh Samiti and his primary role was to co-ordinate between activists in the state. During this period he wrote a book titled Sangharsh ma Gujarat
(Gujarat's struggle) in Gujarati which chronicles events, anecdotes as well as his personal experiences. The RSS assigned Modi to the BJP in 1985. While
Shankersinh Vaghela and Keshubhai Patel were the established names in the Gujarat BJP at that time, Modi rose to prominence after organising Murli Manohar
Joshi's Kanyakumari-Srinagar Ekta yatra (Journey for Unity) in 1991. In 1988, Modi was elected as organising secretary of BJP's Gujarat unit, marking his formal
entry into mainstream politics. As secretary, his electoral strategy was central to BJP's victory in the 1995 state elections. In November 1995, Modi was elected
National Secretary of BJP and was transferred to New Delhi where he was assigned responsibility for the party's activities in Haryana and Himachal
Pradesh.Vaghela defected from the BJP after he lost the 1996 Lok Sabha elections, having previously threatened to do so in 1995. Modi was promoted to the
post of general secretary (Organisation) of the BJP in May 1998. While on the selection committee for the 1998 Assembly elections in Gujarat, Modi favoured
supporters of Patel over those loyal to Vaghela, in an attempt to put an end to the factional divisions within the party. His strategies were credited as being key to
winning the 1998 elections. In 2001, Keshubhai Patel's health was failing, and the BJP had lost seats in the by-elections. Allegations of abuse of power, corruption
and poor administration were being made, and Patel's standing had been damaged by his administration's handling of the Bhuj Earthquake of 2001. As a result,
the BJP's national leadership sought a new candidate for the office of chief minister, and Modi, who had aired his misgivings about Patel's administration, was
chosen as a replacement. L. K. Advani, a senior leader of the BJP, did not want to ostracise Patel and was worried about Modi's lack of experience in governance.
Modi declined an offer to be Patel's deputy chief minister, informing Advani and Atal Bihari Vajpayee that he was "going to be fully responsible for Gujarat or not
at all", and on October 7, 2001, Modi was appointed the Chief Minister of Gujarat, with the responsibility of preparing the BJP for elections in December 2002.
As Chief Minister, Modi's ideas of governance revolved around privatisation and small government, which stood at odds with what political commentator Aditi
Phadnis has described as the "anti-privatisation, anti-globalisation position" of the RSS. On February 27, 2002, a train with several hundred passengers including
large numbers of Hindu pilgrims was burned near Godhra, killing around 60 people.[a] Following rumours that the fire was carried out by Muslim arsonists, anti-
Muslim violence spread throughout Gujarat. Estimates of the death toll ranged from 900 to over 2,000, while several thousand more people were injured. The
Modi government imposed a curfew in major cities, issued shoot-at-sight orders, and called for the army to prevent the violence from escalating. However, human
rights organisations, opposition parties, and sections of the media all accused Gujarat's government of taking insufficient action against the riots, and even
condoning it in some cases. Modi's decision to move the corpses of the Kar Sevaks who had been burned to death in Godhra to Ahmedabad had been criticised
for inflaming the violence. In March 2008, the Supreme Court asked the state government to re-investigate nine cases in the 2002 Gujarat riots, including the
Gulbarg Society incident, and constituted a Special Investigation Team (SIT) to probe the cases afresh. Responding to a petition from Zakia Jafri, widow of
Ehsan Jafri who was killed in the Gulbarg Society massacre, the Supreme court in April 2009 asked the SIT to probe her complaint alleging that Modi and
another minister had been complicit in the killing. The SIT questioned Modi in March 2010, and in May 2010 presented its report before the Court, stating that
it found no evidence to substantiate the allegations. In July 2011, the amicus curiae Raju Ramachandran submitted his final report to the Supreme Court, stating
that Modi could be prosecuted based on the available evidence, contrary to the position of the SIT. Ramachandran's report was criticised by the SIT for relying
on the testimony of Sanjiv Bhatt, who, it said, had fabricated the documents used as evidence. The Supreme court handed the matter to the magistrate court, and
left it to the SIT to examine Ramachandran's report. The SIT submitted its final report in March 2012, seeking closure of the case, against which Zakia Jaffri filed
a protest petition. In December 2013, the magistrate court rejected the protest petition and accepted the clean chit given to Modi by SIT stating that there was no
evidence against Modi in the case. Modi's involvement in the events of 2002 has continued to be debated. Several scholars have described the events of 2002 as a
pogrom, while others have called it an instance of state terrorism. Summarizing academic views on the subject, Martha Nussbaum stated that "There is by now a
broad consensus that the Gujarat violence was a form of ethnic cleansing, that in many ways it was premeditated, and that it was carried out with the complicity of
the state government and officers of the law." In 2012, Maya Kodnani, a former minister in Modi's Government from 2007 2009, was convicted of having
participated in the Naroda Patiya massacre during the 2002 riots. She was both the first female and the first MLA to be convicted in a post-Godhra riots case.
While initially announcing that it would seek the death penalty for Kodnani, Modi's government eventually pardoned her in 2013 and settled for a prison
sentence. A few months after the riots, New York Times reporter Celia Dugger asked Modi if he wished he handled the riots any differently. He told her his only
regret was that he did not handle the news media better and cited India's NDTV channel as being irresponsible in its reporting. In the aftermath of the violence,
there were widespread calls for Modi to resign from his position as chief minister of Gujarat. These came from both within and outside the state, including from
the leaders of the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam and the Telugu Desam Party, which were allies in then BJP-led NDA government at the centre. The opposition
parties stalled the national parliament over the issue. In April 2002, at the national executive meeting of BJP at Goa, Modi submitted his resignation; however, it
was rejected by the party. On July 19, 2002, Modi's cabinet had an emergency meeting and offered its resignation to the Governor of Gujarat, S. S. Bhandari, and
the assembly was dissolved. In the subsequent elections, the BJP, led by Modi, won 127 seats in the 182-member assembly. Modi made significant use of anti-
Muslim rhetoric during his election campaign, though he later denied it. Despite allegations of using anti-Muslim rhetoric during the campaign, Modi's emphasis
shifted during his second term from Hindutva to the economic development of Gujarat. Modi's decisions curtailed the influence of organisations of the Sangh
Parivar such as the Bharatiya Kisan Sangh (BKS) and the Vishva Hindu Parishad (VHP), which had become entrenched in Gujarat after the decline of
Ahmedabad's textile industry. Modi dropped Gordhan Zadafia, an ally of his former Sangh coworker and VHP state chief Praveen Togadia, from the cabinet
ministry. When the BKS launched a farmers' agitation, Modi ordered their eviction from houses provided by the state government. Modi's decision to demolish
200 illegal temples in Gandhinagar deepened the rift with VHP. Various organisations of the Sangh were no longer consulted nor informed of Modi's
administrative decisions prior to their enactment. The changes brought by Modi in the period 20022007 has led to Gujarat being called an attractive investment
destination. Aditi Phadnis writes that "there was sufficient anecdotal evidence pointing to the fact that corruption had gone down significantly in the state... if there
was to be any corruption, Modi had to know about it". Modi started financial and technology parks in the state. During the 2007 Vibrant Gujarat summit, real
estate investment deals worth INR6.6 trillion were signed in Gujarat. Despite his focus on economic issues during the second term, Modi continued to be
criticised for his relationship with Muslims. Atal Bihari Vajpayee, then Prime Minister of India, who had asked Modi not to discriminate between citizens in the
aftermath of the 2002 Gujarat violence and had pushed for his resignation as Chief Minister of Gujarat,[89][90] distanced himself from Modi and reached out to
North Indian Muslims before the 2004 elections to the Lok Sabha. After the elections, Vajpayee held that the violence in Gujarat had been one of the reasons for
BJP's electoral defeat and acknowledged that not removing Modi immediately after the Gujarat violence was a mistake. In the run up to the assembly elections in
2007 and the general election in 2009, the BJP stepped up its rhetoric on terrorism. On July 18, 2006, Modi criticised the Indian Prime Minister, Manmohan
Singh, "... for his reluctance to revive anti-terror legislations" such as the Prevention of Terrorist Activities Act. He asked the national government to allow states to
invoke tougher laws in the wake of the 2006 blasts in Mumbai. Around this time Modi frequently demanded the execution of Afzal Guru, a collaborator of the
Pakistani jihadists who had been convicted of terrorism for his involvement in the 2001 Indian Parliament attack.[96][b] As a consequence of the November
2008 Mumbai attacks, Modi held a meeting to discuss security of Gujarat's 1,600 km (990 mi) long coastline which resulted in the central government
authorisation of 30 highspeed surveillance boats. In July 2007, Modi completed 2,063 consecutive days as chief minister of Gujarat, making him the longest-
serving holder of that post. The BJP won 122 of the 182 seats in the state assembly in the 2007 election, and Modi continued as chief minister. Successive BJP
governments under Patel and Modi supported NGOs and communities in the creation of infrastructure projects for conservation of groundwater. Gujarat is a
semi-arid state and, according to Tushaar Shah, was "... never known for agrarian dynamism". By December 2008, 500,000 structures had been constructed, of
which 113,738 were check dams. While most check dams remained empty during the pre-monsoon season, they helped recharge the aquifers that lie beneath
them. 60 of the 112 tehsils which were found to have overexploited the groundwater table in 2004 had regained their normal groundwater level by 2010,
meaning that Gujarat had managed to increase its groundwater levels at a time when they were falling in all other Indian states. As a result, production of
genetically-modified Bt cotton, which could now be irrigated using tube wells, increased to become the largest in India. The boom in cotton production and
utilisation of semiarid land saw the agriculture growth rate of Gujarat increase to 9.6% in the period 20012007. Though public irrigation measures in the central
and southern areas, such as the Sardar Sarovar Project, have not been as successful in achieving their aims, for the decade 20012010, Gujarat recorded an
agricultural growth rate of 10.97%, the highest among all Indian states. However, sociologists have pointed out that the growth rate under the Congress
government during 199297 was at 12.9%. The Narendra Modi government also succeeded in bringing electricity to every village in Gujarat, although Dipankar
Banerjee points out that all but 170 of them had been electrified under the previous Congress administration. Modi also greatly changed the system of power
distribution in the state, with a significant impact on farmers. The state greatly expanded the Jyotigram Yojana scheme, in which the agricultural electricity supply
was rewired to separate it from other rural power supplies. The electricity supplied was then rationed to fit scheduled demand for irrigation, resulting in a cost
reduction. Initial farmer protests died down when the farmers who benefited found that supply had become more regular. An assessment study found that
corporations and large farmers had significantly benefited from the policy, but that small farmers and labourers had been negatively impacted. In his third term,
progress was made on the Gujarat International Finance Tec-City project, considered as one of Modi's pet projects. The first phase, which encompassed two
skyscrapers, GIFT One and Two, was completed in 2012. Narendra Modi addressing law graduates at the Gujarat National Law University. Modi's government
has worked to brand Gujarat as a state of dynamic development, economic growth and prosperity, using the slogan "Vibrant Gujarat". However, critics have
pointed to Gujarat's relatively poor record on human development, poverty alleviation, nutrition, and education. The state is 13th in India for poverty, 21st for
education, 44.7 percent of children under five are underweight and 23 percent are undernourished putting the state in the "alarming" category on the India State
Hunger Index. In contrast, officials from the state of Gujarat claim that Gujarat outperformed India as a whole in the rates of improvement of multiple human
indicators, such as female education, between 2001 and 2011. Furthermore, they claim that the school drop-out rates declined from 20 percent in 2001 to 2
percent in 2011, and that maternal mortality declined by 32 percent from 2001 to 2011. Additionally, the Indian Supreme Court, in a review of the Land
Acquisition Act, 1894, identified Gujarat as being one of the few states from which there were no complaints of forcible land acquisition. Political scientist
Christophe Jaffrelot asserts that the development in Gujarat has been limited to the urban middle class, while rural dwellers and lower castes have become
increasingly marginalised. He cites the fact that Gujarat ranks 10th among the 21 Indian states in the Human Development Index, which he attributes to the
lower development in rural Gujarat. He states that under Modi, the number of families living below the poverty line has increased, and that particularly rural
adivasi and dalits have become increasingly marginalised. In July 2013, Economics Nobel Laureate Amartya Sen criticised Narendra Modi's governance record
and said he did not approve of it, saying that under Modi's administration, Gujarat's "record in education and healthcare is pretty bad". However, economists
Arvind Panagariya and Jagdish Bhagwati state that Gujarat's social indicator improved from a much lower baseline than other Indian states. They state that
Gujarat's performance in raising literacy rates has been superior to other states in India, and the "rapid" improvement of health indicators in Gujarat as evidence
that "its progress has not been poor by any means." In the 2012 Gujarat legislative assembly elections, Modi won from the constituency of Maninagar with a
majority of 86,373 votes over Sanjiv Bhatt's wife, Shweta, who was contesting for the Indian National Congress. The BJP won 115 of the 182 seats, continuing the
majority that the party has had throughout Modi's tenure, and allowing the party to form the government, as it has in Gujarat since 1995. In later by-elections, the
BJP won an additional four assembly seats and 2 Lok Sabha seats that were all held by the Indian National Congress prior to the by-elections, even though Modi
never campaigned for its candidates. This brought the number of seats held by the BJP in the state assembly up to 119. In 2013, the Wharton India Economic
Forum (WIEF) at the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania cancelled a keynote video-conference speech by Modi after some Indian-Americans
lobbied against Modi. After being elected as Prime Minister, Modi resigned from the post of chief minister on May 21, 2014, and his MLA seat from the
Maninagar constituency, after delivering a leaving speech described as emotional. Anandiben Patel was chosen as his replacement. Modi played a role in the 2009
national general election campaign of the BJP and was one of their star campaigners. On March 31, 2013, Modi was appointed to the BJP Parliamentary Board,
the highest decision-making body of the party. On June 9, 2013, Modi was appointed Chairman of the BJP's Central Election Campaign Committee for the 2014
general election, at the national level executive meeting of BJP. The party's senior leader and founding member Lal Krishna Advani resigned from all his posts at
the party following the selection, protesting against leaders who were "concerned with their personal agendas"; the resignation was described by The Times of
India as "a protest against Narendra Modi's elevation as the chairman of the party's election committee". However, Advani withdrew his resignation the next day at
the urging of RSS chief Mohan Bhagwat. In September 2013, BJP announced Modi as their prime ministerial candidate for the 2014 Lok Sabha election.
Narendra Modi contested the election from two constituencies: Varanasi and Vadodara. His candidacy was supported by spiritual leaders Ramdev and Morari
Bapu, and by economists Jagdish Bhagwati and Arvind Panagariya, who have stated that they, "...are impressed by Modi's economics." His detractors included
Nobel Prize laureate economist Amartya Sen, who said that he did not want Modi as a Prime Minister because he had not done enough to make minorities feel
safe, and that under Modi, Gujarat's record in health and education provision has been "pretty bad". Modi won from both seats he contested; defeating Arvind
Kejriwal, leader of the Aam Aadmi Party, in Varanasi and Madhusudan Mistry of the Indian National Congress in Vadodara (by a margin of 570,128 votes, the
second highest ever). He led the BJP-led NDA to a decisive victory in the general elections in which the ruling Indian National Congress suffered its worst ever
defeat. Modi was unanimously elected as the leader of the BJP parliamentary party following his party's victory in the Indian parliamentary elections and was
subsequently appointed the prime minister by India's president. To comply with the rule that a MP can not hold two constituencies, Modi vacated the Vadodara
seat. In "India's first social media election", Modi effectively used social media like Twitter, Facebook and Google in his campaign, besides Google Hangouts and
holograms for campaign appearances. He even posted a selfie on Twitter and his victory tweet emerged as the most retweeted in India. Narendra Modi was
sworn in as Prime Minister on May 26, 2014 at the Rastrapati Bhavan. He is India's first prime minister born after the country's independence. In a first of its
kind, Modi invited all SAARC leaders to attend his swearing-in ceremony; the attendees included Afghanistan President Hamid Karzai, Sri Lankan President
Mahinda Rajapaksa, Bhutan Prime Minister Tshering Tobgay, Maldives President Abdulla Yameen Abdul Gayoom, Prime Minister Navin Ramgoolam of
Mauritius (SAARC observer), Nepal Prime Minister Sushil Koirala, Prime Minister of Pakistan Nawaz Sharif, and Speaker of the National Parliament of
Bangladesh Shirin Sharmin Chaudhury. Bangladesh Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina could not attend since she had a scheduled state visit to Japan and deputed
the Speaker of National Parliament of Bangladesh to attend the ceremony on her behalf. To attract foreign investment in Gujarat during his time as chief
minister, Modi made visits to countries such as China, Singapore and Japan. He also visited China in November 2006 to study the Special Economic Zones that
were about to be implemented in Gujarat. He again visited in September 2007 and later in November 2011. A month after his visit of 2011, the Chinese
Government released 13 diamond traders from India who had been jailed by the Shenzhen Customs, which Modi attributed to his diplomatic efforts and
statesmanship. Modi's relationship with many Western nations was a troubled one during his tenure as Chief Minister. Questions about his role in the 2002
Gujarat riots resulted in a boycott by the UK, the US and the EU. He was barred from entering the United States under a provision of the Immigration and
Nationality Act. Modi is the only person ever denied a visa to the U.S. under this provision. The UK as well as the European Union refused to deal with Modi
because of perceptions of his role in the riots. However, as Modi emerged as a national leader in India, the UK and the EU lifted their boycotts in October 2012
and March 2013 respectively and, following Modi's election as the Prime Minister of India, the US invited him to Washington. In 2011, the Karachi Chamber of
Commerce & Industry, impressed with the development of Gujarat, invited Modi to visit Pakistan and address prominent business leaders. They also asked him
to consider a flight between Karachi and Ahmedabad, on account of the historical cultural and economic relations between the two regions of Gujarat and Sindh.
Modi wanted to help Pakistan out of its power crisis, especially in Sindh, suggesting Pakistan can follow the 'Gujarat Model' in two ways Gujarat Solar Park and
Kalpasar Project. In April 2014, in a move described as "unexpected", senior Pakistani diplomats told The Daily Telegraph that Modi is their preferred choice for
the Prime Minister of India, "as he could provide the strong leadership necessary for peace talks". Although boycotted by Western nations, Modi visited Japan in
2012. According to Ryohei Kasai, research fellow at the Center for South Asian Studies, Gifu Women's University, Japan, "There is a growing interest in Modi in
Japan with much anticipation that he will reshape India by revitalizing its economy and better governance. I believe Japan has an excellent relationship with him.
Not only have successive Japanese ambassadors to India been regular guests in 'Vibrant Gujarat' investors' summit (organised biennially) but Japanese private
companies also made a big amount of investment in the state." Modi invited the leaders of SAARC countries to his oath-taking ceremony for taking office as
Prime Minister of India, to strengthen the diplomatic relationship and increase business. Continuing with the aim of promoting close ties with neighbouring
countries, Modi's first foreign visit as Prime Minister of India was to Bhutan. Modi is a vegetarian. He has a frugal lifestyle, is a workaholic and an introvert. He
writes poems in Gujarati. As a speaker, he is known as a crowd-puller. In the critical opinion of Somini Sengupta, writing for The New York Times in a 2009
article on the Supreme Court's ordering of an investigation into Modi's role in the 2002 Gujarat riots, "Mr. Modi has assiduously sought to reinvent himself from a
scruffy mascot of Hindu nationalism to a decisive corporate-style administrator". He emerged as social media savvy politician and is currently the fourth most
followed leader in the world with over 5 million followers on Twitter. His interaction on Google Hangouts on August 31, 2012 made Modi the first Indian
politician to interact with netizens through live chat on the internet. Modi has been labelled by the media and some articles in peer-reviewed journals as a
controversial, polarising and divisive figure, but British economist Jim O'Neill, author of the BRIC report, wrote on his blog that Modi is "good on economics",
one of the things that "India desperately needs in a leader". In August 2013, financial analyst Chris Wood, chief strategist of CLSA, wrote in his weekly Greed &
Fear that "the Indian stock market's greatest hope is the emergence of Gujarat Chief Minister Narendra Modi as the BJP's prime ministerial candidate". He
received following awards and recognitions: Gujarat Ratna by Shri Poona Gujarati Bandhu Samaj at Ganesh Kala Krida Manch on celebration of centenary year,
e-Ratna award by the Computer Society of India, Best Chief Minister In a nationwide survey conducted in 2007 by India Today magazine, Narendra Modi was
declared the Best Chief Minister in the country, Asian Winner of the fDi Personality of the Year award for 2009 by FDi magazine. In March 2012, Modi
appeared on the cover of the Asian edition of Time, one of India's few politicians to have done so. Modi was featured in Time's 2014 Time 100 list of the most
influential people in the world. Modi (@narendramodi) has become the most followed Asian leader on Twitter.

Joko Widodo (born June 21, 1961) is an Indonesian politician who is currently the Governor of Jakarta and the
President-elect of Indonesia. He is often better known by his nickname Jokowi. He was previously the mayor of Surakarta
(often also known as Solo in Indonesia). He was nominated by his party, the Indonesian Democratic Party Struggle (PDI-
P), to run in the 2012 Jakarta gubernatorial election with Basuki Tjahaja Purnama (often known as Ahok) as his running
mate. He was elected governor of Jakarta on September 20, 2012 after a second round runoff election in which he defeated
the incumbent governor Fauzi Bowo. Jokowi's win was widely seen as reflecting popular voter support for "new" or "clean"
leaders rather than the "old" style of politics in Indonesia, although he is over 50 years old. His governorship lasts for five
years and will end in 2017. Jokowi's popularity has risen sharply since his election to the high-profile position of governor of
Jakarta in 2012. During 2013 and early 2014, he was seen as a potential PDI-P candidate for the Indonesian presidential
election in 2014. Originally, PDI-P chairwoman Megawati Sukarnoputri stated that she would not announce the PDI-P
presidential candidate until after the 9 April legislative elections in accordance with Law No 42 of 2008 (Clause 9) which
states that nominations of candidates for the presidential election may only be made by a party (or a coalition of parties) that
receive at least 20% of the seats in Indonesias House of Representatives (112 out of 560) or win 25% of the popular votes.
However, due to the potential vote gains that announcing Jokowi's presidential nomination will bring to the PDI-P legislative
candidates, some speculate she took advantage of his popularity to announce his nomination on March 14, 2014, three
weeks before the elections and two days prior (March 16, 2014) to the start of the official legislative campaigning period including rallies and mass media
advertising. Regardless, Megawatis nomination is not formal until one of the following occurs after the Indonesian legislative election on April 9, 2014: PDI-P
wins 20 percent of the legislative seats, PDI-P wins 25% of the popular votes, or forms a coalition with other parties to reach the 20% threshold. If Jokowi runs
successfully for President, the Deputy Governor of Jakarta Basuki Tjahaja Purnama from the Great Indonesia Movement Party (Gerindra) will succeed him as
the new Governor of Jakarta. On July 22, 2014 Jokowi was named as the President-elect of Indonesia, winning 53.15% of all votes over his opponent Prabowo's
46.85%. Joko will return as Governor of Jakarta until October 20, 2014 which will be the official commencement of his term as the 7th President of Indonesia.
Joko Widodo is the eldest son of Noto Mihardjo and Sujiatmi Notomihardjo. He has three younger sisters, named Iit Sriyantini, Ida Yati and Titik Relawati.
Before changing his name, Joko Widodo was called Mulyono. His father came from Karanganyar, his grandparents came from a village in Boyolali. His
education started in State Primary School 111, Tirtoyoso, known for being a school for less wealthy citizens. Due to the monetary difficulties in his childhood, he
had to work his way through primary school to earn enough money for school materials and pocket money. At twelve, he started working in his father's furniture
workshop. The evictions he experienced three times in his childhood affected his way of thinking and his leadership later on as the mayor of Surakarta (Solo) as
he organised housing in the city. After primary school, he continued his studies in SMP Negeri 1 Surakarta (middle school). He had wanted to continue his
education in SMA Negeri 1 Surakarta (high school), but he failed the entrance exam and went to SMA Negeri 6 Surakarta instead. Jokowi married Iriana in
Surakarta on December 24, 1986. They have three children: Gibran Rakabuming (1988), Kahiyang Ayu (1991), and Kaesang Pangarep (1995). He continued his
education in the Forestry Faculty of Gadjah Mada University. He made use of this chance to study the structure of wood, its utilisation, and its technology. He
completed his degree with the theses called: "Study on Plywood Consumption in Final Consumption in Surakarta municipality". After his graduation in 1985, he
worked for BUMN PT Kertas Kraft Aceh and was placed in the area Hutan Pinus Merkusii di Dataran Tinggi Gayo, Middle Aceh. Nevertheless he didn't feel at
home and went home to his seven month pregnant wife. He was determined to work with wood in his uncle Miyono's business named CV Roda Jati. In 1988, he
started his own business under the name of CV Rakabu, referring to his first child (Rakabuming). The business was quite successful, however due to fraud, it had
problems and was closed. In 1990, he tried again with the money (Rp 30,000,000.-) borrowed from his mother. When he first ran for the office of mayor of
Surakarta, many doubted the ability of a man who had worked as a property and furniture businessman. However, after a year in office Jokowi had successfully
led many progressive breakthroughs which became widely praised nationally. One academic research shows that his leadership style includes an inter-actional
relationship with the people of Solo, through which he is able to induce people's strong faith to him. He adopted the development framework of European cities
(which he frequently traveled to as a businessman) into his own city of Surakarta. Highlights of Jokowi's approach during the seven years that he was mayor of
Surakarta include the following: Building new traditional markets including an antiques market and a home appliances market. He was constructing a 7-km city
walk with a 3-meter wide pedestrian walkway along Surakartas main street. He was revitalizing the Balekambang and Sriwedari parks. Stricter regulations on
cutting down trees along the citys main streets, rebranding Surakarta as a center of Javanese culture and tourism under the tagline The Spirit of Java and
promoting the city as a center for meetings, incentives, conventions and exhibitions (MICE). The blusukan culture, the manner in which Jokowi made
impromptu visits to certain areas to hear directly from the people their needs and criticisms. Prohibiting his family members from bidding for city projects.
Healthcare insurance program for all residents. Public transportation in the form of double-decker buses and the railbus. Solo Techno Park, which helped
support the Esemka Indonesian car project. His supporters pointed to rapid positive changes in Surakarta under his leadership. Branding the city with the motto
"Solo: The Spirit of Java" was seen as a successful move. While in office he was able to relocate junk dealers in the Banjarsari Gardens smoothly, a move which
was helpful in revitalizing the functions of the open green land; he emphasized the importance of business firms engaging in community activities; he improved
communications with the local community (appearing regularly on local television). Jokowi also did not hesitate to dismiss investors who do not agree with the
principles of his leadership. As a follow-up of the new branding of Surakarta, he applied for Surakarta to become a member of the Organization of World
Heritage Cities, which was approved in 2006, and subsequently had Surakarta chosen to host the organization's conference in October 2008. In 2007, Surakarta
had also hosted the World Music Festival (Festival Musik Dunia/FMD) which was held at the Fort Vastenburg Complex (it is worth noting that Fort Vastenburg
was to be bulldozed and replaced by a business center and shopping malls before Jokowi vetoed the decision). The FMD in 2008 was held in the
Mangkunegaran Palace Complex. Part of Jokowi's personal style has populist "can-do" (punya gaye) elements designed to build bonds with the broad electorate.
This approach has proved highly effective in the past few years. As just one example, as mayor of Surakarta, he became personally involved in an incident just
before Christmas 2011 when the Surakarta municipality had overdue bills of close to $1 million (Rp 8.9 billion) owing to state-owned electricity company
Perusahaan Listrik Negara (PLN). Following PLN company policy to pursue a more disciplined approach to collect overdue bills, the PLN imposed a blackout
on street lamps in Surakarta just before Christmas. The city municipality quickly authorized payment but in settling the bill protested that the PLN should
consider the public interest before taking this type of action. To reinforce the point, Jokowi made a highly-publicized personal visit to the local PLN office to
deliver the Rp 8.9 billion in cash in the form of hundreds of bundles of notes and even small coins. Such interaction-oriented approach quickly rose Jokowi's
prominence at the national level. Among others, he was chosen as the Tempo's Leaders of Choice by Tempo news magazine (2008) and received Changemakers
Award from Republika newspaper (2010); his name also started being considered in national polls for governorship of Jakarta way before his party nomination of
him to run for the post, including that by Universitas Indonesia and Cyrus Network (2011). Jokowi has been an active and high-profile governor of Jakarta. He
has followed the practice (known as blusukan) of regularly arranging well-publicized visits to local communities, often in quite poor areas, across Jakarta (see
below). His broad approach is widely said to reflect the similar, successful style of administration that he adopted while mayor of Surakarta between 2005 and
2007. His inner circle of advisers in Jakarta is reported to include people such as FX Hadi 'Rudy' Rudyatmo, Sumartono Hadinoto, and Anggit Nugroho who
were colleagues while he was mayor of Surakarta as well as Basuki 'Ahok' Tjahaja Purnama, his current deputy as governor of Jakarta. Not so much a policy as a
general approach, Jokowi has actively carried out the practice known as blusukan of regularly visiting quite poor areas across Jakarta. During these visits he wears
simple informal clothes and makes a point of spending time in markets or walking along narrow Jakarta lanes (gangs) to chat to people about problems like the
price of food, housing difficulties, local flooding, and transport. Polling and media coverage suggests that Jokowi's hands-on style has proved very popular both in
Jakarta and elsewhere across Indonesia. On April and June 2013, Jokowi created a new system of bureaucratic recruitment called "lelang jabatan" (literally means
auction of office position). In this system, every civil servant has the same opportunity to achieve a certain position by fulfilling the required qualifications and
passing the test. The test result is announced transparently and the provincial government will place the qualified civil servant in accordance to their achievement
and qualification. Early after taking office in late 2012 Jokowi introduced a universal health care program in Jakarta, based on a Healthy Jakarta Card (Kartu
Jakarta Sehat or KJS). The program proved to be very popular. However, the KJS program also generated controversy because implementation problems quickly
became evident. The demand for health services from hospitals across Jakarta jumped sharply putting great pressure on the limited services available. Demand
for health services surged by 70% in the first few months. The program involved an insurance program provided through the state-owned insurance company PT
Askes Indonesia (Persero) and a plan to regulate health charges for treatment for over 20,000 services and procedures. There was confusion over the details of
the implementation of the system and long waiting queues for services caused dissatisfaction. The long queues even generated a market for middlemen who
offered line-waiting services for up to Rp 150,000 (around $US 15 at end-2013 exchange rates). The various problems led to criticism of Jokowi in the Jakarta
regional parliament that he was promoting a populist, poorly-designed program. However Jokowi defended the popular KJS program and counseled patience.
Jokowi launched the "Smart Jakarta Card" on December 1, 2012, in order to help poor students in Jakarta. This card gives allowance that can be taken in ATMs
in order to buy school needs such as books and uniforms. The usage of the card is constantly monitored and is not allowed for consumptive purposes such as
going to the cinema. On October 10, 2013, Jokowi inaugurated the construction of Jakarta MRT, which previously was delayed for years. Subsequently, on
October 16, 2013, Jokowi also inaugurated the construction of the green line of Jakarta Monorail. After Jokowi took office, the provincial budget of Jakarta
increased significantly from Rp 41 trillion in 2012 to Rp 72 trillion in 2014. This was achieved through transparency, efficiency, e-catalog, and e-budgetting.
Jokowi and his vice governor, Basuki, publicized their monthly salary and the provincial budget to the public. They also initiated programs that are aimed towards
transparency, such as online tax, e-budgeting, e-purchasing, and cash management system. Moreover, all meetings and activities that are attended by Jokowi and
Basuki were recorded and uploaded on YouTube. Jokowi regulated the chaotic agglomeration of street vendors in Pasar Minggu and Pasar Tanah Abang by
relocating them to a new building, as these street vendors were causing horrendous traffic jam. He also managed to build and renovate five traditional markets in
2013 and four traditional markets in 2014. The vendors in these markets are not charged for rent, although they are required to maintain their kiosk and not to
sell their kiosk to someone else. They are only asked to pay for maintenance, electricity, and water cost. In 2013, Joko Widodo initiated dredging and reservoir
normalization projects in order to reduce flood problems. Three of the most notable projects are the normalization of Pluit Reservoir, Ria Rio Reservoir, and
Pesanggrahan River. These projects involved the relocation of settlements around the reservoirs, in which Jokowi used the "lunch diplomacy" tactic to obtain
agreement from local populace. After the inhabitants of these settlements were successfully moved to a new location, the dredging commenced, and the project
was praised by the Prime Minister of the Netherlands Mark Rutte as successful. These projects helped to reduce the extent of flood in 2014. Megawati
Sukarnoputri had chosen Joko Widodo to be the presidential candidate of her party. Widodo and Jusuf Kalla travelled to many parts of Indonesia for his
campaign, most notably West Papua. His mayorship in Surakarta and his governorship in Jakarta further boosted his popularity around Indonesia. Because of
his interest in loud music, many musicians around Indonesia, including the cast of Jalanan, had voluntarily created a song titled Salam 2 Jari as part of his
campaign. Also because of his interest in loud music, several international artist specifically Jason Mraz, Sting, Bumblefoot and Arkarna were posting their
support for him on Twitter and Facebook tagging #Jokowi9Juli and for Arkarna's case #ArkarnaVoteJokowi. After hearing the Quick Count results of many
different polls, Widodo declared victory on July 9, 2014. However, his rival Prabowo Subianto also declared victory, leaving Indonesian citizens confused.
Jokowi asks his supporters to cancel off any celebrations for his victory. Fighting then occurred between Prabowo and Jokowi supporters days before the official
announcements. To prevent this from happening, Widodo disallow the use of his usual off-duty attire, checkered clothing, and Prabowo's usual attire, white
clothing, of his supporters and told them not to leave their house. A victory for Widodo was expected, and realized hours later. The Commission gave Widodo a
close victory of 53.15 percent of the vote (representing 70,997,859 voters), to Prabowo's 46.85 percent (62,576,444 votes), though Prabowo's camp disputed
these. After his victory, Widodo stated that, growing up under the authoritarian and corrupt New Order, he would have never expected someone with a lower-
class background to become president. The New York Times reported him as saying "now, it's quite similar to America, yeah? There is the American dream, and
here we have the Indonesian dream.". Widodo was the first Indonesian president to not be from the military or the political elite, and the political commentator
Salim Said gave the popular view of the politician as "someone who is our neighbor, who decided to get into politics and run for president". His awards and
honours include the following: 2008: Jokowi was listed by Tempo magazine as one of the 'Top 10 Indonesian Mayors of 2008', 2011: He was awarded the
Bintang Jasa Utama by President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono, 2012: Jokowi received 3rd place of the 2012 World Mayor Prize for "transforming a crime-ridden
city into a regional center for art and culture and an attractive city to tourists. He was listed as one of "The Leading Global Thinkers of 2013" in Foreign Policy
(magazine). In February 2013 he was nominated as the global mayor of the month by the The City Mayors Foundation based in London and 2014: Jokowi was
listed by Fortune (magazine) as one of the 'The World's 50 Greatest Leaders' According to The Economist, Jokowi "has a penchant for loud rock music" and
once owned a bass guitar signed by a member of heavy-metal band Metallica. Music has been used throughout his presidential campaign and international music
artist especially Arkarna supported his presidency. In June 2013, a movie depicting Jokowi's childhood and youth was released. Jokowi expressed some
objections to the movie saying that he felt his life had been a simple one and was not worthy of being presented as a movie.

Muhammad Fuad Masum (Arabic: Muammad Fd Mam; Kurdish: , born
1938) is the seventh and current President of Iraq since July 24, 2014. He was also the first Prime Minister of PUK-
controlled Kurdistan from July 4, 1992 until April 26, 1993 and Speaker of the Council of Representatives of Iraq from June
14, 2010 until November 11, 2011. He is a veteran Kurdish politician and was elected to the post following the2014
parliamentary election. Masum is the second non-Arab president of Iraq, succeding Jalal Talabani, also from Kurdish
ancestry. Fuad Masum was born in the city of Koya. His family descends from the village of Khabanen, which is part
ofHawraman. He studied at various religious schools in Kurdistan until the age of 18. He studied law and Sharia atBaghdad
University. In 1958, Masum traveled to Cairo to complete his higher education at Al-Azhar University. He worked as a
professor in Basrah University in 1968. He earned his PhD in Islamic philosophy from Al-Azhar in 1975. Masum joined
the Iraqi Communist Party in 1962, until 1964, where he travelled to Syria to meet the Communist Partysecretary there, Khalid Bakdash. After Masum
discovered Bakdash's attitudes against the Kurds, he quit the party to join the Kurdistan Democratic Party (PDK). In 1968, Masum was the PDK representative
in Basra. He was also the representative of the Kurdish Revolution in Cairo, until 1975.

Masum was one of the founders of the Patriotic Union of
Kurdistan (PUK) in 1976. By 1992, he was the first Prime Minister of Kurdistan. In 2003, following theinvasion of Iraq, Masum returned to Baghdad to be a
member of the delegation representing Kurdistan, and was a member of the constitution drafting committee.In 2010, Masum became the first Speaker of
the Council of Representatives. In 2014, he was elected by the parliament representatives as the seventh president of Iraq.

Masum won 211 votes while his closest
competitor, Barham Salih, a former Prime Minister of Iraqi Kurdistan from October 2009 to April 2012, only received 17. The decision was made during a
secret vote of Kurdish MPs, who traditionally have control over the Presidency for the sake of political balance.United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-
moon was present in Iraq when the decision was made, meeting with Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki about the need for a more inclusive government.

Masum
accepted the position, noting the "huge security, political and economic tasks" he faces as President.

Masum is married and has five daughters: Shereen (b. 1969),
Jowan (b. 1970), Zozan (b. 1977), Shilan (b. 1980) and Veian (b. 1983). He had a son, Showan (b. 1973), who died due to childhood illness in 1988.


Reuven "Ruby" Rivlin (Hebrew: , [euven ivlin] ( listen); Arabic: ; born September
9, 1939) is an Israeli politician and lawyer and the current President of Israel since July 27, 2014. He was a member of
the Likud party. Rivlin was Minister of Communications of Israel from March 7, 2001 until February 28, 2003 and
subsequently served as Speaker of the Knesset from February 28, 2003 until March 28, 2006 and again from March 10,
2009 until February 22, 2013. On June 10, 2014, he was elected President of Israel. Rivlin is a strong supporter of
minority rights, particularly those of the Arab citizens of Israel and opposed to the two-state solution to the Israeli-
Palestinian conflict. Reuven Rivlin was born in Jerusalem. He received a law degree from the Hebrew University of
Jerusalem and worked as a lawyer. He is a descendant of students of the Vilna Gaon, the son of Yosef Yoel Rivlin and a
member of the Rivlin family. He is married to Nechama (born June 5, 1945) and has four children. He has been a
vegetarian since the late 1960s. Rivlin is well known as a supporter of the Beitar Jerusalem football club, sometimes described as "The-Most-Seasoned-Beitar-fan",
ever since he first saw a game of Beitar in 1946 when he was 7 years old. He was first elected to the 12th Knesset in 1988, and served as Likud chairman from
1988 to 1993. He lost his seat in the 1992 elections, but returned to the Knesset following the 1996 elections. Reelected in 1999, he was appointed Minister of
Communications in March 2001, serving until February 2003, when he was elected Knesset Speaker following the 2003 elections. During his term as speaker, he
was criticized for breaking the tradition of political neutrality of the post; he was one of Ariel Sharon's harshest critics regarding the disengagement plan, and had a
public confrontation with Aharon Barak, Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, concerning the court's authority to declare legislation illegal. Rivlin was reelected in
2006 and 2009. He ran in the 2007 election for President as the Likud candidate. He withdrew after the first round of voting when it became clear that Kadima
MK Shimon Peres had sufficiently broad support to inevitably win in a run-off. In the 2014 presidential election, Rivlin defeated Meir Sheetrit in a run-off. On
March 30, 2009, the Knesset voted Knesset Member Rivlin as speaker with a majority of 90 votes of the 120. For his first official visit as Knesset Speaker, he
chose the Arab-Israeli town of Umm el-Fahm, just south of the Galilee. He was accompanied by MKs Uri Orbakh (The Jewish Home) and Afu Agbariyah
(Hadash), a resident of the city. Citing Pope Benedict XVI's previous service in the Nazi German military service, Rivlin criticized the Pope's address at Israel's
Yad Vashem memorial. Rivlin was elected as Israel's 10th president on June 10, 2014 receiving the support of 63 MKs in a runoff vote against MK Meir Sheetrit.
Rivlin will be sworn in on July 24, 2014 replacing Shimon Peres. Upon his election as the 10th president, he immediately ceased being a member of the Israeli
Parliament. Although considered to be a nationalist and hawkish on the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, Rivlin is well known as a supporter of minority rights,
particularly those of the Arab-Israelis. As speaker of the Knesset, Rivlin made his first official visit to the Arab-Israeli city of Umm el-Fahm, often portrayed as a
locus of anti-state and pro-Palestine sentiment and agitation. He also nominated Arab Member of Knesset Ahmed Tibi, also considered by many on the right to
be anti-state, to be the deputy speaker, in order to demonstrate the importance of democratic principles. In June 2010, Rivlin found himself in the center of a
controversy after ignoring the advice of a committee that recommended the removal of Balad MK Haneen Zoabi for having participated in the Gaza flotilla
earlier that year. Many wished to see Zoabi banned from the Knesset for participating in activities deemed contrary to the interests of the state, while others
believed that removal of an elected politician by other politicians would undermine democratic principles. Rivlin's actions in defending the parliamentary rights of
Zoabi were criticised by many MKs and the Israeli right-wing, but Israeli and foreign liberals praised Rivlin for his courage in defending Israeli democracy. Rivlin
is known to be strongly opposed to the two-state solution to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, and has voiced support for a version of a one-state solution. He is
described as a staunch supporter of Jewish settlement in the occupied West Bank. On April 29, 2010, he said that he "would rather accept Palestinians as Israeli
citizens than divide Israel and the West Bank in a future two-state peace solution". This position, reflecting an idea of both the radical left and radical right in
Israel, is considered controversial, but has also been praised as recognising current realities in Israel and the Palestinian Territories. In Israel, Rivlin is an active
campaigner for the recognition of the Armenian Genocide, giving speeches on the topic. In 2012, he said It is our moral duty to remember and remind of the
tragedy that befell the Armenian people, who lost more than a million of its sons during the First World War, and we must not make this a political issue. I am
aware of the sensitivity of this issue. But let us be clear: This is not an accusation of Turkey today or of the current Turkish government.

Matteo Renzi (Italian pronunciation: [matto rntsi]; born January 11, 1975) is an Italian politician who has
been Prime Minister of Italy since February 22, 2014, President of the Council of the European Union since July
1, 2014 and the Secretary of the Democratic Party since December 15, 2013. He was previously the President of
Florence Province from June 14, 2004 untl June 22, 2009 and the Mayor of Florence from June 22, 2009 until
March 24, 2014. At the age of 39, Renzi overtook Benito Mussolini's record as the youngest person to become
Prime Minister of Italy since unification in 1861. He is also the first to be elected Prime Minister as a Mayor.
Renzi was born in Florence, Tuscany; the second of four children, his father, Tiziano Renzi, was a Christian
Democratic municipal councillor in Rignano sull'Arno. Renzi grew up in Rignano sull'Arno, but he studied in
Florence at the Classical Lyceum Dante Alighieri; during this time he was a scout in the Association of Catholic
Guides and Scouts of Italy (AGESCI). In 1999 he graduated from the University of Florence with a degree in law,
having written his thesis on Giorgio La Pira, the former Christian Democratic Mayor of Florence. He then went on to work for the CHIL Srl, a marketing
company owned by his family coordinating the sales service of the newspaper La Nazione. Before entering politics, Renzi was also a football referee in amateur
levels and a futsal player. In 1994, he participated as a competitor for five consecutive episodes in the television program Wheel of Fortune hosted by Mike
Bongiorno, winning 48 million lire. Renzi's interest in politics began in high school. In 1996 he was one of the founders of the committee in support of Romano
Prodi's candidature as Prime Minister in the general election; that same year he joined the Italian People's Party, and became its Provincial Secretary in 1999. In
the same year he married Agnese Landini, with whom he had three children. In 2001 he joined Francesco Rutelli's The Daisy Party, composed by members of
the disbanded People's Party. On June 13, 2004 he was elected President of the Province of Florence, with 59% of the vote, as the candidate of the centre-left
coalition. In the years as President of the Province, Renzi expressed his ideas against the "political caste", and during his mandate he succeeded in reducing taxes
and decreasing the number of Province's employees and managers. After five years as the President of the Province Florence, Renzi announced that he would
seek election as the Mayor of Florence. On June 9, 2009, Renzi, by now a member of the Democratic Party, won the election with 48% of the vote, compared to
32% for Giovanni Galli. As mayor he halved the number of city councilors, installed 500 free WiFi access points across the city, reduced kindergarten waiting lists
by 90%, and increased spending on social welfare programs and schools. One year after being sworn in as Mayor, and with his popularity in national opinion
polls increasing, Renzi organised a public meeting with another young party administrator Debora Serracchiani at the Leopolda station in Florence to discuss
Italian politics, after stating that a complete change was also necessary in his party. Others prominent Democratic Party members who aligned themseleves with
Renzi's programme were Matteo Ricchetti, President of the Regional Council of Emilia-Romagna, Davide Faraone, a regional councillor from the Sicilian
Regional Assembly, and Giuseppe Civati, a prominent member of the Democratic Party in Lombardy and member of the Lombard Regional Council. Following
this public meeting, the Italian media gave Renzi the nickname "il Rottamatore", or "The Scrapper". In 2011, he organized a second meeting, also in Florence,
where he wrote down one hundred topics of discussion. During this time he began to be strongly criticised by other members of his party closer to the then-
Secretary Pier Luigi Bersani, after his suggestion that Italian politicians of the same generation as then-Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi should retire. In
September 2012, Renzi announced that he would seek to lead the centre-left coalition in the 2013 general election; the other four candidates were Pier Luigi
Bersani, Secretary of the Democratic Party, Nichi Vendola, Leader of the Left Ecology Freedom, Laura Puppato, a Democratic Deputy from Veneto and Bruno
Tabacci, Leader of the Democratic Centre. After the first round of the December election, Renzi gained 35.5% of the vote, finishing second behind Bersani and
qualifying for the second ballot. Renzi eventually gained a total of 39% of the vote, against Bersani's 61%. During the subsequent campaign in the 2013 election in
March, Renzi backed Bersani by organising large public rallies in Florence, but come the election the Democratic Party only gained 25.5% of the vote, despite
opinion polls placing the party at almost 30%. In April during the elections for the President of the Republic, Renzi caused a minor controversy by openly
criticising the candidacies of both Franco Marini and Anna Finocchiaro, two long-standing members of his Democratic Party. Following the resignation of Pier
Luigi Bersani in April 2013, Renzi stood a second time for the position of Secretary of the Democratic Party; he was supported by a number of his former
political opponents, such as former Party Secretaries Walter Veltroni and Dario Franceschini, Deputy Marina Sereni, MEP David Sassoli and Turin Mayor
Piero Fassino. Other supporters of his included Deputies like Gianni Dal Moro, Francesco Sanna, Francesco Boccia, Lorenzo Basso and Enrico Borghi, all of
whom were considered close to Prime Minister Enrico Letta. The other two candidates for Party Secretary were Gianni Cuperlo, Member of the Chamber of
Deputies and former Secretary of the Italian Communist Youth Federation, and Giuseppe Civati, a Deputy from Lombardy and former supporter of Renzi's. In
the December primary election, Renzi was elected with 68% of the popular vote, compared to 18% for Gianni Cuperlo and 14% for Giuseppe Civati. He
therefore became the new Secretary of the Democratic Party and the centre-left's prospective candidate for Prime Minister. Throughout January and February
2014 there were multiple reports of persistent leadership tensions between Renzi and Prime Minister Enrico Letta, who had been the Deputy Secretary under
Bersani, with many claiming that Renzi was pressuring Letta to resign in his favour. On 12 February Letta publicly demanded that Renzi make his position clear,
and Renzi subsequently called a meeting of the Democratic Party leadership for the following evening. Just before the meeting took place, Renzi publicly called
on Letta to resign and allow him to form a new government. Letta initially resisted the demand, but following a vote on Renzi's proposal during the meeting,
which Letta did not attend, he announced that he would tender his resignation as Prime Minister of Italy on February 14, 2014. Under Renzi's leadership, the
Democratic Party officially joined the Party of European Socialists (PES) as a full-time member on February 28, 2014. On February 13, 2014, following tensions
between Prime Minister Enrico Letta and Renzi, Letta announced that he would resign as Prime Minister the following day. The Democratic Party leadership
voted heavily in favour of backing Renzi's call for "a new government, a new phase and a radical programme of reform". Minutes after the Party backed the Renzi
proposal by 136 votes to 16, with two abstentions, Palazzo Chigi the official residence of the Prime Minister announced that Letta would be going to the
Quirinale on Friday to tender his resignation to President Giorgio Napolitano. In an earlier speech, Renzi had paid tribute to Letta, saying the meeting was not
intended to put him "on trial". But, without directly proposing himself as the next Prime Minister, he said the Eurozone's third-largest economy urgently needed "a
new phase" and "radical programme" to push through badly-needed reforms. The motion he put forward made clear "the necessity and urgency of opening a new
phase with a new executive". Speaking to party leaders, Renzi said Italy was "at a crossroads" and faced either holding fresh elections or a new government without
a return to the polls. On February 14, 2014 President Napolitano accepted Letta's resignation from the office of Prime Minister. Following Letta's resignation,
Renzi formally received the task of forming a new government from President Napolitano on February 17, 2014. Renzi held several days of talks with party
leaders, all of which he broadcast live on the internet, before unveiling his Cabinet on February 21, 2014 which contained members of his Democratic Party, the
New Centre-Right, the Union of the Centre and the Civic Choice. His Cabinet is Italy's youngest government to date, with an average age of 47. In addition, it is
also the first in which the number of female ministers is equal to the number of male ministers, excluding the Prime Minister. The following day Renzi was sworn
in as Prime Minister, becoming the youngest Prime Minister in the history of Italy.[36] His rise to become Prime Minister was widely seen as a sign of much-
needed generational change, and at the time he took office he enjoyed by far the highest approval rating of any politician in the country. On February 25, 2014
the government won the vote of confidence with 169 votes in the Senate and 378 in the Chamber of Deputies. On March 11, 2014 the Chamber of Deputies
approved Renzi's flagship electoral reform law, a law that would see Italy's voting system overhauled and also significantly reform the Italian Senate. Several days
later he approved the auctioning of a large number of luxury cars that were used to transport heads of state, as he felt they were an unnecessary use of government
money. The cars included nine Maseratis, two Jaguars, and various other cars such as BMWs and Alfa Romeos. Out of the 1500 cars put up for sale, 170 sold
immediately over eBay. In April, as part of his industrial reforms, Renzi forced the chief executives of Italy's biggest state-owned companies, including Eni, Terna,
Finmeccanica, Enel and Poste Italiane, to resign. He subsequently appointed women to the majority of new positions, making it the first time any woman had
served as a chief executive of a state-owned company in Italy. Due to his ambitious reforms that provided the abolition of the Senate, the increase of powers of
the Prime Minister and a new electoral law, Renzi was accoused, by lot of politicians and constitutionalists like Stefano Rodot or Fausto Bertinotti, to be an
authoritarian leader who wants to reduce democracy. On March 2, 2014, following Russian military intervention in Ukraine, Renzi accused President Vladimir
Putin of having committed "an unacceptable violation". On March 19, 2014 during a speech in the Chamber of Deputies, Renzi stated that the Crimean status
referendum was illegal and that the G8 countries must start cooperating to solve the crisis and prevent a return to the Cold War. On June 4 and 5, 2014 he
subsequently participated in the G7 summit in Brussels, the first one held after the suspension of Russia from the G8 following the annexation of Crimea in
March. On June 9, 2014 Renzi travelled to Hanoi, Vietnam to meet with President Truong Tan Sang and Prime Minister Nguyen Tan Dung, and sign economic
treaties worth some 5 billion dollars. He was the first Italian Prime Minister to officially visit Vietnam since 1973, when diplomacy first began between Italy and
North Vietnam. During the visit Renzi placed a wreath in the mausoleum of the former North Vietnamese President Ho Chi Minh. On June 11, 2014 Renzi met
Chinese President Xi Jinping in Beijing, who congratulated him for the "important reforms" undertaken by his Government. Xi also stated that China would
continue cooperation with Italy ahead of Expo 2015 in Milan. On the following day he met in Astana the President of Kazakhstan, Nursultan Nazarbayev, with
whom Renzi talked about the withdrawal of the Italian troops from Afghanistan. On July 19, 2014 Matteo Renzi started his Presidential trip in Africa, meeting the
President of Mozambique, Armando Guebuza. Renzi signed with Guebuza some economic pacts to create investments by the Italian government-onwned oil
company Eni in the African country for 50 bilion dollars. On July 20, 2014 he visited the Republic of Congo where he met the President Denis Sassou Nguesso,
with whom Renzi signed a cooperation for the extraction of oil in the country. Some journalists criticized the meeting with Sassou Nguesso, who is considered
one of the worst and more corrupted dictator of the whole Africa. On the following day Renzi met the President of Angola, Jos Eduardo dos Santos, in Luanda.
In the European Parliament election held on May 25, 2014, the first national election Renzi had faced since becoming Prime Minister, his Democratic Party won
40.8% of the vote with 11,203,231 votes, becoming by far the largest party in the country with 31 MEPs. The PD won the most votes of any single party across the
whole of the European Union, and overtook Germany's Christian Democratic Union to become the largest parliamentary group. Renzi has regularly advocated
for a generational replacement of the current Italian ruling class. He also supports various battles to reduce the cost of politics, including the practical elimination
of one of the two houses of the Italian Parliament, the abolition of public financing for political parties, the abolition of annuities, direct election of politicians by
citizens, and the deletion of state contributions to political party newspapers. Renzi has also in the past stated that he is in favour of civil partnerships and that,
from a political perspective, marriage should not be viewed as a sacrament. Renzi has occasionally been compared to former British Prime Minister Tony Blair
for his political views. Renzi himself has previously claimed to be as supporter of Blair's ideology of the Third Way, regarding an objective to synthesise liberal
economics and left-wing social policies. Matteo Renzi is married to a teacher, Agnese Landini, with whom he has two sons, Francesco and Emanuele, and a
daughter, Ester. Renzi is a regular Mass-goer and was active in a Catholic branch of the Scouts. The Renzi Cabinet is the 63rd Cabinet of the Italian Republic and
was sworn in on February 22, 2014. The Cabinet is composed of members of the Democratic Party (PD), New Centre-Right (NCD), Civic Choice (SC), the
Union of the Centre (UdC) and three independents. The Cabinet is Italy's youngest government to date, with an average age of 47. In addition, it is also the first
in which the number of female ministers is equal to the number of male ministers, excluding the Prime Minister.

Abdallah Ensour (Arabic: Abd Allh an-Nasr; born January 20, 1939) is a Jordanian economist who has been
Prime Minister of Jordan since October 11, 2012. A veteran statesman and politician, he held various cabinet positions in
Jordanian governments. Ensour was born in Salt. He studied at American University in Beirut where he obtained his Bachelor's
degree. He then continued to get his Master's degree, in Michigan University in the United States. He also obtained his PhD in
economics in Pantheon-Sorbonne University and he has a PhD in mathematics. Ensour was first elected as a deputy to the
Jordanian Parliament in 1989, and again in 1992, and has served continuously ever since. His first ministerial post was as Minister
of Planning in 1984. He then became Minister of Planning again in 1985; he also served as Minister of Education (1989); Minister
of Foreign Affairs (1991); Minister of Industry and Trade (1993); Minister of Higher Education (1996); Deputy Prime Minister and
Minister of Administrative Development (1997); and Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Information (1998). He also served in the parliament in the lower
house of representatives from 1998 to 2001. Until this date, Ensour is a senator in the Jordanian parliament and chairman of the board of trustees in Al-
Zaytoonah University of Jordan. Ensour was also governor of Jordan to the World Bank, deputy of Jordan to the International Monetary Fund and deputy
permanent delegate to UNESCO; he sits on a number of boards including the Arab African Bank, Nuackchott (President); the University of Jordan (Vice-
President); and the French Universities' Graduates in Jordan (Honorary President). In October 2012, he was appointed as Prime Minister by King Abdullah II,
replacing Fayez Tarawneh. After general elections in January 2013, King Abdullah reappointed Ensour as Prime Minister on March 2013. His second cabinet
was sworn in on March 30, 2013. He has following onours and awards: stiqlal ordeni-lent.png Istiqlal Medal of the First Order, Order of the Star of Jordan
ribbon bar.pngKawkab Medal of the First Order, Education Jordanian Medal Excellent and Ordre national de la Lgion d'honneur.

Serik Nmetul Akhmetov (Kazakh: ; born June 25, 1958) is a Kazakh politician who was Prime
Minister of Kazakhstan from September 24, 2012 until April 2, 2014. He has been Minister of Defense since April 3, 2014. Akhmetov
served for a time as Deputy Governor of Astana before being appointed to the Government of Kazakhstan as Minister of Transportation
on September 25, 2006. He has also served as Chairman of the Board of the Atameken National Union of Entrepreneurs and Employers
of Kazakhstan since 2005. President Nursultan Nazarbayev appointed Akhmetov as Prime Minister following the resignation of Karim
Massimov on September 24, 2012. Akhmetov met with Igor Levitin, the Russian Transport Minister, on October 25, 2006. Akhmetov
proposed building a transport corridor using preexisting roads from southern Kazakhstan through Kazan and Orenburg to St. Petersburg.
Minister Levitin said the Russian Government would consider the proposal, but that it wanted the corridor to go through Chelyabinsk.
They discussed the "transit of planes from Asia to Europe" and transportation through the Caspian Sea. Levitin plans on making a
working trip to Aqtau to further discuss sea transportation. On November 9, 2006 Akhmetov and Levitin met in Aqtau, signing an
agreement creating a train and ferry link between Aqtau and Makhachkala ports. The first ferry will carry 52 freight cars of grain and oil products on November
10, 2006. He traveled with Deputy Prime Minister Karim Masimov, Finance Minister Natalya Korzhova, and Energy and Mineral Resources Minister
Baktykozha Izmukhambetov to Beijing, China from November 16 - 17, 2006 to boost bilateral relations.

Uhuru Muigai Kenyatta (born October 26, 1961) is the fourth and the current President of Kenya, in office since April 9, 2013.
He previously served in the Government of Kenya as Minister for Local Government of Kenya from November 2001 until December
2002 and from January 8 until April 17, 2008. He was also Chairman for Disaster Emergency Response Committee of Kenya from
2000 until 2001 and Leader of the official opposition of Kenya from January 2002 until December 2007; subsequently he was Deputy
Prime Minister of Kenya from April 17, 2008 until April 9, 2013, Minister of Trade of Kenya from April 17, 2008 until January 23,
2009 and Minister of Finance of Kenya from January 23, 2009 until January 26, 2012. He served as the Member of Parliament for
Gatundu South Constituency beginning in 2002. Kenyatta was also Chairman of Kenya African National Union (KANU), which was a
part of the Party of National Unity (PNU) from January 2005 until April 2012. Kenyatta is the son of Jomo Kenyatta, Kenya's founding
father and first president (19641978). His family hails from the Kikuyu, a Bantu ethnic group. His given name "Uhuru" is from a
Swahili term for "freedom", and was given to him in anticipation of Kenya's upcoming independence. Uhuru attended St Mary's School
in Nairobi. Between 1979 and 1980, he also briefly worked as a teller at the Kenya Commercial Bank. After St. Mary's, Uhuru went on
to study political science at Amherst College in the United States. Little is known of his time in the United States, and the paucity of information has been fertile
ground for rumour and speculation. Upon his graduation, Uhuru returned to Kenya, and started a company Wilham Kenya Limited, through which he sourced
and exported agricultural produce. Nominated to Parliament in 2001, he became Minister for Local Government under President Daniel arap Moi and, despite
his political inexperience, was favoured by President Moi as his successor; Kenyatta ran as KANU's candidate in the December 2002 presidential election, but
lost to opposition candidate Mwai Kibaki by a large margin. He subsequently became Leader of the Opposition in Parliament. He backed Kibaki for re-election
in the December 2007 presidential election and was named Minister of Local Government by Kibaki in January 2008, before becoming Deputy Prime Minister
and Minister of Trade in April 2008 as part of a coalition government. Subsequently Kenyatta was Minister of Finance from 2009 to 2012, while remaining
Deputy Prime Minister. Accused by the International Criminal Court (ICC) of committing crimes against humanity in relation to the violent aftermath of the
2007 election, he resigned as Minister of Finance on January 26, 2012. He was elected as President of Kenya in the March 2013 presidential election, defeating
Raila Odinga with a narrow majority in a single round of voting. His initial entry into politics came through his election as the chairman of his hometown branch
of the ruling party, KANU, in 1997. This came with the tacit approval of President Moi. At the time, many saw the election as a calculated move to prepare
Uhuru for bigger things. In the general election held the same year, Uhuru Kenyatta contested the Gatundu South Constituency parliamentary seat, once held by
his father. It was assumed he would sail through. But that was not be: Uhuru lost to Moses Mwihia, a little-known Nairobi architect. After losing the election,
Uhuru's friends say that he was extremely upset and that he vowed to quit politics altogether. He hurriedly retreated to the family business empire that includes
five-star tourist hotels, airlines and commercial farming. Little did Uhuru know that President Moi was still intent on propelling him onto the national political
scene, which he did in a public function. In 1999 Moi appointed Uhuru the new chairman of the Kenya Tourism Board, where he worked with Kenya's political
power-broker Nicholas Biwott, a very close confidante of the president. Apparently the young Uhuru was undergoing even more intensive training. Then came
October 2001 and Uhuru was nominated to parliament and subsequently to the cabinet as Minister for Local Government. In March of this year Uhuru Kenyatta
made it big on the national political scene when he was elected as one of the four national vice-chairmen of KANU. President Moi paid a heavy price for
ensuring Kenyatta was KANU's presidential candidate, with several senior party figures, their own ambitions thwarted, resigning to set up another party (the
Liberal Democratic Party). Since he joined Moi's inner circle, Uhuru Kenyatta has been fighting to prove that he is his own man and not Moi's stooge. In late
January 2005, Uhuru Kenyatta defeated Nicholas Biwott for chairmanship of KANU, taking 2,980 votes among party delegates against Biwott's 622. Uhuru led
his party Kanu in Campaigns against the draft constitution in 2005, having teamed up with the Liberal Democratic Party to form the Orange Democratic
Movement. This saw Kenyans humiliate the government by rejecting the draft constitution by a noticeable margin. In November 2006, Kenyatta was displaced as
KANU leader by Biwott, although Kenyatta said he would not accept the decision. On December 28, 2006, the High Court of Kenya reinstated Uhuru Kenyatta
as KANU chairman. However, further court proceedings followed. On June 28, 2007, the High Court confirmed Kenyatta as party leader, ruling that there was
insufficient evidence for Biwott's argument that Kenyatta had joined another party. On September 13, 2007, Kenyatta withdrew from the December 2007
presidential election and said that he would back Kibaki for re-election. He said that he did not want to run unless he could be sure of winning. Following the
election, amidst the controversy that resulted when Kibaki was declared the victor despite claims of fraud from challenger Raila Odinga and his Orange
Democratic Movement, Kibaki appointed Kenyatta as Minister for Local Government on January 8, 2008. After Kibaki and Odinga reached a power-sharing
agreement, Kenyatta was named Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Trade on April 13, 2008, as part of the Grand Coalition Cabinet. He was the Deputy
Prime Minister representing the PNU, while another Deputy Prime Minister, Musalia Mudavadi, represented the ODM.Kenyatta and the rest of the Cabinet
were sworn in on April 17, 2008. Uhuru ran for president in the elections held on 4 March 2013 and garnered 6,173,433 votes (50.03%) out of the 12,338,667
votes cast. As this was above the 50% plus 1 vote threshold, he won the election in the first round thus evading a run-off between the top two candidates. He was
therefore declared the fourth President of the Republic of Kenya by the Independent Electoral and Boundaries Commission (IEBC). According to the
IEBC,Raila Odinga garnered 5,340,546 votes (43.4%) and was thus the second in the field of eight candidates. CORD, under the leadership of presidential
candidate Raila Odinga, lodged a petition with the Supreme Court of Kenya on March 10, 2013. On March 30, 2013, Dr Willy Mutunga, the Chief Justice of
Kenya, made a ruling declaring the election of Uhuru Kenyatta and his running-mate, William Ruto, as free and fair, Uhuru Kenyatta was moved from the post
of Minister for Trade and appointed Minister for Finance of Kenya on January 23, 2009, while remaining Deputy Prime Minister. Since his appointment, he has
spearheaded a number of reform measures that have seen a change in how treasury and government by extension transacts it business. These include: The
Economic Stimulus Programme, commonly referred to as ESP Kenya Economic Stimulus Program, was launched under the leadership of Uhuru Kenyatta in his
capacity as the Minister for Finance. ESP is an intensive, high impact programme, that aims to stimulate economic activity, create employment opportunities,
encourage innovation in wealth-creation, spur entrepreneurship and support the building blocks that anchor a healthy, educated and innovative populace. Kenya
Economic Stimulus Program outlines various objectives including boosting the country's economic recovery, investing in long term solutions to the challenges of
food security, expanding economic opportunities in rural areas for employment creation, promoting regional development for equity and social stability,
improving infrastructure, enhancing the quality of education, availing affordable health-care for all Kenyans, investing in the conservation of the environment and
expanding the access to and building the ICT capacity of the general populace of Kenya.[20] In launching the Economic Stimulus Programme, the Ministry of
Finance aimed to achieve regional development for equity and social stability. Integrated Financial Management Information System re-engineered[edit
Originally introduced in 2003 the Integrated Financial Management Information System (IFMIS) was re-engineered by the Ministry of Finance to curb fraud and
other malpractices that stem from inefficiency. In re-engineering IFMIS, the Ministry aimed to put Kenya's financial and economic information in a format that
was accessible from an online platform, which would radically improve public expenditure management under the Ministry of Finance. IFMIS enables fully
integrated planning for the budgeting process since it links planning policy objectives and budget allocation. It also seeks to support the e-Government shared
services strategy by taking government financial services online. IFMIS will ensure that status reports are readily available, which enhances capacity to track
budgets thus enabling effective decision-making. The three pronged benefits of IFMIS include leading to improvements in planning and budgeting, monitoring,
evaluation and accountability and budget execution. Other benefits include aiding in the reduction in maintenance cost of government fleets in terms of fuel and
spares where huge losses have been previously incurred. IFMIS can also accommodate last minute changes on the budget more easily thereby increasing accuracy
of presentation. Also, the availability of accounting information in a consolidated format will allow the government's books and those of the Central Bank of
Kenya to be reconciled. In pioneering the re-engineering of IFMIS, Uhuru's Treasury provided the whole of government a way of dealing with corruption; an evil
that has drained Kenya's national coffers of much needed resources. With the system in place, corruption could be reduced. Uhuru Kenyatta launched the Fund
for the Inclusion of Informal Sector (FIIS), a fund that allows Micro and Small Entrepreneurs (MSE) to access credit facilities, expand their businesses and
increase their savings. It also aims to help informal enterprises transition to formal sector enterprises through access to formal providers of financial services. The
fund is a revolving fund through which the government enters into credit facility agreements with select banks for on-lending to MSEs through branches,
authorised banking agents and other channels, particularly mobile banking. It was launched in March 2011, and so far it has 3 banks, the Cooperative Bank of
Kenya, Equity Bank and K-Rep bank, as partners. The launch of the fund seeks to address many of the defining challenges facing Kenya's national economy like
unemployment, particularly among youths. Through the fund, the Ministry of Finance has undertaken the necessary steps to transform the SME sector to be one
of the key drivers for achieving broad based economic growth, employment creation and poverty reduction in Kenya. Its objective is to ensure that the MSE
sector becomes efficient, innovative and has a diversified and competitive product range. It will also provide policies that raise the earnings and productivity of the
sector and transform the sector into a more formal setup. Through directing the development of the fund, Uhuru Kenyatta sought to ensure Financial Inclusion
of an estimated 8.3 million Kenyans working in the informal sector. These included 2 million in the Jua Kali sector and 5 million kiosk owners, mama mbogas
and hawkers, with the rest in the informal transport sectors and the small-scale manufacturing sectors. The operations of the investor compensation fund, which
aimed to compensate investors who had lost money to defunct stock brokers such as Nyaga Stock Brokers and Discount Securities Limited, was launched under
his watch. In launching the operations of the fund, also ensured that the interests of future investors were safeguarded. The fund had prior to the launch of its
operations been established under the Capital Markets Act. This Fund is specifically meant to compensate investors who suffer losses resulting from failure of a
licensed stockbroker or dealer to meet his contractual obligations. In both the case of the collapse of Nyaga Stock Brokers and the collapse of Discount Securities
Limited all genuine claims within the statutory maximum of Sh.50,000 per every investor were compensated. Uhuru Kenyatta also directed that interest on
contributions made to the investor compensation fund be exempt from tax. Through the Ministry of Finance, Uhuru Kenyatta initiated an internal audit on all
donor-funded projects and found that funds given to both KESSP and WKCDD had been misappropriated. Together with the relevant ministries, Uhuru
Kenyatta directed that the related staff members be suspended. The government, through treasury and public financial management reforms, strengthened audit
capacity as a result of structured capacity building and the merger of all Government of Kenya (GoK) audit functions (including those of schools and local
authorities) so as to enhance their independence and effectiveness. The Ministry of Finance also issued a circular to bring donor-funded projects within the
mandate of the Treasury's Internal Audit Department (IAD) with an aim of effectively monitoring the use of funds allocated to these projects. On June 13, 2011,
Uhuru also released a statement on the Final Foresic Audit Report for Ministry of Education and Ministry of Medical Services. The forensic audit itself was
carried out between April and September 2010 and involved the Ministry of Finance Internal Audit Department (IAD) with technical support from DFID. This
forensic audit showed misappropriations in the named ministries. In 2009, Uhuru Kenyatta directed that government Ministers, along with Assistant Ministers
and Permanent Secretaries, should turn in their Mercedes-Benz government cars for Volkswagen Passats. In doing this he aimed not only to reduce government
car costs to about two-thirds the price of a Mercedez-Benz but also to reduce the cost of running and maintaining these cars. 'Time Magazine' reported that,
"Thanks to a government cost-cutting program aimed at saving taxpayers some $27 million, Finance Minister Uhuru Kenyatta announced this summer that
government ministers, along with assistant ministers and permanent secretaries, must turn in their ubiquitous Mercedes-Benz for Volkswagen Passats, which not
only cost about two-thirds the price of a new Benz in Kenya, but are, says the government, cheaper to run and maintain. The Business Daily, one of the Kenya's
leading financial newspapers, reported Treasury invites Kenyans to 'tweet' their budget views. "Citing Article 10 of the Constitution of Kenya, which recognizes
inclusiveness as part of the National Values and Principles of governance, the Minister said he was pursuing a more inclusive means of formulating the
document.... Within three hours, more than 300 people had submitted responses to the Treasury using an on-line document that asked questions like which
sectors should get funding and how the government could increase its tax intake." 'All Twitter' reported, "In a move that might be the most social media friendly
we've seen from a politician, Kenya's Finance Minister has asked his Twitter followers for their input on the country's budgetand promises to take their
comments into consideration in the next draft ... but this request from Kenya's Finance Minister goes above and beyond political representation to hear directly
from the people.... This is a populist gesture which only favours those with enough money to use Twitter. It remains to be seen whether Kenyatta is a politician
who is really interested in actually hearing from the people." Uhuru Kenyatta's use of social media has superficially endeared him to the tech savvy community in
Kenya but not to most people who cannot use it. Aljazeera's The Stream, which taps into the potential of social media to disseminate news, covered Uhuru's use
of Social Media in their show. The Minister also notably called on other members of parliament during his 2011/2012 budget speech to use social media to
communicate directly with Kenyans. The Minister released the budget estimates to the public through the Ministry website a week before the reading of the
Budget and immediately the budget was read, his Budget Speech, A Citizen's Guide to the Budget, were made public through his various platform. These are
some of the actions that have seen him declared as a proponent of open government. Though noted as one of the few ministers without any scandals, on April
29, 2009, Uhuru faced a scare after he presented a supplemental budget that was approved by parliament. The supplemental budget was to cover the budget gap
that had arisen due to slow economic growth. The government required an additional Kshs 38 billion, but compromised on a figure of Kshs 22 billion and non-
essential proposed expenditure was postponed as a result. After voting on the bill brought forward by Kenyatta, Gitobu Imanyara brought up discrepancy
questions as to what exactly had been approved by the house. It appeared that parliament had voted on Kshs 31 billion as opposed to Kshs 22 billion that they
thought they were voting on the difference totalling Kshs 9.2 billion. The Deputy Prime Minister initially defended the budget that had been passed but later
admitted that there were computer or typographical errors in budget bill. An investigation by the CID and a parliamentary committee was ordered by the
Speaker, to question him on the discrepancies. He was later cleared of any wrongdoing by the Joint Finance and Budgetary Committee on the issue. On
December 15, 2010, Uhuru Kenyatta was named as a suspect of crimes against humanity by the International Criminal Court prosecutor Luis Moreno Ocampo,
for planning and funding violence in Naivasha and Nakuru.[36] This was in relation to the violence that followed the bungled national elections in Kenya of
December 2007. He has been accused of organising a Kikuyu politico-religious group, the Mungiki, in the post-election violence. Overall, the post-election
violence of 2007 is said to have claimed about 1300 lives. Uhuru maintains his innocence and wants his name cleared. On March 8, 2011, he was indicted after
being summoned to appear before the ICC pre-trial chamber. He was to appear at The Hague on April 8, 2011 alongside 5 other suspects. On September29,
2011, while seeking to exonerate himself, Uhuru Kenyatta put up a spirited fight as he was being cross-examined by ICC Chief prosecutor Luis Moreno Ocampo
in the Hague, denying any links with the outlawed Mungiki sect. He said Kenya's Prime Minister Raila Odinga should take political responsibility for the acts of
violence and killings that followed the 2007 presidential elections in Kenya. He told the three judges that "by telling his supporters election results were being
rigged, fanned tensions and then failed to use his influence to quell the violence that followed the announcement of the 2007 presidential results." Though Uhuru
had previously dismissed ICC summons, he changed his decision along the way. Together with his two other co-accused suspects, Head of Civil Servant,
Ambassador Francis Muthaura and former Police Commissioner Hussein Ali, the trio honoured the ICC Summons that sought to determine whether their cases
met the set standards for international trials. On January 23, 2012, the ICC confirmed the cases against Kenyatta and Muthaura although the charges against
Muthaura were recently dropped. Serious concerns about the case have been raised, particularly the nature of the evidence being used against Kenyatta. There
are also serious concerns about witness tampering and indeed, a number of witnesses have disappeared or died, which is the reason cited by the ICC for
dropping charges against Mathaura. On October 12, 2013 he made a speech to the African Union in which he accused the ICC of being a toy of declining
imperial powers On October 31, 2013 the ICC postponed Kenyatta's trial for crimes against humanity by three months until February 5, 2014 after the defense
had requested more time. On May 20, 2012, Uhuru Kenyatta attended the elaborately assembled and much-publicised launch of The National Alliance (Kenya)
party in a modern high-tech dome at the Kenyatta International Conference Centre. His presence at the TNA launch was a strong indication that he would
contest for the party's presidential nomination ticket in his quest for Kenya's Presidency in the 2013 General Elections. Kenya's Justice and Constitutional Affairs
Minister Eugene Wamalwa and Eldoret North Constituency MP William Ruto led more than 70 MPs in attending the function. Speaker of the East African
Legislative Assembly, Mr. Abdi Ramadhan, Cabinet Ministers Mohamed Yusuf Haji, Jamleck Irungu Kamau, Dr. Naomi Shaaban, Samuel Poghisio, Professor
Sam Ongeri and Dr. Mohammed Kuti and MPs Charles Cheruiyot Keter, Aden Bare Duale and Mohamed Maalim Mohamud also attended the event.
Speeches at the launch revolved around the need for a thriving economy, the need for the rights of people of all classes in society to be championed, the need for
peaceful co-existence, the need for visionary and committed leadership, the need for transformative leadership, the need for a youthful crop of committed
professionals in leadership, the need for free and fair nomination and election processes in the General Election, the need for an economically empowered youth
and a call to bring an end to divisive and sectarian interests in politics to safeguard Kenya from sliding to dictatorship. Machel Waikenda was the director of
communications and secretary of arts and entertainment of the The National Alliance, from April 2012 to August 2013 and he led the media and
communications department of the party during the 2013 elections. On September 17, 2012, The National Alliance (Kenya) party had its first real test when it
contested various civic and parliamentary positions in a by-election that covered 17 seats in total; 3 parliamentary and 14 civic. Overall, 133,054 votes were cast in
the by-elections and TNA led the pack after it garnered 38.89% or 51,878 votes, followed by Orange Democratic Movement with 33.7% or 44,837 votes, Party of
National Unity (Kenya) with 4.46% or 5,929 votes, Wiper Democratic Movement with 4.44% or 5,912 votes and United Democratic Forum (Kenya) with 4.15%
or 5,520 votes. TNA won civic and parliamentary seats in 7 different counties while its closest challengers, ODM won seats in 4 counties. The National Alliance
Party remained a strong contender for the following year's general elections, having received major defections from other big political parties of Kenya. The
successful election of TNA's main candidates (Uhuru Kenyatta and William Ruto) continue to enhance TNA's viability. TNA has made a coalition pact with
URP presidential aspirant William Ruto where Uhuru Kenyatta will be the president and Ruto will be the deputy president. Uhuru Kenyatta's party, The
National Alliance (Kenya) (TNA) joined William Ruto's United Republican Party (URP), Najib Balala's Republican Congress Party (RCP) and Charity Ngilu's
National Rainbow Coalition party to form the Jubilee Alliance coalition. Various opinion polls prior to the election placed Uhuru as one of the main contenders,
and his Jubilee Alliance as among the most popular. The other formidable coalition was the Coalition For Reform and Democracy (CORD), led by Raila
Odinga. However, Uhuru Kenyatta was officially declared the president elect on March 9, 2013 at 2:44pm. As per the IEBC's official results, Uhuru's 6,173,433
against 12,338,667 valid votes cast was 50.07% and was above the 50% plus 1 vote threshold set out in the 2010 constitution, thus making him the president-elect.
There was some discontent with the official results, as would be expected in such a hotly contested election especially in Raila Odinga's strongholds. The
inordinate delay in releasing the results and the technical failure of some safeguards and election equipment deployed by the IEBC did not help the perception
that the election had been less than free and fair. Further, an exit poll conducted by UCSD Professor Clark Gibson and James Long, Asst. Prof. and University of
Washington suggested that neither Odinga nor Kenyatta had attained the 50% plus one vote threshold. Analysts have contended that even though elections for
five other levels were held in Kenya at the same time, their national turnout levels and total vote tallies were about 16% less than the presidential total; e.g. while
10.6 million voters elected candidates for member of the national assembly, the senate and the 47 gubernatorial seats, almost 2 million more voted in the
presidential election. This has fueled concern and speculations of vote manipulation in President Kenyatta's favour. Two groups disputed these results and filed
petitions challenging various aspects of it at the Supreme Court of Kenya to contest the result. The groups were the Coalition For Reform and Democracy,
CORD, led by Raila Odinga, and the Africa Centre for Open Governance (AFRICOG). Uhuru Kenyatta and his running mate were respondents in these cases
and was represented by renown Lawyers Fred Ngatia and Katwa Kigen respectively. The Supreme court judges unanimously upheld the election of Uhuru
Kenyatta as Kenyas fourth president after rejecting Raila Odinga's petition in a verdict delivered Saturday March 30, 2013. Chief Justice Willy Mutunga in his
ruling said the elections were indeed conducted in compliance with the Constitution and the law. The Presidency of Uhuru Kenyatta began on April 9, 2013
after being sworn in as 4th president of Kenya. He succeeded Mwai Kibaki. During his inaugural speech Uhuru promised economic transformation through
vision 2030, unity among all Kenyans, free maternal care and that he would serve all Kenyans. When the first round of the presidential election took place on
March 4, 2013, Uhuru Kenyatta was declared the president-elect of Kenya by the Independent Electoral and Boundaries Commission. Raila Odinga challenged
this in the Supreme Court of Kenya. However, his petition was dismissed on March 30, 2013. After the supreme court dismissed Raila petition, the swearing in
ceremony was held on April 9, 2013 at the Moi International Sports Centre, Kasarani, Nairobi. According to Article 141 (2) (b) of the constitution says that in
case the Supreme Court upholds the victory of the president-elect, the swearing in will take place on "the first Tuesday following the seventh day following the
date on which the court renders a decision declaring the election to be valid." During his inaugural address he promised the following: Achieving peace and
strengthening unity will be the major goal of his Government. He would ensure that maternity fees are abolished and that all citizens of Kenya are able to access
government dispensaries and health centers free of charge. He will develop a framework to direct the 6 billion Kenya Shillings previously allocated for the
election run-off towards establishing a new Youth and Women Fund that will be open to the youth and women from every part of this country. He will put
measures in place to ensure that all students, joining class one next year, within the public school system receive a laptop. He promised that he will boost the
countrys key agricultural and manufacturing sectors and reduce high unemployment rates. Buying encouraging Kenyan to buy local products. he further outlined
9 pillar that his government will be based on; Honest and transparent government, with public services that are open and accountable to the people. Swiftly end
corruption, Devolution in full, Protect rights and freedoms, Ensure peace for citizens, Job creation, Streamline government, Extend basic services (Water and
electricity) to every Kenyan and Implement the new Constitution. Deputy president promised the economic transformation especially in areas of Agriculture and
tourism in his inaugural speech. The government ordered all its 52 ambassador and high commissioner back in to the country for briefing and consultations with
the new administration. They were given 7 days. He made his first trip out of the country on April 27, 2013 to Arusha. He attended the 11th Extra-Ordinary
Summit of East African CommunityHeads of State. On May 3, Uhuru made a trip to Ethiopia to attend the 21st extra ordinary summit of IGAD head of state.
He later had talks with his host, Hailemariam Desallegn. Uhuru visited the UK under invitation of PM David Cameron on May 5, 2013. He addressed a
conference in London on Somalia. He later had a bilateral talk with Mr Cameron. Uhuru visited South Africa on May 9, 2013 to attend the world economic
forum. He held bilateral talks with Jacob Zuma, the President of South Africa. He visited South Sudan on his way to Ethiopia for the 50yrs AU celebration.
Uhuru visited Uganda on June 24, 2013 and the next week on July 1, 2013 he visited Burundi. On Sunday July 14, 2013 he attended AU conference in Abuja
Nigeria and Later passed through Kinshasa on his way back. On August 3, 2014 Kenyatta visited Uganda where he was attending a Heads of State meeting for
countries contributing troops to the African peace-keeping mission in Somalia. He also met Raila Odinga during the visit. Kenyatta visited Russia on Thursday
August 15, 2013 in an effort to grow new markets for Kenyan produce in Europe. After Russia, he visited China after invitation of H. E. Xi Jinping, with a
delegate of 60 businessmen and 5 Governors. On his way back he briefly stopped over in Dubai, United Arab Emirates where the President further discussed on
promoting Kenyas trade agenda pas.Uhuru Kenyatta is the son of Jomo Kenyatta, the first President of Kenya. He is married to Margaret Gakuo Kenyatta. They
have three children, Jomo, Jaba and Ngina. He is a practising Catholic and regularly attends St. Austin's Catholic Church (which is situated within his former high
school's compound).

Djoomart Otorbaev (born 1955) is the Prime Minister of Kyrgyzstan since April 3, 2014 (from March 25 until April 3, 2014) and he
has served as the Finance Minister of Kyrgyzstan prior to his appointment. On March 25, 2014, he replaced Zhantoro Satybaldiyev as acting
Prime Minister until a new government is formed. On April 3, 2014, he was officially named Prime Minister of Kyrgyzstan.



Laimdota Straujuma (born February 24, 1951) is a Latvian economist who has been Prime Minister of Latvia since January 22, 2014.
Before her nomination as Prime Minister, she served as Minister of Agriculture from 2011 to 2014. She is the first woman to serve as the
head of government of the country. Between October 2000 and 2006 Laimdota Straujuma served as the Secretary of State of the Ministry
for Agriculture. Between 2007 and 2010 she was the Secretary of State of the Ministry for Regional Development and Local Government.
Straujuma was appointed as Minister of Agriculture on October 25, 2011. On January 5, 2014, the Unity Party nominated Laimdota
Straujuma as a candidate to the post of Prime Minister following the resignation of Valdis Dombrovskis. The nomination was supported
by Unity's coalition partners, the Reform Party and National Alliance and the opposition Union of Greens and Farmers.
Tammam Saeb Salam (Arabic: ; born May 13, 1945) is a Lebanese politician who has been Prime Minister of
Lebanon since February 15, 2014 and acting President of Lebanon since May 25, 2014. He previously served in the government of
Lebanon as Minister of Culture from July 11, 2008 until November 9, 2009. Salam was tasked with forming a new government on April
6, 2013. He was one of the independent Sunni politicians. He is close to March 14 Alliance, and still has good relations with the March
8 Alliance. Salam was elected Prime Minister of Lebanon on February 15, 2014. Salam was born into a prominent Sunni family in
Beirut on May 13, 1945. He comes from a politically powerful family in Lebanon. He is the eldest son of Saeb Salam, who held the
office several times since independence. His mother, Tamima Mardam Beik, is of Syrian origin and hails from Damascus. His
grandfather, Salim Ali Salam, was one of the Lebanese officials who served during the Ottoman era and French era. More specifically,
he served as a Beirut deputy in the Ottoman parliament and was also the head of the Beirut municipality. Tammam Salam has two older
sisters and two younger brothers. Tammam Salam is a graduate of Broummana High School and Haigazian University in Beirut. He
also holds an economics and management degree, which he received in England. Salam began his career as a businessman after
graduation. He joined the political field at the beginning of the 1970s. He established the Pioneers of Reform Movement (Arabic:
) in 1973. The objective of the movement was to follow a moderate policy in the middle of the turmoil in the country. On the other hand, the
movement was also regarded as the private militia group of Salam's father, Saeb Salam. However, the movement was dissolved by Tammam Salam at the initial
phase of the Lebanese civil war in order to avoid being part of the militant activities. In 1978, he joined the Makassed foundation a non-profit charity organization
in Beirut as a board member. He became the president of the foundation in 1982. The leadership of the foundation was passed through generations in the Salam
family.Tammam Salam resigned as president of the Foundation in September 2000. He is currently the honorary president of the Foundation. Later, he also
became the head of the Saeb Salam Foundation for culture and higher education. In the general elections of 1992, Salam was a candidate, but later he withdrew
his candidacy as a protest over the Syrian dominance in Lebanon. His boycott aimed at supporting the Lebanese Christians in an attempt to preserve the
sectarian balance in the country. Salam was first elected to the parliament in the 1996 elections from Beirut as an independent candidate. However Salam lost his
seat in the general elections held in 2000.He did not run for office in the 2005 general elections. He was appointed minister of culture in the cabinet led by Prime
Minister Fouad Siniora on July 11, 2008.Salam also won his seat in the general elections held in 2009. He entered an electoral alliance with Saad Hariri and
became part of his list in Beirut's third district. Salam is an independent member of the Lebanese parliament. In addition, he is part of the Lebanon First bloc in
the parliament, but not a member of any political party, making him a centrist figure. Following the resignation of Najib Mikati as prime minister on March 23,
2013, Salam was designated as a consensus Prime Minister. The 14 March Alliance officially nominated Salam as Prime Minister. Salam was tasked with forming
a government on April 6, 2013 after garnering 124 votes out of 128 parliament members. On February 15, 2014, he announced the formation of a new
government of 24 ministers. Following the assassination of Rafik Hariri on February 14, 2005, Salam said "Playing with emotions is a very dangerous game in
Lebanon, a game which Hariri himself never subscribed to." referring to mass demonstrations blaming Syria for the assassination in the country. Salam is married
to Lama Badreddine and has three children from a previous marriage.

Thomas Motsoahae "Tom" Thabane (born May 28, 1939) is a Mosotho politician who has been Prime Minister of Lesotho
since June 8, 2012. He was a member of the Lesotho Congress for Democracy (LCD) and served in the government of Prime
Minister Pakalitha Mosisili from 1998 to 2006, but in 2006 he split from the LCD and formed the All Basotho Convention. After
more than five years in opposition, he formed a coalition with other parties in the wake of the May 2012 parliamentary election and
was appointed Prime Minister. Thabane served as Principal Secretary for Health under Prime Minister Leabua Jonathan and then
served in the government under the military regime that overthrew Jonathan and ruled the country from 1986 to 1993. He was the
Minister of Foreign Affairs of Lesotho from 1990 to 1991. Thabane became advisor to Prime Minister Ntsu Mokhehle in early 1995.
He subsequently served as Foreign Minister in Mosisili's LCD government from June 1998 until June 2002. He then served as the
Minister of Home Affairs and Public Safety from June 2002 until November 2004, when he became Minister of Communications,
Science and Technology. Thabane resigned from the government on October 9, 2006, and formed a new party, the All Basotho Convention (ABC). Thabane
claimed that his will was to unite all Basotho, not only those from the Congress party or National Party.[citation needed] Some believed that the formation of the
ABC was the beginning of a new political light that could lead Lesotho to economic development. This became apparent in the news broad cast from a South
African Radio Station known as Lesedi. It was believed by his supporters that if Thabane became prime minister, he would try to draw new policies that would
bring a broader understanding of approach to changing Lesotho's declining hope in the global market.[citation needed] 18 MPs crossed the floor to join the ABC
in opposition on October 13, 2006; 17 of these (including Thabane) had been LCD members, while the remaining MP was an independent.[8] Thabane's party
thus became the third largest party in Parliament. The ruling party was left with 61 of the 120 parliamentary seats; with such a precarious majority, Mosisili
requested the dissolution of Parliament, and an early election was called for February 2007. In the election, the ABC took 17 out of 80 constituency seats, while
the LCD took 61. Thabane said that the vote was free, but not fair. An extended dispute followed the 2007 election regarding the allocation of the seats based on
proportional representation. Five opposition parties called for the Speaker of Parliament to designate Thabane as Leader of the Opposition in March 2007, but
the Speaker rejected this on the grounds that the agreement made by the opposition parties was not legitimate. National Independent Party leader Dominic
Motikoe was instead designated as the Leader of the Opposition, despite leading a party that was allied to the LCD. On June 14, 2007, an assassination attempt
on Thabane allegedly occurred, with gunmen firing outside his home. Several other incidents of political violence occurred at around the same time, and an
indefinite curfew was imposed; ] it was lifted later in the month. Thabane was critical of the curfew and accused the police of being excessively harsh in enforcing
it. The LCD's reluctance to engage in talks regarding the political situation prompted Thabane on October 18, 2007 to threaten street protests to pressure the
government into holding a new election "if they continue to fail to co-operate". After an April 22, 2009 assault on Mosisili's residence, which was believed to have
been a failed attempt to kill Mosisili, police said that retired officer Makotoko Lerotholi, a bodyguard of Thabane, was suspected of involvement in the attack.
Thabane condemned the government for placing blame on the opposition, describing it as "treachery".

Mohammed Yousef el-Magariaf, Mohamed Magariaf, or, as he writes on his official website, Dr. Mohamed Yusuf Al Magariaf
(Arabic: ; born 1940) is a Libyan politician who served as the President of the General National Congress from its first
meeting in August 9, 2012 until his resignation in May 28, 2013. In this role he was effectively Libya's de facto head of state, until his
resignation in May 2013. Magariaf is the leader of the National Front Party, which won three seats in the 2012 election, and he was
previously well known for having founded and been the first leader of the National Front for the Salvation of Libya against the regime of
Muammar Gaddafi. A resident of Benghazi, he studied Economics at the University of Benghazi. He served from 1972 to 1977 as head
of the board of auditors at the Libyan Arab Republic's Revenue Court, where he proved unconfortamble for the regime because of his
anti-corruption stance, and was subsequently designated Libya's Ambassador to India until 1980 when, after being recalled to Libya, he
announced his defection in Morocco, due to his certainty that he would be purged on return. He survived at least three assassination
attempts. On May 8, 1984, el-Magariaf directed commandos from the National Front for the Salvation of Libya led by Ahmed Ibrahim
Ihwas in an attempt to assassinate Muammar Gaddafi, via an attack on Gaddafi's headquarters. The attack failed. Al-Magariaf, the
"National Front for the Salvation of Libya" broadcast opposition propaganda into Libya. Magariaf dedicated himself to overthrowing the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya
with violence. In response, Gaddafi later targeted Al-Magariaf. Subsequent to the founding of the National Front for the Salvation of Libya, el-Magariaf is one of
few people who knew he was targeted by Gaddafi's bombing of UTA Flight 772 in 1989. The NFSL was founded in 1981, as the first opposition group pushing
for democratic reforms in Libya. The NFSL called for a democratic government with constitutional guarantees, free and fair elections, free press, separation of
powers, non-discriminatory rule of law, gender equality, multi-partyism, sustainable development, and a realistic democratic road-map that benefits from Libyan,
Arab and Islamic traditions as well as democratic learning from Nelson Mandela's democratisation experience, amongst others. At the onset of the Libyan civil
war, Magariaf remained active in engaging with his political contacts, in an effort to gain international support for himself and the Libyan people. After the 2011
civil war, Magariaf returned to Libya from the United States, where he had spent most of his 30 years in exile. He is now the leader of National Front Party, the
formal successor of the NFSL which was dissolved on May 9, 2012, after the National Transitional Council seized power. Magariaf is Fellow of the Institute of
Chartered Accountants in England and Wales. On Libyan Congressional election of 2012, Magariaf gain a seat as congressman, within the National Front Party.
Magariaf was elected President of the General National Congress (GNC) on August 9, 2012. He received 113 votes in Congress against 85 votes for his
independent rival, Ali Zeidan who went on to become Prime Minister in November. After serving as President for 9 months he resigned in May 2013 in
anticipation of the political isolation law which was passed, barring him from office due to his previous role as an ambassador under the Gaddafi regime. Magariaf
survived an attempt on his life in the southwestern Libyan town of Sabha on January 4, 2013. He had been visiting the town with a GNC delegation as part of a
fact-finding mission aimed at helping the government restore security and crack down on smuggling operations in the south of the country. Magarief told
reporters that his hotel was attacked by gunmen, triggering a three-hour gun battle with his personal bodyguards in which three of them were injured. Magarief
escaped the incident unharmed. Magariaf is reported to have good relations with the Muslim Brotherhood, yet is perceived as a moderate pragmatist who led one
of the most liberal parties in the 2012 election. His agenda is to focus on the Libyan economy.
Ali Zeidan (sometimes written as Zidan; Arabic: ; born 1950) is a former Prime Minister of Libya from
November 14, 2012 until March 11, 2014. He was appointed by the General National Congress on October 14, 2012, and
took office on November 14, 2012 after Congress approved his cabinet nominees.Prior to the Libyan civil war, Zeidan was
a Geneva-based human rights lawyer and according to the BBC, is considered by some local observers as a strong-minded
liberal. Zeidan was reportedly kidnapped by armed men in Tripoli during the early morning hours of October 10, 2013.
He was freed hours later. Ali Zeidan served as a diplomat for Libya during the 1970s, serving in India under Ambassador
Mohammed Magariaf. Both men defected in 1980 and went on to form the National Front for the Salvation of Libya.
Zeidan spent nearly three decades in exile in Geneva after the defection. During the revolution Zeidan served as the
National Transitional Council's Europe envoy, and is credited as having played a key role in persuading French President
Nicolas Sarkozy to support the anti-Gaddafi forces. On July 7, 2012, Zeidan was elected as an independent congressman for Jufra in the 2012 Congressional
election. He ran for the position of Speaker of the Congress, but ultimately lost out to his former opposition colleague Mohammed Magariaf, obtaining 85 votes.
On October 10, 2012, Zeidan resigned his seat in Congress. Following Mustafa Abushagur's unsuccessful attempt to form a government, Zeidan resigned his seat
in Congress and ran for the position of Prime Minister against the Justice and Construction Party's favoured candidate, Mohammed Al-Harari. Zeidan was
elected Prime Minister-designate by a vote of 93 to 85, with two weeks to submit his proposed new government for approval by Congress. Zeidan was reported to
have been supported by members of Congress belonging to the generally liberal National Forces Alliance (organized by Mahmoud Jibril), as well as by certain
independents informally affiliated as the Workers group (with 20 members) and the Southern group (with 31). Zeidan's cabinet was approved by Congress on
October 31, 2012, although six of its members were referred for investigation into alleged links to the former Gaddafi regime. All six were subsequently cleared
of the charges and Zeidan's government was sworn in on November 14, 2012. Zeidan's cabinet avowedly aimed at geographical as well as political balance,
including ministers from the National Forces Alliance, the Justice and Construction Party, and independents. Zeidan was quoted as promising at his swearing-in
that his government would abide by the Constitutional Declaration and "give its utmost best to the nation based on the rule of law, human rights, democracy,
rights, and the belief in God, His Prophet and a state based on Islam". Zeidan was kidnapped by armed militants from the Corinthia Hotel in Tripoli during the
early morning hours of October 10, 2013, and taken to an undisclosed location. The group Joint Operations Room of Libya's Revolutionaries said they abducted
Zeidan as a reaction to his government's alleged involvement in the American capture of Anas al-Liby, and his statements in late September calling for
international assistance in building an official army and police force. Zeidan was freed hours later. On March 11, 2014, the rogue oil tanker Morning Glory left
the rebel port of Sidra, Libya with Libyan oil that had been confiscated by the rebels. Ali Zeidan had promised to stop the departure, but failed. The same day,
Zeidan was reported to have been ousted by the parliament committee and then to have fled to Europe, although fleeing the country is banned. However, he
told the press conference in Rabat, Morocco, that the ousting was invalid. The Maltese government on June 9, 2014 has denied a Maltese blogger's claim that Ali
Zeidan is residing in Malta, under the protection of the Maltese government.
Giuma Ahmad Atigha (born 1950) is Libyan politician who has served as Deputy President of the General National
Congress of Libya since August 10, 2012, and Acting President of the General National Congress of Libya since resignation of
Mohamed Yousef el-Magariaf on May 28 until June 25, 2013. On July 7, 2012, Giuma Ahmed Atigha was elected as an
independent congressman in the 2012 Congressional election. On August 10, 2012 he was elected as deputy president of the
General National Congress. Atigha became the acting president of the Congress after the resignation of Mohammed Magariaf.
As caretaker head of state, he became the Commander-in-chief of the army.

Nouri Abusahmain (Arabic : ) is a Libyan politician who has been the President of the Libyan General
National Congress since June 25, 2013. He is also a representative of the Berber town of Zuwarah, in the west of the country.
He is an Amazigh and had the support of the Justice and Construction Party in his election. Abusahmain ended the brief
constitutional crisis which emerged when Ahmed Maiteeq was elected PM signing a decree confirming Maiteeq, bypassing the
annulment of the election by the deputy speaker.


Abdullah al-Thani (Arabic: , born 1954) is a Libyan politician who has been serving as the Prime Minister of
Libya since March 11, 2014, when he took over in an interim capacity after Congress dismissed Ali Zeidan. He was previously the
defence minister in the government of Ali Zeidan. Al-Thani managed to negotiate with rebels to open up 2 of 4 of the blockaded
oil ports which would bring in much more government revenue. Also, after threatening to resign, the Congress officially
confirmed him as PM in a permanent capacity and vested him with greater powers to deal with Libya's problems. He resigned on
April 13, 2014, after he and his family were victims of a "traitorous attack", though he will remain prime minister until a
replacement has been selected.

Alois Philipp Maria, Hereditary Prince of Liechtenstein, Count Rietberg (born June 11, 1968) is a Regent of Liechtenstein
(Stellvertreter des Frsten) since August 15, 2004. is the eldest son of Hans Adam II, Prince of Liechtenstein, and Countess Marie
Agla Kinsky of Wchinitz and Tettau. He is married to Duchess Sophie of Bavaria. Alois attended the Liechtenstein Grammar School
in Vaduz-Ebenholz and the Royal Military Academy, Sandhurst in the United Kingdom. He served in the Coldstream Guards in Hong
Kong and London for six months before entering the University of Salzburg, from which he earned a Master's degree in Jurisprudence
in 1993. Until 1996, Alois worked at a firm of chartered accountants in London. In May of that year, he returned to Vaduz and
became active in managing his father's finances. Hans-Adam II retained the sweeping powers (the right to veto laws and elect judges) in
a Constitutional referendum in 2003. On Liechtenstein Day in 2004, Hans-Adam II formally turned the power of making day-to-day
governmental decisions over to his son, to preparing for the transition to a new generation. Hans-Adam remains Head of State. On
November 27, 2005, Liechtenstein voters rejected an initiative that would prohibit abortion and birth control in the principality.
Instead, a government-sponsored counter proposal was ratified. The pro-life initiative was supported by Roman Catholic Archbishop
Wolfgang Haas. Alois was initially sympathetic to the pro-life proposal, but became neutral during the run-up to the vote. In 2011,
Alois threatened to exercise his royal veto if voters approved a forthcoming referendum to legalize abortion in the principality. Such a
veto was not necessary as the voters rejected the proposal. Following the Prince's threat, the "Damit deine Stimme zhlt" ("So that your voice counts") initiative was
launched to change the constitution to prevent the Prince from vetoing legislation approved in referendums. The referendum was held on July 1, 2012 and 76%
of voters upheld the Prince's power to veto referendum results. On July 3, 1993, at St. Florin's in Vaduz, Alois married HRH Duchess Sophie in Bavaria,
Princess of Bavaria, now also Hereditary Princess of Liechtenstein and Countess Rietberg. They have four children: Prince Joseph Wenzel Maximilian Maria of
Liechtenstein, Count Rietberg (born May 24, 1995 in London), Princess Marie-Caroline Elisabeth Immaculata of Liechtenstein, Countess Rietberg (born
October 17, 1996 in Grabs, Canton of St. Gallen), Prince Georg Antonius Constantin Maria of Liechtenstein, Count Rietberg (born April 20, 1999 in Grabs) and
Prince Nikolaus Sebastian Alexander Maria of Liechtenstein, Count Rietberg (born December 6, 2000, in Grabs). The Prince hosts an open day at his castle on
the 15th of August every year where guests are treated to local drinks, delicacies, and the opportunity to meet and mingle with the Princely Family itself (see at the
National Day 2013, Prince Alois meeting an admirer). Later that night the castle is lit up by an elaborate projection system and a world class fireworks display and
street fair goes on late into the night. He has following honours: Liechtenstein : Grand Star of the Order of Merit of the Principality of Liechtenstein, Austria :
Grand Decoration of Honour in Gold with Sash for Services to the Republic of Austria (2000) and Sovereign Military Order of Malta : Grand Cross pro Merito
Melitensi civilian special class (16/09/2011).
Adrian Hasler (born February 11, 1964), is a politician from Liechtenstein and the current Prime Minister in the
Government of the Principality of Liechtenstein since March 27, 2013. Hasler is a trained economist and was head of the
Liechtenstein National Police Force. Adrian Hasler is married to Gudrun Hasler, and they have two sons, Pascal and Luis.
Adrian Hasler got his Matura, the general qualification for university entrance, in 1984 at the Liechtenstein secondary school in
Vaduz. Subsequently he started studying business administration with an area of expertise in finance and accounting at the
University of St. Gallen, where he graduated in 1991. After that he was head of controlling in the business division Thin Films of
the Balzers AG. From 1996 until 2004 he was head of Group Finance and deputy-director of the Verwaltungs- und Privat-Bank
in Vaduz. He was elected in 2001 as a Member of Parliament for the Progressive Citizens' Party (FBP). In March 2004, he resigned to become the new chief of
the National police of Liechtenstein. On April 1, 2004 he therefor dismissed the interim police chief Martin Meyer. For him, Marco Ospelt succeeded as a
Member of Parliament. In 2012, he was selected as the FBP candidate for Prime Minister for the general elections in 2013. The party then won the 2013
parliamentary election. Hasler became Prime Minister of Liechtenstein on March 27, 2013. As the Prime Minister he is not only head of government of
Liechtenstein, but also Minister for General Government Affairs and Finance.

Algirdas Butkeviius (born November 19, 1958) has been Prime Minister of Lithuania since December 13, 2012. He was
Minister of Finance from May 1, 2004 until May 14, 2005 and Minister of Transport and Communications from 2006 until 2008.
He has led the Social Democratic Party of Lithuania since March 7, 2009. Butkeviius was born at Paeeriai village in Radvilikis
district municipality. Since 1992 he is member of the Social Democratic Party of Lithuania (SDPL). He was Chairman of
Vilkavikis Department of the SDPL in 19951997, Deputy Chairman of the SDPL in 19992005 (re-elected in 2001), and
Chairman of the SDPL since 2009. In 1996 and 2000, he was elected to the Seimas (parliament). From 2004 to 2005 he served as
Minister of Finance and from 2006 to 2008 as Minister of Transport and Communications. Butkeviius was the SDPL candidate in
the 2009 presidential election, placing second with 11.83% of the votes. As of 2010, he is the chairman of the SDPL. During the
2012 parliamentary election, Butkeviius was among the few candidates who were elected in the first round of the popular vote. On
November 22, 2012 he was elected by the Seimas to be Prime Minister-designate. He was appointed as Prime Minister by
presidential decree on December 7, 2012 and his cabinet was sworn on December 13, 2012 following the approval of the
governmental program by Parliament.

Xavier Bettel (born March 3, 1973) is a Luxembourgish politician and lawyer, and has been Prime Minister of Luxembourg since
December 4, 2013 when he succeeded Jean-Claude Juncker. Representing the Democratic Party, he has previously served as Mayor
of Luxembourg City and as a member of the Chamber of Deputies and the Luxembourg City communal council. Bettel was born in
Luxembourg City. His father was a wine merchant and his mother was French, of Russian descent.[3] After high school, Bettel
obtained a Masters in Public and European Law and a DEA in Political Science and Public Law from Nancy 2 University in Nancy,
France. He also studied maritime law and ecclesiastical law at Aristotle University in Thessaloniki, Greece. He has participated in the
Erasmus Programme. For four years in the early 2000s he hosted Sonndes em 8, a weekly talkshow, on the now-defunct
private T.TVtelevision network. In the 1999 communal elections, Bettel was elected to Luxembourg City's communal council,
finishing sixth on the DP's list. On July 12, 2001, he qualified as a lawyer. By the time of the 2004 legislative election, Bettel had
significantly consolidated his position, and finished fourth (of the five DP members elected), giving him a seat in the Chamber of
Deputies. On November 28, 2005, after the communal elections in which he was placed fourth on the DP list, Bettel was appointed
chevin in the Council of Luxembourg City. Following municipal elections on October 9, 2011, at the young age of 38, Bettel was
sworn in as Mayor of Luxembourg on November 24, 2011. Bettel ran for the Chamber of Deputies in the 1999 legislative election, and finished 10th amongst
DP candidates in the Centre constituency, with the top seven being elected. However, the DP overtook the Luxembourg Socialist Workers' Party (LSAP) as the
second-largest party, and its members formed the majority of the new government as the Christian Social People's Party's (CSV) coalition partners. Thus, with
Lydie Polfer and Anne Brasseur vacating their seats to take roles in the government, and Colette Flesch not taking her seat so as to focus on her role as Member
of the European Parliament, Bettel was appointed to the Chamber, starting August 12, 1999. In 2013, Bettel was elected leader of the Democratic Party, and in
the 2013 election, led the party to a third-ranked position in parliamentary seats. On October, Bettel was designated by Grand Duke Henri as the formateur for
the next government. He assumed his post as Luxembourg's Prime Minister on December 4, 2013. In the government's coalition of the Democratic Party,
Luxembourg Socialist Workers' Party and The Greens, he also holds the functions of Minister of State, Minister for Communications and the Media, and
Minister of Worship. His policies were expected to include reforms on same-sex marriage in Luxembourg, replace religious instruction in schools with general
ethics classes and cut spending to maintain Luxembourg's AAA credit rating. Bettel is openly gay, and has stated that increasingly in Luxembourg "people do not
consider the fact of whether someone is gay or not." Bettel is Luxembourg's first openly gay Prime Minister and Europe's third openly gay head of government
following Iceland's former Prime Minister Jhanna Sigurardttir and Belgium's current Prime Minister Elio Di Rupo.

Hery Martial Rakotoarimanana Rajaonarimampianina (born November 6, 1958) is a Malagasy politician who has
been President of Madagascar since January 25, 2014. Previously he served as Minister of Finance under President Andry
Rajoelina, and he was the Rajoelina camp's candidate in the 2013 presidential election. He won the vote in a second round,
defeating Jean-Louis Robinson, the candidate of Marc Ravalomanana's camp. Hery Rajaonarimampianina was born to a modest
family. He lived in Sabotsy Namehana, neighborhood of Antananarivo, Madagascar. In 1982, Rajaonarimampianina obtained a
MBA at the "Etablissement dEnseignement Suprieur de Droit, dEconomie, de Gestion et de Sciences Sociales (EESDEGS)
Universit dAnkatso Antananarivo. Then, he moved to Canada to complete his training in finance and accounting at Universit du
Qubec Trois-Rivires, receiving a postgraduate diploma (DEA) in accounting science in 1986. Rajaonarimampianina obtained
the Canadian Diploma of Accounting from the Certified General Accountants Association (C.G.A) in 1991. In 1991,
Rajaonarimampianina went back to Madagascar and worked as accountant. He also became the studies director of the National
Institute for Business Administration and Accounting Science (INSCAE) in Antananarivo (Madagascar) and teacher assistant at the
Antananarivo University (Madagascar) and at the Institut of Business Administration (IAE) of the Metz University (France). In 1995, Rajaonarimampianina
created the accountant firm Auditeurs Associes C.G.A, in Antananarivo. With 50 associates, the firm operates throughout Madagascar for private commercial
companies either national or international. It also assists entities in their projects supported by international fundraisers. In 2003 he was elected President of the
"Ordre des Experts Comptables et Commissaires aux Comptes de Madagascar" (Professional Order of Chartered Accountants and Statutory Auditors of
Madagascar) and appointed Vice-Prsident of the "Conseil Suprieur de la Comptabilit" (Superior Accounting Council and counsel of the "Comit pour la
Sauvegarde de lIntgrit" (Committee for the Safeguarding of the Integrity). In 2009, Rajaonarimampianina became Minister of Finance and Budget, at a time
marked by the withdrawal of the main international funders of Madagascar since 2008. He has been CEO of Air Madagascar since 2011. Rajaonarimampianina
set up the political organisation "Hery Vaovao hoan'i Madagasikara" in 2013 ("New Forces for Madagascar") and ran for Presidency with 32 other competitors. His
major opponents were Edgard Marie No Razafindravahy from the ruling political party Tanora Gasy Vonona (TGV), the proxy of the former prsident Marc
Ravalomanana, Jean-Louis Robinson from Antoko ny Vahoaka Aloha No Andrianina (AVANA) party and two former Prime Minister of the High Transitional
Authority Albert Camille Vital and Roindefo Zafitsimivalo Monja. After the first round Rajaonarimampianina received 15.62%, second to Robinson. The sum of
all opponents of former President Ravalomanana's party reached a score of 55%. Before the second round, he gathered his camp largely getting many rallies,
including Roland Ratsiraka, nephew of former President Didier Ratsiraka, Pierrot Rajaonarivelo, and he gets support from Andry Rajoelina, President of the
High Transitional Authority. In the second round, Hery Rajaonarimampianina quickly led the first preliminary results of the election established by the
Independent National Electoral Commission of the Transition (CENIT) in elections that international observers deemed "free, transparent, reliable and
credible".
Kolo Christopher Laurent Roger, commonly known as Roger Kolo (born September 3, 1943) is the Prime Minister
of Madagascar since April 16, 2014. Kolo was born in Belon'i Tsiribihina, Menabe at the south-west coast of Madagascar. His
father worked at a post office and served as vice-mayor. His younger brother Roland Kolo was a Member of the upper
chamber of the Parliament of Madagascar. He studied at the University of Antananarivo 19701977 where he obtained a
degree in medicine. He specialized in surgery at a hospital in France before he undertook further studies in Geneva,
Switzerland and became a radiologist. He started three private centers of radiology in the period 19972003. He returned to
Madagascar in 2013 to participate in the Malagasy presidential election, but his candidacy was not accepted due to not
fulfilling the residency condition. Not having a political background, he worked closely with Hery Rajaonarimampianina and
"Hery Vaovao hoan'i Madagasikara" ("New Forces for Madagascar") during the election campaign. After Rajaonarimampianina
took office as president in January 2014, Kolo was named prime minister in April, following a consultation round which showed he had support from a majority
in the parliament. On April 18, 2014 the cabinet was announced. It has 31 members with varied political affiliations. Kolo is married with three children.

Joyce Hilda Banda (ne Mtila; born April 12, 1950) is a Malawian politician who was the President of Malawi from
April 7, 2012 until May 31, 2014. She is the founder and leader of the People's Party, created in 2011. An educator and
grassroots women's rights activist, she was Minister of Foreign Affairs of Malawi from June 1, 2006 until May 29, 2009
and Vice-President of Malawi from May 29, 2009 until April 7,2012. Banda took office as president following the sudden
death of President Bingu wa Mutharika. She was Malawi's fourth president and its first female president. Before
becoming president, she served as the country's first female vice-president. She was a member of parliament and Minister
for Gender, Children's Affairs and Community Services. Before her active career in politics she was the founder of the
Joyce Banda Foundation, founder of the National Association of Business Women (NABW), Young Women Leaders
Network and the Hunger Project. In 2014, Forbes named President Banda as the 40th most powerful woman in the
world and the most powerful woman in Africa. Joyce Hilda Ntila was born on April 12, 1950 in Malemia, a village in the
Zomba District of Nyasaland (now Malawi). Her father was an accomplished and popular police brass band musician.
She began her career as a secretary and became a well-known figure during the rule of dictator Hastings Banda (no relation). She has a Cambridge School
Certificate, a Bachelor of Arts Degree in Early Childhood Education from Columbus University an unaccredited distance education institution a Bachelor of
Social Studies in Gender Studies from the Atlantic International University, USA, another unaccredited distance education institution and a Diploma in
Management of NGOs from the International Labour Organization (ILO) Centre in Turin, Italy. Currently, she is reading for a Master of Arts Degree in
Leadership at Royal Roads University in Canada. She received an honorary doctorate in 2013 from Jeonju University. She married Roy Kachale with whom she
had three children. By age 25, she was living in Nairobi, Kenya. In 1975, a growing women's movement in Kenya motivated Banda to take her three children and
leave what she has described as an abusive marriage. Her marriage to Roy Kachele ended in 1981. She is now married to Richard Banda, retired Chief Justice of
the Republic of Malawi with whom she has two children. Between 1985 and 1997 Banda managed and established various businesses and organisations including
Ndekani Garments (1985), Akajuwe Enterprises (1992), and Kalingidza Bakery (1995). Her success moved her to help other women achieve financial
independence and break the cycles of abuse and poverty. She is sister to Anjimile Oponyo, former CEO of the Raising Malawi Academy for Girls founded by
Madonna. Joyce Banda entered politics in 1999. She won a parliamentary seat in Malawi's third democratic election as a member of president Bakili Muluzi's
party. She represented the Zomba-Malosa constituency. Muluzi named her minister for Gender and Community Services. As minister, she fought to enact the
Domestic Violence Bill, which had failed for seven years. She designed the National Platform for Action on Orphans and Vulnerable Children and the Zero
Tolerance Campaign Against Child Abuse. In 2004, she was re-elected as a member of Muluzi's Party. Bingu wa Mutharika became president. Even though
Banda was not a member of his party, Mutharika appointed her as foreign minister in 2006. Banda moved to change Malawi's recognition of the legitimate
government of China from the Republic of China (on Taiwan) to the People's Republic of China on the mainland; she claimed the switch would bring economic
benefits to Malawi. In 2010, China finished the construction of a new parliament building in Lilongwe. Banda ran as the vice-presidential candidate of the
Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) in the 2009 presidential election, running alongside Mutharika, the DPP presidential candidate. She served as Malawi's first
female vice-president, before becoming the country's first woman president on Mutharika's death. In a surprise move by the DPP, Joyce Banda and second vice-
president Khumbo Kachali were fired as the vice-Presidents of the DPP on December 12, 2010 for undefined 'anti-party' activities.[22] In attempts to ostracise
her, the president had continued to give roles that were previously held by her to Callista Mutharika who was included in the cabinet in September 2011.[23] The
court had blocked attempts by Bingu wa Mutharika to fire her as Vice-President on constitutional grounds. This included attempts to seize her official
government vehicle and to block her from registering her new party.[24][25] On 8 September 2011, the role of Vice-President was left out in a cabinet reshuffle.
However, she was still the legal Vice-President of the country as mandated by the constitution. She was urged by DPP spokesman Hetherwick Ntaba to resign as
Vice-President. The relationship between her and the previous President of Malawi, Bingu wa Mutharika had become increasingly tense because of Mutharika's
attempts to position his own brother, Peter Mutharika as the successor of the party and as the next president of the country. Although she was fired from the
position as Vice-President of the DPP together with second Vice-President Khumbo Kachali, she continued to serve as Vice-President of Malawi as stipulated in
the constitution of the Republic of Malawi. This move led to mass resignations in the DPP and the formation of networks that supported her candidacy to
become President of Malawi in the 2014 general election. The DPP denied that mass resignations had occurred and insisted that they were only a few. Joyce
Banda is the founder and leader of the People's Party, formed in 2011 after Banda was expelled from the ruling DPP when she refused to endorse President
Mutharika's younger brother Peter Mutharika as the successor to the presidency for the 2014 general election. On April 5, 2012, President Mutharika died. After
his death the government failed to notify the public in a timely manner that the president had died. This led to the fear of a constitutional crisis in Malawi. Agence
France-Presse reported Malawi's ex-President Bakili Muluzi as insisting on "constitutional order", saying the vice-president must automatically take power under
the constitution. "I am calling for a constitutional order, for continued peace and order. The laws of Malawi are very clear that the vice president takes over" when
the sitting president can no longer govern. We have to avoid a situation where there is disorder. Let us follow the constitution. We have no choice but follow the
constitution. It's very important that there must be peace and calm." Malawi's security forces also wanted the constitutional order to prevail. The Malawi Law
Society confirmed that under section 83(4) of the constitution of Malawi, she is the legitimate successor to the Presidency. On April 7, 2012 Malawi's cabinet
sought a court order to block Banda from becoming president. In turn, she phoned the army commander, General Henry Odillo, and asked if he would support
her. He agreed and stationed troops around her house. Joyce Banda was sworn in on April 7, 2012 as President of Malawi, the first woman to hold the office.
Chief Justice Lovemore Munlo presided over the ceremony which was held at the National Assembly in Lilongwe. After she was sworn in, Banda appealed for
national unit: "I want all of us to move into the future with hope and with the spirit of oneness and unity... I hope we shall stand united and I hope that as a God-
fearing nation we allow God to come before us, because if we don't do that then we have failed." The Malawian and international media reported on Joyce
Banda's smooth inauguration. They called it a triumph for democracy. A Malawi Sunday Times editorial said that the new president's inauguration had "helped to
entrench and cement a democratic culture in the country." On April 26, 2012, President Banda chose her cabinet; 23 ministers and nine deputy ministers. She
gave herself several key portfolios to strengthen her own power as the country's leader. On October 10, 2013, a few days after returning from a trip to the UN,
President Joyce Banda sacked her cabinet following the Capital Hill Cashgate scandal. On October 15, 2013 a new cabinet was appointed, and notably Finance
Minister Ken Lipenga and Justice Minister Ralph Kasambara were dropped from the cabinet. In May 2014 Joyce Banda was heavily defeated in the Presidential
election. She failed in an attempts to nullify the election. After the swearing in of the winner Peter Muthirika (brother to her former adversary the late President
Bingu Mwatharike) she offered him her congratualtions. During Mutharika's presidency, Malawi was left in a poor economic situation due to foreign relations
under the Mutharika administration. Within the last year of Mutharika's presidency, Britain, the United States, Germany, Norway, the European Union, the
World Bank, and the African Development Bank had all suspended financial aid. They had expressed concern for Mutharika's attacks on democracy
domestically and his increasingly erratic policies. In March 2012, Mutharika told these foreign donors to "go to hell." He accused them of plotting to bring down
his government. Part of Banda's challenge as president is to restore diplomatic ties with the aid donors. She also has the challenge of restoring diplomatic ties with
Malawi's neighbours like Mozambique, and regional countries such as Botswana. Within the first week of her presidency, Banda launched a diplomatic offensive
to repair Malawi's international relations. She spoke to Henry Bellingham of the United Kingdom's Foreign Office. He assured her that a new British envoy will
be sent "within the shortest time possible." She spoke to the United States Secretary of State Hillary Clinton. Clinton promised to resume discussions on the $350
million energy grant as soon as possible. Banda announced plans to speak to Baroness Ashton of the European Union's Foreign Affairs office and the Malawi's
IMF Resident Representative, Ruby Randall. She and Zambian president Michael Sata had also conferred about resuming close working relations. At least partly
to further please donors, Banda's administration also refused in June 2012 to host that July's African Union summit on the grounds that the AU had insisted that
Sudan's president Omar al-Bashir be given assurances that Malawi would refuse to serve the International Criminal Court arrest warrant against him; the Cabinet
decided that such conditions were unacceptable. President Banda is named by Forbes as the 40th most powerful woman in the world, the highest African name
on the list. On May 18, 2012, Banda announced her intention to overturn Malawi's ban on homosexuality. The measure was reported to already have the support
of a majority of MPs. If successful, it would make Malawi the second African nation to legalise same-sex sexual activity since 1994. Amnesty International
reported in early November 2012 that Malawi had "suspended" laws criminalising homosexuality pending a vote. On the advice of the International Monetary
Fund, Banda devalued the Malawian kwacha in May 2012, breaking with the late President Bingu wa Mutharika, who had refused to do so. The announcement
of the kwacha's devaluation by 33 per cent against the United States dollar, an attempt to attract donor funding, prompted "panic-buying" in Malawian cities, the
BBC News reported. In June 2012, to reduce the government spendings, Joyce Banda decided to sell her jet and a fleet of 60 luxury cars. However proceeds
from the sale of the jet failed to be accounted for. An explanation given by Joyce Banda was that the jet had been sold to an arms company in South Africa with
whom the Government of Malawi had an outstanding debt and so the jet was used to offset this debt. On January 17, 2013, thousands of Malawians protested in
Blantyre against rising inflation after Banda, joined by IMF chief Christine Lagarde, defended the devaluation of the kwacha and said she would not reverse the
decision. After the flag was changed in 2010 by the Democratic Progressive Party (DPP), there was public opposition. Many groups challenged the legitimacy of
the flag. May 28, 2012, Banda led the nation's MPs to vote to revert the flag back to its independence flag, which was originally adopted in 1964. All parties,
except the DPP, voted in favour of this reverting to the independence flag. Before becoming vice-president, she was the founder and CEO of the Joyce Banda
Foundation. for better Education, a charitable foundation that assists Malawian children and orphans through education. It is a complex of primary and
secondary schools in the Chimwankhunda area of Blantyre. It includes an orphan care center that consists of six centres and 600 children.[53] It also assists the
surrounding villages by providing micro-credit to 40 women and 10 youth groups. It provided seeds to over 10,000 farmers and has provided other donations.
The foundation has constructed four clinics in four of the 200 villages it assists. The foundation also assists in rural development. It has a partnership with the
Jack Brewer Foundation, a global development foundation founded by NFL star, Jack Brewer. Banda is the founder of the National Association of Business
Women in Malawi that was established in 1990. It is a registered non-profit foundation in Malawi. The association aims to lift women out of poverty by
strengthening their capacity and empowering them economically. This is a social network of 30,000 women, dedicated to supporting women's businesses and
supporting women who want to participate in business. Its activities include business training, technical training, record keeping and management skills. They
work towards creating dialogue with policymakers to make policies favourable to women business owners. Its current director is Mary Malunga. The foundation
has a partnership with the Netherlands-based Humanist Institute for Development Cooperation (Hivos) at The Hague since 2003. Banda has been involved with
many grassroots projects with women since the age of 25 to bring about policy change, particularly in education. She founded the Joyce Banda Foundation for
Better Education. She founded the Young Women Leaders Network, National Association of Business Women and the Hunger Project in Malawi. She (jointly
with President Joaquim Chissano of Mozambique) was awarded the 1997 Africa Prize for Leadership for the Sustainable End of Hunger by the Hunger Project, a
New York-based non-governmental organisation. She used the prize money to fund the building of the Joyce Banda foundation for children. In 2006, she
received the International Award for the Health and Dignity of Women for her dedication to the rights of the women of Malawi by the Americans for United
Nations Population Fund. She served as commissioner for "Bridging a World Divided" alongside personalities such as Bishop Desmond Tutu, and United
Nations Human Rights Commissioner, Mary Robinson. Banda was also member of the Advisory Board for Education in Washington DC, and on the advisory
board for the Federation of World Peace and Love in Taiwan (China). As part of a government move on austerity measures in October 2012, Banda cut her
salary by 30%. She also announced that the presidential jet would be sold. In 2010, Banda became a member of the Global Leaders Council for Reproductive
Health, a group of sixteen sitting and former heads of state, high-level policymakers and other leaders committed to advancing reproductive health for lasting
development and prosperity. Chaired by former President of Ireland Mary Robinson, these leaders seek to mobilise the political will and financial resources
necessary to achieve universal access to reproductive health by 2015 a key target of the UN Millennium Development Goals. She has following awards and
honurs: Woman of the Year, Malawi, Woman of the Year, Malawi, 1998, Nyasa Times Multimedia 'Person of the Year', 2010, Martin Luther King Drum Major
Award, 2012, Washington DC, Legends Award for Leadership, 2012, Greater African Methodist Episcopal Church, Women of Substance Award, 2010, African
Women Development Fund, Africa Prize for Leadership for the Sustainable End of Hunger, 1997, Hunger Project of NY, International award for
entrepreneurship development, 1998, Africa Federation of Woman Entrepreneurs and Economic Commission for Africa (ECA), 100 Heroines award, 1998,
Rochester, New York, Certificate of Honors, 2001, Federation of World Peace and Love, Taiwan, Republic of China, Most powerful Woman in the World
2014, Forbes - #40, Most powerful Woman in the World 2013, Forbes Magazine rank # 47, Most powerful Woman in the World 2012, Forbes Magazine
rank # 71, Most powerful Woman in Africa 2012, Forbes Magazine rank No. 1 and Most powerful woman in Africa 2011, Forbes Magazine rank No. 3.
Arthur Peter Mutharika (born 1940) is a Malawian politician, educator and lawyer who has been President of Malawi since May
31, 2014. Mutharika also served as Minister of Foreign Affairs of Malawi from September 8, 2011 until Aprl 28, 2012. Mutharika has
worked in the area of international justice internationally. He is an expert on international economic law, international law and
comparative constitutional law. He informally served as an adviser to his older brother, President Bingu wa Mutharika, on issues of
foreign and domestic policy from the onset of his election campaign until the President's death on April 5, 2012. He has also held
positions as Minister of Justice and later as Minister for Education, Science and Technology. He was charged to help bridge relations
between Malawi and the United Kingdom due to the deterioration of public diplomacy between the two nations after the Chocrane-
Dyet controversy. Standing as the candidate of the Democratic Progressive Party (DPP), Peter Mutharika was elected as President of
Malawi in the 2014 election. Mutharika received his law degree from the University of London in 1965. He then received his LL.M
and JSD degrees from Yale University[6] in 1966 and 1969 respectively.[6] As a professor, he has taught at University of Dar es
Salaam (Tanzania), Haile Selassie University (Ethiopia), Rutgers University (USA), the United Nations Institute for Training and
Research Program for Foreign Service Officers from Africa and Asia at Makerere University (Uganda), and for 39 years at
Washington University (USA), and has served as an Academic Visitor at the London School of Economics (UK).[1] He also served
as advisor to the American Bar Association's Rule of Law initiative for Africa.[6] He was also the chair of the Institute for Democracy and Policy Studies. He
assisted as an advisor in the campaign for his brother, Bingu wa Mutharika, for re-election as President in 2009. In 1995 he argued for limiting presidential
powers in Malawi. He then entered Malawian politics where he became a Minister in a cabinet he helped to create. He also continued to serve as an adviser to
the President until the President's death in 2012 in issues of foreign and domestic policy. Mutharika was part of a three-man tribunal that was arbitrating
international cases. In August 2011, Mutharika was forced to resign from two international court cases with the International Center for Settlement of Investment
Disputes that he was arbitrating on Zimbabwe where foreign investors are suing the Zimbabwean government for breaches of bilateral investment treaties. This
was due to objections about his impartiality because of Bingu Mutharika's close associations with the Mugabe government. He is a member of the DPP party in
Malawi. In May 2009, he was elected to the Malawian Parliament, and he was subsequently appointed by his brother Bingu wa Muharika to the Malawi Cabinet
as Minister of Justice and Constitutional Affairs. He is the current Minister of Education, Science and Technology in Malawi. As of September 8, 2011, he was
the Minister of foreign Affairs in the new "war cabinet". Tensions have arisen over the president's plans to name Peter Mutharika as the party successor over the
sitting vice-president, Joyce Banda.[9] A female member of parliament, Anita Kalinde, was assaulted, in public, by Mutharika's supporters for supporting Vice-
President Banda but no arrests were made. The Vice-President was later fired from the DPP and launched her party, the People Party PP. Some people in DPP
have resigned over the dismissal of the Vice-President. According to the Malawi Laws, Joyce Banda still remains the country's Vice-President although she was
fired from the DPP. In August 2011, the DPP National Governing Council (NGC) endorsed Peter Mutharika as Presidential candidate for the 2014 elections.
This announcement came a few days after the July 20, 2011 protests where nationwide strikes were held against Bingu Mutharika's regime. His appointment
decision was made by President Bingu Mutharika and endorsed by the DPP NGC since the party did not hold a convention to elect new leaders. The Secretary
General, Wakuda Kamanga stated that the decision was made in spite of the protests because the party believed that the "anger would fade". This endorsement
also led to the firing of those that were against the nomination process within the party including first vice-president Joyce Banda and second vice-president
Khumbo Kachali. The national radio station and television have been endorsing Peter Mutharika since early this year as a candidate. Peter Mutharika's candidacy
for position as a government minister and his eligibility for presidency had been controversial because of speculation and doubt over his Malawian citizenship. A
senior Political and Administrative lecturer at the University of Malawi, Mustapha Hussein has stated that his "eligibility should be viewed in the context of his
being Malawian, he would be above 35 years of age by 2014, and he has not been convicted of any criminal activities for the past seven-year." Malawi's laws
however, do not allow dual citizenship and it is widely speculated that he obtained US citizenship whilst living in the US and hence, had renounced his Malawian
citizenship as is required by law. Nonetheless, the US embassy in Lilongwe confirmed that he is not a citizen but a greencard holder. The ruling DPP has stated
that Mutharika is a Malawian citizen and would run for president as a Malawian citizen and not an American one. There was controversy that, as the holder of a
US Greencard, he owes an allegiance to the United States. Therefore, people on the street are of the view that a nation cannot be run by someone who will be
spending the minimum of three months in the US annually required to retain permanent resident status. In February 2014, he relinquished his green card and
permanent resident status. During Mutharika's tenure as Minister of Education, his leadership skills were tested over his handling of the academic freedom stand-
off at the University of Malawi. University lecturer, Blessings Chinsinga, was questioned by the police chief, and later fired for comparing the economic
conditions that lead to the Arab Spring events in Egypt to Malawi's economic grievances in an example. Faculty at the university stood in solidarity with the
lecturer and went on strike in support for academic freedom. As a result, Jessie Kabwila-Kapasula, Blessings Chinsinga, Garton Kanchedzera and Franz Amin
were fired. This led to widespread university protests from students, and the shut down of the Chancellor College. Handling of this issue became a national issue
of debate. During the July, 20 2011 Malawi protests, a list of 20 points of discontent which lead to the demonstrations included handling of this stand-off as a key
issue. The petition cited poor handling of the stand-off, including failure to secure academic freedom and reinstatement of lecturers as a major grievance. On 8
September, Mutharika was moved to Minister of Foreign Affairs. The educational crisis has not been resolved. When his brother, President Bingu wa
Mutharika suffered a cardiac arrest on April 5, 2012, Peter Mutharika was allegedly involved in a 'constitutional coup' plan to prevent the succession of Joyce
Banda as allowed by the constitution which lead to a 3-day constitutional crisis in Malawi. He allegedly supported a measure that would allow him to become
President of the country by bypassing the constitution. He was allegedly appointed as President of the DPP and preparations were allegedly being made to swear
him in as President through a secret meeting of cabinet members that included him. His alleged willingness to disregard the constitution of Malawi which he was
heavily involved in the creation of, tainted his public reputation even further. Peter Mutharika was elected as President in the 2014 election. He was sworn in as
President on May 31, 2014. Naming his cabinet in June 2014, Mutharika took charge of the defense portfolio himself. He appointed the veteran economist
Goodall Gondwe as Minister of Finance and appointed one of the defeated presidential candidates, Atupele Muluzi, as Minister of Natural Resources, Energy
and Mining. As of June 2014, he supported diversification of Malawi's agriculture into other crops besides tobacco. He is the younger brother of Bingu wa
Mutharika, Malawi's third president. According to his profile published by the DPP, Mutharika is a widower. He was married to Christophine, a Catholic from
the Caribbean with whom he has two daughters and a son. In an exclusive with Malawi Voice, he denied being gay, saying that these were mere allegations
concocted by his opponents. He is a faithful of the Presbyterian Church. On June 21, 2014, he married his partner Gertrude Maseko. He write following works:
"Foreign Investment Security in Sub-Saharan Africa: The Emerging Policy and Legal Frameworks" (book), "Accountability for Political Abuses in Pre-Democratic
Malawi: The Primacy of Truth" Third World Legal Studies, 2003, "Approaches to Restorative Justice in Malawi", 13th Commonwealth Law Conference,
Melbourne, Australia, April 2003, "Legal System of Malawi", 3 Legal Systems of the World 949 (2002), "Some Thoughts on Rebuilding African State Capability,"
76 Washington University Law Quarterly 281 (1998), "Creating an Attractive Investment Climate in the Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA) Region," 12
Foreign Investment Law Journal 1 (1997),"The Role of the United Nations Security Council in African Peace Management: Some Proposals," 17 Michigan
Journal of International Law 537 (1996), "The 1995 Democratic Constitution of Malawi," 40 Journal of African Law 205 (1996) and "The Role of International
Law in the Twenty-First Century: An African Perspective," 18 Fordham International Law Journal 1706 (1995) and reprinted in 21 Commonwealth Law Bulletin
601 (1995). He is a recipient of the 2008 International Jurist Award.

Dioncounda Traor (born February 23, 1942) is a Malian politician who was President of Mali in an interim
capacity from April 12, 2012 until September 4, 2013. He has been President of the National Assembly of Mali since
September 3, 2007 and President of the Alliance for Democracy in Mali-African Party for Solidarity and Justice
(ADEMA-PASJ) since 2000. He was also President of the Alliance for Democracy and Progress (ADP), an alliance of
parties that supported the re-election of President Amadou Toumani Tour in 2007. He was also Minister of the Civil
Service, Labor, and the Moderization of Administration of Mali from June 9, 1992 until April 16, 1993, Minister of State
for Defense of Mali from April 16, 1993 unril October 25, 1994 and Minister for Foreign Affairs of Mali from October
25,1994 until August 24, 1997. Traor was born in Kati. After studying abroad in the Soviet Union, at the University of
Algiers, and at the University of Nice, he taught in Mali at the Teachers' College (ENSUP) from 1977 to 1980. He was
then arrested for trade union activities and sent to Mnaka in northern Mali. Subsequently, he became director-general of
the National School of Engineering. He participated in the struggle for democracy that culminated with the overthrow of President Moussa Traor in March
1991. He was a founding member of ADEMA, and at its constitutive congress, held on May 25 - 26, 1991, he was elected as its second vice-president, while
Alpha Oumar Konar was elected as the party's president and Mamadou Lamine Traor was elected as its first vice-president. After Konar was elected as
President of Mali in the 1992 presidential election, Traor was appointed Minister of the Civil Service, Labor, and the Moderization of Administration on June 9,
1992, in the first government under Konar's presidency. He was then named Minister of State for Defense on April 16, 1993, holding that position until he
became Minister of State for Foreign Affairs on October 25, 1994. At ADEMA's first ordinary congress, held in September 1994, Traor was elected as the First
Vice-President of the party, while Ibrahim Boubacar Keta was elected as its President. He was elected to the National Assembly as a Deputy from Nara in 1997
and resigned as Minister of State for Foreign Affairs on August 24, 1997 to take his seat. In the National Assembly, he became President of the ADEMA
Parliamentary Group and following the resignation of Keta as ADEMA President in October 2000, Traor was elected as ADEMA President at the party's first
extraordinary congress, held on November 25 - 28, 2000. In the 2002 parliamentary election, he was defeated in Nara and lost his seat. In the July 2007
parliamentary election, Traor ran again at the head of an ADEMA list in Nara, where three seats were at stake. In the first round, his list won 39.59% of the
vote, and in the second round it prevailed with 58.41% of the vote. When the new National Assembly held its first meeting on September 3, 2007, Traor was
elected as President of the National Assembly, receiving 111 votes against 31 for Mountaga Tall of the National Congress for Democratic Initiative (CNID),
another member of the ADP. Following the March 2012 military coup, which precipitated economic sanctions and a blockade by the Economic Community of
West African States (ECOWAS) against Mali, a deal, brokered in Burkina Faso by President Blaise Compaor under the auspices of ECOWAS, was signed on
April 6, 2012 that would see the head of the military junta, Captain Amadou Sanogo, cede power to Dioncounda Traor to assume the presidency in an interim
capacity until an election could be held. Traor had left the country following the coup, but returned on April 7, 2012. Traor was sworn in as President at a
ceremony on April 12, 2012. He pledged to "wage a total and relentless war" on the Tuareg rebellion in Mali's north unless it relinquished its control of northern
Malian cities and its declared state of Azawad. On August 13, 2012, he reappointed Cheick Modibo Diarra as Prime Minister, giving Diarra three days to form a
unity government. Traor was eventually succeeded as President by Ibrahim Boubacar Keita on September 4, 2013, after the latter prevailed in the JulyAugust
2013 presidential election. On May 21, 2012, soldiers allowed a group of pro-coup demonstrators into Traor's office in Bamako. The demonstrators, who had
been carrying a mock coffin with Traor's name written on it, fought past two Red Beret guards to attack him. When one of the guards put a helmet on Traor's
head to protect him, a member of the crowd removed it and used it to beat Traor. Other members of the crowd punched and kicked him. Traor was then
stripped naked, with members of the crowd carrying away pieces of his clothing. Jeune Afrique reported that members of the crowd shouted triumphantly that he
was dead. He was brought to Point G Hospital but was not conscious, apparently suffering from a head injury. Three protesters were killed and others wounded
when Traor's security fired on the attackers. After an examination showed no serious injury, Traor was taken to a secure location. PM Cheick Modibo Diarra
called for calm and an end to protest marches, stating that the attack was "not worthy of our country". On May 23, 2012 it was announced that Traor would travel
to France for further health checks, reportedly including an examination of his pacemaker. He remained there for two months, returning on July 27, 2012. On
June 5, 2012 coup supporters Boubacar Bore, Yacouba Niare and Mamadou Sangare were arrested in connection with the attack. A video of the attack was
posted by Jeune Afrique on June 29, 2012.
Cheick Modibo Diarra (born 1952) is a Malian astrophysicist, businessman, and politician who was Acting Prime
Minister of Mali from April 17 until December 11, 2012 to December 2012. On December 11, 2012, Diarra
presented his resignation on state television in a broadcast at 4 a.m. local time, hours after soldiers who led the 2012
Malian coup d'etat arrested him at his home in Bamako. Diarra was born in Nioro du Sahel, Mali. He is the son-in-law
of former president Moussa Traor. After graduating high school in Mali, Cheick Modibo Diarra studied mathematics,
physics, and analytic mechanics in Paris at the University of Pierre and Marie Curie. He then received a Masters in
aerospace engineering and a PhD in mechanical engineering, both from Howard University in Washington, D.C. He
was recruited by Caltech's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, a NASA Federally Funded Research and Development Center
(FFRDC) under a contractor with the California Institute of Technology, where he played a role in several NASA
programs, including the Magellan probe to Venus, the Ulysses probe to the Sun, the Galileo spacecraft to Jupiter, and
the Mars Observer and Mars Pathfinder. He later became the director of education and public outreach for NASA's Mars Exploration program. Dr. Diarra also
served as an executive for the Microsoft Corporation. He also obtained American citizenship. In 1999, he obtained permission from NASA to work part-time in
order to devote himself to education development in Africa, founding the Pathfinder Foundation. He took a further sabbatical in 2002 to found a laboratory in
Bamako, Mali for the development of solar energy. In 2000 and 2001 he also served as a goodwill ambassador for UNESCO. In 2002 and 2003 he served as
CEO of the African Virtual University, based in Kenya. Cheick Modibo Diarra was the chairman of Microsoft Africa from 2006 until the end of 2011. Turning
to Malian politics, he founded the Rally for the Development of Mali, a political party, in March 2011, and he intended to stand as a candidate in the 2012
presidential election. Cheick Modibo Diarra was appointed as interim Prime Minister of Mali on April 17, 2012 to help restore civilian rule after the March
2012 coup d'tat.[ His government, composed of 24 members, was appointed on April 25, 2012. Three of the most important poststhe ministries for defense,
internal security, and territorial administrationwere assigned to officers associated with the military junta that seized power in March and retained an important
role even after formally returning power to civilians. Otherwise, the government was composed of technocrats rather than political figures. On December 11,
2012, soldiers reportedly sent by coup leader Captain Amadou Sanogo arrested Diarra as he prepared to leave the country for a medical check-up in France.
Shortly after his arrest, Diarra appeared on state television and announced his resignation and that of his government. On December 1, 2013, ALN, an alliance
of independent top tier African law firms announced the appointment of Diarra as its Chairman.
Django Sissoko (born 1948) is a Malian civil servant who was Acting Prime Minister of Mali from December 11,
2012 until September 5, 2013. He was Minister of Justice of Mali from 1984 until 1988 and subsequently served twice
as Secretary-General of the Presidency of Mali from 1988 until 1991 and from 2008 until 2011. He also served as
Ombudsman of Mali from 2011 until 2012. Sissoko was appointed as Prime Minister in the evening of December 11,
2012 shortly after the arrest of his predecessor, Cheick Modibo Diarra, by the leaders of the March 2012 coup d'etat;
Diarra had been forced to resign. Sissoko studied the National School of Administration in Mali and France's
University of Caen, International Institute of Public Administration and the University of Rouen. From 1972 to 1979,
Sissoko was successively the Deputy Director and Director of Prison Services, as well as Director of the Central Prison
of Bamako, the Malian capital. Subsequently he was the National Director of the Civil Service and Personnel from
1982 to 1983 and Director of the Cabinet of the Minister of Labor and the Civil Service from 1983 to 1984. Sissoko
has also worked for the IMF, World Bank, African Development Bank and the Islamic Development Bank. Sissoko entered the government as Minister of
Justice in December 1984; he held that position until February 1988, when he was appointed as Secretary-General of the Presidency. He was Secretary-General
of the Presidency until the ouster of Moussa Traor in March 1991, obtaining the rank of Minister in June 1989. Sissoko worked as a consultant from 1994 to
2002. He then became Director of the Cabinet of the Prime Minister on November 13, 2002, and after serving in that post for over five years, he was instead
appointed to his former position as Secretary-General of the Presidency, with the rank of Minister, on January 26, 2008. He was succeeded as Director of the
Cabinet of the Prime Minister by Sanoussi Tour on February 4, 2008. Sissoko was then appointed to the post of Ombudsman on May 18, 2011. He was
subsequently appointed Prime Minister of Mali on December 11, 2012 following the arrest by the perpetrators of the 2012 Malian coup d'etat and subsequent
resignation of his predecessor Cheick Modibo Diarra. His appointment was announced on state television. Tensions between the military and Diarra, who was
appointed due to external pressure, arose after he supported an ECOWAS intervention force of 3,300 troops to Azawad, which ran counter to Malian military
opposition to foreign intervention instead of simple financial and logistical support. It also came a day after European Union's support for a 250-member training
mission for about four battalions of the Malian army. Meanwhile the coerced resignation of Diarra was condemned by the UN, however, Captain Amadou
Sanogo said it was not coereced, only facilitated, by the military. His appointment also followed assurances from President Dioncounda Traor to appoint a
civilian prime minister within 24 hours of Diarra's resignation after the United Nations threatened to impose sanctions over the arrest, with the United Nations
Security Council saying it could take "appropriate measures" against the perpetrators for allegedly undermining Mali's stability. A statement by the UNSC read:
"The members of the Security Council express their readiness to consider appropriate measures, including targeted sanctions, against those who prevent the
restoration of the constitutional order and take actions that undermine stability in Mali;" while UN Secretary General Ban Ki-moon said he was "troubled" by
incident which ran counter to what he said was national and international efforts to resolve the political crisis in Mali after the earlier coup d'etat and northern
takeover. The events were also condemned by ECOWAS and the United States, who said the military's return to politics was a "setback" to democracy. The
composition of Sissoko's government was announced on December 15, 2012. It was largely[vague] unchanged from the previous government, headed by Diarra,
but it was more representative of the northern regions, which were occupied by Islamist rebels. Several important portfolios were retained by ministers associated
with the coup leaders, illustrating their continued influence over the government. After Ibrahim Boubacar Keta was sworn in as President on September 4, 2013,
he appointed the banking official Oumar Tatam Ly to succeed Sissoko as Prime Minister on September 5, 2013.
Oumar Tatam Ly (born November 28, 1963) was Prime Minister of Mali from September 5, 2013 until April 5, 2014.
He was previously a special adviser at the Central Bank of West African States. Oumar Tatam Ly was born in 1963 in Paris.
He holds a degree from Panthon-Sorbonne University and ESSEC Business School. Tatam Ly worked as a special adviser at
the Central Bank of West African States before being appointed as Prime Minister of Mali by President Ibrahim Boubacar
Keta on September 5, 2013, a day after Keta was sworn in as President. In Tatam Ly's government, the post of Minister of
Reconciliation was created and assigned to Cheick Ouamar Diarrah. At the end of November 2013, his proposed visit to Kidal
in Azawad and the consequent police repression of protests against the protesters led to the MNLA aborting the ceasefire
agreement. Tatam Ly resigned on April 5, 2014, and Moussa Mara was appointed to replace him on the same day.
Moussa Mara (born March 2, 1975) is a Malian politician and Prime Minister of Mali since April 5, 2014 following the
unexplained resignation of his predecessor Oumar Tatam Ly. He was a town planning minister. He was previously a losing candidate
in the Malian presidential election, 2013.



Joseph Muscat (born January 22, 1974) is a Maltese politician who has been Prime Minister of Malta since March 11,
2013. Muscat has been leader of the Labour Party since June 6, 2008, and he was Leader of the Opposition from October
1, 2008 until March 10, 2013. Previously he was a Member of the European Parliament from 2004 to 2008. Muscat
received his secondary education at St Aloysius' College, Malta. He received his tertiary education at the University of
Malta and the University of Bristol. He graduated Bachelor of Commerce in Management and Public Policy (University of
Malta, 1995), Bachelor of Arts with Honours in Public Policy (University of Malta, 1996), Master of Arts in European
Studies (University of Malta, 1997) and Ph.D in Management Research (University of Bristol, 2007) with a thesis on
Fordism, multinationals and SMEs in Malta. Muscat worked as a journalist with the party's radio station, One Radio (then
Super One Radio). He later took on a similar role at Super One TV (today One TV), becoming the station's assistant head
of news in 1996. He was also editor of the party's online newspaper, maltastar.com between 2001 and 2004. Muscat wrote a regular column in l-Orizzont, a
Maltese-language newspaper published by the General Workers' Union and its sister Sunday weekly it-Torca, and was a regular contributor to The Times, an
independent newspaper published in Malta. Muscat was as a member of the youth section of the Labour Party, the Labour Youth Forum (Forum gaag
Laburisti) where he served as Financial Secretary (199497) and Acting Chairperson (1997). He later served as Education Secretary in the Central Administration
of the Party (20012003) and Chairman of its Annual General Conference (November 2003). During the Labour government of 1996-98 he was a member of
the National Commission for Fiscal Morality (199798). In 2003 he was nominated to a working group led by George Vella and Evarist Bartolo on the Labour
Party's policies on the European Union. This working group produced the document Il-Partit Laburista u l-Unjoni Ewropea: Gall-id tal-Maltin u l-Gawdxin
('Labour Party and the European Union: For the benefit of the Maltese and the Gozitans') which was adopted by the Labour Party Extraordinary General
Conference in November of that year. At this General Conference Muscat was approved as a candidate for the election to the European Parliament. Despite
being staunchly against Malta's entry into the European Union, Muscat was elected to the European Parliament in the 2004 European Parliament election being
the Labour Party (formerly the Malta Labour Party) candidate who received the most first-preference votes. Sitting as a Member of the European Parliament,
with the Party of European Socialists, he held the post of Vice-President of the Parliament's Committee on Economic and Monetary Affairs and substitute
member of the Committee on the Internal Market and Consumer Protection. He was a member of a number of delegations for relations with Belarus and with
the countries of south-east Europe. He was also a member of the EU-Armenia, EU-Azerbaijan and EU-Georgia Parliamentary Cooperation Committees. As an
MEP he supported a reduction in the tax for Satellite television, the right for customers to watch sport events for free, and a number of issues related to
environmental protection in Malta. He formed part of a team responsible for a report on the roaming mobile phone bills and sale of banks. Muscat resigned his
seat in the European Parliament in 2008 to take up a seat in the Maltese Parliament and the role of Leader of the Opposition. Four months previously, he had
been elected Leader of the Labour Party. Before his resignation his report proposing new regulations for the EUs financial services sector was adopted by the
European Parliament. On March 24, 2008 Muscat announced his candidacy for the post of Party Leader, to replace Alfred Sant, who had resigned after a third
consecutive defeat for the Party in the March 2008 general election and a heavy defeat in the EU referendum in March 2003. Although not a member of the
Maltese House of Representatives, Muscat was elected as the new party leader on June 6, 2008. In order to take up the post of Leader of the Opposition, Muscat
was coopted in the Maltese Parliament on October 1, 2008 to fill the seat vacated by Joseph Cuschieri for the purpose. The latter eventually took up the sixth seat
allocated to Malta in the European Parliament once the Treaty of Lisbon was brought into effect in 2011. On taking up the Leadership post Muscat introduced a
number of changes to the Party, notably the change of official name and party emblem. In the 2009 Maltese European Parliament Elections, the first with Muscat
as Party Leader, Labour candidates obtained 55% of first-preferences against the 40% obtained by candidates of the Nationalist Party. Muscat contested Malta's
general elections for the first time in March 2013 and was elected in District 2 - Il-Birgu, L-Isla, Il-Bormla, a-abbar, Il-Kalkara, Ix-Xgajra at the first count
with 13968 votes and District 4 - Part of Il-Fgura, Il-Gudja, al Gaxaq, Part of Il-Marsa, Paola, Santa Luija, al Tarxien at the first count with 12202 votes and
53% of the vote. On March 11, 2013 he was sworn in as Prime Minister of Malta. Muscat was elected as Prime Minister in the March 2013 general election. The
Labour Party won this election with a margin of about 35,000 votes, which is considered a landslide in the country. On March 10, 2013, following his election
victory, Muscat was congratulated in a statement by the President of the European Commission Jos Manuel Barroso, on behalf of the European Commission.
On April 7, 2014, Muscat suffered from temporary blindness caused by UV radiation probably related to burns to his cornea. Like 60 other people with similar
symptoms, he had participated at a political rally the day before. He has national honour: Malta - Companion of Honour of the National Order of Merit (2013)
by right as a Prime Minister of Malta.
Marie Louise Coleiro Preca (born December 7, 1958) is a Maltese politician who has been the 9th President of Malta since April
4, 2014. A member of the Labour Party, she previously had been a Member of Parliament in the House of Representatives of Malta
since 1998 and served as the Minister of the Family and Social Solidarity from March 11, 2013 until March 29, 2014. Within the Malta
Labour Party, Coleiro Preca has served as a member of the National Executive, Assistant General Secretary and General Secretary of the
Party (1982-1991). She was the only woman to have served in such a senior post of a Maltese political party. In addition to these posts
Coleiro Preca also held the post of member of the National Bureau of Socialist Youths (now the Labour Youth Forum), President of the
Women Section of the Party (1996-2001), founder member of the u Ellul Mercer Foundation and publisher of the Party's weekly
newspaper 'Il-elsien' (now defunct). She has served as MP in the Maltese Parliament from 1998 to 2014. In the 2008 general election
she was the first elected MP. As an Opposition MP Coleiro Preca served as Shadow Minister for Social Policy and as member of the
Parliamentary Permanent Committee for Social Affairs beginning in 1998. After Alfred Sant resigned as Leader of the Labour Party in 2008, Coleiro Preca
unsuccessfully contested the Leadership election. On March 1, 2014, Coleiro Preca accepted the nomination for President. Succeeding George Abela, she was
sworn in as President on April 4, 2014. Coleiro Preca is the youngest person to hold the office of President, at the age of 55, and is the second woman nominated
for the post after Agatha Barbara. She has national honour: Malta - Companion of Honour of the National Order of Merit by right as a President of Malta.

Rajkeswur Purryag (known as Kailash Purryag, born December 12, 1947) is the President of Mauritius since July 21,
2013. He was also Speaker of the National Assembly of Mauritius from July 12, 2005 until July 20, 2012 and Deputy Prime
Minister of Mauritius from December 22, 1997 until September 17, 2000. As such Purryag is the Head of State and
Commander in Chief of the Armed Forces of Mauritius. He was elected as the fifth President of Mauritius by the National
Assembly and took office on July 21, 2012. He succeeded Sir Anerood Jugnauth, who spent nine years as President from
2003 until resigning in March 2012. Kailash Purryag previously served as Member of Parliament, Minister and Speaker of the
National Assembly; he made his debut in the political arena at an early age in 1976. Rajkeswur Purryag, better known as
Kailash, was born on December 12, 1947 in Camp Fouquereaux, Mauritius. He is an Indo-Mauritian. He attended the Shree
Shamboonath Government School and later the Mauritius College. He was sworn in as attorney-at-law in 1973. The same
year he joined the Mauritian Labour Party. He became general secretary of the party in 1984 and president in 1995. Kailash
Purryag has been a member of the Labour Party since 1973. He was a member of the Municipal Commission of the Municipal Council of Vacoas-Phoenix from
1974 to 1976. Purryag was elected member of the Legislative Assembly for the first time at the general election held on December 20, 1976. Purryag became
Minister of Social Security from January 1980 to June 1982. In 1981, he was appointed as Leader of Delegation by the Government to negotiate adequate
compensation for the Ilois Community in 1981 from the British Government. He was elected Member of the Legislative Assembly at the general election held
on August 21, 1983 and became Minister of Health from January 1984 to January 1986. He served as Secretary General of the Labour Party from 1987 to 1991
and became President of the Party from March 1991 to March 1996. Purryag was elected Member of the National Assembly at the general election held on 20
December 1995. He became Minister of Economic Planning, Information & Telecommunications from December 1995 to July 1997. He was appointed as
Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Foreign Affairs & International Trade from July 1997 to September 2000. On July 12, 2005, he was elected Speaker of
the National Assembly and was re-elected as Speaker on May 18, 2010, and remained in that post until 2012. On Friday July 20, 2012 the Clerk of the National
Assembly of Mauritius informed the House that, immediately following his election as President of the Republic at to-days sitting, the Honourable Rajkeswur
Purryag, GCSK, GOSK, has submitted his resignation as Speaker of the National Assembly. As stated on the Section 28 (2) (a) of the Constitution of Mauritius,
the President shall be elected by the Assembly on a motion made by the Hon. Prime Minister and supported by the votes of a majority of all the Members of the
Assembly. On Friday July 20, 2012 the National Assembly voted Rajkeswur Purryag, the then Speaker as President of the Republic of Mauritius. The motion was
presented by the Prime Minister, Dr. Navin Ramgoolam and seconded by Dr. Rashid Beebeejaun. Kailash Purryag became the fifth President of Mauritius and
has taken office on July 21, 2012. His first official visit was at the Sir Seewoosagur Ramgoolam Botanical Garden where he meditate at the monument of Sir
Seewoosagur Ramgoolam, the father of the nation. He is recipient of both highest order merits in Mauritius. He was elevated as Grand Officer of the Order of
the Star and Key of the Indian Ocean (GOSK) on March 12, 1998 and Grand Commander of the Order of the Star and Key of the Indian Ocean (GCSK) on
March 12, 2009. He received the Conferment of Honorary Freedom of the City of Port Louis on August 23, 2007. On January 9, 2013, Purryag received the
Pravasi Bharatiya Samman Award, the highest honour conferred to overseas Indians at the 13th Pravasi Bharatiya Divas. Kailash Purryag was living at Camp
Fouquereaux, Curepipe before he became president, he is the eldest of a family with nine children, he is married to Aneetah Purryag since December 8, 1973,
he has a daughter and two grandchildren. During a state visit to India in January 2013, Purryag visited the village of his forefathers in Wajitpur, Patna. His great
grandfather Lakshman Paryag sailed to Mauritius some 150 years ago to work as Indentured labourers.

Iurie Leanc (born October 20, 1963) is a Moldovan politician who has been Prime Minister of Moldova since May 31, 2013
(acting from April 25 untl May 30, 2013). He was Minister of Foreign Affairs and European Integration of Moldova first acting from
July 27 until September 4, 2001 and from September 25, 2009 until May 30, 2013. Iurie Leanc was born on October 20, 1963, in
Cimilia. His father is Romanian and his mother Bulgarian. He graduated from Moscow State Institute of International Relations and
from 1986 until 1993, Leanc worked at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Between May and October 1989, he served as second
secretary at the Soviet embassy in Bucharest, Romania, first secretary in the political department of the foreign ministry of the Soviet
Moldavia (19891990), and counselor of Moldova's Ministry of Foreign Affairs specializing in European affairs (19901993). Between
1993 and 1997, he was the Minister-Counselor at the Embassy of the Republic of Moldova in Washington, D.C. Then, he was a
deputy Foreign Affairs Minister from 1998 until 1999 and the first deputy Foreign Affairs Minister from 1999 until 2002), in the
Alliance for Democracy and Reforms cabinets and in Vasile Tarlev Cabinet. Also, he was the acting Foreign Minister of Moldova
(July 27 - September 4, 2001). On December 2, 1998, in his capacity as Deputy Minister of Foreign Affairs, he signed with the United
Nations High Commissioner's Representative to Moldova, Oldrich Andrysek, a "Co-operation Agreement between the United
Nations High Commissioner for Refugees and the Government of the Republic of Moldova". Moldovan Communists received a blow when the European Court
of Human Rights in Strasbourg ruled in favor of the Metropolis of Bessarabia in its case against Moldova, on December 13, 2001. On October 2, 2001 the
ECHR heard the case, with Minister of Justice Ion Morei representing the Moldovan government and Vlad Cubreacov, a Christian-Democratic National
Peasants' Party deputy, representing the Bessarabian Metropolitanate. Deputy Foreign Affairs Minister Iurie Leanc took the fall, and, on January 6, 2002
resigned amid charges that he had failed to vet Morei's speech.[2] However, in 2009 Leanc stated that he had resigned following the formation of the
Communist government. He worked as the Ascom Group deputy CEO (20012005, 20072009). Also he was a Senior Adviser to the Organization for Security
and Co-operation in Europe High Commissioner on National Minorities (20052007). He has been a member of the Liberal Democratic Party of Moldova
(PLDM) since January 2009. He was elected as MP in April 2009 election and July 2009 election. Leanc was the vice-president of The Foreign Policy
Association of Moldova (20052009). Leanc was deputy prime minister and Foreign and European Integration Minister in Vlad Filat Cabinet. In a press
conference on October 21, 2009 Leanc announced that official negotiations on the association agreement Moldova-EU will start on January 12, 2010. He is
married to Aida Leanc and has two children. He speaks Romanian, Russian, English, German, French, Hungarian and Bulgarian. He was appointed Acting
Prime Minister of Moldova on April 25, 2013, following the decision of the Moldova Constitutional Court, to prevent the then acting Prime Minister, Vlad Filat,
from being reappointed to the position that he had held from 2009. In May 2013, Leanc was proposed by the PLDM as its candidate for Prime Minister. On
May 15, 2013 he was designated Prime Minister by the President Nicolae Timofti and invited to form a government. Negotiations continued until May 29, 2013,
when the Coalition for a Pro-European Government, alliance between Liberal Democratic Party, Democratic Party and a break-away faction from the Liberal
Party (that formed the Liberal Reformists Party), was agreed. The new government received the support of the Parliament with 58 votes on May 30, 2013 and
was sworn-in on May 31, 2013.

Alberto Vaquina (born July 4, 1961) is the Prime Minister of Mozambique since October 8, 2012. He replaced Aires Ali, who was
sacked in a cabinet reshuffle. Vaquina previously served as Governor of Tete Province from 2010 to 2012.



Baron Divavesi Waqa (/brn dvvesi wk/; born December 31, 1959) is a Nauruan politician who has been
President of Nauru since June 11, 2013. He has previously served as Minister of Education of Nauru from May 29 until August 8,
2003 and from June 22, 2004 untiln December 17, 2007. He was elected in the May 2003 elections to the Parliament of Nauru,
representing the constituency of Boe. Under President Ludwig Scotty he served as Minister of the Interior and of Education;
however, he had to leave the post upon Scotty's replacement by Ren Harris. He kept his seat in Parliament. On April 23, 2004,
Waqa and his colleagues Kieren Keke, David Adeang and Fabian Ribauw participated in protests at the Nauru International
Airport in Yaren; these were meant to show displeasure regarding government policy against Afghan asylum-seekers in Australia
and the Flotilla of Hope, as well as against the deadlock then encountered in Parliament. All four faced up to fourteen years in jail
because of their participation in the protest; charges were dropped, however, upon Scotty's re-ascension the following June. Scotty
once again appointed Waqa to be Minister of Education. Waqa remained loyal to his Administration during the ministerial crisis
which occurred in 2007. Consequently, Waqa was not invited to serve in the subsequent Administration of President Marcus Stephen which later took office.
Waqa was elected president in June, defeating former Finance Minister and opposition nominee Roland Kun by a vote of 13 to 5. He was chosen by the
government faction after President Dabwido stepped aside to allow for Waqa's election so that government members could remain in power. In January 2014, he
survived a vote of confidence over his deportation of the Australian resident magistrate Peter Law and the cancelling of the visa of the Chief Justice Geoffrey
Eames, also an Australian national. The government also sought to draft an emergency rule law with the help of Fijian lawyers. It followed the dismissal of the
parliamentary counsel Katy Le Roy and the subsequent resignation of the Solicitor-General Steven Bliim, both of whom were Australian. Home Minister
Charmaine Scotty said this was symptomatic of a "system of cronyism" operated by Australian expatriates who he said were in league with the opposition.


Sushil Koirala (born August 12, 1939) is the Prime Minister of Nepal since February 10, 2014 and President of the Nepali
Congress since September 22, 2010. He is also the President of the Nepali Congress Party since 2010. Koirala was elected as
Prime Minister of Nepal by the parliament on February 10, 2014. Koirala joined the Nepali Congress in 1954 and served in
various capacities prior to becoming its president in 2010. Sushil Koirala was born to Bodh Prasad Koirala and Kuminidi
Koirala on August 12, 1939. Koirala is unmarried and known to live a simple life. A member of the politically prominent
Koirala family, he is the cousin of former prime ministers Matrika Prasad Koirala, Girija Prasad Koirala and Bishweshwar
Prasad Koirala. He has three sisters: Lt. Dyuthi Devi Sharma (married to Ranga Nath Sharma, a member of the Prachanda
Gorkha Party, the first political party of Nepal, Abha Devi Sharma, and Sashi Sharma. He has five brothers: Lt. Pramod Kumar
Koirala, Lt. Binod Koirala, Dr. Arun Koirala (NC District President Banke), Ashok Koirala (MP-NC and formal NC District President Morang) and Er. Bijay
Koirala. Mr Koirala was diagnosed with lung cancer Koirala entered politics in 1954 inspired by the social-democratic ideals of the Nepali Congress. He was in
political exile in India for 16 years following the royal takeover of 1960. Koirala also spent three years in Indian prisons for his involvement in a plane hijacking in
1973. While in exile, Koirala was the editor of Tarun, the official party publication. He has been a member of the Central Working Committee of the party since
1979 and was appointed General Secretary of the party in 1996 and Vice President in 1998. In 2001, he lost the contest for the Nepali Congress Parliamentary
Party leader to Sher Bahadur Deuba. Koirala was appointed acting President of the party in 2008 by President Girija Prasad Koirala. On September 22, 2010,
the 12th general convention of the Nepali Congress elected him as party President. The Nepali Congress emerged as the largest party in the 2013 Constituent
Assembly elections under Koirala's leadership. He was elected leader of the Nepali Congress Parliamentary party securing 105 out of 194 votes against former
Prime Minister Sher Bahadur Deuba's 89 votes and on February 10, 2014 he was nominated as Prime Minister of Nepal.

Daniel Hodge (born October 23, 1959) is a Curaaoan politician who served as the third Prime Minister of Curaao
from December 31, 2012 until June 7, 2013. He was sworn in on December 31, 2012 by Acting Governor Adle van der
Pluijm-Vrede, replacing Stanley Betrian, who led an interim government in the last months of 2012. On March 27, 2013,
Hodge lodged the resignation of his cabinet and continued in a demissionary capacity until a new cabinet was formed on
June 7, 2013. Hodge previously was director of the Postspaarbank Curaao. Hodge was elected as the new leader of the
PAR on June 25th 2013, replacing Emily de Jongh-Elhage who resigned in late 2012.

Ivar Onno Odwin Asjes (born September 16, 1970 in Rotterdam) is the fourth and current Prime Minister of Curaao since
June 7, 2013 and the leader of the Pueblo Soberano party. He was sworn in as Prime Minister on June 7, 2013 by Acting Governor
Adle van der Pluijm-Vrede. Asjes was a member of the Estates of Curaao (2010-2013) and its predecessor within the Netherlands
Antilles, the Island Council of Curaao.



Erna Solberg (born February 24, 1961) is the Prime Minister of Norway since October 16, 2013. She is also Leader of
the Conservative Party since May 9, 2004, Solberg has served as a member of the Storting since 1989 and served as Minister
of Local Government and Regional Development of Norway in Bondevik's Second Cabinet from October 19, 2001 until
October 17, 2005. In her term as minister, she oversaw the tightening of immigration policy and the preparation of a
proposed reform of the administrative divisions of Norway.After the 2005 election, she chaired the Conservative Party
parliamentary group until 2013. Solberg has emphasized the social and ideological basis of the Conservative policies,
although the party also has become visibly more pragmatic. After winning the election in September 2013, she became the
second female Prime Minister of Norway, after Gro Harlem Brundtland. Solberg's Cabinet, often referred to informally as
the "Blue-Blue Cabinet", is a two-party minority cabinet consisting of the Conservative Party and Progress Party. The cabinet has established a formalized co-
operation with the non-socialist Liberal Party and Christian Democratic Party in the Storting. Solberg was born in Bergen in western Norway and grew up in the
affluent Kalfaret neighbourhood. Her father, Asbjrn Solberg (1925 89), worked as an consultant in the Bergen Sporvei and her mother, Inger Wenche
Torgersen (1926), was an office-worker. Erna Solberg grew up as the second oldest of three sisters. Solberg had some struggles at school and at the age 16 was
diagnosed as suffering from dyslexia. She was, nevertheless, an active and talkative contributor in the classroom. In her final year as a high-school student in 1979,
she was elected to the board of the School Student Union of Norway, and in the same year led the national charity event Operasjon Dagsverk, in which students
collected money for Jamaica. In 1986, she graduated with her cand.mag. degree in sociology, political science, statistics and economics from the University of
Bergen. In her final year, she also led the Students' League of the Conservative Party in Bergen. Since 1996 she has been married to Sindre Finnes, a
businessman and former Conservative Party politician, with whom she has two children. The family has lived in both Bergen and Oslo. Solberg was a deputy
member of Bergen city council in the periods from 1979 until 1983 and from 1987 until 1989, the last period on the executive committee. She chaired local and
municipal chapters of the Young Conservatives and the Conservative Party. She was first elected to the Storting (Norwegian Parliament) from Hordaland in 1989
and has been re-elected on five occasions. She was also the leader of the national Conservative Women's Association, from 1994 until 1998. From 2001 to 2005
Solberg served as the Minister of Local Government and Regional Development under Prime Minister Kjell Magne Bondevik. Her alleged tough policies in this
department, including a firm stance on asylum policy, earned her the nickname "Jern-Erna" (Norwegian for "Iron Erna") in the media. In fact, numbers show that
the Bondevik government, of 20012005, actually let in thousands more asylum seekers than the subsequent centre-left Red-Green government, of 2005 2009.
In 2003, Solberg proposed introducing Islamic Sharia Councils in Norway after being informed of the existence of such councils in the United Kingdom, and, in
2004, said that she wished to increase immigration to Norway. As Minister, Solberg instructed the Norwegian Directorate of Immigration to expel Mulla Krekar,
being a danger to national security. Later, terrorism charges were filed against Krekar for a death threat he uttered in 2010 against Erna Solberg. She served as
deputy leader of the Conservative Party from 2002 to 2004 and, in 2004, she became the party leader. Solberg became the presumptive head of government after
winning the general election on September 9, 2013 and was appointed Prime Minister on October 16, 2013. Solberg is Norway's second female Prime Minister
after Gro Harlem Brundtland. In 2014 she participated at the Agriculture and Food meeting which was held by Sylvi Listhaug where Minister of Transportation
Ketil Solvik-Olsen and Minister of Climate and Environment Tine Sundtoft also were present. Later on, the four took a picture which appeared on the
Government.no website on March 14 of the same year. In April of the same year she criticized European Court over data retention which Telenor Group argued
can be used without court proceedings. In April 2008, it was revealed that Solberg, as Minister of Local Government and Regional Development in 2004, had
rejected a request for asylum in Norway by Israeli nuclear whistleblower, Mordechai Vanunu. While the Norwegian Directorate of Immigration had been
prepared to grant Vanunu asylum, it was then decided that the application could not be accepted because Vanunu's application had been made outside the
borders of Norway. An unclassified document revealed that Solberg and the government considered that extraditing Vanunu from Israel could be seen as an
action against Israel and thus unfitting to the Norwegian government's traditional position as a friend of Israel and as a political player in the Middle East. Solberg
rejected this criticism and defended her decision.

Mamnoon Hussain (Urdu: ; born December 23, 1940) is a Pakistani textile businessman and politician who has
been President of Pakistan since September 9, 2013. Hussain briefly served as Governor of Sindh from June 19 until October
12, 1999; his stint as Governor was cut short by the October 1999 military coup d'tat. A Nawaz Sharif loyalist, Hussain was
elected as President of Pakistan on July 30, 2013; he received 432 votes, while rival candidate Wajihuddin Ahmed received 77
votes. He took office on September 9, 2013, succeeding Asif Ali Zardari, who did not seek re-election. Mamnoon Hussain hails
from an Urdu-speaking family of shoe traders and was born in Agra, India during the British colonial rule. He and his family
migrated to Karachi in 1949 after the Partition of India in 1947. He earned his degree from the Institute of Business
Administration (IBA) in Karachi in the 1960s. Hussain was once president of the Karachi Chamber of Commerce and
Industry. He briefly served as Governor of Sindh in 1999. Azhar Haroon, current president of the Karachi Chamber of Commerce and Industry is quoted to
have said: "He had no political affiliation until 1999 but his polite discourse and professional ability impressed Nawaz Sharif, who made him Governor of Sindh"
He is a relatively less known figure, a staunch Nawaz Sharif loyalist, and was elected as President of Pakistan as the official nominee of the PML-N in the July
2013 presidential election. Hussain secured 432 votes and his one and only rival Wajihuddin Ahmed received 77. He took oath on September 9, 2013 in a semi-
prestigious ceremony held at Aiwan-i-Sadar, attended by main stream political and military leadership alongside foreign dignitaries, media personnel and his close
relatives.

Juan Carlos Varela Rodrguez (born December 12, 1963) is a Panamanian politician who has been President of
Panama since July 1, 2014. Previously he served Vice President of Panama from July 1, 2009 until July 1, 2014; he was also
Minister of Foreign Relations from July 2009 to August 2011. He has been the President of the Panameista Party, the second-
largest in Panama, since 2006. On May 4, 2014, Varela won the 2014 presidential election with over 39% of the votes, against
the party of his former political partner Ricardo Martinelli, Cambio Democrtico, and their candidate Jos Domingo Arias. He
was sworn in on July 1, 2014. Born in Panama City, Juan Carlos Varela is an entrepreneur, with family roots in the province of
Herrera. After graduating from Colegio Javier, he attended the Georgia Institute of Technology in the United States, where he
received a Bachelor of Industrial Engineering in 1985. In the private sector, Varela has been on the board of Varela Hermanos,
a family company, since 1985 and was executive vice president of the company until 2008. In the political arena, he worked in political campaigns beginning in
the 1990s, was chief of the Panameista Party campaign in 1994 and was the Panameista Party's presidential candidate during the 2009 election. He joined
forces with his rival in the presidential race, Ricardo Martinelli, as the candidate for Vice President, and on May 3, 2009, was sworn in as Vice-President of
Panama. Varela won the 2014 presidential election, winning against the ruling-party candidate Jos Domingo Arias, who was supported by Cambio Democrtico,
a party led by outgoing President Ricardo Martinelli. Varela won about 39% of the vote against 32% for Arias Varela is married to journalist Lorena Castillo and
has three children.

Horacio Manuel Cartes Jara (born July 5, 1956) is a Paraguayan businessman and President of Paraguay since August 15,
2013. He is a member of the Colorado Party. Cartes owns about two dozen businesses in his Grupo Cartes conglomerate
including tobacco, soft drinks, meat production, and banking. He was president of Club Libertad football club from 2001 until
2012, and had been the president of the national team department of the Paraguayan Football Association during the 2010 FIFA
World Cup qualification. Cartes' father was the owner of a Cessna aircraft franchise holding company and the young Horacio
studied aeronautical engineering in the United States. At the age of 19, he started a currency exchange business which grew into the
Banco Amambay. Over the following years, Cartes bought or helped establish 25 companies including Tabesa, the country's
biggest cigarette manufacturer, and a major fruit juice bottling company. In 1986, Cartes spent 60 days in jail during a currency
fraud investigation. He was accused of making millions of dollars on a central bank loan obtained at a preferential exchange rate
and then moving it through his money exchange business before buying farm equipment in the U.S. The case was eventually
dropped. Cartes was imprisoned on charges of currency fraud for seven months in 1989. He was eventually cleared by a court. In
2000, the anti-drug police seized a plane carrying cocaine and marijuana on his ranch. He claimed that the plane had made an emergency landing, that he had no
involvement with the drug trade and that he opposed the legalization of narcotics. Cartes' name appears in the Offshore leaks files in connection with a Cook
Islands financial entity linked to Cartes' Paraguayan bank Banco Amambay. A classified WikiLeaks cable from 2010 mentioned Cartes as the focus of a money
laundering investigation. Until 2008 Cartes was uninvolved in politics and he was not registered as a voter. He joined the center-right Colorado Party in 2009 and
said he wanted to counter the swing to the left in Latin American politics. He became known as an efficient politician uncompromised by his party's past support
of the military dictatorship of Alfredo Stroessner who ruled until 1989. In regards to allegation of his connections to the drug trade, as well as being targeted by
the DEA, he said during his presidential campaign he said: "I wouldn't want to be president if I had ties to drug traffickers. Go to the courts and check. There's
nothing, not a single charge against me." Cartes was the Colorado candidate in the 2013 presidential election. The BBC suggested that his convincing points
during his campaign were the promises to raise private capital to upgrade the country's infrastructure, to modernise its public entreprises, to attract international
investments, and to create jobs. On April 21, 2013, he was elected President of Paraguay with 45.80% of the vote. When he took office on August 15, it marked
only the second time in the country's 202 years of independence that a ruling party peacefully surrendered power to the opposition. In regards to the
impeachment of Fernando Lugo and the hostile reception the country was given in the aftermath by Latin American leaders, Cartes said that the country should
not withdraw from Mercosur due to its economic benefits of free trade: "Paraguay in no way should abandon Mercosur...we have to hold on tight while they bash
us a little bit and keep low and dont play to being giants or annoyed. Mercosur is a common market like is Europe and with our neighbours we also have many
coincidences. [In a globalised world] all countries are interconnected and it is out of the questions trying to isolate Paraguay from other countries. The OAS has
already began to understand our politics, that were a sovereign country, all was done according to the book and the Constitution." Upon being sworn in he said:
"I'm not in politics to make a career of it or become wealthier. I'm in politics to serve my people, make the future better for new generations and build up our
identity as a free, independent and sovereign people." His inauguration was attended by fellow right-winged South American, Chilean President Sebastian Pinera
who said: "I want to say to President Horacio Cartes that we are very expectant about his future achievements. The slogan of his campaign was 'new directions,'
and every country needs new directions and to be confronted with new challenges...the challenge of integration in our Latin America is still a pending challenge
and the experience of the 'Alianza del Pacfico' was a great experience which has been very fruitful." Other leaders at his inauguration were Argentina's Christina
Fernandez de Kirchner, Peru's Ollanta Humala, Brazil's Dilma Rousseff, Uruguay's Jose Mujica and Taiwan's Ma Ying-jeou. Cartes said of his cabinet that the
future ministers have the "enormous responsibility" of honouring those who voted for them and gave them a governing mandate: "It will be the beginning of a
story that us Paraguayans want, a government for all, an inclusive government, our great obligation is with the citizens...we need all the Paraguayans to help us, to
orientate us."

Csar Villanueva (born August 5, 1946) is a Peruvian politician who was Prime Minister of Peru from October 31, 2013
until February 24, 2014. In 2007, he became President of the San Martn Region. He was sworn in as Prime Minister by
President Ollanta Humala on October 31, 2013, and is affiliated with centre-left parties. Villanueva was born on August 5,
1946 in Tarapoto city. He studied administration at the National University Federico Villarreal (UNFV). In January 2007, he
became President of the San Martn Region. He became Prime Minister of Peru on October 31, 2013 and resigned on
February 24, 2014.

Ren Cornejo Diaz (born 1962 in Arequipa, Peru) has been the Prime Minister of Peru since February 24, 2014,
following the resignation of Csar Villanueva. He has also been President Ollanta Humala's fifth prime minister during the
latter's first term in office. Cornejo was born in 1962 in Arequipa, Peru. He studied at National University of Engineering,
Central American Technological University, Pontifical Catholic University of Peru and ESADE Business School. He has an
engineering degree and MBA from universities in Peru. He has also served as executive director of ProInversion, the
country's investment promotion enterprise. Since President Ollanta Humala took office Cornejo has served as housing
minister. After the resignation of Prime Minister Csar Villanueva, he was appointed as the replacement by the president on
February 24, 2014. Other cabinet reshuffles included: Piero Ghezzi Solis replacing Gladys Triveo as Minister of
Production; Eleodoro Mayorga Alba replacing Jorge Merino as Ministry of Energy and Mines; Jose Gallardo Ku as Minister of Housing; Carmen Omonte
Durand replacing Ana Jara as Minister of Women and Vulnerable Populations; and Jara replacing Teresa Laos Caceres as Minister of Labor.

Tamim bin Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani (Arabic: ; born June 3, 1980) is the Emir
of the State of Qatar since June 25, 2013. He is the fourth son of the previous Emir of Qatar, Sheikh Hamad bin Khalifa
Al Thani. He became Emir of Qatar on June 25, 2013 after his father's abdication. Sheikh Tamim has held a variety of
government posts within Qatar and also worked to promote numerous sporting events within the country. As of 2013
Tamim was the world's youngest reigning monarch. Tamim bin Hamad was born June 3, 1980 in Doha, Qatar. He is the
fourth son of Sheikh Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani, and second son of Sheikha Mozah bint Nasser Al Missned, Hamad's
second wife. Tamim was educated at Great Britain's Sherborne School (International College) in Dorset, and at Harrow
School, where he received his A Levels in 1997. He then attended the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst, graduating in
1998. Sheikh Tamim was commissioned as a Second Lieutenant in the Qatar Armed Forces upon graduation from
Sandhurst. He became the heir apparent to the Qatar throne on August 5, 2003, when his elder brother Sheikh Jasim
renounced his claim to the title. Since then he was groomed to take over rule, working in top security and economics posts. Working in a government security
post, he promoted stronger ties with Saudi Arabia, a neighbor and often contentious rival to Qatar. He is believed to have played a key role in Qatar's support for
the Libyan rebels who ultimately ousted Muammar Gaddafi. In 2009 he was appointed deputy commander-in-chief of Qatar's armed forces. Sheikh Tamim
promoted sport as part of Qatar's bid to raise its international profile. In 2005 he founded Qatar Sport Investments, which owns Paris Saint-Germain F.C. among
other investments. In 2006, he chaired the organizing committee of the 15th Asian Games in Doha. Under his leadership, all member countries attended the
event for the first time in its history. That year Egypt's Al Ahram voted Tamim "the best sport personality in the Arab world". Under his guidance, Qatar won the
rights to host the 2014 FINA Swimming World Championships and the 2022 FIFA World Cup. Tamim is a member of the International Olympic Committee
and the National Olympic Committee chairman. He headed Doha's bid for the 2020 Olympics. Sheikh Tamim heads the Qatar Investment Authority board of
directors. Under his leadership, the fund has invested billions in British businesses. It owns large stakes in Barclays Bank, Sainsbury's, and Harrods. The fund
also owns a share of Europe's tallest building, the Shard. Tamim has also held a number of other posts including: Head of the Upper Council of the
Environment and Natural Sanctuaries, Chairman of the Supreme Council for the Environment and Natural Reserves, Chairman of the Supreme Education
Council, Chairman of the Supreme Council of Information and Communication Technology, Chairman of the board of directors of Public Works Authority
(Ashghal) and the Urban Planning and Development Authority (UPDA), Chairman of the board of regents of Qatar University, Deputy Chairman of the Ruling
Family Council, Vice president of the Supreme Council for Economic Affairs and Investment, Deputy chairman of the High Committee for Coordination and
Follow Up and Member of "Sports for All". On June 25, 2013, the then Emir of Qatar and Tamim's father Sheikh Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani revealed his
plans to step down as Emir in a meeting with his close relatives and aides. Tamim then became the Emir of Qatar after his father handed over power in a
televised speech. He was the first ruler, in a succession of three Qatari rulers from the Al Thani family, to ascend to power without resorting to a coup. According
to The Economist, of his previous sibling rivals to the throne, "One played too much, the other prayed too much." The transition of power was expected to be
smooth, as family members hold many of the nation's top posts. Analysts said he would likely be under immediate pressure to reduce Qatar's support for the
rebels in the Syrian Civil War, which Tamim had previously supported. He would be tasked with overseeing substantial upgrades to the national infrastructure,
which have recently gotten underway. While some view Tamim as more religious than his father, most analysts expect him to retain his father's largely pragmatic
habits of governing using Islam to further objectives where useful, but not pushing strictly Islamic agenda items such as outlawing alcohol. The young Emir's
transition to power was welcomed by leaders across the World, who expected Tamim to continue the good work in the footsteps of his father and increase
Qatar's role in vital international affairs including the Syrian crisis and Darfur agreement. According to a diplomatic source close to the Al Thani family, Sheikh
Tamim has "a strong personality" that allowed him to "establish himself within the ruling family" despite not being the family's first choice for Emir. He is
described as friendly, confident, and open by those who know him. He is also described as savvy, careful, and calculating. In addition, he is considered to be a
pragmatist, and to have "excellent relations" with the West including the United States and France. Political analysts expect Tamim to be more conservative and
risk averse than his father. Because Tamim is very close to the Muslim Brotherhood, preserving a national identity grounded in traditional values is expected to
be Tamim's first priority. On January 8, 2005, Sheikh Tamim married his second cousin Sheikha Jawahir bint Hamad bin Suhaim al-Thani, daughter of Sheikh
Hamad bin Suhaim Al Thani (with whom he shares a great-grandfather, Sheikh Hamad bin Abdullah Al Thani). They have two sons and two daughters: Sheikha
Almayassa bint Tamim Al Thani (born 2006), Sheikh Hamad bin Tamim Al Thani (born 2008), Sheikha Aisha bint Tamim Al Thani (born 2010) and Sheikh
Jassim bin Tamim Al Thani (born 2012). Sheikh Tamim has a second wife, H.H. Sheikha Anoud bint Mana Al-Hajri, whom he married on March 3, 2009. She
is the daughter of Mana bin Abdul Hadi Al-Hajri, sometime Qatari Ambassador to Jordan. Together they have two children, a daughter and a son: Sheikha
Nayla bint Tamim Al Thani (born 2010) and Sheikh Abdullah bin Tamim Al Thani (born September 29, 2012). Tamim participates in competitive sport. He
was filmed playing badminton and bowled with former Egyptian military chief Mohammed Hussein Tantawi. He has a strong interest in history and his nation's
heritage. He is fluent in English. He has following honours and awards: Necklace of Merit (since his appointment as Heir Apparent, Qatar, August 5, 2003),
Member Distinguished Class of the Order of Khalifa (Bahrain, February 23, 2004), Collar of the Order of Zayed (United Arab Emirates, January 6, 2005),
Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic, (Italy, November 16, 2007),Member First Class of the Order of Nila Utama (Singapore, March 16,
2009), Grand Officer of the Order of the Legion of Honour (France, February 4, 2010), Collar of the Order of Mubarak the Great (Kuwait, October 28, 2013),
OCA Award of Merit (Olympic Council of Asia, 2007), "Best Sport Personality in the Arab World" in 2006 (by vote in the popular Egyptian newspaper Al
Ahram), Sheikh Zayed Bin Sultan Al Nahayan Medal (United Arab Emirates, 2004) and Sheikh Essa Bin Salman Al Khalifa Medal (Bahrain, 2004).
Abdullah bin Nasser bin Khalifa Al Thani (born 1959) (Arabic: ) is a
Qatari politician who has been Prime Minister of Qatar since June 26, 2013. A member of the ruling family, he was minister of state for
internal affairs from 2005 to 2013. Sheikh Abdullah is a distant relative of the former Emir Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani; he is the son of
Sheikh Nasser bin Khalifa Al Thani. According to royal ark web site, Sheikh Abdullah is the greatgrandson of Ahmed bin Muhammed
Al Thani, thus share the same ancestor, Mohammed bin Thani, with Emir Hamad; Abdullah is third cousin of Emir Hamad. Sheikh
Abdullah graduated from Durham Military College, United Kingdom, in 1984 and received a bachelors degree in police sciences. In
1995, he also graduated from Beirut Arab University, receiving a bachelor's degree in legislation. Al Thani joined the Qatari military and
was appointed as patrols officer at rescue police section in 1985. In 1989, he was appointed as security officer for stadiums at capital
security section. Then he became assistant commander for support brigade at emergency police section. He was appointed as
commander for special operations brigade at special security force department and as commander for special unit at special security
force department. On December 28, 2001, he was named as assistant director for special security force department for operations
affairs. In September 2004, he was promoted to the rank of brigadier general. After serving in different posts at the body, on February 15, 2005, he was
appointed minister of state for interior affairs. He was named as prime minister on June 2013 in a cabinet reshuffle, replacing Hamad bin Jassim Al Thani in the
post. He was also named as minister of interior in the same cabinet reshuffle, succeeding Abdullah bin Khalid Al Thani as interior minister. Al Thani is married
and has six children. Al Thani has been awarded various honors and recognitions, including Legion of Honor Award on November 19, 2009.

Teodoro Lonfernini (born May 12, 1976) is a Sammarinese politician who served as a Captain Regent of San Marino for a six-
month term jointly with Denise Bronzetti from October 1, 2012 until April 1, 2013. He was previously a member of the Grand and
General Council. An earlier Teodoro Lonfernini was also Captain Regent of San Marino, in October 1944.

Denise Bronzetti (born December 12, 1972) is a Sammarinese politician who served as a Captain Regent of San Marino for a six-month
term jointly with Teodoro Lonfernini from October 1, 2012 until April 1, 2013. She was previously a member of the Grand and General
Council.


Denis Amici (born June 10, 1972) is a Sammarinese politician who served as a Captain Regent of San Marino for a six-month term jointly
with Antonella Mularoni from April 1 until October 1, 2013.


Antonella Mularoni (born September 27, 1962) is a Sammarinese politician who served as a Captain Regent of San Marino for
a six-month term jointly with Denis Amici from April 1 until October 1, 2013. She was also Secretary for Foreign Affairs of San
Marino from December 4, 2008 until December 5, 2012. She was Sammarinese judge for the European Court of Human Rights.
She graduated in law from Bologna University.

Anna Maria Muccioli (born August 15, 1964) is a Sammarinese politician who served as a Captain Regent of San Marino for a six-month
term jointly with Gian Carlo Capicchioni from October 1, 2013 until April 1, 2014. She was previously the capitano (mayor) of Chiesanuova
and a member of the Grand and General Council.


Gian Carlo Capicchioni (born February 19, 1956) is a Sammarinese politician who served as a Captain Regent of San Marino for a 6-
month term jointly with Anna Maria Muccioli from October 1, 2013 until April 1, 2014. He was previously the capitano (mayor) of Serravalle
and a member of the Grand and General Council.


Luca Beccari (born October 29, 1974) is a Sammarinese politician who currently serves as co-Captain Regent of San Marino jointly with
Valeria Ciavatta since April 1, 2014. He is a resident of Serravalle and a former official with the Central Bank of San Marino. He has been a
Christian Democrat since 1993, and joined the Grand and General Council in 2012.



Abdoul Mbaye ((born April 13, 1953) is a Senegalese banker and politician who was Prime Minister of Senegal from
April 5, 2012 until September 1, 2013. He is a technocrat who was appointed prime minister by President Macky Sall
following the latter's win in the 2012 presidential election. Abdoul Aziz Mbaye is born on was born on April 13, 1953, in
Dakar. He is the son of judge Keba Mbaye, dead in 2007, who was the first president of the Supreme Court of Senegal,
president of the Constitutional Council, a member of the International Olympic Committee and of the International Court of
Justice. Abdoul Mbaye is the eldest in a family of three brothers and five sisters, including Cheikh Tidiane Mbaye, CEO of
Sonatel. Abdoul Mbaye studied in Senegal at the University of Dakar and at France's HEC Paris and Paris-Sorbonne
University. He is also a graduate of Cheikh Anta Diop University. In 1976 he joined the Central Bank of West African States
as an economist in the research department, before becoming the International Monetary Fund's Director of the Division of
Planning in 1981. He also worked in Ivory Coast at some point.[6] He then took over as CEO of Banque de lHabitat du Sngal in 1982. In 1990 he was a part
of the restructuring team for BIAO-Sngal, then becoming CEO of the re-modeled Compagnie Bancaire de l'Afrique Occidentale, where the bank initiated the
first company leasing in Senegal and started the first investment fund in West Africa. He was also the president of the Federation of Associations of Banks and
Financial Institutions of the West African Economic and Monetary Union and the Senegalese Professional Association of Banks and Financial Institutions and
the head of Attijari Bank Senegal (majority owned by Attijariwafa), which he acquired as the head of a consortium to turn around the ailing bank. He also worked
with the IMF in developing regulations for investment funds in West Africa. At the African Finance and Investment Group, he was an administrator. On April 3,
2012, he was appointed Prime Minister of Senegal by the newly elected President Macky Sall. He formally took over the office from the outgoing Prime Minister,
Souleymane Ndn Ndiaye, on April 5, 2012.


Aminata Tour (born October 12, 1962) is a Senegalese politician who served as the Prime Minister of Senegal from
September 1, 2013 until July 4, 2014. She was the second female Prime Minister of Senegal after Mame Madior Boye,
and she previously served as Justice Minister from 2012 to 2013. Her appointment as Prime Minister was announced
while she was pursuing several corruption cases involving former government figures. She vowed to continue the course
of "development and improving the living conditions of our citizens." She has been dubbed "Iron Lady" in the press due
to her anti-corruption campaign and platform. She has worked for women's rights in her previous career positions. In her
youth Aminata played football for the Dakar Gazelles. At university she worked with the Communist Workers' League as
a member and later joined the Movement for Socialism and Unity (MSU). She has worked in programs involved with
family planning and reproductive health in Senegal, Burkina Faso and Cte d'Ivoire. She also worked for the United
Nations Population Fund, where she was program coordinator for the Gender and HIV program in West Africa. She
holds a Ph.D. degree from the International School of Management www.ism.edu. Her doctoral dissertation was focused on micro financing of women in Sub-
Saharan Africa. She has worked to tackle corruption. As justice minister she also worked to reform the judicial system by reducing the time that citizens had to
wait for trial, and by streamlining the justice system. She initiated audits of former government officials who were in office under former president Abdoulaye
Wade, including the former president's son, Karim Wade. Having announced that she was being appointed as prime minister, she then controversially named
Sidiki Kaba to replace her as justice minister. He was later criticized due to his work on the decriminalization of homosexuality. Her cabinet was also criticized by
feminists as it had only four women in a cabinet of 32 ministers. On July 4, 2014, she was dismissed as Prime Minister by parliament following her failure to win a
seat from Dakar in the 2014 local elections. President Macky Sall signed a decree that read: "Ms Aminata Toure's functions have been terminated."
Mohamed Ben Abdallah Dionne (born September 22, 1959) is a Senegalese politician and currently Prime Minister of Senegal
since July 6, 2014.





Aleksandar Vui (born March 5, 1970) is a Serbian politician who has been Prime Minister of Serbia since April 27, 2014.
He is also the leader and president of the Serbian Progressive Party (SNS). Vui served as Minister of Information from 1998 to
2000 and later as Minister of Defence from July 27, 2012 until September 2, 2013, as well as First Deputy Prime Minister from
July 27, 2012 until April 27, 2014. He was also Minister of Information of Serbia from March 24, 1998 until October 24, 2000.
He is a graduate of the Belgrade Law School. Vui was born on March 5, 1970, in Belgrade, in the Socialist Federal Republic of
Yugoslavia, to Anelko Vui and Angelina Vui (ne Milovanov). His father was an economist. Aleksandar grew up in the
Blok 45 neighbourhood of Novi Beograd together with his younger brother Anelko. Aleksandar Vui joined the Serbian
Radical Party (SRS) in 1993 and was elected to the National Assembly following the 1993 parliamentary election. Two years
later, at age 24, Vui became secretary-general of the Serbian Radical Party. He ran in the Belgrade mayoral election twice, in
2004 and again in 2008, losing both times to candidates from the Democratic Party (DS). In March 1998, Vui was appointed
Minister of Information in the government of Mirko Marjanovi. Following rising resentment against Miloevi, Vui
introduced fines for journalists who criticized the government and banned foreign TV networks. He recalled in 2014 that he was
wrong and had changed, stating "I was not ashamed to confess all my political mistakes". It was during Vui's term as the
Minister of Information that Slavko Curuvija, a prominent journalist, was murdered in a state-sponsored assassination, for his apparent defiance in his reporting.
Today, Vui is taking credit for solving the 14 year old criminal case to promote his political agenda. In 1999, before the assassination would take place, Vucic
gave a front page interview to a tabloid "Argument" in which he stated "I will have my revenge with Slavko Curuvija for all the lies published in The Daily Telgraph
(Curuvija's paper)." Vui briefly served as Minister of Defence and First Deputy Prime Minister from July 2012 to August 2013, when he stepped down from his
position of Defence Minister in a cabinet reshuffle. Although the Prime Minister, Ivica Dai, held formal power as head-of-government, many analysts thought
that Vui had the most influence in government as head of the largest party in the governing coalition and parliament. Before splitting away from the Radical
Party of Vojislav eelj, Aleksandar Vui was openly and publicly celebrating and calling for the protection of the accused war criminal Ratko Mladi. In 2007,
while Ratko Mladi, a Serbian Army general accused of acts of genocide in Srebrenica and other crimes, who is currently on trial in the Hague, was still at large in
Serbia, Aleksandar Vui was distributing posters stating "A safe house for general Mladi". During a parliament session he stated that the Serbian Parliament will
always protect and be a safe house for the general and that any house in Serbia that bears the last name of Vui will protect and shelter Ratko Mladi. In the
same year Aleksandar Vui organized a street protest where the signs naming the street after the assassinated pro-western Serbian PM were replaced with the
signs effectively renaming the street to The Ratko Mladi Boulevard. This has become an annual event where the Serbian ultra-right fractions would place the
same signs on top of the regular signs to celebrate the anniversary of the Zoran ini assassination. On September 6, 2008 Deputy Leader of the Radical Party
and de facto leader due to absence of Vojislav eelj, Tomislav Nikoli resigned, because of disagreement with eelj over SRS support for Serbia's EU
membership, and with some other well known Radical Party members formed new parliamentary club called "Napred Srbijo!" (Forward Serbia!). On September
12, 2008 Nikoli and his group were officially ejected from the Radical Party on the session of SRS leadership. Vui, as secretary-general was called to attend
this session, but he did not appear. Tomislav Nikoli announced he would form his own party and called Vui to join. Vui, one of the most popular figures
among SRS supporters, resigned from Radical Party on September 14, 2008. The next day, Vui announced his temporary withdrawal from the politics. On
October 6, 2008 Vui confirmed in a TV interview that he will join new formed Nikoli's Serbian Progressive Party (SNS) and that he will be Deputy President
of the party. He then seemed to change his tune. In 2010 he made statements such as a "horrible crime was committed in Srebrenica", saying he felt "ashamed" of
the Serbs who did it. "I do not hide that I have changed... I am proud of that," he told AFP in an interview in 2012. "I was wrong, I thought I was doing the best
for my country, but I saw the results and we failed, We need to admit that." Nikoli stepped down as party leader on May 24, 2012 following his election as
President of Serbia. Vui assumed leadership until the next party congress is held to elect a new leader. On September 29, 2012 Vui was elected as party
leader, with Jorgovanka Tabakovi as his deputy. Vui has pledged to tackle corruption and organized crime in Serbia. He also vowed to investigate
controversial privatizations and ties between tycoons and former government members. Vuis anti-corruption drive has recorded a 71 per cent personal
approval rating in a March 2013 opinion poll, though in more than two years it produced no convictions and only a handful of arrests. Vui has been central to
negotiations on Serbias bid for EU accession, traveling to Brussels for talks with the EUs Foreign Affairs Commissioner, Baroness Ashton, as well as to
Mitrovica in North Kosova to discuss the details of a political settlement between Belgrade and Pristina. During his visit to Mitrovica, northern Kosovo, to garner
support for the Brussels-brokered deal, he urged Kosovo Serbs to leave the past and think about the future. In 1995, Vui visited Knin, Croatia (then under
control of the rebel Republic of Serb Krajina) with Vojislav eelj to protest against the Z-4 plan.[22] In 2007 Vui made inflammatory remarks about the
Democratic League of Croats in Vojvodina, calling it a branch of the Croatian Democratic Union.[23] In 2008, with the establishment of the Serbian Progressive
Party, Vui said that the goal of a Greater Serbia taking Croatian territory up to the proposed Virovitica-Karlovac-Karlobag line was no longer realistic. In
December 2008 Vui announced that he would make a visit to Croatian Serbs, causing a controversy. The Croatian Serb group SKD Prosvjeta commented
negatively on the visit. On July 27, 1997 Vui married Ksenija Jankovi, a journalist at Radio Index and Srpska re. Together they have a son, Danilo (born
1998) and daughter, Milica (born 2002). They officially separated in 2011. On December 14, 2013, Vui married Tamara ukanovi, a diplomat at the Serbian
Ministry of Foreign Affairs.

Andrej Kiska (born February 2, 1963) is a Slovak entrepreneur and philanthropist who has been President of Slovakia since June
15, 2014. He ran as an independent candidate in the 2014 presidential election and was elected as President in a second round of
voting. Kiska was born in Poprad. He studied electrical engineering. In 1990, after the Velvet Revolution, he moved to the United
States. Later he founded Triangel and Quatro, two Slovakia-based hire-purchase companies that give the buyer the possibility to pay
for goods in several installments over a number of months instead of paying the full price at once. In 2006, Kiska co-founded a non-
profit charitable organization called Dobr anjel (translated as Good Angel), in which donors help families that have found themselves
in a difficult financial situation as a result of a family member contracting a serious disease (such as cancer). By 2014, more than
140,000 people have donated to this organization. In the first round of the 2014 presidential election, Kiska placed second with 24%
of the vote, behind Prime Minister Robert Fico (28%). As none of candidates got more than 50% of votes, Kiska and Fico progressed
to a presidential runoff vote on March 29, 2014. Kiska won decisively in the second round, receiving nearly 60% of the vote. He took
office on June 15, 2014. Andrej Kiska supports Kosovo's independence and is in favour of Slovakia diplomatically recognising Kosovo
as an independent sovereign state.

Alenka Bratuek (born March 31, 1970) is a Slovenian public servant who was Prime Minister of Slovenia from March 20,
2013 until May 5, 2014, the first woman in Slovenia to hold this position. She was president pro tempore of the Positive Slovenia
party from January 17, 2013 until April 25, 2014. On May 5, 2014, Bratuek submitted her resignation as Prime Minister Bratuek
was born in Celje. She studied at the Faculty of Natural Sciences and Technology at the University of Ljubljana. Continuing her
studies at the University of Ljubljana, she went on to obtain a master's degree in management at the Faculty for Social Sciences.
Before entering politics, she served for six years as head of the Directorate for the State Budget at the Ministry of Finance. In
March 2013, an anonymous person criticized Bratuek because she had not cited a source on one page of her master's thesis. Her
work has 88 pages with 34 listed sources, but journalists only counted 11 used-ones; among it were also internal documents of
company Javni gospodarski zavod Brdo, where she was member and later president of Managing Board. Slovenske novice
journalists also went through her work and wrote, that Bratuek plagiarized one page from work of another author (regarding Gsta
Esping-Andersen's classification of welfare) without proper citation. Her Alma-mater, Faculty for Social Sciences, started an
investigation regarding alleged plagiarism. In 2006 she ran in local elections on the list of the Liberal Democracy of Slovenia (LDS)
and was elected to the city council of Kranj. In 2008, Bratuek unsuccessfully ran for Parliament on the list of the Social Liberal party Zares. On the next local
elections, in 2010, she switched allegions, this time to Hermina Krt's List (Lista Hermine Krt) and was once again elected to Kranj's city council. In the 2011
early parliamentary elections, she was elected on the list of the Positive Slovenia party. During her parliamentary tenure she was the chairperson of the
parliamentary Committee for Budget Control. On January 17, 2013, Bratuek was elected as president of the Positive Slovenia party after its leader and founder
Zoran Jankovi temporarily renounced all functions in the party following allegations raised by the official Commission for the Prevention of Corruption report.
Also following the report, right-wing leader Janez Jana's government received a vote of no confidence. On February 27, 2013 Bratuek was elected as the Prime
Minister-designate to form a new government of Slovenia. The right wing Jana's party responded by tweeting about "her government lasting no longer than her
skirt's length". Gregor Virant welcomed the outcome of the vote, stating that it will enable Slovenia to move forward. Foreign media thought that it would be
difficult for Bratuek to form a new government and questioned whether she would continue with the reforms initiated by Jana's government. A new
parliamentary majority, formed by PS and Social Democrats's party was formed. On March 20, 2013 Bratuek formed a government. During her tenure, she
presided over the construction of the first mosque in the country. In seeking to avoid a financial bailout her government won a vote of confidence by 50 to 31 on
November 15, 2013. On April 29, 2014 she resigned from Positive Slovenia, after losing party leadership to Zoran Jankovi on April 26, 2014. Following this
development, Bratuek announced her resignation as Prime Minister, to take effect on May 5, 2014. On May 5, 2014 she officially submitted her resignation
letter, triggering discussions about snap election later in 2014. She became the first Slovenian Primer Minister to resign from office; resignation went into effect on
May 8, 2014. On May 31, 2014 she formed her own party Alliance of Alenka Bratuek (Zaveznitvo Alenke Bratuek; ZaAB). At the following election in July,
ZaAB won 4 seats in the National Assembly, including one for Bratuek. Bratuek lives in Kranj. She lives with her partner and has a son and a daughter.


Muse Hassan Sheikh Sayid Abdulle (Somali: Muuse Xasan Sheekh Sayyid Cabdulleh, Arabic:
, born between 1939 and 1940), also known as Musa Hassan Abdulle, is a senior Somali military
figure, politician, former Acting President of Somalia and Interim Speaker of the Federal Parliament of Somalia from
August 20 until August 28, 2012. Abdulle is Somalia's ambassador to Italy. Abdulle was born between 1939 and 1940.
He hails from the Darod clan. Abdulle is a Sunni Muslim. He speaks fluent Somali, Arabic, Italian and English. Abdulle
is the grandson of Al-Sayid Mohammed Abdullah Hassan. Abdulle was a prominent member of the Somali National
Army. He was among the first three Somali cadets to graduate from the Military Academy of Modena (Accademia
Militare di Modena), located in Modena, northern Italy. In 1985, Abdulle received a fellowship to attend the National
Defense University in Washington, D.C.. He graduated from the institution the following year. Abdulle later returned to
Somalia. He rose to the rank of brigadier general in the Somali Armed Forces. He retired from the military in 1989. Following the end of the mandate of the
Transitional Federal Government (TFG) on August 20, 2012 and the concurrent start of the Federal Government of Somalia, Abdulle, as the eldest legislator,
was appointed interim speaker of the new Federal Parliament during its inaugural session held at the Aden Adde International Airport in Mogadishu. He was
additionally named Acting President at the ceremony, which also saw the swearing in of many MPs. Voting for a new speaker of Parliament was held on August
28, 2012, with former Minister of Transportation and Minister of Labor and Sports Mohamed Osman Jawari elected the permanent speaker. On August 30,
2012, the Federal Parliament convened and unanimously endorsed a new committee tasked with overseeing Somalia's 2012 presidential elections. At the
parliamentary session chaired by the new Speaker Jawari, 15 MPs were named to the body and Abdulle was appointed as the commission's chairperson.The
ballot was eventually held on September 1, 2012, with Hassan Sheikh Mohamud elected as the new President of Somalia. On June 20, 2013, Abdulle was named
Somalia's ambassador to Italy by the cabinet.
Mohamed Osman Jawari (Somali: Maxamed Cismaan Jawaari, Arabic: ) (born December 7,
1945 in Afgooye, Somalia) is a Somali attorney and politician. He is the current Speaker of the Federal Parliament of
Somalia since August 28, 2012. He also briefly served as Acting President of Somalia from August 28 until September
16, 2012. Jawari was born in 1945 in the town of Afgooye, Somalia, to a family from the Rahanweyn clan. He originally
hails from the southern Bay and Bakool regions. Jawari is multilingual. Besides Somali, he also speaks Arabic, Italian,
English and Norwegian. After graduating from high school, Jawari obtained a degree in Law from the Somali National
University in Mogadishu. Jawari is a lawyer by profession. In a political capacity, he held the Minister of Transportation
portfolio in the government of former President of Somalia Siad Barre, followed by a position as the Minister of Labor
and Sports. After the civil war broke out in 1991, Jawari moved to Norway. He later returned to Somalia in the 2000s.
Jawari was subsequently elected as chairman of the committee of specialists tasked with formulating Somalia's draft constitution, putting to use his experience as a
legal expert while working alongside UN officials. The constitution was eventually adopted in July 2012. In 2012, Jawari presented himself as a candidate in the
first elections for a Speaker of the Federal Parliament to take place within Somalia in two decades. In the televised and radio-broadcast parliamentary session held
on August 28, 2012 at the Gen. Kahiye Police Academy near the Mogadishu International Airport, Jawari beat four other candidates for the post, all of whom
had previously served as government ministers during the transitional period. The hopefuls included Abdiabshir Abdullahi, Abdirashid Mohamed Hidig, Hassan
Abshir Farah and Ali Khalif Galeyr, a former Prime Minister in the Transitional National Government. Jawari received 119 votes during the first round of ballots
versus 77 votes for Galeyr, who placed second. Galeyr subsequently withdrew from the race prior to the second round run-off and congratulated Jawari, who was
then named the new Parliamentary Speaker. Following the parliamentary session, Jawari stated: "I am honoured to have been selected as the first speaker of a
[Somali] parliament that is not transitional and I hope we can be a parliament that serves the people it represents[...] The election was held in a transparent way
and I hope that Somalia will continue elections that are held in a democratic way[...] I am confident that this parliament will help Somalia achieve positive
changes in security and governance". Representatives for the United Nations, the European Union and the United States government all welcomed Jawari's
appointment, urging the Somali authorities to hold the scheduled presidential elections without delay. US ambassador to Somalia James C. Swan described the
speakership ballot as an "historic election", with UN Special Envoy to Somalia Augustine Mahiga writing in a statement that "this is a moment of progress and
optimism." Similarly, Alex Rondos, the EU Special Representative for the Horn of Africa, called Jawari's selection "another positive step forward." Jaylaani Nur
Ikar and Mahad Abdalle Awad were later chosen by parliament as Jawari's First and Second Deputy Speakers, respectively. As Speaker of Parliament, Jawari also
briefly served as acting President of Somalia while the parliament elected a new leader. On August 30, 2012, the Federal Parliament convened and unanimously
endorsed a new committee tasked with overseeing the presidential elections. At the parliamentary session chaired by Jawari, 15 MPs were named to the body,
with former acting Speaker Muse Hassan Sheikh Sayid Abdulle appointed as the commission's chairperson. Hassan Sheikh Mohamud then succeeded Jawari as
President, having been elected on September 10, 2012 and inaugurated into office six days later. In February 2014, Minister of Finance Hussein Abdi Halane
announced the establishment of a new financial governance committee. The panel is part of an effort by the central authorities to build a more transparent
financial system in order to attract additional foreign budget assistance. It will see Somali officials confer with World Bank, International Monetary Fund and
African Development Bank representatives, with committee members tasked with providing advice on financial matters. On March 29, 2014, during a
parliamentary session, Parliament Speaker Jawari also announced that all withdrawals from the Central Bank would as of April 1, 2014 require the written
approval of the parliamentary finance committee. On June 22, 2014, the federal government concluded its mediation between the supporters of the parallel
three-region and six-region processes for a new Southwestern State of Somalia. Wings from both sides had reportedly reached an agreement on the prospective
regional state's formation. On June 23, 2014, the office of Federal Parliament Speaker Jawari is slated to host an event announcing the merger of the two
competing administrations into a single three-region state, which is to be composed of the Bay, Bakool and Lower Shabelle provinces.
Hassan Sheikh Mohamud (Somali: Xasan Sheekh Maxamuud, Arabic: ) (born November 29,
1955) is the President of Somalia since September 16, 2012. He was elected on September 10, 2012 and inaugurated
six days later on September 16, 2012. A civil and political activist, Mohamud was previously a university professor and
dean. He is also the founder and Chairman of the Peace and Development Party (PDP). In April 2013, Mohamud
was named to the Time 100, TIME magazine's annual list of the 100 most influential people in the world. His efforts
at advancing national reconciliation, anti-corruption measures, and socio-economic and security sector reforms in
Somalia were cited as reasons for the selection. Mohamud was born November 29, 1955 in Jalalaqsi, a small
agricultural town situated in the central Hiran of present-day Somalia, during the trusteeship period. He is a member
of the Abgaal Hawiye clan, and comes from a middle-class background. Mohamud is married and has children. He
speaks Somali and English. Mohamud frequented primary and secondary schools in his hometown. He later moved to Somalia's capital Mogadishu in 1978,
where he studied for three years at the local Somali National University. In 1981, he earned an undergraduate diploma in technology from the institution. In
1986, Mohamud journeyed to India and began attending Bhopal University (now Barkatullah University). There, he completed a master's degree in technical
education in 1988. In a professional capacity, Mohamud accepted a position as an instructor and trainer at the Lafole Technical Secondary School. He later
joined the Somali National University-affiliated Technical Teachers' Training College in 1984. In 1986, he became the department's head. When the civil war
broke out in the early 1990s, Mohamud remained in Somalia and acted as a consultant with various NGOs, UN bureaus, and peace and development projects.
He worked as an education officer for UNICEF in the central and southern parts of the country from 1993 to 1995. In 1999, he also co-established the Somali
Institute of Management and Administration (SIMAD) in the capital. The institution subsequently grew into the SIMAD University, with Mohamud acting as
dean until 2010. Mohamud entered Somali politics the following year, when he established the independent Peace and Development Party (PDP).[7] PDP
members unanimously elected him as the party's chairman in April 2011, with a mandate to serve as leader for the next three years. In August 2012, Mohamud
was selected as a Member of Parliament (MP) in the newly formed Federal Parliament of Somalia. Besides academic and civic work, he is also a successful
entrepreneur. Mohamud has ties with Al-Islah, Somalia's branch of the Muslim Brotherhood. With the organisation, he assisted in various philanthropic
initiatives, including the construction of primary and secondary schools, plus university facilities and research hospitals in regions across the country. The network
has also offered scholarships for higher studies and placements in educational institutions to many students. On September 10, 2012, legislators elected
Mohamud President of Somalia during the country's 2012 presidential elections. Members of parliament marked their ballot papers behind a curtain before
casting them in a clear box in front of foreign envoys and hundreds of Somali men and women as well as being broadcast live on television. After the first round
of voting, former President Sharif Sheikh Ahmed emerged as the frontrunner, amassing 64 votes. Mohamud was a close second with 60 votes, and Prime
Minister Abdiweli Mohamed Ali placed third with 32 votes. Along with the fourth place finisher Abdiqadir Osoble, Ali later chose to drop out ahead of the
second round. Both challengers, along with the other hopefuls that were vying for the post, thereafter reportedly instructed their supporters to back Mohamud's
candidacy. Mohamud went on to earn a lopsided win in the final round, defeating Ahmed 7129% (190 votes vs. 79 votes). Immediately after the final ballot
results had been read out, Mohamud was sworn into office. Lawmakers began singing Somalia's national anthem, and Mogadishu's residents also expressed
satisfaction at the outcome, viewing it as a moment of change. In his acceptance speech, President Mohamud thanked the general Somali populace, the Federal
Parliament, as well as the other challengers. He also voiced support for the ongoing post-conflict reconstruction efforts in Somalia and indicated that he was
prepared to work closely with the international community. Additionally, Ahmed congratulated Mohamud on his victory and pledged to cooperate with the new
head of state. Prime Minister Ali touted the selection as the start of a new era in Somali politics. Abdirahman Mohamud Farole, President of the autonomous
Puntland region in northeastern Somalia, also thanked Mohamud, the Somali people, and all of the other stakeholders that were involved in the Roadmap
political process, which ultimately led to the presidential election and the end of the transitional period. Mohamud's appointment was welcomed throughout the
world. The UN Special Representative for Somalia Augustine Mahiga issued a statement describing the election as a "great step forward on the path to peace and
prosperity[...] Somalia has proved the doubters wrong and sent a powerful message of progress to all of Africa and indeed to the entire world". Similarly, the AU
Commission for Somalia hailed the selection and pledged to support the new leadership. British Prime Minister David Cameron and EU foreign policy chief
Catherine Ashton also extended their congratulations, echoing the general sentiment that the election represented a significant achievement. The United States
government in turn released a press statement felicitating Mohamud on his victory, which it qualified as "an important milestone for the people of Somalia, and a
crucial step forward along the path of building a representative government". It also urged the Somali authorities to build on this momentum, and promised to
continue partnering with the Somali government. In addition, President Sheikh Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan of the United Arab Emirates (UAE) cabled a
message of congratulations to Somalia's new head of state, as did the UAE's Vice President and Prime Minister Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum as
well as the Crown Prince of Abu Dhabi Sheikh Mohammed bin Zayed Al Nahyan. On September 16, 2012, Mohamud was formally inaugurated as President of
Somalia at a ceremony attended by various foreign leaders and dignitaries. UN Special Envoy to Somalia Mahiga described the moment as the beginning of a
"new era" for the nation as well as the conclusion of the transitional period. On October 6, 2012, President Mohamud appointed political newcomer Abdi Farah
Shirdon as the new Prime Minister of Somalia. On November 4, 2012, Shirdon named a new Cabinet, which was later endorsed by the legislature on November
13, 2012. On September 12, 2012, while President Mohamud was meeting with foreign delegates in Mogadishu, two suicide bombers and two gunmen dressed in
government uniforms attempted an attack on the Jazeera Hotel where the dignitaries had convened. There were reportedly around 10 casualties, among which
were three Somali security detail, one AU peacekeeper, and the assailants themselves. None of the assembled statesmen, including Kenyan Foreign Minister Sam
Ongeri, were harmed. Seemingly unfazed by the incidents, President Mohamud continued his speech before the gathered press and foreign officials, stating that
"things like what's happening now outside will continue for some time, but I'm sure and I'm confident it's the last things that's taking place here in Somalia[...] We
have been hearing such events frequently, but this is a special case. We didn't hear it for the last couple of months even." He added that "first and foremost we will
address the security issue. Priority number one is security and priority number two and priority number three." The Al-Shabaab militant group later claimed
responsibility for the attacks. According to Somali government officials, AU forces have assumed responsibility for President Mohamud's security while
investigations are launched into the incidents. On September 3, 2013, a roadside bomb detonated near vehicles in President's Mohamud's convoy in Merca. One
Somali soldier was injured in the blast, but Mohamud was unharmed and continued on to his destination. Al-Shabaab later claimed responsibility for the
explosion. Abdirahman Omar Osman, a spokesman for the president, dismissed the group's statement as propaganda, indicating that Mohamud's convoy was not
targeted and that it was uncertain what might have happened to an earlier convoy. Upon assuming office, President Mohamud and his Cabinet resumed efforts by
Somali and international stakeholders to end the 21-year UN arms embargo on Somalia, the oldest such global weapons blockade. The Security Council had
imposed the prohibition in 1992, shortly after the start of the civil war and the toppling of the Siad Barre regime, in order to stop the flow of weapons to feuding
militia groups. An eventual repeal of the embargo had been among the future objectives of the signatories in the transitional Roadmap political process of 2011
2012. Mohamud's government, Somali security analysts and military experts argued that lifting the ban on the procurement of arms would facilitate the Somali
authorities' attempts at strengthening the Somali Armed Forces, and would more effectively equip the military to quash the remnants of the Islamist insurgency.
The United States, African Union, Arab League, and IGAD all backed the proposal. In March 2013, UN Secretary General Ban Ki-Moon likewise urged
Security Council members to vote to remove the sanctions so as to help the Somali authorities fortify their security apparatus and consolidate military gains.
Although Britain and France reportedly expressed reservations over increasing the general flow of arms into Somalia, UK officials began drafting a resolution to
ease the embargo on weapons purchases by the Somali government for a provisional period of one year. The draft resolution would require either the Somali
authorities or the state supplying the military equipment to notify the council "at least five days in advance of any deliveries of weapons and military equipment[...]
providing details of such deliveries and assistance and the specific place of delivery in Somalia." Additionally, the proposal mandates that the Somali government
should routinely provide updates on the army's structural status, as well as information on the extant infrastructure and protocols designed to ensure the
weaponry's safe delivery, storage and maintenance. In its March 6, 2013 meeting, the 15-member UN Security Council unanimously approved Resolution 2093
to suspend the arms embargo on Somalia for a one-year period. The endorsement officially lifts the purchase ban on light weapons, but retains certain
restrictions on the procurement of heavy arms such as surface-to-air missiles, howitzers and cannons. In January 2014, at an African Union Summit in Addis
Ababa, President Mohamud requested an extension of the UN Security Council's weapons purchasing mandate for Somalia. He indicated that the Somali
defence forces required better military equipment and arms to more effectively combat militants. On March 5, 2014, the UN Security Council unanimously
voted to extend the partial easing of the arms embargo on Somalia until October 25 of the year. On April 13, 2013, President Mohamud resumed national
reconciliation talks between the central government in Mogadishu and the regional authorities in Hargeisa. Organized by the government of Turkey in Ankara,
the meeting ended with a signed agreement between Mohamud and Ahmed Mahamoud Silanyo, President of the northwestern Somaliland region, agreeing to
allocate fairly to the Somaliland region its portion of the development aid earmarked for Somalia as a whole and to cooperate on security. On August 28, 2013,
the Somali federal government signed a national reconciliation agreement in Addis Ababa with the autonomous Jubaland administration based in southern
Somalia. Endorsed by the federal State Minister for the Presidency Farah Abdulkadir on behalf of President Mohamud, the pact was brokered by the Foreign
Ministry of Ethiopia and came after protracted bilateral talks. Under the terms of the agreement, Jubaland will be administered for a two-year period by a Juba
Interim Administration and led by the region's incumbent president, Ahmed Mohamed Islam (Madobe). The regional president will serve as the chairperson of a
new Executive Council, to which he will appoint three deputies. Management of Kismayo's seaport and airport will also be transferred to the Federal Government
after a period of six months, and revenues and resources generated from these infrastructures will be earmarked for Jubaland's service delivery and security
sectors as well as local institutional development. Additionally, the agreement includes the integration of Jubaland's military forces under the central command of
the Somali National Army (SNA), and stipulates that the Juba Interim Administration will command the regional police. UN Special Envoy to Somalia Nicholas
Kay hailed the pact as "a breakthrough that unlocks the door for a better future for Somalia," with AUC, UN, EU and IGAD representatives also present at the
signing. In November 2013, President Mohamud asked Prime Minister Abdi Farah Shirdon to resign from office on the grounds that Shirdon was allegedly
ineffective in the job. Mohamud was reportedly acting on the advice of the State Minister for Presidency, Farah Abdulkadir. On November 12, 2013, Shirdon
confirmed that there was a dispute between himself and the president, but indicated that the row was constitutional rather than political. He also asserted that the
matter should be resolved in parliament. According to MP Mohamed Abdi Yusuf, the rift between Mohamud and Shirdon centered over through what
constitutional mechanism and by whom the Cabinet was ultimately to be formed. On November 24, 2013, 168 MPs led by former TFG Parliament Speaker
Sharif Hassan Sheikh Adan endorsed a document submitted to parliament, which outlined a motion against Prime Minister Shirdon's administration. A
parliamentary vote of confidence was later held against Shirdon on December 2, 2013. Parliament Speaker Mohamed Osman Jawari subsequently announced
that 184 of the present MPs had voted against Shirdon, whereas 65 legislators had voted to retain him. On December 5, 2013, Shirdon released a statement
confirming that he and his Cabinet accepted the legislature's decision. UN Special Representative for Somalia Nicholas Kay paid tribute to the outgoing Prime
Minister, noting that Shirdon had endeavoured to promote growth and progress and was an important principal in establishing the New Deal Compact between
Somalia and its international partners. He also commended the legislators on adhering to procedural rules during the vote, and pledged to work constructively
with the succeeding administration. On December 12, 2013, President Mohamud named veteran economist Abdiweli Sheikh Ahmed as the new Prime Minister.
In FebruaryMarch 2014, Mohamud began a reformation of the Mogadishu Chief of Staff and Benadir regional administration in an effort to strengthen their
senior leadership. On February 27, 2014, he issued a presidential decree naming former military court chairman Hassan Mohamed Hussein Mungab as the new
Mayor of Mogadishu and Governor of the Banaadir region. Part of an effort to firm up on municipal security, the appointment came after consultations with
Prime Minister Abdiweli Sheikh Ahmed and Interior Minister Abdullahi Godah Barre. Mungab replaced Mohamed Nur (Tarsan) in the mayorship. The same
month, President Mohamud also replaced Kamal Dahir Hassan "Gutale" as Chief of Staff. Through a presidential decree issued on March 10, 2014 Mohamud
likewise sacked the General Secretary of the Benadir regional administration Abdikafi Hassan, as well as Benadir's Deputy Governors Ali Iikar Gure and
Warsame Mohamed Ahmed "Jodah". Mohamud concurrently reassigned former Chief of Staff Hassan as the Benadir administration's new Deputy Governor. In
January 2013, President Mohamud met with U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton and other American federal officials in Washington, D.C. to discuss bilateral
cooperation. The meeting concluded with an announcement by the U.S. federal authorities that the United States was set to exchange diplomatic notes with the
new central government of Somalia, re-establishing official ties with the country for the first time in 20 years. According to U.S. Assistant Secretary of State
Johnnie Carson, the decision was made in recognition of the significant progress that the Somali authorities had achieved on both the political and war fronts.
The move is expected to grant the Somali government access to new sources of development funds from American agencies as well as international bodies like
the International Monetary Fund and World Bank, thereby facilitating the ongoing reconstruction process. On June 7, 2013, attendants at the ministerial meeting
of the European Union and over 70 nations in the African, Caribbean and Pacific Group of States (ACP) approved the Somali government's request to join the
Cotonou Agreement. Somalia was immediately granted observer status, with full membership earmarked for 2014. The Cotonou Agreement promotes
sustainable development and the reduction and eventual elimination of poverty in ACP member nations. It also aims to integrate ACP countries into the world
economy via stronger participation in the drafting of national development strategies, and to advance criminal justice and fight against impunity through the
International Criminal Court. President Mohamud welcomed the decision and asserted that the treaty would facilitate the ongoing national reconstruction
process, as Somalia would be eligible to receive EU development projects. According to Joe Costello, Ireland's Minister of State for Trade and Development, the
endorsement "opens a new chapter in relations between the EU and Somalia and constitutes a visible sign that Somalia has regained its status as a fully-fledged
member of the international community." On February 26, 2014, President Mohamud oversaw the signing of a bilateral agreement between Somalia's Minister of
Foreign Affairs Abdirahman Duale Beyle and UN Special Representative for Somalia Nicholas Kay, which outlines the terms of future cooperation between the
Somali federal government and the United Nations. According to Beyle, the pact came after extensive consultations between both parties, with attorneys also
present at the signing. Mohamud commended the agreement for helping to strengthen cooperation between the Somali authorities and the UN. In March 2014,
President Mohamud and a Somali government delegation including the Minister of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation Abdirahman Duale Beyle,
Minister of Planning Said Abdullahi Mohamed and Minister of Public Works and Reconstruction Nadifo Mohamed Osman made a four-day visit to Tokyo,
where they met with Ambassador Tatsushi Terada and other senior Japanese government officials. President Mohamud and his delegation also conferred with
Prime Minister Shinzo Abe to discuss strengthening bilateral relations, and capacity training for Somali livestock and agricultural development professionals.
Mohamud likewise met with Emperor Akihito, as well as with leaders of the Nippon Foundation, where they discussed project proposals in the agriculture,
fisheries, marine resources and livestock sectors. Following a visit to the Japanese Coast Guard center and the Port of Yokohama, Mohamud requested Japanese
assistance in development initiatives earmarked for Somalia's coastline. He also recommended at a gathering before the Japan National Press Club that Japanese
investments in education should be refocused towards youth vocational education centres to ensure sustainability. The visit concluded with an announcement by
Japanese Prime Minister Abe that his administration would put forth a $40 million funding package for the rehabilitation of Somalia's police forces, relief
services, and job creation opportunities. Mohamud commended the Japanese government for intensifying its bilateral support, and suggested that the
development initiatives would be centered on vocational training for youth and women, maritime and fisheries training, fisheries and agricultural infrastructure
development, and communication and information technology support. On April 2 and 3, 2014, a Somali federal government delegation including President
Mohamud, Minister of Fisheries and Marine Resources Mohamed Olow Barrow, Minister of Finance Hussein Abdi Halane, and Minister of Planning Said
Abdullahi Mohamed met in Brussels with EU Development Commissioner Andris Piebalgs and EU Fisheries Commissioner Maria Damanaki to discuss
bilateral relations. The talks were brokered by the Scottish Conservative Euro MP Struan Stevenson, with the aim of securing international funding for
reconstruction of Somalia's fishing industry infrastructure. According to Stevenson, the EU's long-term objective is to set up a fisheries partnership agreement with
the Somali authorities in order to tap into the country's abundant marine stocks. In April 2013, Mohamud was named to the Time 100, TIME magazine's annual
list of the 100 most influential people in the world. His efforts at advancing national reconciliation, anti-corruption measures, and socio-economic and security
sector reforms in Somalia were cited as reasons for the selection.
Abdi Farah Shirdon (About this sound pronunciation (help info) ahb-dee fah-rah shihr-dohn sah-ihd;[needs IPA]
Somali: Cabdi Faarax Shirdoon; Arabic: ; born 1958) is a Somali businessman, economist and politician.
He served as the Prime Minister of Somalia from October 17, 2012 until December 31, 2013. Shirdon is credited with
having overseen significant development in social services and the national budget, as well as improving local security.
Shirdon was born in 1958 in the town of Dhusamareb, situated in the central Galguduud region of Somalia. He comes from
a middle-class background, and belongs to the Marehan Darod clan. Shirdon is married to Asha Haji Elmi, a prominent
peace activist and Member of the Federal Parliament of Somalia. The couple have four children. He is also multilingual,
speaking Somali, Italian and English. After finishing high school, Shirdon relocated to Somalia's capital, Mogadishu, to
attend college. He studied at the Somali National University (SNU), where he earned a bachelor's degree in economics,
graduating with honours in 1983. Shirdon briefly worked as an economist in the national Ministry of Finance and Ministry of
Agriculture from 1983 to 1985, during the Siad Barre administration. He subsequently left government to pursue an entrepreneurial career. He established
Shirdon International, serving as the company's CEO. After the civil war broke out in Somalia in 1991, Shirdon moved to Nairobi, Kenya. There, he opened up
another business, running a prominent import-export firm. In March 2012, Shirdon was also named Chairman of the Rajo Forum, a Somali civil society
institution he co-founded composed of professionals, intellectuals, businesspeople and politicians. On October 6, 2012, Shirdon was appointed the new Prime
Minister of Somalia by incumbent President Hassan Sheikh Mohamud. He succeeded Abdiweli Mohamed Ali in office. A close ally of President Mohamud,
Shirdon was reportedly chosen for the position due in part to his academic background. His selection was greeted with rallies of support in several cities across
the country, including his hometown of Dhusamareb and Buuhoodle. The autonomous Puntland regional administration in northeastern Somalia also welcomed
Shirdon's appointment and indicated that it would partner with the central government to uphold the new federal system of governance. If endorsed, Shirdon
pledged that he would name a competent and cohesive Cabinet with no tolerance for corruption. He also vowed in a statement that he would perform his duties
in accordance with the national Constitution. On October 17, 2012, the Federal Parliament approved Shirdon as Prime Minister by a large majority, with 215 of
275 legislators endorsing his nomination. UN Special Representative for Somalia Augustine Mahiga welcomed the development, describing it as "further
incontrovertible evidence of progress in Somalia". Mahiga also pledged to collaborate with the new Somali government in the post-conflict reconstruction process.
On November 4, 2012, Shirdon named a new 10 member Cabinet after extensive consultations with local stakeholders. The council of ministers consists of many
newcomers, including two women: Fowsiyo Yussuf Haji Aadan as the nation's first female Minister of Foreign Affairs, and Maryam Kassim as Minister of Social
Development. The new Cabinet was later endorsed by the legislature on November 13, 2012, with 219 MPs approving the selection, 3 voting against it, and 3
abstaining. In early February 2013, Prime Minister Shirdon launched an Independent Task Force on Human Rights in order to firm up on the protection of
individual rights. The 13-member committee of volunteers was formed after extensive consultations with civil society groups and the Speaker of Parliament,
Mohamed Osman Jawari. Chaired by prominent human rights attorney Maryam Yusuf Sheikh Ali, one of four women on the panel, the Task Force includes an
educator, a peace activist, leaders of Somali women's organizations, senior police officers, a humanitarian campaigner, a religious leader, and a media
representative. It is tasked with investigating allegations of human rights abuses and journalist intimidation. At the end of its three-month mandate, the committee
is scheduled to publish a report on its findings and recommended courses of action. The Task Force will eventually give way to a permanent parliamentary
Human Rights Commission, which will have the capacity to investigate allegations over a longer period. In February 2013, Prime Minister Shirdon, along with
Minister of Defence Abdihakim Mohamoud Haji-Faqi, Minister of Interior Abdikarim Hussein Guled, and Deputy Speaker of Parliament Jaylaani Nur Ikar,
embarked on a Listening Tour of various cities across Somalia to meet with the population, establish public service priorities, and facilitate the creation of local
administrations. Shirdon pledged that the federal government would deliver public services to the regions, contingent with the formation of effective local
government and an acceleration of the reconciliation process. Toward this end, he negotiated an agreement with community leaders in the central Galguduud
province to set up a district administration and signed a cooperative security pact with Ahlu Sunna Waljama'a. On April 18, 2013, the Premier's Office
announced in a press release that the Somali Council of Ministers had approved draft legislation on a new counter-terrorism law. The bill formalizes proper
conduct and structures vis-a-vis the national security and intelligence agencies. It also establishes a legal definition for terrorism, and aims to meet international
best practices. According to Prime Minister Shirdon, the law constitutes a key component of his administration's counter-terrorism strategy. It is now expected to
be put before the legislature for deliberation and approval. In May 2013, Prime Minister Shirdon announced that the Somali federal government had launched a
new Public Finance Management Policy (PFMP) in order to streamline the public sector's financial system and to strengthen the delivery capacity of the
government's financial sector. Endorsed by the Council of Ministers on May 2, 2013 the reform plan is intended to serve as a benchmark for public financial
management and the re-establishment of national institutions. The PFMP aims to provide transparent, accurate and timely public sector financial information by
ameliorating the national budget process' openness, rendering more efficient and effective public spending, and improving fiscal discipline via both internal and
external control. It also sets out to concentrate public expenditure on government priority areas. According to Cabinet members, the policy will cost an estimated
$26 million and is expected to be fully implemented over the next fours years. On May 30, 2013, the Federal Government of Somalia announced that the
Cabinet had approved draft legislation on a new Somali Disaster Management Agency (SDMA), which had originally been proposed by the Ministry of Interior.
According to Prime Minister Shirdon's Media Office, the SDMA will lead and coordinate the government's response to various natural disasters. It is part of a
broader effort by the federal authorities to re-establish national institutions. The Federal Parliament is now expected to deliberate on the proposed bill for
endorsement after any amendments. On June 10, 2013, Prime Minister Shirdon signed a new foreign investment law. The draft bill was prepared by the Ministry
of Commerce and Industry in conjunction with government attorneys. Approved by the Cabinet, it establishes a secure legal framework for foreign investment.
Shirdon welcomed the legislation as an important step toward creating a business-friendly environment. The bill will now be presented to parliament for
approval, where Minister of Commerce and Industry, Mohamoud Ahmed Hassan, is slated to field questions from lawmakers. A committee is also set to review
the draft law line-by-line and make additional procedural recommendations. On June 13, 2013, Prime Minister Shirdon's Office announced that the Cabinet had
forwarded to parliament a new draft civil aviation law. The bill is part of a larger initiative by the federal authorities to reassume control of Somalia's airspace.
According to Abdullahi Ilmoge Hirsi, Minister of Information, Posts and Telecommunications, the law aims to develop national aviation skills. It is also expected
to help spur economic growth and facilitate the creation of employment opportunities. On November 14, 2013, Shirdon's Cabinet unanimously approved a
federal government plan to reopen the Somali National University (SNU), which had closed down in the early 1990s. The SNU had historically served as an
expansive institution of higher learning, with 13 departments, 700 staff and over 15,000 students. The refurbishing initiative is expected to cost $3.6 million USD,
and is part of a broader government effort to re-establish national institutions. On October 6, 2013, Prime Minister Shirdon announced that he would
significantly reshuffle the Council of Ministers in response to speculation regarding his potential resignation. He also highlighted the growth in revenue that the
federal government managed to secure under his administration, with monthly proceeds having risen from $2.5 million to $10 million. The following month,
President Hassan Sheikh Mohamud asked Shirdon to resign from office on the grounds that Shirdon was allegedly ineffective in the job. Mohamud was
reportedly acting on the advice of the State Minister for Presidency, Farah Abdulkadir. On November12, 2013, Shirdon confirmed that there was a dispute
between himself and the president, but indicated that the row was constitutional rather than political. He also asserted that the matter should be resolved in
parliament. According to MP Mohamed Abdi Yusuf, the rift between Shirdon and Mohamud centered over through what constitutional mechanism and by
whom the Cabinet was ultimately to be formed. The relevant Articles 90, 100 and 69 of the national constitution address these issues, specifying that the
President has the power to appoint the Prime Minister; the Prime Minister, in turn, has the discretionary power to appoint members of the Council of Ministers,
who then must be endorsed by the House of the People of the Federal Parliament; and the House of the People of the Federal Parliament likewise has the
power to endorse or remove the Prime Minister through a vote of confidence. On November 24, 2013, 168 MPs endorsed a document submitted to parliament,
which outlined a motion against Prime Minister Shirdon's administration. A group of legislators believed to be loyal to Shirdon suggested that the document may
not have been properly endorsed, and demanded that the names of the lawmakers who approved the motion be attached to the paper. On December 1, 2013,
140 MPs voted against a request from Shirdon and the Speaker of the Parliament Mohamed Osman Jawari asking lawmakers to allow Shirdon to appear before
the national assembly in order to brief legislators on his government's accomplishments. Shirdon subsequently issued a statement wherein he asserted that the
constitution conferred upon him the right to defend himself against the motion, insisting that the proposal was not based on evidence and fair information. He
also indicated that his administration had prepared a full response report and that he still wanted an opportunity to address the national assembly. Additionally,
Shirdon stated that he would not abide by any decision made in his absence. According to Garowe Online, independent sources in Mogadishu indicated that the
motion was being led by former TFG Parliament Speaker Sharif Hassan Sheikh Adan. On December 2, 2013, a parliamentary vote of confidence was held
against Shirdon. Parliament Speaker Jawari subsequently announced that 184 of the present MPs had voted against the Prime Minister, whereas 65 legislators had
voted to retain him. On December 5, 2013, Shirdon released a statement confirming that he and his Cabinet accepted the legislature's decision. He also
expressed disappointment that he had not been allowed to address parliament, and urged the citizenry to support the incoming administration in order build on
the development gains that had been achieved during his tenure. UN Special Representative for Somalia Nicholas Kay paid tribute to the outgoing Prime
Minister, noting that Shirdon had endeavoured to promote growth and progress and was an important principal in establishing the New Deal Compact between
Somalia and its international partners. He also commended the legislators on adhering to procedural rules during the vote, and pledged to work constructively
with the succeeding administration. On December 12, 2013, President Mohamud named Abdiweli Sheikh Ahmed as the new Prime Minister.
Abdiweli Sheikh Ahmed (Somali: Cabdiweli Sheekh Axmed, Arabic: ; born 1959), also
known as Abdiweli Sheikh Ahmed Mohammad, is a Somali economist, diplomat and politician. He is the Prime
Minister of Somalia since December 21, 2013. Ahmed was born in 1959 in Bardera, situated in the southern Gedo
region of Somalia. He hails from the Marehan Darod clan. Ahmed later moved to Canada when the civil war broke out
in 1991. He has dual Somali and Canadian citizenship. Additionally, Ahmed has lived and worked in a number of other
countries, including Ethiopia, Djibouti, Egypt, Yemen, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, Zambia, Kenya and
Malaysia. He is multilingual, speaking Somali, Arabic, Italian and English fluently. He also has a good command of
French. Ahmed is married, and has children. For his post-secondary education, Ahmed earned a Lauria in Economics
from the Somali National University (SNU) in Mogadishu. He later studied at the Algonquin College in Ottawa, where
he was presented with a diploma in Computer Programming. Ahmed subsequently matriculated at the University of Ottawa. There, he earned an M.A. in
Economics. He was also a Ph.D. Candidate in International Trade and Development at the same institution. Additionally, Ahmed has several professional
diplomas from U.S. and other government agencies. Among these are a Diploma in Project Management from the United States Department of Agriculture
(USDA), a Diploma in Project Planning and Appraisal from SIDAM, and a Diploma in Animal Health Management from the USDA and the Animal and Plant
Health Inspection Service (APHIS). Ahmed is an economist by training. He has over two decades of experience in development and trade economics,
specializing in resource mobilization; building partnerships and alliances; negotiating and forging agreements; and formulating and implementing development
strategies, programs and policies at both national and regional levels. Ahmed has worked in mainly leadership positions with a number of international
organizations, including the World Bank, USAID, African Union/IBAR and the European Union. He has also collaborated with the Arab League's Arab
Organization for Agricultural Development (AOAD), United Nations specialized agencies, Economic Commission for Africa (ECA), ECOWAS, Organization
of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD), African Development Bank (AfDB), Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC),
Asian Development Bank (ADB), Global Dry land Alliance Initiative, Inter Agency Donor Group (IADG), OPEC, and Arab Funds for Development (Saudi
Fund, Kuwait Fund, Qatar Foundation). Additionally, he has undertaken many international work and diplomatic missions. From 1984 to 1990, Ahmed was the
Director-General of the Livestock Marketing and Health Agency in Mogadishu. Between 1991 and 1998, he served as Chief Executive Officer at MISK
Enterprises, a livestock exporting firm with offices in Djibouti, Sana'a and Nairobi. Ahmed later worked as an International Development and Trade Economics
Analyst at the Bank of Canada and Ottawa University from 1998 to 2003. In 2003-2006, he was also a Program Manager at the African Union's Inter-African
Bureau for Animal Resources (IBAR) Red Sea Livestock Trade Commission. Ahmed subsequently acted as a Senior Livestock and Pastoralism Advisor to the
Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA) in Lusaka between 2007 and 2009. From 2010 to 2013, Ahmed served as a Senior Agriculture
and Rural Development Officer for the Islamic Development Bank in Jeddah. He was part of the organization's Department of Agriculture and Livestock
Development. Ahmed has no previous political background. On December 12, 2013, incumbent President of Somalia Hassan Sheikh Mohamud announced to
the Federal Parliament that he had appointed Ahmed as the new national Prime Minister in place of Abdi Farah Shirdon. Ahmed reportedly beat out former
Finance Minister Hussein Abdi Halane and former Transportation Minister Abdiwahid Elmi Gonjeh for the position. On December 21, 2013, legislators
endorsed the selection, with 239 of the present 243 MPs voting in favor of Ahmed as Premier, two lawmakers voting against, and two abstaining. UN Special
Representative for Somalia Nicholas Kay congratulated Prime Minister Ahmed on his appointment and pledged to continue supporting the Federal
Government's peace and state-building efforts. Ahmed subsequently began consultations to name a new Cabinet, which would then be put before parliament for
approval. In early January 2014, he sought a 10-day extension of the deadline to form a new Council of Ministers, a request that the federal legislature
unanimously voted in favor of on January 11, 2014. On January 14, 2014 parliament also dismissed a motion to disqualify officials from former Prime Minister
Shirdon's Cabinet from being eligible to join Ahmed's upcoming Council of Ministers. Both Prime Minister Ahmed and President Mohamud had campaigned
among legislators to reject the motion. 113 MPs voted in favor of not conducting a vote on the motion, while 99 voted in favor of voting on the motion, and 6
abstained. On January 17, 2014, after conferring with President Mohamud, other Somali leaders and federal legislators and agreeing on a Cabinet composition,
Ahmed named a new, larger Council of Ministers consisting of 25 officials. Only two Cabinet members were retained from the previous Shirdon administration.
On January 21, 2014, ahead of the vote of confidence on the new Council of Ministers, Ahmed presented his government program to the Federal Parliament.
He indicated that the incoming administration's focus would be on strengthening government institutions, particularly in the security sector. Toward this end,
Ahmed announced that the number of active Somali military soldiers would be increased to 28,000, including 25,000 infantrymen, 2,000 naval officers, and
1,000 air force officers. He also vowed to dislodge militants from their remaining strongholds in southern Somalia. On January 21, 2014, lawmakers largely
approved Ahmed's new Council of Ministers. Parliament speaker Mohamed Osman Jawari announced that 184 of the 233 MPs present at the legislative session
endorsed the Cabinet, 46 voted against it, and 1 lawmaker abstained from voting. On January 23, 2014, Prime Minister Ahmed chaired his first official Cabinet
meeting. He reminded the gathered Ministers of his and their duties as statesmen, noting that the administration's focus should be on strengthening the security
sector, accelerating institutional reform, and enhancing local service provision. On February 1, 2014, Ahmed appointed a governmental committee to start
preparations for a national funeral for the late Prime Minister of Somalia, Abdirizak Haji Hussein, who had passed away on January 31, 2014. Deputy Prime
Minister Ridwan Hirsi Mohamed was named chair of the panel.[16] Ahmed concurrently issued a statement sending his condolences to Hussein's family and
friends. He described Hussein as "one of the leading Somali nationalists of [the] 20th century," noting that the late statesman was "a leading member of the
freedom fighters of [the] Somali Youth League and following independence became a committed public servant and politician who dedicated his life to the
people and the Republic of Somalia[...] we must now take forward his legacy." In February 2014, Prime Minister Ahmed outlined his administration's new
national security strategy. The plan includes a governmental committee consisting of representatives from the Council of Ministers as well as experts, who are
mandated with investigating terrorist incidents. A task force composed of cabinet ministers, MPs, district administrations, police and intelligence officials, business
community representatives, religious leaders, and civil society, women's and youth groups was also established to firm up on district-level security and facilitate
cooperation between the central authorities and the citizenry. Additionally, the government began drafting new anti-terror legislation to be presented before
parliament for deliberation. It is also slated to set up a committee to appraise the performance and strength of the security agencies. On March 12, 2014, Prime
Minister Ahmed held a meeting with Special Representatives and Ambassadors from the UN, EU, Ethiopia, UAE, Turkey, Italy, United Kingdom and United
States to brief them on the military offensive against the Al-Shabaab insurgent group and to urge the diplomats to support the government's stabilization efforts in
the newly liberated areas. Ahmed noted that security operations were underway in the re-captured strategic towns of Rabdhure, Wajid, Hudur and Burdhubo to
clear IEDs and mines that the militants had left behind. He added that the Ministry of Defence was providing ongoing reassurance and security to the local
residents, and supplying logistical and security support to deliver relief assistance in the liberated areas. Additionally, Ahmed asserted that the Ministry of Interior
was prepared to support and put into place programs to assist local administration and security. He indicated that a Deputy Minister and several religious scholars
had been dispatched to all four towns to coordinate and supervise the federal government's stabilization initiatives. Ahmed also thanked the international
representatives for their military and administrative support, and emphasized the need to work together to coordinate service delivery and relief efforts in the
liberated areas. For their part, the international representatives pledged to assist the government's stabilization efforts, with the Turkish Ambassador announcing
that direct budgetary support to the Somali federal authorities would soon resume. The US Department of State issued a statement welcoming the offensive by
the Somali government troops and AMISOM, and pledging continued logistical, training and equipment support to the broader military campaign by the allied
forces. UN Special Representative for Somalia Nicholas Kay also commended the Somali federal authorities on the recent progress in terms of security and
development, and emphasized the need for continued and intensified collaboration between the Somali government and its international partners to consolidate
those gains. In early April 2014, Prime Minister Ahmed began a tour of newly liberated towns in Somalia's southern and central provinces. The visit was his first
to the areas since his appointment to office, and included a delegation consisting of Minister of Agriculture Abdi Ahmed Hussein, National Security Minister
Abdikarim Hussein Guled, Deputy Minister of Internal and Federal Affairs Abdirahman Mohamed Salah Bankah, several MPs, and Djibouti Ambassador to
Somalia Dayib Doubad Robleh. In Buloburde, Ahmed met with Somali military and AMISOM commanders, Hiran provincial administrators and traditional
leaders. He indicated that the liberated town would henceforth receive government services, with Minister of National Security Guled adding that the federal
authorities were slated to renovate Buloburde's police stations. The delegation then flew by helicopter to Jowhar, an agricultural center in the Middle Shebelle
province. They toured the police station, military bases, Moyko and other landmark sites, including areas where the federal authorities had deployed a technical
team to implement flood mitigation strategies and were repairing levees washed way by Shebelle River floods. At a conference hall downtown, Ahmed and the
delegates also conferred with Governor Abdi Jinow Alasow and other officials from the regional administration, traditional elders, women and youth. Ahmed
informed the local residents of the Somali federal government's other scheduled projects in the province, such as rehabilitation of farm irrigation watering canals
by the Ministry of Agriculture. On March 15, 2014, Prime Minister Ahmed hosted a meeting with Somali Islamic leaders during which he announced the
establishment of a government office for religious scholars. The gathering was attended by Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Religious Affairs Ridwan Hirsi
Mohamed, Minister of Information Mustaf Ali Duhulow, Minister of Justice and Constitutional Affairs Farah Sh. Abdulkadir Mohamed, Minister of Agriculture
Abdi Ahmed Hussein, as well as 16 religious scholars. According to Ahmed, the new bureau is intended to strengthen cooperation between the federal
government and religious authorities, and is expected to play a key role in policy-making and in influencing the general public. The office is also mandated with
safeguarding Muslim tradition from manipulation by extremists. Nor Barud, Second Chairman of the Somali Religious Scholars Union, thanked Premier Ahmed
for hosting the meeting, and reaffirmed the importance of clarifying traditional Islamic principles. On April 23, 2014, Prime Minister Ahmed laid the foundation
stone for a new national Aviation Training Academy at the Aden Adde International Airport in Mogadishu. The ceremony was also attended by the Minister of
Air and Land Transport Said Qorshel and his deputy, the Minister of Finance Hussein Abdi Halane, the Turkish Ambassador, and the airport's General
Manager. Ahmed indicated that the new institution would serve to enhance the capacity of aviation personnel working in Somalia's airports, and would focus
training within the country. Additionally, Ahmed visited the site of a modern terminal that is concurrently being built at the Aden Adde International Airport,
with funding provided by the Turkish Favori aviation firm. According to Minister Qorshel, construction of the new terminal is scheduled to take six months, and
is expected to improve the airport's functionality and operations. He added that his Ministry is also slated to establish other airports on the capital's outskirts. This
in turn would serve to reduce congestion at the Aden Adde International Airport, which would then be exclusively used by large aircraft. On April 23, 2014,
Prime Minister Ahmed laid the foundation stone for the reconstruction of the former meteorological school in Mogadishu. The institution had closed down in
the early 1990s, following the start of the civil war. Minister of Aviation Said Mohamed Qorshel and the Turkish Ambassador to Somalia Kani Touram also
attended the foundation laying ceremony. Ahmed hailed the school's relaunch as an opportunity for Somali nationals to receive the requisite training in their
home country rather than abroad. In April 2014, Prime Minister Ahmed announced that the Cabinet had submitted a new anti-terrorism law to the federal
parliament for approval. The bill is expected to help the central authorities eliminate Al-Shabaab and other groups that are engaged in terror-related activities by
enabling the government to hold such extremist outfits legally accountable for their actions. MPs deliberated on the counter-terrorism law over the following
weeks, before repealing it for inconsistencies. As part of a broader security sector reform, the Cabinet later unanimously approved the anti-terrorism bill on July
10, 2014. In May 2014, Prime Minister Ahmed presented to the Federal Parliament his administration's Work Plan for the 2014 calendar year, the first such
annual document since the start of the civil war in the early 1990s. The government plan was developed within the framework of Vision 2016, and in line with the
New Deal Compact and the Peace and Stabilisation Goals. It emphasizes strengthening the military's ongoing security operations, judiciary reform, national
foreign policy review, federalization, establishing inclusive political processes, economic development, mobilizing domestic revenue, enhancing social services
delivery, and increasing the government's institutional capacity. According to Ahmed, his government would prioritize finalization of the federalism process,
including the establishment of regional administrations and constitutional appraisal. He stated that his administration would collaborate with the country's export
sector to ensure economic growth and promote job creation. Ahmed also indicated that extant private sector regulations would be reviewed in order to facilitate
free trade and attract business creation and production. Additionally, the Premier asserted that transparent and accountable structures would be put into place to
expand the capacity for revenue collection. Ahmed likewise announced that his administration would focus on delivering social services to the citizenry, including
opening new schools and hospitals. He also pledged to safeguard the rights of workers, women and vulnerable residents, and to provide social opportunities for
youth through the creation of sports centers. In addition, Ahmed stressed the importance of investing in national infrastructure, including roads, airports,
seaports, water and energy facilities, and municipal services. He also indicated that his administration would strengthen the government's institutional capacity by
renovating ministry buildings, with regulations on government institutions slated to be concurrently appraised. In May 2014, Prime Minister Ahmed chaired a
presentation in Mogadishu on the new Population Estimation Survey for Somalia (PESS). The PESS was conducted by the federal Ministry of Planning and
International Cooperation, which collected raw data on local communities from various enumeration areas across the country. Samples were culled from people
residing in all of Somalia's 18 administrative regions, including urban, rural and peripatetic areas. Since the survey's start on June 12, 2013, the Federal
Government was assisted in its data collection by local communities in all national districts in conjunction with international partners. The UNFPA mobilized
resources and coordinated and provided technical support for the Somali authorities, which facilitated the completion of the PESS for the entire nation. Through
its collection of qualitative raw data, the Population Estimation Survey for Somalia aims to support evidence-based policy and decision-making, including the
formulation and implementation of development and humanitarian programs on a priority basis. The PESS meeting concluded with Ahmed visiting various
national ministries, notably the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Ministry of Agriculture, Ministry of Social Affairs and Ministry of Labor. In May 2014, Prime Minister
Ahmed appointed new ministerial subcommittees within the Cabinet. The initiative aims to strengthen coordination between the national ministries and federal
parliament, and thereby facilitate the implementation of government plans. Among the new ministerial subcommittees are working groups on economic
development, national security, politics, social affairs and service development. Each subcommittee is tasked with overseeing activities within its respective
assigned work area. Additionally, all Cabinet projects must hereafter first be discussed at the subcommittee level. In May 2014, Prime Minister Ahmed chaired a
Cabinet meeting during which the Council of Ministers approved a new five-member independent Constitutional Review and Implementation Commission. After
a period of debate over the oversight panel's prospective members, the ministers settled on former Puntland Minister of Women and Family Affairs Asha Gelle
Dirie, as well as Hassan Omar Mahad Alle, Osman Jama Ali Kalun, Mohamed Abdalle Salah and Hassan Hussein Haji. Minister of Constitution Farah Sheikh
Abdullahi thanked the Cabinet for authorizing the commission, and stated that his ministry had been working diligently to form it. Prime Minister Ahmed
likewise hailed the oversight body as a significant state-building initiative, and indicated that the commission's members were each knowledgeable on
constitutional affairs. In February 2014, Prime Minister Ahmed led a Somali delegation in Addis Ababa, where the visiting officials met with Ethiopian Prime
Minister Hailemariam Desalegn to discuss strengthening bilateral relations between Somalia and Ethiopia. Ahmed commended Ethiopia's role in the ongoing
peace and stabilization process in Somalia as well as its support against the Al-Shabaab militant group. He likewise welcomed the Ethiopian military's decision to
join AMISOM. For his part, Hailemariam Desalegn pledged his administration's continued support for the peace and stabilization efforts in Somalia, as well as its
preparedness to assist in initiatives aiming to build up the Somali security forces through experience-sharing and training. He also suggested that Somalia and
Ethiopia should increase bilateral trade and investment. Additionally, Hailemariam Desalegn described the growing ties between both nations as a break from the
counter-productive policies of past administrations, marking instead the opening of a new chapter where mutual stability is beneficial. The meeting concluded
with a tripartite Memorandum of Understanding agreeing to promote partnership and cooperation, including a cooperative agreement to develop the police
force, a second cooperative agreement covering the information field, and a third cooperative agreement on the aviation sector. On March 4, 2014, Prime
Minister of Somalia Ahmed began an official three-day visit to the United Arab Emirates to discuss strengthening bilateral cooperation between the two nations.
During talks with UAE Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Presidential affairs Sheikh Mansour bin Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan, the Emirati authorities
emphasized their commitment to the ongoing post-conflict reconstruction process in Somalia. They also pledged to assist in capacity building and the
rehabilitation of government institutions. On March 22, 2014, Prime Minister Ahmed addressed the International Labour Organization (ILO) at its headquarters
in Geneva, Switzerland. The meeting concluded with Ahmed ratifying three core ILO conventions on behalf of the Federal Republic of Somalia: the Freedom of
Association and Protection of the Right to Organise Convention, the Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention, and the Right to Organise and Collective
Bargaining Convention. Ahmed also engaged Somalia in the Decent Work Program, which aims to protect workers' basic rights as well as develop sustainable
employment opportunities, particularly for youth. According to the Prime Minister, the foregoing is part of the broader post-conflict reconstruction process in
Somalia, with the government striving to establish an institutional framework facilitating sustainable economic and social development. To this end, Ahmed
indicated that his administration was prioritizing the implementation of a Somali-owned state building process for peace, harmonization of the traditional setting,
ensuring fully inclusive political engagement and fair access to resources, institutionalization of the promotion and protection of human rights in agreement with
the Paris principles, and integration of the National Stabilisation Plan, New Deal Compact, Post Transition Human Rights Road Map, and Decent Work
Program. Additionally, Ahmed and his delegation had a working lunch with the ILO Director General Guy Ryder, during which the officials stressed the
importance of bilateral and multilateral cooperation. Ahmed subsequently provided a briefing of current developments in Somalia and ongoing operations
against Al-Shabaab to Genevas Friends of Somalia, a cross-regional member states group within the UN system that is chaired by Karen Pierce, the UK
Ambassador to UN Missions in Geneva. In June 2014, Prime Minister Ahmed and the European Commissioner for Development Andris Piebalgs signed in
Brussels the first National Indicative Programme (NIP) between Somalia and the European Union in 25 years. The NIP is a work program earmarked for every
Africa, the Caribbean and the Pacific (ACP) member state that is a party to the Cotonou Agreement. Effective from 2014 to 2020, the National Indicative
Programme defines measurable objectives and target groups, initiatives for meeting those benchmarks, the nature and scope of supporting mechanisms, donor
contribution(s), expected outcomes, and an implementation timetable. In the context of Somalia, the NIP is officially aligned with the priorities and objectives
outlined in the New Deal Compact of 2013. According to Ahmed, Commissioner Piebalgs agreed to empower and directly support the Somali federal
government's main public functions through multi-partner funds. He also suggested that this could encourage EU member states to fulfill the commitments that
they had made to Somalia. Additionally, the EU Special Envoy Michele Cervone d'Urso indicated that the European Union has pledged 286 million EUR (400
million USD) toward the ongoing reconstruction process in Somalia, and that the National Indicative Programme serves as a realization of the country's recent
accession to the Cotonou Agreement. In 2014, 100 million EUR from the 11th European Development Fund (EDF) and the Stability Instrument are to be set
aside for institutionalization, peace building, and humanitarian and educational support. The mechanisms within the Somali Development and Reconstruction
Facility (SDRF) are also slated to be used to carry out programs wherever necessary. In June 2014, Prime Minister Ahmed signed an agreement during an
African Union summit in Equatorial Guinea, which enlists Somalia among the member states in the prospective Eastern Africa Standby Force. The EASF was
conceived to address security challenges and threats in the wider region. Although its status at the time of signing was limited to an earlier Memorandum of
Understanding between the signatory countries, leaders present at the June summit's side meeting agreed to go forward with the plans. Ahmed hailed the
agreement and similar accords as symbols that Somalia's post-conflict recovery was progressing. A followup meeting on troop contributions from the EASF's
member nations is slated for August of the year. Ahmed is a member of several professional associations and networks. Among these are: Arab-African
International Development Professionals (AAIDP), Canadian Economics Society, Inter-Agency Donor Group (IADG) and International Livestock and
Pastoralism Development Network (ILPN).

Park Geun-hye (?, Korean pronunciation: [pak.knh(j)e]; born February 2, 1952) is the eleventh and current President
of South Korea since February 25, 2013. She is the first woman to be elected as President in South Korea, and is serving the 18th
presidential term. She also is the first woman head of state in modern history of Northeast Asia. Prior to her presidency, she was the
chairwoman of the conservative Grand National Party (GNP) from March 23, 2004 until July 10, 2006 and from December 17, 2011
until May 15, 2012 (the GNP changed its name to "Saenuri Party" in February 2012). Park was also a member of the Korean
National Assembly, and had served four consecutive parliamentary terms as a constituency representative from April 3, 1998 until
May 10, 2012; starting her fifth term as a proportional representative from June 2012. Her father was Park Chung-hee, President of
South Korea from 1963 to 1979. She is generally considered to be one of the most influential politicians in South Korea since the
presidencies of the two Kims: Kim Young-sam and Kim Dae-jung. In 2013 and 2014, Park was named the world's 11th most
powerful woman and the most powerful woman in East Asia by Forbes Magazine's List of The World's 100 Most Powerful Women.
She was named the world's 52nd most powerful person by Forbes Magazine's List of The World's Most Powerful People, the fourth
highest among Koreans after Ban Ki-moon, Lee Kun-hee and Kim Jong-un. Park was born on February 2, 1952, in Samdeok-dong
of Jung-gu, Daegu, as the first child of Park Chung-hee, the 3rd president of South Korea who served between 1963 and 1979, and Yuk Young-soo. She has a
younger brother, Park Ji-man, and a younger sister, Park Seoyeong. Park has never been married. In 1953, her family moved to Seoul and she graduated from
Seoul's Jangchung Elementary School and Sungshim (literal: Sacred Heart) Girls' Middle & High School in 1970, going on to receive a bachelor's degree in
electronic engineering from Sogang University in 1974. She briefly studied at the University of Grenoble, but left France following the assassination of her
mother. Park received honorary doctoral degrees from the Chinese Culture University, in Taiwan in 1987; Pukyong National University and KAIST in 2008; and
Sogang University in 2010. Park's mother was assassinated in the National Theater of Korea, Seoul, by Mun Se-gwang, a Japanese-born Korean, a sympathesizer
with North Korea, and a member of the General Association of Korean Residents in Japan, on August 1974. Park was regarded as first lady until 1979 when her
father was also assassinatedby his own intelligence chief, Kim Jae-gyu on October 26, 1979. During this time, activists who were political opponents of her father,
claimed to be subject to arbitrary detention. Further, human rights were considered subordinate to economic development. In 2007 Park expressed regret at the
treatment of activists during this period. Park was elected a Grand National Party (GNP) assemblywoman for Dalseong, Daegu, in 1998 by-election, and three
more times in the same electoral district between 1998 and 2008, being the incumbent assemblywoman till April 2012. In 2012, Park announced that she would
not run for a constituency representative seat for the 19th election in Dalseong or anywhere else, but for a proportional representative position for the Saenuri
Party instead, in order to lead the party's election campaign. She was elected as a proportional representative in the April 2012 election. Due to the failed attempt
to impeach President Roh Moo-hyun, and the bribery scandal of its 2002 presidential candidate, Lee Hoi-chang (revealed in 2004), the GNP was facing a severe
defeat in the 2004 general election. Park was appointed as the chairwoman of the party and led the election efforts. In the election, the GNP lost its majority
position, but managed to gain 121 seats, which is largely considered a great achievement under such inhospitable circumstances for the party. As the chairwoman
of the GNP, Park helped her party make significant gains in local elections and actually obtain a majority in 2006. During the campaign on May 20, 2006, Ji
Chung-ho, a 50-year-old criminal with eight previous convictions, slashed Park's face with a utility knife, causing an 11-centimeter wound on her face, requiring 60
stitches and several hours of surgery. A famous anecdote from this incident occurred when Park was hospitalized after the attack. The first word that she said to
her secretary after her recovery from her wound was "How is Daejeon?" After this, the candidate from the Grand National Party won the election for mayor of
the city of Daejeon despite having trailed by more than 20 percentage points in opinion polls up to the point of the attack.[citation needed] In addition, during
Park's term as the GNP chairwoman between 2004 and 2006, the party won all 40 reelections and by-elections held, which was largely credited to Park's influence
and efforts. This feat gave Park a nickname "Queen of Elections". On February 12, 2007, Park made a much-publicized visit to Harvard University, in
Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States. Her visit culminated in an address to a packed audience at the Kennedy School of Government, where she said she
wanted to "save" Korea and advocated a stronger relationship between South Korea and the United States Park hoped to emulate her father's success by
becoming the presidential nominee of the Grand National Party. She eventually lost to Lee Myung-bak by a narrow margin. Lee had a commanding lead at the
beginning of the primary season, but Park was able to narrow the gap through allegations of Lee's corruption. Park won the "party member's bid", but she lost the
"national bid", which is a larger percentage of the total presidential bid. After the 2007 presidential election, President Lee Myung-bak formed a government of
mostly close supporters.[20] Park's supporters argued that this was a kind of political reprisal, and that they should secede from the Grand National Party.
Eventually, they formed parties named Pro-Park Coalition and Solidarity for Pro-Park Independents ( ; Chin Park Musosok Yeondae). Park
herself did not join them, but indirectly supported them by announcing "I hope these people to come back alive." After the mass secession, the rebels announced
that they would rejoin GNP after the general election, but the GNP prohibited it. In the following 2008 general election, the rebels won 26 seats: 14 from the Pro-
Park Coalition and 12 as independents. Together, they played a pivotal role in the GNP's narrow majority. Park continually insisted that GNP should allow the
return of her supporters. As of 2011, most of these rebels had returned to the GNP, resulting in approximately 50 to 60 assembly members who support Park
out of 171 in the GNP. As a response to the dwindling approval rating of the GNP, the party formed an emergency committee and changed the name of the
political party from the Grand National Party to the Saenuri Party, meaning "New Frontier" Party. On December 19, 2011, Park was appointed as the
chairwoman of GNP's Emergency Committee, the de facto leader of the party. The Saenuri Party achieved a surprise win against the opposing Democratic
United Party in the 2012 General Election, winning 152 seats and retaining its majority position. Because of the corruption scandals of the Lee administration
revealed before the election, the Saenuri Party was widely expected to win no more than 100 seats. During the 13-day campaign period, Park traveled about 7200
km around South Korea, visiting more than 100 constituencies. It is the consensus of Korean news media and political experts that the most important factor
leading to Saenuri Party's victory was Park's leadership. For this reason, the 2012 election was often dubbed the "return of the Queen of Election". Saenuri's defeat
in the populous Seoul metropolitan area in this election, however, revealed the limitation of Park's political influence. Park had been the leading candidate for the
2012 presidential election in every national-level poll in South Korea between 2008, when the Lee Myung-bak administration began, and September 2011, with
an approval rating of 25% to 45%, more than twice that of the second candidate. Park's approval rating was highest when the 2008 National Assembly election
showed her strong influence and lowest in early 2010 as a result of her political stance against the Lee administration in Sejong City issue. In September 2011,
Ahn Cheol-soo, a former venture IT businessman and the Dean of Graduate School of Convergence Science and Technology at Seoul National University,
emerged as a strong independent candidate for the presidency. In national-level presidential polls in September 2011, Ahn and Park Geun Hye closely competed
for the status of front-runner, with Park losing the top seat in some polls for the first time since 2008. After her victory in the 2012 General Election, Park's
approval rating increased significantly. In a national-level survey by Mono Research on 30 August Park was the top presidential candidate with an approval rating
of 45.5% when competing with all potential candidates, and according to another recent national survey result, had a higher approval rating (50.6%) than Ahn
(43.9%) in a two-way competition with him as of September 11, 2012 . On July 10, 2012 Park formally announced her 2012 presidential bid at the Time Square,
Yeongdeungpo-gu, Seoul. In this event she emphasized the right to pursue happiness, a democratic economy, and customized welfare services for the Korean
people. The opposing Democratic Party elected Moon Jae-in as its presidential candidate on September 17, 2012. And Ahn announced his presidential bid on
September 19, 2012. Although still a leading candidate, in two-way competitions Park had lower approval ratings against Ahn's and against Moon's according to a
September 22, 2012 national survey. She was elected as the President of the Republic of Korea on December 19, 2012 with the approval of 51.6% of Korean
voters. In a 2012 survey by Korean Research assessing the political stance of 12 potential presidential candidates of South Korea, Park was considered the most
conservative candidate. Her conservative, market-oriented political stance was well reflected in her campaign pledge for 2008 presidential bid to cut taxes, reduce
regulation, and establish strong law and order. Since 2009, however, Park started to focus more on welfare issues, advocating customized welfare services to the
South Korean people. Park is well known for her strict, no-compromise adherence to political promises. In 2010, for example, she successfully stopped the Lee
administration's attempt to cancel the plan to establish Sejong City, a new national center of administration, arguing the plan was a promise made to people. This
conflict between Park and Lee Administration cost her a considerable decrease in her approval rating at the time. In 2012, Park also vowed to construct a new
airport in the southeastern region, a 2008 presidential campaign promise made by GNP but cancelled in 2011, despite claims of economic infeasibility of the
plan. The administrative vision of President Park Geun-hye's new government is "a new era of hope and happiness". The five Administrative Goals of the
government are "a jobs-centered creative economy", "tailored employment and welfare", "creativity-oriented education and cultural enrichment", "a safe and united
society" and "strong security measures for sustainable peace on the Korean Peninsula". The Park Geun-hye administration plans to create a trustworthy, clean, and
capable government through carrying out these goals, related strategies, and tasks. Park became the 18th president of South Korea on February 2013. At
midnight, she took over all presidential authorities including the prerogative of supreme command of South Korea's armed forces from her predecessor Lee
Myung-bak. In her inauguration speech at the National Assembly building, Park spoke of her plan to open a new era of hope through "economic prosperity,
people's happiness, and cultural enrichment". She particularly expressed her hope that North Korea would give up its nuclear arms and walk on the path of peace
and mutual development, and declared that the foundation for a happy era of unification in which all Korean people will be able to enjoy prosperity and freedom
and realize their dreams would be built through the Korean Peninsula Trust-building Process. In her inauguration speech, Park presented four guiding principles
to realize her administrative vision: economic prosperity, people's happiness, cultural enrichment, and establishment of foundation for peaceful unification. Park's
inauguration ceremony was the largest one in Korean history with 70,000 participants. Diplomatic representatives in Korea as well as high-level delegates specially
sent from 24 countries around the world including Thai Prime Minister Yingluck Shinawatra, U.S. National Security Advisor Thomas Donilon, and former
Japanese Prime Minister Yasuo Fukuda also participated in the event to congratulate Park. The goal of the newly launched Park Geun-hye Administration for
governing state affairs is to open "a new era of hope and happiness for all the people". Park avowed that South Korea will break away from its long-pursued
development model that centers around the nation, and shift the focus of government administration from the state to individual citizens. Through this process
the structure of co-prosperity, in which the citizens become happy and as a result the nation develops, will be created. Park's administrative vision and basic
principles for governing the nation are concretely outlined in her policy plans for the eonomy, society, welfare, diplomacy, and unification. The administration's
keywords in managing state affairs are "people", "happiness", "trust", "co-prosperity" and "principle". Right after taking office, Park restructured the Blue House and
government organization to carry out her administrative vision. The Office of National Security at the Blue House, Ministry of Science, ICT and Future
Planning, and Ministry of Oceans and Fisheries were newly launched, and the seat of Deputy Prime Minister for Economic Affairs was revived. The Chief of the
National Security Office would act as a "control tower" for diplomatic, security, and national defense issues, and the Deputy Prime Minister for Economic Affairs
for economic, social, and welfare issues. After taking office, Park met with John Kerry and U.S. President Barack Obama. Park's trip to the United States was her
first foreign trip after taking office. Like many of her predecessors, Park has maintained a close relationship with the U.S., which has over 20,000 soldiers
stationed in South Korea. During her visit to the U.S., she addressed a joint session of the U.S. Congress, where she called for a united front against any North
Korean provocations. Park also called for a strong global relationship between South Korea and the United States. Park assesses the security situation on the
Korean Peninsula and emphasized that deterrence capabilities were the most important factor for security. Thus, Park considers the American-South Korean
alliance as the most successful one in the world. And she hopes the American-South Korean relationship can be upgraded from a comprehensive strategic
alliance to a global partnership. Park visited the United States on her first overseas trip as president. She traveled to Washington D.C., New York City, and Los
Angeles on 59 May 2013. During summit talks on May at the White House, Presidents Park and Obama adopted a joint declaration for the Korean-U.S.
alliance and discussed ways to further develop the bilateral relations in a future-forward manner. Also, two leaders discussed ways to promote cooperation in
building peace in the Northeast Asian region and strength the partnership between Seoul and Washington. The two leaders of R.O.K and U.S. agreed to adopt a
joint statement on comprehensive energy cooperation to build a foundation for a future growth engine and establish a policy cooperation committee on
information and communication technology. In addition, President Park urged her U.S. counterpart to expand the annual U.S. visa quota for South Korean
professionals in order to promote co-development of both economies. In particular, the "Joint declaration in commemoration of the 60th anniversary of the
Alliance between the Republic of Korea and the United States of America" adopted by Korea and the U.S. will become a meaningful document looking back at
the past six decades of the alliance and spelling out a new direction for the development of lilateral relations over the coming decade. North Korea had engaged
in provocations such as violating a UN Security Council resolution and firing a long-range missile on December 1, 2012, just before the December 19, 2012
presidential election. After Park was elected, North Korea conducted its third nuclear test February 12, 2013, nullified the non-aggression agreements between
the two Koreas March 8, 2013 and withdrew North Korean workers from the Kaesong Industrial Complex April 8, 2013. Park maintained her stance that South
Korea will not succumb to the North's provocations and threats, and will endeavor to elicit policy coordination towards North Korea with major powers such as
the US, China and the UN. Her response to North Korean issues gained the support of many South Koreans and also the US, China, and Russia, and played a
significant role in the unanimous adoption by the UN Security Council of Resolution 2094 regarding North Korea on March 7, 2013. Due to Park's response and
the international community's actions, on June 6, 2013 North Korea ceased provocations and threats towards the South and suggested holding discussions on
reopening the Kaesong Industrial Complex . Park said that peace and unification on the Korean peninsula is the wish of all 70 million Koreans and that as
president she will do her utmost to meet such a goal. And the ultimate objective of reunifications is to improve the quality of lives of people in South and North
Korea, to further expand freedom and human rights, and thereby build a happy Korean Peninsula. To open a new era of peace and hope on the peninsula,
North Korea needs to accept her administration's trust building policy initiative. Park's policy vision and initiative on issues concerning North Korea and
unification are reflected in her Korean peninsula Trust-building Process. The ministry of Unification has announced a new vision statement "realizing a new
unified Korea that ensures everyone's happiness". The administrative tasks for this cause include normalizing inter-Korean relations through a trust-building
process, embarking on small-scale unification projects that will lead to a complete integration of the two Koreas, and taking practical measures to prepare for
unification by strengthening unification capabilities. According to Park, peaceful unification will be achieved in three stage unification initiative: starting from
securing peace, going through economic integration, and finally reaching political integration. To achieve sustainable peace by the initiative, the new
administration will offer humanitarian assistance for the people in North Korea, inter-Korean exchange and cooperation in economic, social and cultural areas,
and will apply 'Vision Korea project' for establishing a single economic community in the Korean peninsula, conditioned on sufficient mutual trust and progress
in denuclearizing North Korea. On June 27 - 30, 2013, Park visited China with the South Korean delegation, where she met with Xi Jinping, president of China.
During the meetings, Park explained the government's stance on North Korea and gained his support. On November 13, 2013, Park held an extended summit
with President Vladimir Putin, whose visit to South Korea was the first among leaders of 4 major powers including US, China, and Japan. During the summit,
Park and Putin had a comprehensive and productive dialogue with focus on improving economic relations such as logistics cooperation projects(through Russia
and North Korea), expanding people-to-people exchanges, and strengthening political ties between South Korea and Russia. Park, especially, emphasized on
making preparations to produce an outcome that corresponds to common interests by combining Korea's Eurasian Initiative and Russia's Asia-Pacific Policy.
After the summit, both presidents issued a joint communique and held a joint press conference. Earlier, Park attended the G-20 Summit at St. Petersburg in
September 2013, where she met Putin for a separate dialogue discussing economic cooperation and seeking support on North Korean issues. It marked the first
Korea-Russia summit talk since Park's inauguration. When Park met with Russian Minister for the Development of Russian Far East Viktor Ishaev, who headed
the Russian delegation to Park's inaugural ceremony, she stated that Russia is one of Korea's key strategic partners, and the successful launch of the Naro rocket is
the outcome of mutually beneficial relations and demonstrates that relations will grow stronger in the future. She also noted that Russia's active participation in the
six-party talks will contribute to alleviating tension on the Korean Peninsula. Park announced her plan to build a "Creative Economy" on June 5, 2013
representing her vision for economic revival and job creation. In April, Park said "Timing is very important for our Economic Policy, jobs and livelihood mainly
ordinary people should organize a supplementary budget in a timely manner." On April 8, 2013, Park Geun-hye signed the Australia Korea Free Trade
Agreement with Australia's Prime Minister Tony Abbott. Park Geun-hye has proposed as one of the national agenda the eradication of "Four Major Social Evils"
(4 ) sexual violence, domestic violence, school violence and unsafe food. Statistics show that sexual violence and Domestic violence are increasing in
these years. Without referring to statistical data, aggravating school violence or food safety is a public concern in Korea. She also launched the National Unity
Committee on June 17, 2013 with the purpose to advise the president in the process of resolving various conflicts in the Korean society and establishing a culture
of co-existence and co-prosperity. Former Democratic United Party Advisor Han Kwang -ok was named as the head. On May 18, 2013, President Park Geun-
hye attended the 33rd anniversary of the Gwangju massacre, and gave voice to sorrow for the victims family members. Public support for Park's method of
governing state affairs reached up to 63%, much higher than the percentage of the votes she had won in the presidential election, which is 51.6%. The Korean
media explained that such a high level of support comes from Park's principled North Korea policy, constructive outcome from visits to the US and China, and
distancing away from internal political disputes. Park had been often criticized for being the "daughter of a dictator Park Chung-hee" and for not actively
supporting the Lee administration by supporters of Lee Myung-bak. A national-level poll conducted in July 2012 by a conservative newspaper reported that
59.2% of participants responded they did not believe Park was a "daughter of a dictator" while 35.5% agreed with the characterization. During a recent interview
with the Cheongju broadcast station CJB, Park commented regarding her stance that her father's May 16 coup was a "revolution to save the country" by stating, "I
don't think it's the place of politicians to be fighting over whether [the events of 1961] were a 'coup d'etat' or a 'revolution'." In a July 2012 survey, 49.9% of
respondents answered that they disagreed with Park's assessment that her father's 1961 coup was "unavoidable, the best possible choice, and an advisable
decision", as opposed to 37.2% that agreed. Park has faced much scrutiny over an educational foundation, Jeongsoo Scholarship Foundation, formerly known as
Buil (in reference to the stock it controls in the newspaper "Busan Ilbo"), which her father, and later, she headed. Its original owners claimed in court they were
forced to turn it over to her father. A Saenuri Party assemblyman Nam Gyeong-pil criticized the Park-centered nature of the party, regarding its preparation for
the 2012 presidential election, and stated, "If we keep seeing the same situation where Park Geun-hye gives a press conference before a general meeting of
lawmakers is held, and what she says then gets decided on as the party's position, then the public is going to think democracy has disappeared from the party."
Furthermore, some have said Park's behavior in the lead-up to 2012 presidential election was a mixture of trend-following and corner-cuttinga stark contrast
with the vehement insistence on principle that she showed when she opposed a revision of the plan for a multifunctional administrative city in Sejong City. For
instance, Yim Tae-hee, another presidential candidate of the party, pointed to Park's voting down of a motion to arrest Chung Doo-un, a law maker implicated
with bribery related to saving banks. Another candidate, Ahn Sang-soo, accused Park of "saying one thing yesterday and another today". Park fired Yoon Chang-
jung, a Blue House spokesman who was alleged by Washington police as committing sexual assault against a young woman hired as an intern at the South
Korean Embassy in Washington during President Park's first visit to the United States.Park has been criticized for picking the wrong people for senior
government posts. Just a week before the presidential election date, the opposing party has alleged that the public servants from National Intelligence Service
(NIS) have organized to promote Park's election campaign by way of posting articles favorable to Park and slanderous to the opposing candidates online. This
political behavior by public servants is strictly prohibited by Korean Constitution. To prove their allegation, the opposing Democratic Party, along with the police
and Central Election Assistance Commission, swooped in the house where the alleged agent of NIS has resided. From there, the 29-year-old female agent, later
known as Ha-Young Kim, who was running an illegal online election campaign operation such as spreading slanderous postings about the opposing candidate
had locked herself in. The police could not force to enter the house and the standoff lasted for three days, which provoked a tense political standoff. The
opposition accused the intelligence service of blocking an investigation. Park and her party accused the opposition of harassing the woman. Park even said the
standoff of the self lock-in was a violation against a female right in the presidential candidate debate that took place three days before the election. Later that night
of the presidential debate, Kim Yong-pan, then the chief of Seoul Metropolitan Police Agency, publicly announced there was no evidence of illegal online
postings from the collected laptop of the female agent. This announcement, which took place three days before the election, was believed to have significantly
affected the outcome of the presidential election according to the opposing party. After months of probe into the alleged election meddling, the prosecution
concluded in mid-June 2013 that Won Sei-hoon, then NIS chief who headed the intelligence agency for around four years under former President Lee Myung-
bak, ordered agents to conduct online smear campaign against opposition presidential candidates. The special investigation drew a conclusion that the agents
systemically intervened in domestic politics by writing thousands of postings on politics in cyberspace through hundreds of different user IDs. Kim Yong-pan,
then chief of the Seoul Metropolitan Police Agency (SMPA), was prosecuted without physical detention on charges of abusing his authority to hamper police
investigation into the case. CCTV conversation between the computer analysts who was analyzing the laptop at police revealed that the police already knew there
were illegal online postings against the opposing party's candidates, but the chief of SMPA publicly announced otherwise, which indicates intentional meddling
into the presidential election. The investigation and the trial at court is on-going, and Park faces a political blow. However, the leading Saenuri party along with
government leaders has attempted to dodge its political fall-out. Their effort has involved tipping a rumor to a major conservative media, Chosun Ilbo, about
extramarital child of the Chae Dong-wook, former Prosecutor General, who has approved the prosecution of Won Se-hoon and Kim Yong-pan, which eventually
led to his resignation.Yoon Suk-ryul, the director of special investigation team, which was leading the probe into the election meddling, was fired and returned to
his original position, head of Yeoju branch Supreme Prosecutors Office. The investigation of his team has further revealed that the NIS is suspected of having
posted 55,689 messages on Twitter for three months until the presidential election. Whether or not the election meddling of the NIS by way of online postings or
twitters has actually affected the outcome of the presidential election is controversial. However, the false announcement by Kim Yong-pan, then chief of the
SMPA, has appeared to do so. Had the police announced honestly, 13.8% of the electorate who voted for Park has answered they would have voted for Moon
Jae-In, the first runner-up of the election. She was published following books: Despair Trains Me and Hope Moves Me (in Korean), July 2007, My mother, Yuk
Young-soo (in Korean), January 2001, In the End Only a Fistful, One Speck (in Korean)< October 1998, Truth as the Guiding Light (in Korean), October 1998,
Journey of My Mind (in Korean), May 1995 and If I Were Born in an Ordinary Family (in Korean), November 1993.
Jung Hong-won (Hangul: ; born October 9, 1944) is the Prime Minister of the Republic of Korea from February 26, 2013
until April 27, 2014. Jung graduated Bachelor of Laws (undergraduate) from Sungkyunkwan University. After passing the Judicial
Examination, he became a prosecutor. Jung became known after solving several high-profile cases, such as the Lee-Chang scandal, in
which relatives of President Chun Doo-hwan were prosecuted, the Walker Hill Casino scandal. Jung resigned from his job as a prosecutor
in 2003, and then he had served the president of the Institute of Justice. From 2004 to 2006, he served as the Standing Commissioner of
the Republic of Korea National Election Commission. From 2008 to 2011, he served as the president of Korea Legal Aid Corporation.
Before the 2012 general election, he entered Saenuri Party. On February 8, 2013, he was nominated as the first Prime Minister president-
elect of Park Geun-hye's government. On February 26, 2013, after the National Assembly of South Korea confirmed his nomination, he
was formally sworn in. On April 27, 2014, he tendered his prime ministership resignation to the President following the Sinking of the
MV Sewol on April 16, 2014, which more than 300 people were killed. President Park accepted the resignation in principle, but Jung will lead the Cabinet before
the search and rescue operations of the Sewol come to an end.

Felipe VI (born January 30, 1968) is the King of Spain, having succeeded to the throne on June 19, 2014 on the
abdication of his father, King Juan Carlos I. As heir apparent to the throne, he previously bore the title of Prince of
Asturias, and worked to support philanthropic causes and to promote international fellowship among Spanish-speaking
countries. In accordance with the Spanish Constitution, as monarch, he is head of state and commander-in-chief of the
Spanish Armed Forces, and also plays a role in promoting relations with Ibero-America, the "nations of its historical
community". He is married to Letizia Ortiz Rocasolano, with whom he has two daughters, Leonor and Sofa. Leonor,
the elder, is his heir presumptive. Felipe was born in Madrid, the third child and only son of Infante Juan Carlos of
Spain and Princess Sofia of Greece and Denmark. His full baptismal name, Felipe Juan Pablo Alfonso de Todos los
Santos, consists of the names of the first Bourbon King of Spain (Philip V), his grandfathers (Infante Juan of Spain and
King Paul of Greece), his great-grandfather King Alfonso XIII of Spain, and of All the Saints (de Todos los Santos) as
is customary among the Bourbons. His godparents were his paternal grandfather Juan and his paternal great-grandmother, Queen Victoria Eugenie of Spain.
Shortly after his birth he was styled infante, although his father was not yet king. The ruling dictator General Francisco Franco died just over two months before
Felipe's eighth birthday, and Felipe's father ascended the throne. In his first official appearance, Felipe attended his father's proclamation as king on November
22, 1975. Felipe was formally created Prince of Asturias, along with the subsidiary titles of Prince of Girona and Prince of Viana, on January 22, 1977. On
November 1 the same year, he was ceremonially installed as Prince of Asturias in Covadonga. In 1981 Felipe received the Collar of the Order of the Golden
Fleece from his father, the Chief and Sovereign of the Order. On January 30, 1986, at the age of 18, Felipe swore allegiance to the Constitution and to the King
in the Spanish Parliament, fully accepting his constitutional role as successor to the Crown. Felipe attended school at Santa Maria de los Rosales, a modern
school where he could fit in without special treatment, which his daughters currently attend. Felipe attended high school at Lakefield College School in Ontario,
Canada, and studied at the Autonomous University of Madrid, where he graduated with a degree in Law; he also completed several courses in Economics. He
completed his academic studies by obtaining a Master of Science in Foreign Service degree from the Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign Service at
Georgetown University, where he was the roommate of his cousin, Crown Prince Pavlos of Greece. Felipe undertook his constitutional duties assiduously as heir
to the throne, hosting many official events in Spain and participating in all events of different sectors and aspects of Spanish public life as required. Since October
1995, Felipe has represented Spain on a series of official visits to the Spanish Autonomous Communities, starting with Valencia, during which he made contact
with Spaniards from all walks of life. Felipe has held regular meetings with constitutional bodies and state institutions keeping up-to-date with their activities. He
also attends meetings of the various bodies of the Central Administration and of the Autonomous Communities as required by his national and international
constitutional obligations. Felipe has welcomed as many public and private audiences as possible to maintain Crown interaction in national and international
affairs. In particular, he has held meetings with people of his generation who have built successful careers in political, economic, cultural and media circles. As
part of his military training, Felipe trained as a military helicopter pilot. On occasions when King Juan Carlos was unable to attend, Felipe presided over the
annual presentation of dispatches to officers and non-commissioned officers in the Armed Forces as well as participating in military exercises held by the three
Armed Services. Felipe has made many official visits to Europe and Latin America, as well as to countries in the Arab World, the Far East, and Australia,
maintaining a special interest in all matters relating to the European Union, Latin America, the Middle East and North Africa. Since January 1996, Felipe has
represented the Spanish State at many Latin American presidents' inauguration ceremonies. As Prince, he visited every country in Latin America except Cuba,
and made over 200 foreign trips in total. Felipe has also played a very active role in promoting Spain's economic, commercial and cultural interests and the
Spanish language abroad. He frequently represents Spain at world economic and trade events (e.g. Expotecnia, Expoconsumo, and Expohabitat), and is
especially interested in promoting the creation of Centres and University Chairs to advance the study of Spain both historically and in the present-day at major
foreign universities. Felipe speaks Spanish, Catalan, French, English and some Greek. Felipe was a member of the Spanish Olympic sailing team at the Barcelona
Games in 1992. Both his mother and uncle were on the Greek sailing team at the 1960 Olympics (his mother being selected as a substitute), and Felipe's father
and sister were also Olympic sailors for Spain. Felipe took part in the opening ceremony as the Spanish team's flag bearer. The Spanish crew finished in sixth
place in the Soling class and obtained an Olympic diploma. Felipe's bachelor years were a source of interest to the Spanish press for several years. His name was
linked with several eligible women, but only two notable girlfriends: Spanish noblewoman Isabel Sartorius, around 1989 to 1991, daughter of Vicente Sartorius y
Cabeza de Vaca, who was viewed unfavourably by the Royal Family due to her mother's cocaine addiction, and Norwegian model Eva Sannum, who modelled
underwear. When Felipe finally began a serious relationship, nothing was suspected before the official announcement of the Prince's engagement on November
1, 2003 to Letizia Ortiz Rocasolano, an award-winning television journalist formerly with CNN who had been married previously. The couple were married on
the morning of May 22, 2004 in the Almudena Cathedral, Madrid, with members of several European royal families present. The wedding was broadcast globally
with over 25 million watching on television in Spain alone. Felipe and Letizia have two daughters: Leonor, Princess of Asturias, born on October 31, 2005, and
Infanta Sofa, born on April 29, 2007. In addition to his official activities, Felipe serves as Honorary President of several associations and foundations, such as the
Imperial Munitions Board, which finances economic and social development in Ibero-America and other countries, and the Spanish branch of the Association of
European Journalists, comprising outstanding communications professionals. Most noteworthy is the Prncipe de Asturias Foundation, where he presides
annually at the international awards ceremony of the highly prestigious Prince of Asturias Awards bearing his name. Felipe was appointed a "UN-Eminent Person"
by UN Secretary General Kofi Annan in 2001, during its International Year of Volunteers, and continues to make contributions internationally towards
enhancing the importance of voluntary work. On June 2, 2014, Juan Carlos announced his intent to abdicate in Felipe's favour. Since the Constitution of Spain
did not provide a specific mechanism for abdication and royal succession, the Spanish Cabinet began deliberations on an organic law to regulate Felipe's
succession on June 3, 2014. The law had to be passed by a majority of all members of the Congress of Deputies, the lower house of the Cortes Generales
(Parliament). According to Jesus Posada, the President of the Congress of Deputies, Felipe could have been proclaimed king as early as June 18, 2014. On June
4, 2014 El Pais of Madrid reported that Felipe would indeed be proclaimed king on June 18, 2014. Felipe ascended the throne at the stroke of midnight on June
19, 2014; his father had signed the formal instrument of abdication just hours earlier. The next morning, after receiving the royal sash from his father, he was
formally enthroned in a low-key ceremony held in the Cortes. He swore to uphold the Constitution before formally being proclaimed king by Posada. Upon his
accession, he became the youngest monarch in Europe, being nine months younger than King Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands. As king, Felipe has fairly
extensive reserve powers on paper. He is the guardian of the Constitution, responsible for ensuring it is obeyed. While he is nominally chief executive, it is
expected that he will follow his father's practice of taking a mostly ceremonial and representative role, acting largely on the advice of the government. He
indicated as much in a speech to the Cortes on the day of his enthronement, saying that he would be "a loyal head of state who is ready to listen and understand,
warn and advise as well as to defend the public interest at all times". A poll conducted by El Pas, however, indicates that a majority of Spaniards wish that Felipe
play a greater role in politics, with 75% of the 600 surveyed people stating that they would approve if he personally pushed the political parties to reach
agreements on national problems.[24] According to an El Mundo newspaper poll, Felipe had a greater approval than his father prior to his reign. In June 2014,
Felipe and Letizia became the first Spanish monarchs to invite LGBT organisations. He also changed the protocol in order to allow people to take the oath of
office without a crucifix or Bible. In their first overseas trip as monarchs, Felipe VI and Queen Letizia met Pope Francis on June 30, 2014, in the Apostolic
Palace. They subsequently met with Cardinal Secretary of State Pietro Parolin, accompanied by Mgsr. Antoine Camilleri, under-secretary for Relations with
States. The visit followed one by King Juan Carlos I and Queen Sofia on April 28, 2014. Though Juan Carlos held no official title or post in Spain, Felipe was
registered in the Civil Registry as Infante when he was born, with the style of Royal Highness. About a year later, General Franco recognised Juan Carlos as the
future successor to the headship of state and bestowed upon him the title of Prince of Spain. Thus, Felipe became second-in-line in the line of succession to the
vacant throne. Juan Carlos became king in 1975, but no title was conferred on Felipe as heir apparent until January 2, 1977, when he was created Prince of
Asturias, the title normally held by the heir to the Spanish throne, by a Royal Decree which also entitled him to use "the other historical titles corresponding to
the heir of the Crown". Legally granted in 1977, Felipe started using the Aragonese-Catalan title of Prince of Girona publicly on April 21, 1990, during a trip
around Aragon, Catalonia and Valencia, becoming the first Bourbon to use this title. Later, he did the same thing with the Princedom of Viana in Navarre, and
the titles of Duke of Montblanc, Count of Cervera and Lord of Balaguer in their respective places. Upon ascending the throne, Felipe assumed the same titles
held by his father.

Kokhir Rasulzoda (Tajik: ; Russian: ; born March 8, 1961) is the current Prime Minister
of Tajikistan, taking office on November 23, 2013. He is a member of the People's Democratic Party of Tajikistan and was
previously the head of Sughd Province.



Niwatthamrong Boonsongpaisan (born January 25, 1948), is a Thai businessman and politician who served as Acting Prime
Minister following Yingluck Shinawatra's removal from office by the Constitutional Court of Thailand until his deposition in a coup
d'tat three weeks after taking office from May 7 until May 22, 2014. Before that, he was Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of
Commerce, and before that managed the country's rice pledging scheme. Niwatthamrong was born on 25 January 1948. He holds a
bachelor's degree in education from Srinakharinwirot University and a master's degree in computer science from Chulalongkorn
University and is married to Boonphatcharee Boonsongpaisan. A close business associate of Thaksin Shinawatra, he served as the
Chairman of the Executive Committee-Media and Advertising front of Shin Corporation since 1995 and as Vice Chairman since
2000.[3] Boonsongpaisan served from 2001 to 2002 as Vice Chairman of iTV and from 1993 to 1995, director of that company between 2002 and 2008, and a
member of the board of directors between 2001 to March 16, 2006. He served as director of the controversial rice pledging scheme, where rice was bought at
inflated prices from farmers and subsequently was left to rot due to lack of buyers. On June 30, 2013 he was appointed Minster of Commerce and a deputy
prime minister in the cabinet of Yingluck Shinawatra. On May 7, 2014 he became acting Prime Minister following the removal of Prime Minister Yingluck
Shinawatra and several members of her cabinet from office. On May 22, 2014 he was himself removed from office following a military coup.
Prayuth Chan-ocha (born March 21, )1954 is a Thai army officer and commanding officer of the current military junta ruling
Thailand (Leader of the National Council for Peace and Order of Thailand) since May 22, 2014. Since October 2010, he has been
Commander-in-Chief of the Royal Thai Army. On May 22, 2014 he staged a military coup against the caretaker government of
Thailand. Since then, he has exercised governmental power as head of the National Council for Peace and Order. Since his
appointment as army chief in 2010, Prayuth has been characterised as a strong royalist and an opponent of former prime minister
Thaksin Shinawatra. Considered as a hardliner within the military, he was one of the leading proponents of the military crackdowns
on the "Red Shirts" uprisings of April 2009 and April/May 2010. After his appointment, he sought to moderate his profile, talking to
relatives of protesters who were killed in the bloody conflict, and co-operating with the government of Thaksin's sister Yingluck
Shinawatra who won the parliamentary election in July 2011. During the political crisis that began in November 2013, Prayuth
claimed that the army was neutral. After violent attacks on anti-government protesters, Prayuth declared martial law on May 20, 2014,
appointing himself head of the "Peace and Order Maintaining Command" (POMC) that has far-reaching authorities. Though he
insisted that the caretaker government was still in office and his intervention was not a coup d'tat, Prayuth formally launched a coup
against the caretaker government on May 22, 2014. He now leads a junta called the National Council for Peace and Order. Prayuth studied at the Armed Forces
Academies Preparatory School (AFAPS) Class 12, Command and General Staff College (CGSC) Class 63 and National Defence College of Thailand (NDC)
5020 and attended Infantry Officer Basic Course Class 51, Infantry Officer Advanced Course Class 38. He studied Bachelor of Science in Chulachomklao Royal
Military Academy. Like his direct predecessor Anupong Paochinda and former defence minister Prawit Wongsuwan, Prayuth is a member of the "Eastern
Tigers" clique within the army. Most of them have like Prayuth started their career in the 2nd infantry division (with quarters in Eastern Thailand), especially
in the 21st infantry regiment (Queen's Guards). After graduating from the Chulachomklao Royal Military Academy, Prayuth served in the 21st Infantry Regiment,
which is granted Royal Guards status as the Queen's Guards (Thai: lit. Queen's Tiger Soldiers). In 2002, he served as a Deputy Commanding General
in the 2nd Infantry Division of the Royal Thai Army, ascending to the rank of Commanding General one year later. In 2005, he became a Deputy Commanding
General for the 1st Army Area of which the 2nd Infantry Division is a part, and again became its Commanding General within a year. Prayuth was the Chief of
Staff for the Royal Thai Army from 2008 to 2009 and in 2009 was appointed honorary adjutant of the king. In 2010, he succeeded Anupong Paochinda as
Commander in Chief of the army. After the 2006 Thai coup d'tat, Prayuth was appointed to the National Legislative Assembly. In this capacity, he joined the
Committee on Environment and Natural Resources. Prayuth sits on the executive boards of a number of companies including the state electricity utility
companies MEA. From 2007 to 2010 he was Independent Director at Thai Oil Public Co Ltd. Since October 7, 2010 he has been a Director of the Thai
Military Bank and Chairman of Army United Football Club. Following the 201314 Thai political crisis, Prayuth launched the 2014 Thai coup d'tat. As a result,
a military junta began governing Thailand, with Prayuth as its leader.

Kwesi Ahoomey-Zunu (born December 1, 1958) is a Togolese politician who has been Prime Minister of Togo
since July 23, 2012. He was Minister of Trade of Togo from March 2011 to July 2012. Ahoomey-Zunu served as Minister
of Territorial Administration and Secretary-General of the Presidency before being appointed as Minister of Trade and the
Promotion of the Private Sector in March 2011. He remained in the latter post for over a year; he was then appointed as
Prime Minister on 19 July 2012 following the resignation of Prime Minister Gilbert Houngbo. He took office on July 2012.
Following the July 23, 2013 parliamentary election, in which the ruling Union for the Republic (UNIR) won a large
majority of seats, Ahoomey-Zunu was reappointed as Prime Minister. A new government headed by Ahoomey-Zunu was
appointed on September 172013. The size of the government was reduced from 31 members to 26.


Anthony Thomas Aquinas Carmona, SC, ORTT (born March 7, 1953) is the fifth President of Trinidad and Tobago, in
office since March 18, 2013. Previously he was High Court Judge at the Supreme Court of Trinidad and Tobago, and he served as a
Judge of the International Criminal Court from 2012 to 2013. Carmona was born on March 7, 1953 in Fyzabad, in south Trinidad,
eldest of six children of Dennis Stephen Carmona and his wife Barbara. He graduated from Santa Flora Government Primary School
and Presentation College, San Fernando. He attended the University of the West Indies and the Hugh Wooding Law School between
1973 and 1983. After graduating from Hugh Wooding Law School in 1983, Carmona worked as a State Counsel. In 1989, he became a
Senior State Attorney. From 1994 to 1999, he was first Assistant then Deputy Director of Public Prosecutions. From 2001 to 2004, he
was an Appeals Counsel at the Office of the Prosecutor at the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia in The Hague
the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda in Arusha. In 2004, he was appointed a High Court Judge at the Supreme Court of
Trinidad and Tobago. On December 12, 2011, he was elected as a judge of the International Criminal Court. He won the office in the
first ballot in the Assembly of States Parties with 72 of 104 votes; 70 votes were needed. Carmona took office on March 11, 2012. On February 3, 2013, Prime
Minister Kamla Persad-Bissessar announced that the ruling party would nominate Carmona to succeed outgoing President George Maxwell Richards. The
following day, Keith Rowley, leader of the Opposition People's National Movement (PNM), indicated that his party supported Carmona's nomination. However,
following this announcement, the PNM questioned Carmona's eligibility to serve as President, given his work outside the country between 2001 and 2004. (To be
eligible to be elected President, a person must be "ordinarily resident" in the country for the ten years prior to election.) Attorney General Anand Ramlogan
responded by saying that the government had consulted with legal experts who expressed the opinion that Carmona met this requirement.

Ali Laarayedh (Arabic: , Al al-Arayyi; born July 19, 1955) is a Tunisian politician who was Prime Minister of
Tunisia from March 14, 2013 until January 29, 2014. Previously he served in the government as the Minister of the Interior of
Tunisia from December 24, 2011 until March 14, 2013. Following the resignation of Prime Minister Hamadi Jebali, Laarayedh
was designated as Prime Minister in February 2013. He is a member of the Ennahda Movement. Laarayedh was the spokesperson
for the Ennahda Movement from 1981 until his arrest in 1990. After he was harassed by the police under President Habib
Bourguiba, he was sentenced to fifteen years in prison under President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali, during which time he suffered
torture. He was, among other techniques, threatened with HIV transfusion. His wife, Wided Lagha, was sexually abused and
videotaped by officials from the Ministry of Interior. On December 20, 2011, after President Ben Ali was deposed, he joined the Jebali Cabinet as Minister of the
Interior. He vowed to support peace in Tunisia, rejecting religious extremism, tribalism or regionalism. On February 22, 2013, Laarayedh was appointed as
Prime Minister after Hamadi Jebali resigned from office Laarayedh is married and has three children. His wife is a medical technician.
Mehdi Jomaa (born April 21, 1962) is a Tunisian engineer and is acting Prime Minister of Tunisia since January 29, 2014.
He was chosen on December 14, 2013. Jomaa was Minister of Industry of Tunisia in the Ali Laarayedh government from March
14, 2013 until January 29, 2014. He was born on April 21, 1962 in Mahdia, Tunisia. He graduated from the National
Engineering School, Tunis in 1998. He is an engineer by profession. He also holds a postgraduate degree in structural mechanics
and in modeling. He spent most of his career at Hutchinson and at Total. He has five children. He was a general manager at
Hutchinson Aerospace when he quit his job. After Hamadi Jebali asked him to be part of his government, he quit his
professional career to contribute to the country's transition into democracy after the crackdown of Zine El Abidine Ben Ali
government in the 2011 uprising. He did not belong to any political party; he was an Independent. On March 13, 2013, he
became Minister of Industry in a coalition government led by Ennahda after Ali Laarayedh appealed him to be part of his government. After the assassination of
Mohamed Brahmi in July, there had been a political deadlock. To ease the situation, parties entered a national dialogue which was held for weeks; on December
14, 2013, both ruling and opposition parties agreed to choose Jomaa as the interim Prime Minister until the next election. His government will be technocratic.
The leftist Popular Front coalition has doubted whether he can handle the present situation. His caretaker government will carry out the process for new
elections and deal with the economic issues.

Enele Sosene Sopoaga (born February 10, 1956) is a Tuvaluan diplomat and politician who has been Prime Minister of
Tuvalu since August 1, 2013. Sopoaga was elected to Parliament in the 2010 general election. He served as Deputy Prime
Minister of Tuvalu and Minister for Foreign Affairs, the Environment and Labour in Prime Minister Maatia Toafa's short-lived
government from September 29 until December 24, 2010. Following an unsuccessful bid for the premiership in December 2010
(with Toafa's support), he became leader of the Opposition to Prime Minister Willy Telavi's government. He became caretaker
Prime Minister on August 1, 2013 following Telavi's removal by the Governor General, in the context of a political crisis. A day
later, on August 2, 2013, the opposition successfully voted out Telavi's government in a no confidence vote. Following this, a
ballot was cast to elect the new prime minister of Tuvalu and Sopoaga won with 8 votes to 4. He was sworn in on August 5, 2013,
and created his ministry the same day. Sopoaga received a Certificate in Diplomatic Studies from Oxford University in 1990 and
a Master's degree from the University of Sussex. Sopoaga and his wife, Salilo Enele, have three children. He is the younger
brother of Saufatu Sopoaga, who was Prime Minister from 2002 to 2004. From 1980 until 1986, Sopoaga served as an
Education Administrator within the Ministry of Social Services. He became the Assistant Secretary of the Ministry of Social Services in 1986. Sopoaga was the
acting officer within the Minister of Foreign Affairs and Economic Planning from 1991 until 1992. He then served as the Permanent Secretary and European
Union National Authorizing Officer within the Tuvaluan Ministry of Foreign Affairs from 1992 to 1995. Additionally, Sopoaga served as Tuvalu's High
Commissioner to Fiji. He also simultaneously served as the Tuvaluan High Commissioner to both Papua New Guinea and Samoa. He subsequently served as his
country's Permanent Representative to the United Nations, and as Vice-Chairman of the Alliance of Small Island States. He has been described as "Tuvalu's
climate change negotiator", tasked with raising the profile of the dangers posed by climate change to Tuvalu and other small island nations. He served as the main
spokesman for these nations at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen, and was one of the chief negotiators for global action on
climate change,with Tuvalu receiving attention for its strong advocacy on the issue. He proposed amending the draft climate treaty so as to require all countries to
limit the rise in global air temperatures to 1.5 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels. This proposal was subsequently rejected. Simultaneously, he served as
Permanent Secretary (the highest civil service position) in the Tuvaluan Ministry for Foreign Affairs. In 2010, he decided to go into politics, and stood for
Parliament in the general election in September. Sopoaga, who was elected to Parliament for the Nukufetau constituency was expected to pose a strong challenge
to Ielemia for the office of Prime Minister during the formation of a new government. In the event, however, neither Ielemia nor Sopoaga stood for the
premiership, and Maatia Toafa was elected Prime Minister. Toafa formed a cabinet composed largely of first time MPs who had given him their support, and
appointed Sopoaga as deputy prime minister and Minister for Foreign Affairs, the Environment and Labour. Sopoaga, who had described the outcome of the
2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen as unsatisfactory, led Tuvalu's delegation at the 2010 Conference in Cancun in December, and
said of it that he had been "[s]ort of encouraged by the turn around of things. It could have been worse, but I think goodwill prevailed [...] despite a lot of issues
still sticking out". A few days later, on December 21, 2010, Toafa's government was brought down by a motion of no confidence in Parliament, by eight votes to
seven. The motion was reportedly due to MPs' concerns about the budget, and in particular possible restrictions on the government's funding of Tuvaluans'
medical costs abroad. With a new Prime Minister due to be chosen on December 24, 2010, Toafa announced that he would not be standing for the job, but that
he hoped Sopoaga would be chosen by Parliament in his place. Sopoaga stood for the premiership, but lost to Willy Telavi by seven votes to eight. Sopoaga thus
became leader of the Opposition. He continued to call for international initiatives to tackle climate change, including "adaptation techniques", a transfer of
affordable sustainable technologies to vulnerable developing nations. This would enable sustainable living, he said, and address the issue of Tuvalu's dependence
on donor countries. He told Radio Australia that Tuvalu was now suffering from "long, serious" periods of drought, affecting crops. He has also stated that, to
respond to the overcrowding of Funafuti, Tuvaluans on the outer islands should be given the economic means to live on their home island rather than move to
the capital. One other issue he raised during a talk on Radio Australia was the need for independent media in Tuvalu, presenting news in an accurate rather than
"rosy", 'pro-government' manner. He stated that Tuvaluans' "right to correct information is curtailed by censorship". The latter concern led him to set up, with two
other people, the Tala o Matagi newspaper company (meaning "Story of the Wind") in June 2011. Emphasising the people's right to "reliable information" on
politics and other issues, for the betterment of themselves and of the nation, he explained that the newspaper would begin as a short, bilingual weekly newsletter
in Tuvaluan and English, issued in one or two hundred copies. In early 2012, he criticised the Telavi government's decision to establish formal diplomatic
relations with "countries that have unsettled political issues of concern to the international community" namely, namely, Abkhasia, South Ossetia, and Armenia
(the latter in the context of its territorial dispute with Azerbaijan). Sopoaga suggested that the establishing of diplomatic relations with specific foreign countries
should be decided by Parliament, not solely by the Cabinet. Sopoaga became Prime Minister in a caretaker capacity following the dismissal of incumbent Willy
Telavi by Governor-General Iakoba Italeli on August 1, 2013. In a secret ballot held during an extra session of parliament three days later, Sopoaga was elect as
Prime Minister of Tuvalu by 8 votes to 4. He was sworn in by Italeli on August 5, 2013, and created his ministry the same day. He promoted a number of high
profile Tuvaluan politicians back to cabinet, including Vete Sakaio who was appointed the Deputy Prime Minister and Minister for Public Utilities; and Maatia
Toafa, who was appointed Finance and Economic Development' Maatia Toafa was previously the Prime Minister of Tuvalu from 2004 to 2006 and again in
2010. However, the High Court has yet to decide whether Telavi's removal was lawful. A day after being sworn into office, Sopoaga said he would ensure the
country was given a strong voice in the fight against climate change. In September 2013 Enele Sopoaga said that relocating Tuvaluans to avoid the impact of sea
level rise should never be an option because it is self defeating in itself. For Tuvalu I think we really need to mobilise public opinion in the Pacific as well as in
the [rest of] world to really talk to their lawmakers to please have some sort of moral obligation and things like that to do the right thing. Enele Sopoaga made a
commitment under the Majuro Declaration, which was signed on 5 September 2013, to implement power generation of 100% renewable energy (between 2013
and 2020). This commitment is proposed to be implemented using Solar PV (95% of demand) and biodiesel (5% of demand). The feasibility of wind power
generation will be considered. On January 16, 2014 Prime Minister Enele Sopoaga established the National Advisory Council on Climate Change, which
functions are to identify actions or strategies: to achieve energy efficiencies; to increase the use of renewable energy; to encourage the private sector and NGOs
to reduce greenhouse gas emissions; to ensure a whole of government response to adaptation and climate change related disaster risk reduction; and to encourage
the private sector and NGOs to develop locally appropriate technologies for adaptation and climate change mitigation (reductions in [greenhouse gas]).

Serhiy Arbuzov (Ukrainian: , Serhiy Hennadiyovych Arbuzov, born March 24, 1976) is
former Ukraine's First Deputy Prime Minister of Ukraine from December 24, 2012 until February 27, 2014, who became interim
Prime Minister of Ukraine following the resignation of Mykola Azarov from January 28 until February 27, 2014, when Arbuzov
was dismissed and Arseniy Yatsenyuk was elected as new Prime Minister. He was the Governor of the National Bank of Ukraine
from December 23, 2010 until December 24, 2012. In the 2000s Arbuzov worked as a director of several leading Ukrainian
banks, including Privatbank and Ukreximbank. Serhiy Arbuzov 30 in ranking for the most influential Ukrainian magazine
Korrespondent 2012. Arbuzov was born in Donetsk. He graduated from the Donetsk State University, having specialized in "finance and credit" and qualified as
an economist. At the start of his professional career Arbuzov worked as an administration chairman of Privatbank in Donetsk and a director of Privatbank in
Kostyantynivka. In 2003-10 he was a director of the Ukrainian Business Bank, previously known as Donechyna. In 2005 Serhiy Arbuzov became a member of
Our Ukraine[3] and in 2006 unsuccessfully ran for the Donetsk Regional Council as a member of the party. Upon his appointment to the National Bank of
Ukraine his political affiliation became uncertain. In 2010 Arbuzov was appointed chairman of the Supervising Council of UkrEximBank and in September 2010
he became a deputy chairman of the National Bank of Ukraine. On December 21, 2010 the President of Ukraine sent a petition to the parliament to replace
Volodymyr Stelmakh with Serhiy Arbuzov. On December 23, 2010 the Verkhovna Rada approved the petition, making Arbuzov the youngest chairman of a
state central bank. After the appointment, the older son of the President, Oleksandr Yanukovych, bought the All-Ukrainian Bank of Development from
Arbuzov. The chairperson of the bank is Arbuzov's mother, Valentyna, who also has extensive experience in banking business. In May 2012 the Ukrainian
magazine Focus pointed out that Arbuzov has the highest salary among the Ukrainian civil servants - 140,000 hryvnia per month (approximately $18,000). In the
same year another Ukrainian magazine, Korrespondent, placed him among the thirty most influential people in the country. On December 24, 2012 Viktor
Yanukovych appointed Arbuzov First Vice Prime Minister of Ukraine by presidential decree. After weeks of Euromaidan protests, and clashes, during which
civilians were killed, Prime Minister Mykola Azarov offered his letter of resignation on January 28, 2014. The same day President Yanukovych accepted the
resignation and signed a decree dismissing the second Azarov Government, which decree would not take effect until the Verhovna Rada approved a new Cabinet.
Hence the second Azarov Government continued as a caretaker government. And Arbuzov replaced Azarov as Prime Minister of Ukraine. On March 29, 2014,
during a party congress, Arbuzov was expelled from the Party of Regions. Arbuzov does not have an Identification Number of Physical Person (similar to a
Taxpayer Identification Number in the United States), having refused one for religious reasons. Instead, Arbuzov uses his passport number as the legal
alternative.
Oleksandr Valentynovych Turchynov (Ukrainian: ; born March 31, 1964) is a
Ukrainian politician, screenwriter, and economist. Turchynov is the current Chairman of the Ukrainian Parliament since February
22, 2014. Turchynov is a former acting President of Ukraine from the removal from power of President Viktor Yanukovych on
February 21, 2014 until Petro Poroshenko was sworn in as Ukrainian President on June 7, 2014. Turchynov has served as acting
Prime Minister of Ukraine from March 4 until March 11, 2010, when he was the First Vice Prime Minister in the absence of a prime
minister after Yulia Tymoshenko's government was dismissed on March 3, 2010; until the Verkhovna Rada (Ukrainian parliament)
appointed Mykola Azarov as Prime Minister on March 11, 2010. He was also Deputy Prime Minister of Ukraine from December
18, 2007 until March 11, 2010 and Director of the Securite Service of Ukraine from February 4 until September 8, 2005. Turchynov
is the first deputy chairman of the political party Batkivshchyna (All-Ukrainian Union "Fatherland") and close associate of party leader
Yulia Tymoshenko. Oleksandr Turchynov was born in Dnipropetrovsk. He graduated from the Dnipropetrovsk Metallurgical
Institute in 1986, after which he worked at Kryvorizhstal, a large Ukrainian steel producer. From 1987 to 1990, he served as head of
the agitation and propaganda division of the Dnipropetrovsk Oblast Komsomol (Communist Youth League) Committee, which was
led by Serhiy Tihipko. Tihipko and Turchynov became political advisers of Leonid Kuchma, then head of Dnipropetrovsk-based Pivdenmash missile
manufacturer. Kuchma and his entire team, including Tihipko and Turchynov moved to Kiev in 1992, after Kuchma was appointed Prime Minister. In 1993
Turchynov was formally appointed an advisor on economic issues to Prime Minister Kuchma. Turchynov is an old ally of Yulia Tymoshenko, another
prominent Ukrainian political figure from Dnipropetrovsk. They used to have a common business in Dnipropetrovsk. In December 1993, Turchynov co-
founded and became Vice President of Ukrainian Union of Industrialist and Entrepreneurs. In 1994 he created the political party Hromada together with Pavlo
Lazarenko, a business ally of Tymoshenko.[13] Turchynov was also director of the Economic Reforms Institute from January 1994 to March 1998 and was head
of the Ukrainian National Academy of Sciences' Laboratory of Shadow Economy Research. In 1998, he was elected to parliament as a member of Hromada but
after the scandal around Lazarenko, he left the faction and party (during May 1999) together with Yulia Tymoshenko's All-Ukrainian Union "Fatherland". He was
re-elected to parliament in 2002 and 2006 as part of the BYuT. On February 4, 2005, Turchynov was appointed and served as the firstever civilian head of the
Security Service of Ukraine (SBU). In August 2007, Turchynov replied to the accusation that his stance on same-sex marriage is typically conservative, "I do not
agree. If a man has normal views, then you label him a conservative, but those who use drugs or promote sodomy, you label them a progressive person. All of
these are perversions". In the spring of 2008 he was the Yulia Tymoshenko Bloc and the Our UkrainePeople's Self-Defense Bloc candidate for the Mayor of
Kiev election he placed second at the election with 218,600 votes (19.13% of total vote). In December 2009 during the 2010 Ukrainian presidential election
campaign Turchynov accused President Viktor Yushchenko and opposition leader Viktor Yanukovych of coordinating their actions in their attempts to topple
the Second Tymoshenko Government. On March 4, 2010, after the fall of the second Tymoshenko Government, former Prime Minister Yulia Tymoshenko
resigned from that post on March 4, 2010 and Turchynov was empowered to fulfill the Prime Minister's duties until a new government was formed. On March
11, 2010 the Azarov Government was elected and Mykola Azarov was appointed Prime Minister the same day. In 2012 he was re-elected into parliament on the
party list of "Fatherland". On February 22, 2014 he was elected as speaker of Verkhovna Rada. On February 23, 2014, Turchynov was designated as acting
President of Ukraine following the impeachment of Viktor Yanukovych. On February 25, 2014 Turchynov assumed the (Presidential power of) command of the
Ukrainian Armed Forces. On April 14, 2014, while talking on the phone with Secretary-General Ban Ki Moon, Turchynov asked for the United Nations's
support regarding the crisis in eastern Ukraine, to which the Secretary-General replied that peacekeepers may be sent in should Russia withhold its veto.
Meanwhile, Turchynov issued a deadline to the pro-Russian insurgents to disarm and dismantle their barricades, but the deadline passed without incident. Before
he issued a deadline, which was scheduled for 9 am, he tried to negotiate with insurgents and even proposed to hold referendum on the same day as elections
which will be on May 25, 2014. His proposition was questioned by journalists who feared that a the referendum might be sabotaged by pro-Russia insurgents. In a
2014 news story, The Global Post reported that in the Donetsk region "some 74 percent of respondents said they consider acting President Oleksandr Turchynov
to be illegitimate, the poll said". Petro Poroshenko was elected President of Ukraine on May 25, 2014. Poroshenko was sworn in as Ukrainian President on June
7, 2014, this ended the presidential powers of Turchynov. In February 2006 state prosecutors opened a criminal case against Turchynov and his SBU deputy
Andriy Kozhemyakin for destroying a file about FBI Ten Most Wanted Fugitive, organized crime boss Semyon Mogilevich, from the SBU archive. The case was
dismissed four months later. WikiLeaks documents mention Turchynov, then head of Ukraine's SBU, as having destroyed documents implicating Yulia
Tymoshenko's alleged connections to Mogilevich. Early March 2014 Vladimir Putin, President of the Russian Federation, stated he did not regard Turchynov as
the legitimate Ukrainian President. In 2004 Turchynov published a book Illusion of Fear. In 2005 he also wrote a script to the same name movie that is based on
the book. The movie was released in Ukraine in September 2008 and was the 2008 Ukrainian submissions for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language
Film. His wife is Hanna Turchynova (born 1970), PhD, Head of Foreign Languages at National Pedagogical Dragomanov University. They have one son, Kyrylo
(born 1994), a student. Turchynov is known for abstaining from tobacco and alcohol. He is part of the 1% of Ukraine's population that identify as being
Protestant. Although some in the media have reported that he is a pastor, the Associated Baptist Press and the European Baptist Federation report that he is an
elder and occasional lay preacher at his Kiev church, the Word of Life Center, which is a member of the Evangelical Baptist Union of Ukraine.
Arseniy Petrovych Yatsenyuk (Ukrainian: , Ukrainian pronunciation: [r'snij pt'rvt
jts'nuk]; born May 22, 1974) is a Ukrainian politician, economist and lawyer who is the Prime Minister of Ukraine from
February 27 until July 24, 2014. On July 24, 2014 Yatsenyuk announced his resignation as Prime Minister of Ukraine. Yatsenyuk
served in the government of Ukraine as Minister of Economy of Ukraine from September 24, 2005 until August 4, 2006;
subsequently he was Foreign Minister of Ukraine from March 24 until December 4, 2007 and Chairman of the Verkhovna Rada
(parliament) of Ukraine from December 4, 2007 until November 12, 2008. Yatsenyuk is one of the leaders of Ukraine's second
biggest party All-Ukrainian Union "Fatherland", and former leader of its parliamentary faction. Yatsenyuk was born on May 22,
1974, in the Ukrainian SSR's Chernovtsy. His father, historian Petro Ivanovich Yatsenuk, was a professor at the Faculty of History
at Chernivtsi National University and has since become deputy dean of its history faculty. Arseny's mother, Maria Grigoriievna
Yatsenyuk (ne Bakaj), has long been a French teacher at area high schools and now teaches in the French Department of Foreign
Languages at Chernivtsi University. Yatsenyuk primarily speaks Ukrainian and also speaks Russian and English as well as having
some knowledge of Romanian. According to Yatsenyuk, he comes from a family of ethnic Ukrainians. He is of partly Romanian
ancestry, with one of his grandparents being a citizen of Greater Romania from the region around Chernivtsi. Some sources state
he was born t a family of ethnic Jewish-Ukrainians. An article by Harriet Salem in The Guardian states that he has played down
his Jewish-Ukrainian origins, possibly because of the prevalence of antisemitism in his party's western Ukraine heartland. however, Yaakov Bleich, a chief rabbi
of Ukraine, responding to slurs such as "impudent Jew" and "thieving Jew" made against Yatsenyuk during the latter's 2010 presidential election campaign, stated,
Arseniy Yatsenyuk is not Jewish. Furthermore, Anna Rudnitskaya writing on the same presidential election in The Jewish Week said, [Yatsenyuks]
hypothetical Jewishness was never established. After Yatsenyuk began studying at Chernivtsi University in 1992, he set up a student law firm. Yatsenyuk
graduated from the university in 1996, and later attended the Chernivtsi Trade-Economics Institute of the "Kyiv National Trade-Economics Institute" in 2001. In
addition to holding a law degree and a master's degree in accounting and auditing, Yatsenyuk also earned a Ph.D. in economics from the Ukrainian Academy of
Banking of the National Bank of Ukraine. From December 1992 to September 1997 Yatsenyuk was the president of "Yurek Ltd." law firm, based in Chernivtsi.
From January 1998 until September 2001, Yatsenyuk worked in the Aval bank, based in Kiev. From November 2003 to February 2005, Yatsenyuk served as the
first vice-president of the head of the National Bank of Ukraine under Serhiy Tihipko. After Tihipko left the National Bank, Arseniy Yatsenyuk was put in
charge of the National Bank. From September until November 2001, Yatsenyuk served as an acting Minister of Economy of Crimea, and from November of the
same year until January 2003, served as the official Minister of Economy of the Autonomous Republic of Crimea. After Vasyl Tsushko was appointed as the new
Governor of Odessa Oblast, Tsushko asked Yatsenyuk to serve as his vice-governor, which he served from March 9 to September 2005. From September 27,
2005 to August 4, 2006, he served as the Minister of Economy of Ukraine in the Yekhanurov Government. Arseniy Yatsenyuk then headed talks about
Ukrainian membership in the World Trade Organization. Yatsenyuk also heads the Ukraine-European Union commission. From September 20, 2006, he
served as the first vice-president of the Head of Secretariat of the President of Ukraine, and the representative of the president in the Cabinet of Ministers of
Ukraine. Yatsenyuk was proposed for the post of Foreign Minister by the President of Ukraine, Viktor Yushchenko. Yatsenyuk was chosen for the post by the
Verkhovna Rada (parliament) on March 21, 2007 with 426 votes (from 450 maximum), but only after the Ukrainian parliament twice denied the post to
Volodymyr Ohryzko. In the early parliamentary elections held on September 30, 2007, Yatsenyuk was elected to the parliament from Our UkrainePeople's
Self-Defense Bloc (number 3 in the bloc's member list). On December 3, 2007, he was nominated for the position of the Chairman of the Verkhovna Rada from
the democratic coalition formed from the Yulia Tymoshenko Bloc and Our UkrainePeople's Self-Defense Bloc. On December 4, 2007, Yatsenyuk was elected
the Chairman of the Parliament. His candidacy was the only in the ballot, and he obtained 227 votes in favor (from the democratic coalition; opposition abstained
from the voting). During the Ukrainian political crises of September 2008 Yatsenyuk offered his resignation on September 17, 2008. A vote on his dismissal on
November 11, 2008, was declared invalid by the counting commission of the Parliament (the vote was proposed by opposition party Party of Regions). On
November 12, 2008 a total of 233 of 226 required deputies satisfied the resignation statement of Yatsenyuk and thus dismissed him from his post of Chairman
of the Verkhovna Rada. The voting was carried out through the parliaments voting system and not by means of secret ballots, as stipulated by the parliamentary
regulations. After his dismissal Yatsenyuk told journalists that he will form a new political force "for change in the country." On November 21, 2008, Yatsenyuk
was also dismissed by President Viktor Yushchenko from the National Security and Defense Council. On December 16, 2008, Yatsenyuk announced plans to
create a political party on basis of the Front of Changes public initiative. In an interview with Den of February 4, 2009 he claimed to have no allies among the
contemporary politicians. He has often been referred to as a political clone lacking differentiating policies of Ukraine's President, Viktor Yushchenko. According
to polls held in the last months of 2008 suggested a political party led by Yatsenyuk would pass the 3 percent election threshold in a Ukrainian parliamentary
election. On April 5, 2009, Yatsenyuk announced his candidacy for President of Ukraine in the next presidential election. During the election campaign fellow
candidate Serhiy Ratushniak repeatedly insulted Yatsenyuk because of his alleged Jewish roots, among others Ratushniak called Yatsenyuk an "impudent little
Jew" who was "successfully serving the thieves who are in power in Ukraine and is using criminal money to plough ahead towards Ukraine's presidency".
Yatsenyuk's presidential campaign was estimated to cost about $60$70 million. When Yatsenyuk billboards first appeared around Ukraine at the end of June
2009, Yatseniuk was depicted as a military-style leader, while his previous image was that of a "young liberal". Some analysts think that this did not help the
campaign. On January 13, 2010 Yatseniuk stated that his election campaign had cost 80 million Hryvnia and that "The number of my advertising posters is ten
times less than that of all of my political opponents"; Yatseniuk claimed that funds from his election budget were mainly spent on his appearances on television.
After the elections Yatsenyuk wanted to dissolve the Verkhovna Rada because in his view the parliament would prevent him from working. He also stated in
November 2009 that Bloc Yulia Tymoshenko and Party of Regions were "almost a single whole". In late November 2009, he stated he was not interested in "using
his votes as bargaining material" for a high political post. On February 21, 2010 President Yanukovych offered three candidates for Prime Minister of Ukraine:
Serhiy Tihipko, Yatsenyuk and Party of Regions lawmaker Mykola Azarov. But Yatsenyuk declined this proposal to hold a high post in the new cabinet after the
Ukrainian parliament adopted an amendment on March 9, 2010 which enabled independent lawmakers to take part in forming a majority coalition, instead of
only parliamentary factions; Yatsenyuk disapproved of this amendment. Instead he called for early parliamentary elections: "Unconstitutional attempts by
parliamentarians to form a coalition and a government would deepen the political crisis and the crisis of statehood as such". To be premier in a coalition with
communists was unacceptable for Yatsenyuk. Yatsenyuk formed an oppositional government in March 2010, next to another oppositional government headed by
Bloc Yulia Tymoshenko, opposing the Azarov Government. In April 2010 Yatsenyuk was officially chosen as party leader of Front for Change; by that time the
public initiative had become a political party also. During the October 2012 Ukrainian parliamentary election Yatsenyuk competed on a party list based on the
party All-Ukrainian Union "Fatherland". Yatseniuk stressed in April 2012 "Front of Changes existed and will exist" but also hinted the same month the alliance
could lay basis for one single party. The party competed on one single party under "umbrella" party "Fatherland", together with several other parties, during the
October 2012 parliamentary elections. During the election this list won 62 seats (25.55% of the votes) under the proportional party-list system and another 39 by
winning 39 simple-majority constituencies; a total of 101 seats in Parliament. Yatsenyuk headed this election list because "Fatherland"-leader Yulia Tymoshenko
was imprisoned. Yatsenyuk was elected leader of the parliamentary faction of "Fatherland" on December 12, 2012. On June 15, 2013 his Front for Change
(party) merged into "Fatherland". On October 27, 2013, a few weeks before first mass protests in Maidan square, Yatseniuk contributed to a Trilateral
Commission meeting in Krakow, presided over by Jean-Claude Trichet, on the topic "Ukraine and European Union". On January 25, 2014, Yatsenyuk was
offered the post of prime minister by President Viktor Yanukovych but refused due to unmet demands. Yatsenyuk said the people should be making a decision
for the future of Ukraine, not the present government officials. Yatsenyuk was designated as the new Prime Minister of the Yatsenyuk Government following the
revolution that removed former President Viktor Yanukovych from power. The new government was sworn in on February 27, 2014. After his appointment,
Yatseniuk started to distance himself and his government from Russia, which at the same time invaded and later annexed Crimea in response to the ouster of
Yanukovych. As the Ukrainian head of government, Yatsenyuk was involved in the Crimean crisis. He described his government as being on a "kamikaze"
mission. On March 21, 2014, Ukraine signed an the political part of the Association Agreement with European Union with the economical part of the treaty to
be signed after the presidential election in May 2014. The day before Yatsenyuk was replaced (due to his new position) as his party's faction leader in parliament
by Sergei Sobolev. Yatsenyuk wants European Union membership for Ukrain and he sees this "because this means standards and values a [high] level of
education, medical treatment, pensions, employment, freedoms, new technologies, and progress". Yatsenyuk stated late 2009 that in its relations with the
European Union, Ukraine should have a visa-free regime with EU countries.[84] Yatsenyuk stated on April 20, 2012 it was clear to him that the European Union
will not sign the association agreement "until fully fledged democracy is resumed in Ukraine, free and fair elections are held, and the political persecution of
opponents is stopped in Ukraine". Yatsenyuk is against Ukraine joining the Customs Union of Belarus, Kazakhstan and Russia; according to him "Ukraine's
joining the Customs Union means the restoration of the Soviet Union in a slightly different form and with a different name. But this means that the country will
become a part of the Russian empire. We know history. We have been there and we don't want to return there". On August 21, 2013 Yatsenyuk stated "Russia
has decided for some reason that it can be the architect of a new Berlin wall. And, according to Russias design, this wall should appear at the border between
Ukraine and the European Union". Yatsenyuk is against privatization of state property and wants to simplify the civil service. Yatsenyuk has stated in November
2009 that the question of the Russian Black Sea Fleet's withdrawal (then lease was originally supposed to end in 2017) from Ukraine is not currently on the
agenda, and the question should be discussed in 2016. Yatsenyuk was against the April 21, 2010 agreement in which the Russian lease on naval facilities in
Crimea would be extended beyond 2017 by 25 years with an additional five-year renewal option (to 204247) in exchange for a multiyear discounted contract to
provide Ukraine with Russian natural gas. Yatsenyuk favours the creation of a special "vice prime minister for Crimean issues". In November 2009 Yatsenyuk
stated that Ukraine's shadow economy "is a part of the current political system in Ukraine and that's why taking business out of the shadows will only be possible
via a change in this system". In November 2009 he saw as his most difficult task if elected President "to break the political clan system that has been built up over
the last 18 years". Yatsenyuk wants to create a common energy company with European Union countries and Russia. According to Yatsenyuk it will be impossible
to fight corruption without changing the country's system of government, "The system of government in Ukraine has in fact remained the same as it was under the
Soviet Union". In late July 2010 Yatsenyuk wrote a draft law which proposed to fine officials for violating the law "On Appeals by Citizens", thus holding officials
personally accountable for ignoring the complaints of citizens. In November 2009 he proposed that a referendum be held on if Ukraine should have an open list
voting system. Yatsenyuk is in favour of holding referenda; he calls this "nationalization of state power". The amendment of the terms and conditions of the
Russian Black Sea Fleet's presence in Ukraine and a decision on Ukraine's membership of NATO and other military alliances are according to Yatsenyuk only
possible through a referendum. Yatsenyuk has stated the convicted politicians Yulia Tymoshenko and Yuriy Lutsenko should be released and has
proposed/written laws to make this happen. He also believes their convictions are a "difficult obstacle on Ukraine's path to the European Union." In early
December 2012, he stated that he was ready to open a dialogue with the authorities only after Tymoshenko and Lutsenko were released. Yatsenyuk opposes
participation of Ukrainian troops in peacekeeping operations abroad. Yatsenyuk opposes same-sex marriage, because it contradicts his personal beliefs as a
Greek Catholic. Yatsenyuk's wife is Tereza Viktorivna (born 1970), they also have two daughters named Khrystyna and Sofiya. Tereza Yatsenyuk was born into a
family of philosophers. Her father, Viktor Illarionovych Gur, works as a professor of philosophy at the Kyiv Polytechnic Institute; her mother Svitlana Mykytivna,
PhD, is now retired. Yatsenyuk's family lives near Kiev (the village of Novi Petrivtsi, Vyshhorod Raion) since 2003, where he owns a two-storeyed house with an
outdoor swimming pool, near the country house belonging to Viktor Yanukovych. Yatsenyuk also has a sister Alina Petrovna Jones (according to other sources
Steel, (born 1967), residing in the city of Santa Barbara, California United States. Arseniy Yatsenuk heads the Open Ukraine Foundation, an international
foundation based in Ukraine. It was established in July 2007 for the "strengthening and development of Ukraine's reputation in the world." Open Ukraine works
with the young generation of artists, scholars and community leaders who seek to implement social changes in the different regions. Open Ukraine is partnered
with the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), the United States Department of State and Chatham House, among other organizations. Yatsenyuk is
popularly known by the nickname "The Rabbit" because of his resemblance to the eponymous character in the Soviet adaptation of the Winnie-the-Pooh
cartoon. During some public gatherings attempts were made to present Yatsenyuk with a carrot, a basket of cabbage and a rabbit fur coat. The last attempt was
deflected by Yatsenyuk's security team. He recived awards, Cavalier of the Order of Prince Yaroslav the Wise Fifth Class awarded on February 7, 2008 for
significant personal contribution to the integration of Ukraine into the World Trade Organization and Medal "For the Glory of Chernivtsi" (2008).
Petro Oleksiyovych Poroshenko (Ukrainian:

, Ukrainian pronunciation: [pt'r

ok'sijovt poro'nko]; born September 26, 1965) is the fifth and current President of Ukraine since June 7, 2014. He served as
the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Ukraine from October 9, 2009 until March 11, 2010, and as the Minister of Trade and
Economic Development of Ukraine from March 23 until December 24, 2012. From 2007 until 2012, Poroshenko headed the
Council of Ukraine's National Bank. He was also Secretary of the National Security and Defense Council of Ukraine from
February 8 until September 8, 2005. Beyond politics, Poroshenko has had a career as a successful businessman. He owns, along
with a number of other companies, a large-scale confectionery business, which has earned him the nickname of 'Chocolate King'.
He was elected president on May 25, 2014, capturing more than 54% of the vote in the first round, thereby winning outright and
avoiding a run-off. Poroshenko was born in the city of Bolhrad, in Odessa Oblast, on September 26, 1965, but was raised in the
city of Vinnytsia in central Ukraine. He also spent his childhood and youth in Bendery (Moldavian SSR, now officially Moldova
but under de facto control of the unrecognised breakaway state Transnistria.) His father Oleksiy was an agricultural engineer. In
his youth, Poroshenko practiced judo and sambo, and was Candidate for Honoured Master of Sport of the USSR. Despite good
grades he was not awarded the normal gold medal at graduation, and on his report card he was given a "C" for his behavior. After
getting into a fight with four Soviet Army cadets at the military commissariat, he was sent to army service in the distant Kazakh
SSR. In 1989, Poroshenko graduated (he started the study in 1982) with a degree in economics from the international relations and law department (subsequently
the Institute of International Relations) at the Kiev State University. In 1984, he married a medical student, Maryna Perevedentseva (born 1962). Their first son,
Oleksiy, was born in 1985 (his three other children were born in 2000 and 2001). From 1989 to 1992, he was an assistant at the universitys international
economic relations department. While still a student, he founded a legal advisory firm mediating the negotiation of contracts in foreign trade, and then he
undertook the negotiations himself, starting to supply cocoa beans to the Soviet chocolate industry in 1991. At the same time, he was deputy director of the
Republic Union of Small Businesses and Entrepreneurs, and the CEO Exchange House Ukraine. In 1993, Poroshenko, together with his father Oleksiy and
colleagues from the Road Traffic Institute in Kiev, created the UkrPromInvest Ukrainian Industry and Investment Company, which specialised in confectionery
(and later other agricultural processing industries) and the automotive industry. Poroshenko was director-general of the company from its founding until 1998,
when in connection with his entry into parliament he handed the title over to his father, while retaining the title of honorary president. Between 1996 and 1998,
UkrPromInvest acquired control over several state-owned confectionery enterprises which were combined into the Roshen group in 1996, creating the largest
confectionery manufacturing operation in Ukraine. His business success in the confectionery industry earned him the nickname "Chocolate King". Poroshenko's
business empire also includes several car and bus plants, Leninska Kuznya shipyard, the 5 Kanal television channel, as well as other businesses. In March 2012,
Forbes placed him on the Forbes list of billionaires at 1,153rd place, with $1 billion. A number of businesses were once part of the Ukrprominvest which
Poroshenko headed in 19931998. The investment group was dissolved in April 2012. Poroshenko has stated that upon beginning his political activity he passed
on his holdings to a trust fund. Bogdan group (Poroshenko sold his share in connection with the collapse of its production after the 2008 economic crisis in
2009), Roshen group, 5 Kanal television channel and Leninska Kuznya shipyard. Poroshenko first won a seat in the Verkhovna Rada (the Ukrainian Parliament)
in 1998. He was initially a member of the United Social Democratic Party of Ukraine (SDPU), the party loyal to president Leonid Kuchma at the time.
Poroshenko left SDPU(o) in 2000 to create an independent left-of-center faction, naming it Solidarity. In 2001 Poroshenko was instrumental in creating the
Party of Regions, also loyal to Kuchma, but Solidarity never joined it. In December 2001 Poroshenko broke ranks with Kuchma supporters to become campaign
chief of Viktor Yushchenko's Our Ukraine Bloc opposition faction. After parliamentary elections in March 2002 in which Our Ukraine won the biggest share of
the popular vote and Poroshenko won a seat in parliament, Poroshenko served as head of the parliamentary budget committee, where he was accused of
"misplacing 47 million hryvnias" (USD$8.9 million). As a consequence of Poroshenko's Our Ukraine Bloc membership tax inspectors launched an attack on his
business. Despite great difficulties, UkrPromInvest managed to survive until Yushchenko became President of Ukraine in 2005. Poroshenko was considered a
close confidant of Yushchenko, who is godfather to Poroshenko's daughters. Poroshenko was likely to have been the wealthiest businessman among Yushchenko
supporters, and was often named as one of the main financial backers of Our Ukraine and the Orange Revolution. After Yushchenko won the presidential
elections in 2004, Poroshenko was appointed Secretary of the National Security and Defense Council. In September 2005, highly publicized mutual allegations
of corruption erupted between Poroshenko and Prime Minister Yulia Tymoshenko involving the privatizations of state-owned firms. Poroshenko, for example,
was accused of defending the interests of Viktor Pinchuk, who had acquired state firm Nikopol Ferroalloy for $80 million, independently valued at $1 billion. In
response to the allegations, Yushchenko dismissed his entire cabinet of ministers, including Poroshenko and Tymoshenko. State prosecutors dismissed an abuse
of power investigation against Poroshenko the following month, immediately after Yushchenko dismissed Svyatoslav Piskun, General Prosecutor of Ukraine.
Piskun claimed that he was sacked because he refused to institute criminal proceedings against Tymoshenko and refused to drop proceedings against
Poroshenko. In the March 2006 parliamentary election Poroshenko was re-elected to the Ukrainian parliament with the support of Our Ukraine electoral bloc.
He chaired the parliamentary Committee on Finance and Banking. Allegedly, since Poroshenko claimed the post of Chairman of the Ukrainian Parliament for
himself, the Socialist Party of Ukraine chose to be part of the Alliance of National Unity because it was promised that their party leader, Oleksandr Moroz, would
be elected chairman if the coalition were formed. This left Poroshenko's Our Ukraine and their ally Yulia Tymoshenko Bloc out of the Government.
Poroshenko did not run in the September 2007 parliamentary election. Poroshenko started heading the Council of Ukraine's National Bank in February 2007.
Between 1999 and 2012 he was a board member of the National Bank of Ukraine. Poroshenko at the Russian-Ukrainian international commission meeting in
2009 Ukrainian President Yushchenko nominated Poroshenko for Foreign Minister on October 7, 2009. Poroshenko was appointed by the Verkhovna Rada
(Ukraine's parliament) on October 9, 2009. On October 12, 2009, President Yushchenko re-appointed Poroshenko to the National Security and Defense
Council. Poroshenko supported Ukrainian NATO-membership. However, he also stated NATO membership should not be a goal in itself. Although
Poroshenko was dismissed as foreign minister on March 11, 2010, President Viktor Yanukovych expressed hope for further cooperation with him. In late
February 2012 Poroshenko was named as the new Minister of Trade and Economic Development in the Azarov Government; on March 9, 2012 President
Yanukovych stated he wanted Poroshenko to work in the government in the post of economic development and trade minister. On March 23, 2012 Poroshenko
was appointed economic development and trade minister of Ukraine by Yanukovych. The same month he stepped down as head of the Council of Ukraine's
National Bank. Poroshenko claims that he became Minister of Trade and Economic Development in order to help bring Ukraine closer to the EU and get Yulia
Tymoshenko released from prison. After he took the post, tax inspectors launched an attack on his business. Poroshenko returned to the Verkhovna Rada
(parliament) after the 2012 Ukrainian parliamentary election after winning (with more than 70%) as an independent candidate in single-member district number
12 (first-past-the-post wins a parliamentary seat) located in Vinnytsia Oblast. He did not enter any faction in parliament and became member of the committee for
European Integration. Poroshenko's father Oleksiy did intend to take part in the elections too in single-member district number 16 (also located in Vinnytsia
Oblast), but withdrew his candidacy for health reasons. In mid-February 2013, Poroshenko hinted he would run for Mayor of Kiev in the 2013 Kiev mayoral
election. During the Euromaidan protests, between November 2013 and February 2014, Poroshenko actively supported the protest, including with financial
support. This led to an upsurge of his popularity. He did not participate in negotiations between then President Yanukovych and the Euromaidan Maidan
parliamentary opposition parties Batkivshchyna, Svoboda and UDAR. Poroshenko refused to join the Yatsenyuk Government (although he introduced his
colleague Volodymyr Groysman, the mayor of Vinnitsa, into it), and nor did he join any of the two newly created parliamentary factions Economic Development
and Sovereign European Ukraine. During the 2014 Crimean crisis Poroshenko visited Simferopol, in Crimea, prior to its annexation by Russia; "We have to find
a compromise," Poroshenko told a crowd gathered in front of the Crimean parliament, but his appeal was drowned by shouts of "Russia, Russia." In an interview
with Lally Weymouth, Poroshenko said: "From the beginning, I was one of the organizers of the Maidan. My television channel Channel 5 played a
tremendously important role. ... At that time, Channel 5 started to broadcast, there were just 2,000 people on the Maidan. But during the night, people went by
foot seven, eight, nine, 10 kilometers understanding this is a fight for Ukrainian freedom and democracy. In four hours, almost 30,000 people were there."
The BBC reported, "Mr Poroshenko owns 5 Kanal TV, the most popular news channel in Ukraine, which showed clear pro-opposition sympathies during the
months of political crisis in Kiev." Following the 2014 Ukrainian revolution and the resulting removal of Viktor Yanukovych from the office of President of
Ukraine, new presidential elections were scheduled to take place on 25 May 2014. In pre-election polls from March 2014, Poroshenko garnered the most
support of all the prospective candidates, with one poll conducted by SOCIS giving him a rating of over 40%. On March 29, 2014 he stated that he would run for
president; at the same time Vitali Klitschko left the presidential contest, choosing to support Poroshenko's bid. On April 2, 2014 Poroshenko stated, "If I am
elected, I will be honest and sell the Roshen Concern." He also said in early April that the level of popular support for the idea of Ukraine's joining NATO was
too small to put on the agenda "so as not to ruin the country." He also vowed not to sell his 5 Kanal television channel. On April 14, 2014 Poroshenko publicly
endorsed the campaign of Jarosaw Gowin's party Poland Together of neighbouring Poland in this year's elections to the European Parliament, thanking Gowin's
party colleague Pawe Kowal for supporting Ukraine. Poroshenko's election slogan was: "Live in a new way -- Poroshenko!". On May 29, 2014 the Central
Election Commission of Ukraine announced that Poroshenko had won the May 25, 2014 presidential election, with 54.7% of the votes. When it became clear
he had won the election on election day evening (on May 25, 2014) Poroshenko announced "My first presidential trip will be to Donbas", where armed pro-
Russian rebels had declared the separatist republics Donetsk People's Republic and Lugansk People's Republic and control a large part of the region.
Poroshenko also vowed to continue the military operations by the Ukrainian government forces to end the armed insurgency claiming "The anti-terrorist
operation cannot and should not last two or three months. It should and will last hours." He compared the armed pro-Russian rebels to Somali pirates.
Poroshenko also called for negotiations with Russia in the presence of international intermediaries. Russia responded by saying it did not need an intermediary
in its bilateral relations with Ukraine. As president-elect Poroshenko promised to return Crimea, which was annexed by Russia in March 2014. He also vowed to
hold new parliamentary elections in 2014. Poroshenko was inaugurated in the Verkhovna Rada (parliament) on June 7, 2014. In his inaugural address he stressed
that Ukraine would not give up Crimea and stressed the unity of Ukraine. He promised an amnesty "for those who do not have blood on their hands" to the
separatist and pro-Russia insurgents of the 2014 pro-Russian conflict in Ukraine and to the Ukrainian nationalist groups that oppose them, but added: "Talking to
gangsters and killers is not our path". He also called for early regional elections in Eastern Ukraine. Poroshenko also stated that he would sign the economic part
of the UkraineEuropean Union Association Agreement and that this was the first step towards full Ukrainian EU Membership. During the speech he stated he
saw "Ukrainian as the only state language" but also spoke of the "guarantees [of] the unhindered development of Russian and all the other languages". The
inauguration was attended by about 50 foreign delegations, including US Vice President Joe Biden, President of Poland Bronisaw Komorowski, President of
Belarus Alexander Lukashenko, President of Lithuania Dalia Grybauskait, President of Switzerland and the OSCE Chairman-in-Office Didier Burkhalter,
President of Germany Joachim Gauck, President of Georgia Giorgi Margvelashvili, Prime Minister of Canada Stephen Harper, Prime Minister of Hungary
Viktor Orbn, President of the European Council Herman Van Rompuy, the OSCE Secretary General Lamberto Zannier, UN Under-Secretary-General for
Political Affairs Jeffrey Feldman, China's Minister of Culture Cai Wu and Ambassador of Russia to Ukraine Mikhail Zurabov, Former Prime Minister of
Ukraine Yulia Tymoshenko was also present. After the inauguration ceremony Tymoshenko said about Poroshenko "I think Ukraine has found a very powerful
additional factor of stability". At the time of his inauguration armed pro-Russian rebels had declared the separatist republics Donetsk People's Republic and
Lugansk People's Republic and control a large part of Eastern Ukraine. Poroshenko (after his inauguration) launched a peace plan envisaged for the recognition
of the presidential elections in Ukraine by Russia, a cease-fire by the separatists (named "terrorists" by Poroshenko himself) and the establishment of humanitarian
corridor for civilians ("who are not involved in the conflict"). Poroshenko warned that he had a "Plan B". Russian Foreign Minister Sergei Lavrov said that
Poroshenkos peace plan "look like an ultimatum". Poroshenko pledged revenge against separatists after 19 Ukrainian soldiers were killed in a rocket attack:
"Militants will pay hundreds of their lives for each life of our servicemen. Not a single terrorist will avoid responsibility. Each of them will be punished". In mid-
June Poroshenko started the process of amending Ukraine's constitution to achieve Ukraine's administrative decentralization. According to Poroshenko (on June
16, 2014) this was "a key element of the peace plan". In his draft constitutional amendments of June 2014 proposed changing the administrative divisions of
Ukraine, which should include regions (replacing the current oblasts), districts and "hromadas" (communities). In these amendments he also proposed that
"Village, city, district and regional administrations will be able to determine the status of the Russian language and other national minority languages of Ukraine in
accordance with the procedure established by the law and within the borders of their administrative and territorial units". He proposed that Ukrainian remained
the only state language of Ukraine. Poroshenko further proposed to create the post of presidential representatives who would supervise the enforcement of the
Ukrainian constitution and laws and the observation of human rights and freedoms in oblasts and raions/raions of cities. In case of an "emergency situation or
martial law regime" they will "guide and organize" in the territories they are stationed in. In June 2014 Poroshenko forbade any cooperation with Russia in the
military sphere. At the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe on June 26, 2014 Poroshenko stated that bilateral relations with Russia cannot be
normalized unless Russia undoes its unilateral annexation of Crimea and returns its control of Crimea to Ukraine. The European Union (EU) and Ukraine
signed the economic part of the UkraineEuropean Union Association Agreement on June 27, 2014. Poroshenko stated that was "Ukraine's most historic day
since independence in 1991", describing it as a "symbol of faith and unbreakable will". He saw the signing as the start of preparations for Ukrainian EU
Membership. Poroshenko has been married to Maryna since 1984. The couple has four children: Olexiy (born 1985), the twins Yevheniya and Oleksandra
(born 2000) and Mykhaylo (born 2001). Olexiy is a representative in the regional parliament of Vinnytsia Oblast. Maryna Poroshenko is a cardiologist, who does
not take part in public life, apart from her participation in the activities of the Petro Poroshenko Charity Foundation. Poroshenko is godfather to the children of
former Ukrainian president Viktor Yushchenko. Poroshenko became a grandfather on the day of his presidential inauguration of June 7, 2014. Poroshenko is a
member of the Ukrainian Orthodox Church (Moscow Patriarchate). Poroshenko has financed the restoration of its buildings and monasteries. In high-level
meetings he is often seen with a crucifix. In Ukraine, Poroshenko is widely seen as a pragmatic politician who sees Ukraine's future in the European Union, but
hopes to mend relations with Russia. He is nicknamed 'Chocolate King' because of his ownership of a large confectionery business. In 2006, John Herbst, US
Ambassador to Ukraine, described Poroshenko as a "disgraced oligarch." Later that same year Sheila Gwaltney, Deputy Chief of Mission at the US Embassy in
Ukraine, said that "Poroshenko was tainted by credible corruption allegations." Poroshenko has stated that "Oligarchs are people who seek power in order to
further enrich themselves. But I have long fought against bandits who are robbing our country and have destroyed free enterprise". In early 2014, the Russian
government-aligned television station NTV aired a film which portrayed Poroshenko extremely negatively.
Volodymyr Borysovych Groysman (Ukrainian: ; born January 20, 1978 in Vinnytsia,
Ukrainian SSR) is the current Deputy Prime Minister of Ukraine for Regional Policy Minister of Regional Development,
Construction and Housing and Communal Services of Ukraine in the Yatsenyuk Government since February 27, 2014 and cyrrently
Acting Prime Minister of Ukraine from FJuly 24, 2014. He was also mayor of Vinnytsia from March 28, 2006 until February 27, 2014.

In 2002, Groysman was elected a member of the Vinnytsia City Council from electoral district 29. He worked as the deputy head of the
permanent Committee of the City Council on Human Rights, Lawfulness, Council Members' Activities and Ethics. In 2003, he
graduated from the Interregional Academy of Personnel Management with a specialty in Jurisprudence. On November 25, 2005, he
was elected the head of the city council and the acting mayor. Groysman was elected the mayor of Vinnytsia at the age of 28 on March
26, 2006, becoming the youngest ever mayor of the regional center of Ukraine. In the elections of October 10, 2010, he was reelected
mayor for a second term, gaining the support of 77.81% of citizens. While mayor Groysman was the Vice-President of the Association
of Ukrainian Cities and the Legal Issues society. In February 2010, Groysman graduated from the National Academy of State
Governing under the President of Ukraine with a specialty in Community Development Management, especially management on the local and regional levels.
On February 27, 2014, Groysman was appointed Deputy Prime Minister for Regional Policy Minister of Regional Development, Construction and Housing
and Communal Services of Ukraine in the Yatsenyuk Government. The parliamentary coalition that supported this government collapsed on July 24, 2014, and
the same day Prime MinisterArseniy Yatsenyuk announced that he was immediately resigning from the post of Prime Minister. However, Yatsenyuk's resignation
has yet to be officially accepted by parliament, and they did not do this the day after his resignation.

Instead MPs decided that their next meeting will be on July
31, 2014. Nevertheless, also on July 25, 2014 the Yatsenyuk Government appointed Groysman as its acting Prime Minister.

Groysman is married and has two
daughters and a son. Groysman is of jewish decent.

Groysman has been awarded the Order of Merit of the 3rd degree, the Cavaliers Cross of the Order of Merit
of Poland, and the Order of Merit of the 2nd degree.
Moana Carcasses Kalosil (born January 27, 1963) is a politician in Vanuatu and Prime Minister of Vanuatu from March 23, 2013
until May 15, 2014. He is the first naturalized citizen of Vanuatu to become the country's prime minister. Moana Carcasses was born on
January 27, 1963 in Taravao, Tahiti, French Polynesia. His mother was ethnically Tahitian. His French father was originally from the
region surrounding Carcassonne in Southern France. He served as Foreign Minister under Prime Minister Edward Natapei from 2003 to
2004. Following parliamentary elections, he became Finance Minister on July 28, 2004 under Prime Minister Serge Vohor. He kept the
post of finance minister when Ham Lini became prime minister later in 2004. He remained in that position until November 14, 2005 when
he was sacked by Lini for unclear reasons. He is a member of the Vanuatu Green Party (Green Confederation), which he led into the
opposition when he lost his cabinet post in November 2005. On that occasion became deputy leader of the opposition. In the September
2008 general election, he retained his seat, as well as the leadership of the Green Confederation, and became whip of the parliamentary
Opposition to Prime Minister Edward Natapei's government. In December 2008, he and fellow Member of Parliament Ralph Regenvanu were arrested, detained
by the police for 24 hours, and charged with "harbouring and aiding of prisoners", "obstructing police on duty" and "accessory after the fact" to the breakout of 30
inmates from the country's main prison in Port Vila. Although Regenvanu admitted having known of the plans for the breakout, and having assisted escapees in
finding shelter at the National Council of Chiefs's nakamal, it is not clear what role Carcasses allegedly played in these events. They were released, provisionally,
and appeared in court in February 2009. In January 2009, Prime Minister Edward Natapei's government stated that it would consider seeking Regenvanu's and
Carcasses' suspension from Parliament over the charges. In September 2009, the Supreme Court dropped all charges against both men. In December 2009, in
the context of a Cabinet reshuffle, Carcasses left the Opposition and joined Natapei's government, becoming Minister of Internal Affairs.[citation needed] In his
latter capacity, he argued that unemployment in Vanuatu should be addressed by encouraging young people to return to agricultural work in their native rural
areas, and produce their own food, rather than move to Port Vila where they would often struggle to find a job. He joined the Cabinet as the leader of an
informal "Alliance" of MPs from a variety of small parties, and three independent MPs. As Minister for Internal Affairs and Labour, he stated that he had
prevented unqualified applicant Chinese labourers in the construction sector from obtaining or renewing work permits, "because these people wanted to rob
employment from ni-Vanuatu. My policy is that 'man ples' [indigenous ni-Vanuatu] are the priority". In December 2010, when the Natapei government was
ousted in a vote of no confidence, Carcasses supported his successor Sato Kilman, and obtained a post as Minister of Finance and Economic Management in the
new government. Kilman was himself ousted in a vote of no confidence on April 24, 2011, however, and Carcasses lost his position in government. He recovered
it three weeks later, on May 13, 2011 when the court of appeal voided the election of Serge Vohor's new government on constitutional grounds, and the Kilman
government was restored. This lasted for only a month; on June 16, 2011 the Kilman premiership was itself voided on constitutional grounds by the Supreme
Court's Chief Justice Vincent Lunabek, and Carcasses lost office once more. He regained it on June 26, 2011 when Kilman was restored as Prime Minister by
Parliament, and reinstated his Cabinet. Carcasses retained his seat in the October 2012 general election, and maintained his confidence in the Kilman
government, of which however he was no longer a member. He sat as a government backbencher until March 20, 2013, when he was one of 8 MPs to cross the
floor, join the Opposition and force Kilman to resign. Three days later, Parliament elected Carcasses as Prime Minister, with the support of 34 MPs out of 52.
He is the first foreign-born person to lead the country, and his predecessor objected to his election on those grounds. In addition to his focus on the environment
(including the creation of a Ministry for Planning and Climate Change, the press noted "his unwavering support for the West Papua cause", and his opposition to
Indonesia's participation as an observer in the Melanesian Spearhead Group - a position which contrasted with his predecessor's. He entrusted his Minister for
Foreign Affairs, Edward Natapei, with a clean-up of the selling of diplomatic passports by previous governments. Within the first few days of the Carcasses
government, the passports of "about ten" diplomats were revoked, with indications that more than two thirds of the country's diplomats could lose their position,
as their appointment had not followed proper procedures.
Joe Natuman, (born November 24, 1952) is a ni-Vanuatu politician, member of the Vanua'aku Pati and Prime Minister of Vanuatu
since May 15, 2014. He is a graduate of the University of the South Pacific, and was also an exchange student at the University of Papua
New Guinea. In the 1980s, he worked in the highest ranks of the civil service, culminating with the position of First Secretary to the Prime
Minister's Office from 1987 to 1991, at the time of Prime Minister Walter Lini. He then worked as assistant registrar at the University of
the South Pacific in Suva, Fiji, until 1995. He entered national politics when he was elected MP for Tanna, representing the Vanua'aku Pati,
in the 1995 general election. He has been continuously re-elected since. From 1996 to 2008, he served in the following positions in
successive governments: Minister for Judicial Services, Culture and Women's Affairs of Vanuatu in 1996, Minister for Lands, Energy,
Geology and Mines of Vanuatu in 1997, Minister for Education of Vanuatu in 1998, Minister for Internal Affairs of Vanuatu from April to
March 2002, Minister for Education of Vanuatu in 2004, Minister for Internal Affairs of Vanuatu from 2007 to 2008. While Minister of
Education, he was chairman of the Vanuatu National Commission for UNESCO. Prime Minister Edward Natapei appointed him Minister for Lands in 2008,
then reshuffled him to the position of Minister for Foreign Affairs, External Trade and Telecommunications in 2010. Natapei's government was ousted in a
motion of no confidence in December 2010, and Natuman sat on the Opposition benches until Serge Vohor ascended to the premiership in a successful motion
of no confidence against Prime Minister Sato Kilman on Easter Sunday April 24, 2011, and restored Natuman as Minister for Foreign Affairs. Three weeks later,
however, Vohor's election and premiership were voided by the Court of Appeal, and Natuman lost his position in government on May 13, 2011. On June 16,
2011 Kilman's election and premiership were themselves voided by the Supreme Court, on constitutional grounds, and previous Prime Minister Edward Natapei
became caretaker Prime Minister until a new leader could be elected. Natuman was restored as interim Minister of Foreign Affairs. Transparency International
subsequently praised Natuman for having, as Minister for Foreign Affairs, "proceeded with a full clean-up" in the selling of diplomatic passports which had
occurred frequently under previous governments.On June 26, 2011, Sato Kilman was elected Prime Minister by Parliament, and Natuman lost his position in
government. He was become on place Prime Minister of Vanuatu on May 15, 2014.

Pope Francis (Latin: Franciscus; Italian: Francesco; born Jorge Mario Bergoglio, born December 18, 1936) is the pope
of the Catholic Church, in which capacity he is Bishop of Rome and absolute Sovereign of the Vatican City State since
March 13, 2013. Born in Buenos Aires, Argentina, Bergoglio worked briefly as a chemical technician and nightclub bouncer
before entering the seminary. He was ordained a Catholic priest in 1969, and from 1973 to 1979 was Argentina's Provincial
Superior of the Society of Jesus. He became the Archbishop of Buenos Aires in 1998, and was created a cardinal in 2001 by
Pope John Paul II. Following the resignation of Pope Benedict XVI on February 28, 2013, a papal conclave elected
Bergoglio as his successor on March 13, 2013. He chose Francis as his papal name in honor of Saint Francis of Assisi.
Francis is the first Jesuit Pope, the first Pope from the Americas, the first Pope from the Southern Hemisphere and the first
non-European Pope since Pope Gregory III in 741, 1,272 years earlier. Throughout his public life, both as an individual and
as a religious leader, Pope Francis has been noted for his humility, his concern for the poor, and his commitment to
dialogue as a way to build bridges between people of all backgrounds, beliefs, and faiths. He is known for having a simpler
and less formal approach to the papacy, most notably by choosing to reside in the Domus Sanctae Marthae guesthouse
rather than the papal apartments of the Apostolic Palace used by his predecessors. In addition, due to both his Jesuit and
Ignatian aesthetic, he is known for favoring simpler vestments void of ornamentation, by starting to refuse the traditional
papal mozzetta cape upon his election, choosing silver instead of gold for his piscatory ring, and keeping the same pectoral
cross he had when he was cardinal. The Pontiff has affirmed Catholic doctrine on abortion, artificial contraception, and homosexuality. Whilst maintaining the
Church's teaching against homosexual acts, he has said that gay people should not be marginalized. As a cardinal, he opposed same-sex marriage in Argentina. In
addition, he maintains that he is a "Son of the Church" regarding loyalty to Church doctrine, and has spoken against abortion as "horrific", suggested that women
be valued, not clericalized. Summarily, Pope Francis reiterates that "It is absurd to say you follow Jesus Christ, but reject the Church." Accordingly, he urged
Bishop Charles J. Scicluna of Malta to speak out against adoption by same-sex couples, maintained that divorced and re-married Catholics may not receive the
Eucharist, and excommunicated a former Catholic priest for Eucharistic sacrilege and heretical views. Furthermore, he emphasized the Christian obligation to
assist the poor and the needy in an optimistic tone, as well as promoting peace negotiations and interfaith dialogue. Pope Francis has also announced a zero-
tolerance policy towards sex abuse in the Church, saying that sex abuse was "as bad as performing a satanic mass." Jorge Mario Bergoglio was born in Flores, a
barrio of Buenos Aires. He was the eldest of five children of Mario Jos Bergoglio, an Italian immigrant accountant born in Portacomaro (Province of Asti) in
Italy's Piedmont region, and his wife Regina Mara Svori, a housewife born in Buenos Aires to a family of northern Italian (Piedmontese-Genoese) origin. Mario
Jos's family left Italy in 1929, to escape the fascist regime of Benito Mussolini. His daughter Mara Elena confirmed that their emigration was not caused by
economic reasons. She is the pope's only living sibling. His brother Alberto died in June 2010. Bergoglio has been a lifelong supporter of the San Lorenzo de
Almagro football club. Bergoglio is also a fan of the films of Tita Merello, neorealism and tango dancing, with an "intense fondness" for the traditional music of
Argentina and Uruguay known as the milonga.[43] In the sixth grade, Bergoglio attended Wilfrid Barn de los Santos ngeles, a school of the Salesians of Don
Bosco, in Ramos Meja, Buenos Aires. He attended the technical secondary school Escuela Nacional de Educacin Tcnica N 27 Hiplito Yrigoyen and
graduated with a chemical technician's diploma. He worked for a few years in that capacity in the foods section at Hickethier-Bachmann Laboratory. In the only
known health crisis of his youth, at the age of 21 he suffered from life-threatening pneumonia and three cysts. He had part of a lung excised shortly afterwards.
Before joining the Jesuits, Bergoglio worked as a bar bouncer and as a janitor sweeping floors, and he also ran tests in a chemical laboratory. Bergoglio studied at
the archdiocesan seminary, Inmaculada Concepcin Seminary, in Villa Devoto, Buenos Aires, and, after three years, entered the Society of Jesus as a novice on
March 11, 1958. Bergoglio has said that as a young seminarian, he had a crush on a girl he met at an uncle's wedding, so much so that he doubted about
continuing the religious career. As a Jesuit novice he studied humanities in Santiago, Chile. At the conclusion of his novitiate in the Society of Jesus, Bergoglio
officially became a Jesuit on March 12, 1960, when he made the religious profession of the initial, perpetual vows of Poverty, Chastity and Obedience of a
member of the order. In 1960, Bergoglio obtained a licentiate in philosophy from the Colegio Mximo de San Jos in San Miguel, Buenos Aires Province. He
taught literature and psychology at the Colegio de la Inmaculada Concepcin, a high school in Santa Fe, from 1964 to 1965. In 1966 he taught the same courses
at the Colegio del Salvador in Buenos Aires. In 1967, Bergoglio finished his theological studies and was ordained to the priesthood on December 13, 1969, by
Archbishop Ramn Jos Castellano. He attended the Facultades de Filosofa y Teologa de San Miguel (Philosophical and Theological Faculty of San Miguel), a
seminary in San Miguel. He served as the master of novices for the province there and became a professor of theology. Bergoglio completed his final stage of
spiritual formation as a Jesuit, tertianship, at Alcal de Henares, Spain. He took the final fourth vow (obedience to the pope) in the Society of Jesus on April 22,
1973, which added to the previous three. He was named Provincial Superior of the Society of Jesus in Argentina on July 31, 1973 and served until 1979. He
made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem in 1973, shortly after being named Provincial Superior, but his stay was shortened by the outbreak of the Yom Kippur War.
After the completion of his term of office, in 1980 he was named the rector of the Philosophical and Theological Faculty of San Miguel in San Miguel.[62]
Before taking up this new appointment, he spent the first three months of 1980 in Ireland to learn English, staying at the Jesuit Centre in the Milltown Institute of
Theology and Philosophy, Dublin. After returning to Argentina to take up his new post at San Miguel, Father Bergoglio served in that capacity until 1986. He
spent several months at the Sankt Georgen Graduate School of Philosophy and Theology in Frankfurt, Germany, while considering possible dissertation topics,
before returning to Argentina to serve as a confessor and spiritual director to the Jesuit community in Crdoba. In Germany he saw the painting Mary Untier of
Knots in Augsburg and brought a copy of the painting to Argentina where it has become an important Marian devotion. As a student at the Salesian school,
Bergoglio was mentored by Ukrainian Greek Catholic priest Stefan Czmil. Bergoglio often rose hours before his classmates to concelebrate Divine Liturgy with
Czmil. Bergoglio was named Auxiliary Bishop of Buenos Aires in 1992 and ordained on June 27, 1992 as Titular Bishop of Auca, with Cardinal Antonio
Quarracino, Archbishop of Buenos Aires, serving as principal consecrator. On June 3, 1997, Bergoglio was appointed Coadjutor Archbishop of Buenos Aires
with right of automatic succession. He chose as his episcopal motto Miserando atque eligendo. It is drawn from Bede's homily on Matthew 9:913: "because he
saw him through the eyes of mercy and chose him". Upon Quarracino's death on February 28, 1998, Bergoglio became Metropolitan Archbishop of Buenos
Aires. In that role, Bergoglio created new parishes and restructured the archdiocese administrative offices, led pro-life initiatives, and created a commission on
divorces. One of Bergoglio's major initiatives as archbishop was to increase the Church's presence in the slums of Buenos Aires. Under his leadership, the
number of priests assigned to work in the slums doubled. Early in his time as Archbishop of Buenos Aires, Bergoglio sold off the Archdiocese's shares in
multiple banks and turned its accounts into those of a normal customer in international banks. The shares in banks had led the local church to a high leniency
towards high spending, and the archdiocese was nearing bankruptcy as a result. As a normal customer of the bank, the church was forced into a higher fiscal
discipline. On November 6, 1998, while remaining Archbishop of Buenos Aires, he was named ordinary for those Eastern Catholics in Argentina who lacked a
prelate of their own rite. Archbishop Shevchuk has said that Bergoglio understands the liturgy, rites, and spirituality of his Greek Catholic Church and always
"took care of our Church in Argentina" as ordinary for Eastern Catholics during his time as Archbishop of Buenos Aires. In 2000, Bergoglio was the only church
official to reconcile with Jernimo Podest, a former bishop who had been suspended as a priest after opposing the military dictatorship in 1972, and he
defended Podest's wife from Vatican attacks on their marriage. That same year, Bergoglio said the Argentine Catholic Church needed "to put on garments of
public penance for the sins committed during the years of the dictatorship" in the 1970s, the years known as the Dirty War. Bergoglio made it his custom to
celebrate the Holy Thursday ritual washing of feet in places such as jails, hospitals, retirement homes or slums. In 2007, just two days after Benedict XVI issued
new rules for using the liturgical forms that preceded the Second Vatican Council, Cardinal Bergoglio was one of the first bishops in the world to respond by
instituting a Tridentine Mass in Buenos Aires. It was celebrated weekly. On November 8, 2005, Bergoglio was elected president of the Argentine Episcopal
Conference for a three-year term (200508). He was reelected to another three-year term on November 11, 2008. He remained a member of that Commission's
permanent governing body, president of its committee for the Pontifical Catholic University of Argentina, and a member of its liturgy committee for the care of
shrines. While head of the Argentine Catholic bishops' conference, Bergoglio issued a collective apology for his church's failure to protect people from the Junta
during the Dirty War. When he turned 75 in December 2011, Bergoglio submitted his resignation as Archbishop of Buenos Aires to Pope Benedict XVI as
required by Canon Law. Still, as he had no coadjutor archbishop, he stayed in office, waiting for an eventual replacement appointed by the Vatican. At the
consistory of February 21, 2001, Archbishop Bergoglio was created a cardinal by Pope John Paul II with the title of cardinal-priest of San Roberto Bellarmino, a
church served by Jesuits and named for one. When he traveled to Rome for the ceremony, he and his sister Mara Elena visited the village in northern Italy
where their father was born. As cardinal, Bergoglio was appointed to five administrative positions in the Roman Curia. He was member of the Congregation for
Divine Worship and the Discipline of the Sacraments, the Congregation for the Clergy, the Congregation for Institutes of Consecrated Life and Societies of
Apostolic Life, the Pontifical Council for the Family and the Commission for Latin America. Later that year, when Cardinal Edward Egan returned to New York
following the September 11 attacks, Bergoglio replaced him as relator (recording secretary) in the Synod of Bishops, and, according to the Catholic Herald,
created "a favourable impression as a man open to communion and dialogue". Cardinal Bergoglio became known for personal humility, doctrinal conservatism
and a commitment to social justice. A simple lifestyle contributed to his reputation for humility. He lived in a small apartment, rather than in the elegant bishop's
residence in the suburb of Olivos. He took public transportation and cooked his own meals. He limited his time in Rome to "lightning visits". He was known to
have a unique devotion to St. Therese of Lisieux, and he enclosed a small picture of her in the letters he wrote, calling her "a great missionary saint." On the death
of Pope John Paul II, Bergoglio attended his funeral and was considered one of the papabile for succession to the papacy. He participated as a cardinal elector in
the 2005 papal conclave that elected Pope Benedict XVI. In the National Catholic Reporter John L. Allen, Jr. reported that Bergoglio was a frontrunner in the
2005 conclave. In September 2005, the Italian magazine Limes published claims that Bergoglio had been the runner-up and main challenger to Cardinal
Ratzinger at that conclave and that he had received 40 votes in the third ballot, but fell back to 26 at the fourth and decisive ballot. The claims were based on a
diary purportedly belonging to an anonymous cardinal who had been present at the conclave. According to Italian journalist Andrea Tornielli, this number of
votes had no precedents for a Latin American papabile. La Stampa reported that Bergoglio was in close contention with Ratzinger during the election, until he
made an emotional plea that the cardinals should not vote for him. According to Tornielli, Bergoglio made this request to prevent the conclave from delaying too
much in the election of a pope. As a cardinal, Bergoglio was associated with Communion and Liberation, a Catholic evangelical lay movement of the type known
as associations of the faithful. He sometimes made appearances at the annual gathering known as the Rimini Meeting held during the late summer months in
Italy. In 2005, Cardinal Bergoglio authorized the request for beatificationthe first step towards sainthoodfor six members of the Pallottine community
murdered in 1976. At the same time, Bergoglio ordered an investigation into the murders themselves, which had been widely blamed on the military regime that
ruled Argentina from 1976 to 1983. Bergoglio was the subject of allegations regarding the kidnapping of two Jesuit priests during Argentina's "Dirty War". He
feared for the priests' safety and had tried to change their work prior to their arrest; however, contrary to reports, he never tried to throw them out of the Jesuit
order. In 2005, a human rights lawyer filed a criminal complaint against Bergoglio, as superior in the Society of Jesus of Argentina, accusing him of involvement
in the Navy's kidnapping of the two priests in May 1976. The lawyer's complaint did not specify the nature of Bergoglio's alleged involvement, and Bergoglio's
spokesman flatly denied the allegations. The lawsuit was ultimately dismissed. The priests, Orlando Yorio and Franz Jalics, had been tortured, but found alive
five months later, drugged and semi-naked. Yorio accused Bergoglio of effectively handing them over to the death squads by declining to tell the regime that he
endorsed their work. Yorio (who died in 2000) said in a 1999 interview that he believed that Bergoglio did nothing "to free us, in fact just the opposite". Jalics
initially refused to discuss the complaint after moving into seclusion in a German monastery. However, two days after the election of Pope Francis, Jalics issued a
statement confirming the kidnapping and attributing the cause to a former lay colleague who became a guerrilla, was captured, and named Yorio and Jalics when
interrogated. The following week, Jalics issued a second, clarifying statement: "It is wrong to assert that our capture took place at the initiative of Father Bergoglio
... the fact is, Orlando Yorio and I were not denounced by Father Bergoglio." Bergoglio told his authorized biographer, Sergio Rubin, that after the priests'
imprisonment, he worked behind the scenes for their release; Bergoglio's intercession with dictator Jorge Rafael Videla on their behalf may have saved their lives.
In 2010, Bergoglio told Sergio Rubin that he had often sheltered people from the dictatorship on church property, and once gave his own identity papers to a
man who looked like him, so he could flee Argentina. The interview with Rubin, reflected in the biography El jesuita, is the only time Bergoglio has spoken to
the press about those events. Alicia Oliveira, a former Argentine Judge, has also reported that Bergoglio helped people flee Argentina during the military regime.
Since Francis became Pope, Gonzalo Mosca and Jos Caravias have related to journalists accounts of how Bergoglio helped them flee the Argentine dictatorship.
Oliveira described the future Pope as "anguished" and "very critical of the dictatorship" during the "Dirty War". Oliveira met with him at the time and urged
Bergoglio to speak outhe told her that "he couldn't. That it wasn't an easy thing to do." Artist and human rights activist Adolfo Prez Esquivel, who won the
Nobel Peace Prize in 1980, said: "Perhaps he didn't have the courage of other priests, but he never collaborated with the dictatorship ... Bergoglio was no
accomplice of the dictatorship." Graciela Fernndez Meijide, member of the Permanent Assembly for Human Rights, also said that there was no proof linking
Bergoglio with the dictatorship. She told Clarn: "There is no information and Justice couldn't prove it. I was in the APDH during all the dictatorship years and I
received hundreds of testimonies. Bergoglio was never mentioned. It was the same in the CONADEP. Nobody mentioned him as instigator or as anything."
Ricardo Lorenzetti, President of the Argentine Supreme Court, also has said that Bergoglio is "completely innocent" of the accusations. Fernando de la Ra
replaced Carlos Menem as president of Argentina in 1999. As an archbishop, Bergoglio celebrated the annual Mass at the Buenos Aires Metropolitan Cathedral
on the First National Government holiday, 25 May. In 2000, Bergoglio criticized the perceived apathy of society. During police repression of the riots of
December 2001, he contacted the Ministry of the Interior and asked that the police distinguish rioters engaged in acts of vandalism from peaceful protesters.
When Bergoglio celebrated Mass at the Cathedral for the 2004 First National Government holiday, President Nstor Kirchner attended and heard Bergoglio
request more political dialogue, reject intolerance, and criticize exhibitionism and strident announcements. Kirchner celebrated the national day elsewhere the
following year and the Mass in the Cathedral was suspended. Kirchner considered Bergoglio as a political rival to the day he died in October 2010. Bergoglio's
relations with Kirchner's widow and successor, Cristina Fernndez de Kirchner, have been similarly tense. In 2008, Bergoglio called for national reconciliation
during disturbances in the country's agricultural regions, which the government interpreted as a support for anti-government demonstrators. The campaign to
enact same-sex marriage legislation was a particularly tense period in their relations. In 2006, Bergoglio publicly opposed an attempt by the Argentine government
to legalize some cases of abortion. In 2007, after the government intervened to allow an abortion for a mentally handicapped woman who had been raped,
Bergoglio compared the abortion with a death penalty over the unborn child. The Kirchner administration said in response that the social concerns of the
Church were correct, but that relating them to abortion and euthanasia would be unjustified. When Bergoglio was elected Pope, the initial reactions were mixed.
Most of the Argentine society cheered it, but the pro-government newspaper Pgina 12 published renewed allegations about the dirty war, and the president of
the National Library described a global conspiracy theory. The president took more than an hour to congratulate him, and only did so in a passing-by reference
inside a routine speech. However, as the Pope was a huge positive image in his country, Cristina Kirchner made a Copernican shift in her relation with him, and
fully embraced the Francis phenomenon. On the day before his inauguration as pope, Bergoglio, now Francis, had a private meeting with Kirchner. They
exchanged gifts and lunched together. This was the new pope's first meeting with a head of state, and there was speculation that the two were mending their
relations. Bergoglio has written about his commitment to open and respectful interfaith dialogue as a way for all parties engaged in that dialogue to learn from one
another. In the 2011 book that records his conversations with Rabbi Abraham Skorka, On Heaven and Earth, Bergoglio said: Dialogue is born from an attitude
of respect for the other person, from a conviction that the other person has something good to say. It assumes that there is room in the heart for the persons
point of view, opinion, and proposal. To dialogue entails a cordial reception, not a prior condemnation. In order to dialogue it is necessary to know how to lower
the defenses, open the doors of the house, and offer human warmth. Religious leaders in Buenos Aires have mentioned that Bergoglio promoted interfaith
ceremonies at the Buenos Aires Metropolitan Cathedral. For example, in November 2012 he brought leaders of the Jewish, Muslim, evangelical, and Orthodox
Christian faiths together to pray for a peaceful solution to the Middle East conflicts. Rabbi Alejandro Avruj praised Bergoglio's interest in interfaith dialogue, and
his commitment to mend religious divisions. Shortly after his election, the pope called for more interreligious dialogue as a way of "building bridges" and
establishing true links of friendship between all people". He added that it was crucial to intensify outreach to nonbelievers, so that the differences which divide
and hurt us may never prevail". He said that his title of "pontiff" means "builder of bridges", and that it was his wish that "the dialogue between us should help to
build bridges connecting all people, in such a way that everyone can see in the other not an enemy, not a rival, but a brother or sister to be welcomed and
embraced." On May 24, 2014 Pope Francis arrived in Jordan, at the start of a tour of the Middle East, "aiming to boost ties with Muslims and Jews as well as
easing an age-old rift within Christianity". Bergoglio is recognized for his efforts "to further close the nearly 1,000-year estrangement with the Orthodox Churches".
Antoni Sevruk, rector of the Russian Orthodox Church of Saint Catherine the Great Martyr in Rome, said that Bergoglio "often visited Orthodox services in the
Russian Orthodox Annunciation Cathedral in Buenos Aires" and is known as an advocate on behalf of the Orthodox Church in dealing with Argentina's
government. Bergoglio's positive relationship with the Eastern Orthodox Churches is reflected in the fact that Patriarch Bartholomew I of Constantinople
attended his installation. This is the first time since the Great Schism of 1054 that the Orthodox Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople, a position considered
first among equals in the Eastern Orthodox Church organization, has attended a papal installation. Orthodox leaders state that Bartholomew's decision to attend
the ceremony shows that the relationship between the Orthodox and Catholic Churches is a priority of his, but they also note that Francis's "well-documented
work for social justice and his insistence that globalization is detrimental to the poor" may have created a "renewed opportunity" for the two Church communities
to "work collectively on issues of mutual concern". Gregory Venables, Anglican Bishop of Argentina, said that Cardinal Bergoglio had told him very clearly that
the Personal Ordinariate(s) (the branch of the Catholic Church set up for defecting Anglicans) was "quite unnecessary", and that the Catholic Church needed
Anglicans as Anglicans. A spokesman for the Ordinariate said the words were those of Venables, not the Pope. Mark Hanson, then presiding bishop of the
Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (ELCA), greeted the news of Bergoglio's election with a public statement that praised his work with Lutherans in
Argentina. Evangelical leaders including Argentine Luis Palau, who moved to the US in his twenties, have welcomed the news of Bergoglio's election as Pope
based on his relations with Evangelical Protestants, noting that Bergoglio's financial manager for the Archdiocese of Buenos Aires was an Evangelical Christian
whom Bergoglio refers to as a friend. Palau recounted how Bergoglio would not only relax and "drink mate" with that friend, but would also read the Bible and
pray with him, based on what Bergoglio called a relationship of friendship and trust. Palau described Bergoglio's approach to relationships with Evangelicals as
one of "building bridges and showing respect, knowing the differences, but majoring on what we can agree on: on the divinity of Jesus, his virgin birth, his
resurrection, the second coming." As a result of Bergoglio's election, Palau predicted that "tensions will be eased." Juan Pablo Bongarr, president of the
Argentine Bible Society, recounted that Bergoglio not only met with Evangelicals, and prayed with thembut he also asked them to pray for him. Bongarr noted
that Bergoglio would frequently end a conversation with the request, "Pastor, pray for me." Additionally, Bongarr told the story of a weekly worship meeting of
charismatic pastors in Buenos Aires, which Bergoglio attended: "He mounted the platform and called for pastors to pray for him. He knelt in front of nearly
6,000 people, and (the Protestant leaders there) laid hands and prayed." Other Evangelical leaders agree that Bergoglio's relationships in Argentina make him
"situated to better understand Protestantism". Noting that the divide between Catholicism and Protestantism is often present among members of the same families
in Argentina, and is therefore an extremely important human issue, "Francis could set the tone for more compassionate conversations among families about the
differences between Protestantism and Catholicism." Bergoglio has close ties to the Jewish community of Argentina, and attended Rosh Hashanah (Jewish New
Year) services in 2007 at a synagogue in Buenos Aires. He told the Jewish congregation during his visit that he went to the synagogue to examine his heart, "like a
pilgrim, together with you, my elder brothers". After the 1994 AMIA bombing of a Jewish Community Center that killed 85 people, Bergoglio was the first public
figure to sign a petition condemning the attack and calling for justice. Jewish community leaders around the world noted that his words and actions "showed
solidarity with the Jewish community" in the aftermath of this attack. A former head of the World Jewish Congress, Israel Singer, reported that he worked with
Bergoglio in the early 2000s, distributing aid to the poor as part of a joint Jewish-Catholic program called "Tzedak". Singer noted that he was impressed with
Bergoglio's modesty, remembering that "if everyone sat in chairs with handles [arms], he would sit in the one without." Bergoglio also co-hosted a Kristallnacht
memorial ceremony at the Buenos Aires Metropolitan Cathedral in 2012, and joined a group of clerics from a number of different religions to light candles in a
2012 synagogue ceremony on the occasion of the Jewish festival of Hanukkah. Abraham Skorka, the rector of the Latin-American Rabbinical Seminary in
Buenos Aires, and Bergoglio published their conversations on religious and philosophical subjects as Sobre el cielo y la tierra (On Heaven and Earth). An
editorial in Israel's Jerusalem Post notes that "Unlike John Paul II, who as a child had positive memories of the Jews of his native Poland but due to the Holocaust
had no Jewish community to interact with in Poland as an adult, Pope Francis has maintained a sustained and very positive relationship with a living, breathing
[Jewish] community in Buenos Aires." One of the pope's first official actions was writing a letter to Rabbi Riccardo Di Segni, the Chief Rabbi of Rome, inviting
him to the papal installation and sharing his hope of collaboration between the Catholic and Jewish communities. Addressing representatives of Jewish
organizations and communities, Francis said that, "due to our common roots [a] Christian cannot be anti-Semitic!" Leaders of the Islamic community in Buenos
Aires welcomed the news of Bergoglio's election as pope, noting that he "always showed himself as a friend of the Islamic community", and a person whose
position is "pro-dialogue". They praised Bergoglio's close ties with the Islamic community and noted his comments when Pope Benedict's 2006 Regensburg
lecture was interpreted by many as denigrating Islam. According to them, Bergoglio immediately distanced himself from Benedict's language and said that
statements that create outrage within the Islamic community "will serve to destroy in 20 seconds the careful construction of a relationship with Islam that Pope
John Paul II built over the last 20 years. Bergoglio visited both a mosque and an Islamic school in Argentina, visits that Sheik Mohsen Ali, the Director for the
Diffusion of Islam, called actions that strengthened the relationship between the Catholic and Islamic communities. Dr. Sumer Noufouri, Secretary General of
the Islamic Center of the Argentine Republic (CIRA), added that Bergoglio's past actions make his election as pope a cause within the Islamic community of "joy
and expectation of strengthening dialogue between religions". Noufouri said that the relationship between CIRA and Bergoglio over the course of a decade had
helped to build up Christian-Muslim dialogue in a way that was "really significant in the history of monotheistic relations in Argentina". Ahmed el-Tayeb, Grand
Imam of al-Azhar and president of Egypt's Al-Azhar University, sent congratulations after the pope's election. Al-Tayeb had "broken off relations with the
Vatican" during Benedict XVI's time as pope; his message of congratulations also included the request that "Islam asks for respect from the new pontiff". Shortly
after his election, in a meeting with ambassadors from the 180 countries accredited with the Holy See, Pope Francis called for more interreligious dialogue
"particularly with Islam". He also expressed gratitude that "so many civil and religious leaders from the Islamic world" had attended his installation Mass. An
editorial in the Saudi Arabian paper Saudi Gazette strongly welcomed the pope's call for increased interfaith dialogue, stressing that while the pope was
"reiterating a position he has always maintained", his public call as pope for increased dialogue with Islam "comes as a whiff of fresh air at a time when much of the
Western world is experiencing a nasty outbreak of Islamophobia". Speaking to journalists and media employees on March 16, 2013, Pope Francis said he would
bless them silently, "Given that many of you do not belong to the Catholic Church, and others are not believers". In his papal address on March 20, 2013 he said
the "attempt to eliminate God and the Divine from the horizon of humanity" resulted in violence, but described as well his feelings about nonbelievers: "[W]e also
sense our closeness to all those men and women who, although not identifying themselves as followers of any religious tradition, are nonetheless searching for
truth, goodness and beauty, the truth, goodness and beauty of God. They are our valued allies in the commitment to defending human dignity, in building a
peaceful coexistence between peoples and in safeguarding and caring for creation." Some atheists expressed hope that Francis would prove to be progressive on
issues like poverty and social inequality, while others were more skeptical that he would be "interested in a partnership of equals". In May 2013, Francis said that
all who do good can be redeemed through Jesus, including atheists. Francis stated that God "has redeemed all of us, all of us, with the Blood of Christ: all of us,
not just Catholics. Everyone! ... Even the atheists, Everyone! Later Thomas Rosica stated non-Catholics who "know" the Roman Catholic Church can get to
Heaven only by converting to Catholicism. Outspoken atheist Richard Dawkins commented "Atheists go to heaven? Nope. Sorry world, infallible pope got it
wrong. Vatican steps in with alacrity." Author Neale Donald Walsch stated, "it was regrettable that the hidden hierarchy of the Roman Catholic Church chose to
officially retract the recent statement on eternal damnation bravely made by its new leader, Pope Francis." Hendrik Hertzberg suggests in the The New Yorker
magazine Rosica used weasel words and left imprecise how much a non-Catholic needs to know about Catholicism before according to Church doctrine that
person is required to enter the Church or be damned. Further Rosica published his statement in Toronto through Zenit News Agency rather than through the
Vatican or the Holy See. Hertzberg claims imprecision is deliberate and speculates that there may be major internal disagreement between supporters and
opponents of Vatican II in the Catholic Church. In September 2013 Francis wrote an open letter to the founder of La Repubblica newspaper, Eugenio Scalfari,
stating that non-believers would be forgiven by God if they followed their consciences. Responding to a list of questions published in the paper by Scalfari, who is
not a Roman Catholic, Francis wrote: "You ask me if the God of the Christians forgives those who don't believe and who don't seek the faith. I start by sayingand
this is the fundamental thingthat God's mercy has no limits if you go to him with a sincere and contrite heart. The issue for those who do not believe in God is
to obey their conscience. Sin, even for those who have no faith, exists when people disobey their conscience." According to Christianity, including Roman
Catholicism, no human being can avoid doing wrong. Elected at the age of 76, Francis is reported to be in good health, and his doctors have stated that his
missing lung tissue, removed in his youth, does not have a significant impact on his health. The only concern would be decreased respiratory reserve if he had a
respiratory infection. In the past, one attack of sciatica in 2007 prevented him from attending a consistory and delayed his return to Argentina for several days. As
pope, his manner is less formal than that of his predecessors: a style that news coverage has referred to as "no frills," noting that it is "his common touch and
accessibility that is proving the greatest inspiration." For example, on the night of his election, he took the bus back to his hotel with the cardinals, rather than be
driven in the papal car. The next day, he visited Cardinal Jorge Mara Meja in the hospital and chatted with patients and staff. At his first media audience, the
Friday after his election, the Pope said of Saint Francis of Assisi: "The man who gives us this spirit of peace, the poor man," and he added "How I would like a
poor Church, and for the poor". In addition to his native Spanish, Francis is conversant in Latin (the official language of the Holy See), Italian (the official
language of Vatican City and the "everyday language" of the Holy See), he understands the Piedmontese dialect and some Genoese, German, French, Portuguese,
English, and Ukrainian. Francis chose not to live in the official papal residence in the Apostolic Palace, but to remain in the Vatican guest house, in a suite in
which he can receive visitors and hold meetings. He is the first pope since Pope Pius X to live outside the papal apartments. Francis still appears at the window of
the Apostolic Palace for the Sunday Angelus. Bergoglio was elected pope on March 13, 2013, the second day of the 2013 papal conclave, taking the papal name
Francis. Francis was elected on the fifth ballot of the conclave. The Habemus Papam was delivered by Cardinal protodeacon Jean-Louis Tauran. Cardinal
Christoph Schnborn later said that Bergoglio was elected following two supernatural signs, one in the conclave and hence confidential, and a Latin American
couple of friends of Schnborn who whispered Bergoglio's name in Schnborn's ear; Schnborn commented "if these people say Bergoglio, thats an indication
of the Holy Spirit". Instead of accepting his cardinals' congratulations while seated on the Papal throne, Francis received them standing, reportedly an immediate
sign of a changing approach to formalities at the Vatican. During his first appearance as pontiff on the balcony of Saint Peter's Basilica, he wore a white cassock,
not the red, ermine-trimmed mozzetta used by the previous Popes. He also wore the same iron pectoral cross that he had worn as Cardinal Archbishop of
Buenos Aires, rather than the gold one worn by his predecessors. After being elected and choosing his name, his first act was bestowing the Urbi et Orbi blessing
to thousands of pilgrims gathered in St. Peter's Square. Before blessing the pilgrims, he asked those in St. Peter's Square to pray for his predecessor, pope
emeritus Benedict XVI, and for himself. Pope Francis held his Papal inauguration on March 19, 2013 in St. Peter's Square in the Vatican. He celebrated Mass in
the presence of various political and religious leaders from around the world. In his homily Pope Francis focused on the Solemnity of Saint Joseph, the liturgical
day on which the Mass was celebrated. At his first audience on March 16, 2013, Francis told journalists that he had chosen the name in honor of Saint Francis of
Assisi, and had done so because he was especially concerned for the well-being of the poor. He explained that, as it was becoming clear during the conclave
voting that he would be elected the new bishop of Rome, the Brazilian Cardinal Cludio Hummes had embraced him and whispered, "Don't forget the poor",
which had made Bergoglio think of the saint. Bergoglio had previously expressed his admiration for St. Francis, explaining that He brought to Christianity an
idea of poverty against the luxury, pride, vanity of the civil and ecclesiastical powers of the time. He changed history." This is the first time that a pope has been
named Francis and the first time since Pope Lando's 913914 reign that a serving pope holds a name not used by a predecessor. Francis also said that some
cardinal-electors had jokingly suggested to him that he should choose either "Adrian", since Pope Adrian VI had been a reformer of the church, or "Clement" as
"payback" to Pope Clement XIV, who had suppressed the Jesuit order. In February 2014, it was reported that the pope would have chosen the pontifical name of
"John XXIV" had he been elected in 2005. This would be in honor of Pope John XXIII. It was said that he told Cardinal Francesco Marchisano: "John, I would
have called myself John, like the Good Pope; I would have been completely inspired by him". On March 16, 2013, Pope Francis asked all those in senior
positions of the Roman Curia to provisionally continue in office. He named Alfred Xuereb as his personal secretary. On April 6, 2013 he named Jos Rodrguez
Carballo as secretary for the Congregation for Institutes of Consecrated Life and Societies of Apostolic Life, a position that had been vacant for several months.
Francis abolished the bonuses paid to Vatican employees upon the election of a new pope, amounting to approximately several million Euros, opting instead to
donate the money to charity. He also abolished the 25,000 annual bonus paid to the cardinals serving on the Board of Supervisors for the Vatican bank. On
April 13, 2013, he named a group of 8 cardinals to advise him and to study a plan for revising the Apostolic Constitution on the Roman Curia, Pastor Bonus,
including several known as critics of Vatican operations and only one member of the Curia. They are Giuseppe Bertello, president of the Vatican City State
governorate; Francisco Javier Errazuriz Ossa from Chile; Oswald Gracias from India; Reinhard Marx from Germany; Laurent Monsengwo Pasinya from the
Democratic Republic of the Congo; George Pell from Australia; Sen O'Malley from the United States; and Oscar Andres Rodriguez Maradiaga from Honduras.
He appointed Bishop Marcello Semeraro secretary for the group and scheduled its first meeting for October 1 - 3, 2013. In March 2013, 21 British Catholic
Peers and Members of Parliament from all parties asked Francis to allow married men in Great Britain to be ordained as priests, keeping celibacy as the rule for
bishops. They asked it on the grounds that it would be anomalous that married Anglican priests can be received into the Catholic Church and ordained as priests,
by means of either the Pastoral Provision of June 20, 1980 or the 2009 Anglican ordinariate, but married Catholic men cannot do the same. Fouad Twal, the
Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem, included a call in his 2013 Easter homily for the pope to visit Jerusalem. Louis Raphael I, the Chaldean Catholic Patriarch, asked
the pope to visit the "embattled Christian community" in Iraq. President Cristina Fernndez de Kirchner invited the pope to visit Argentina. Kirchner extended
the invitation when she visited the Vatican before the pope's inauguration, asking for his help in terms of "smoothing tensions with Britain over the Falkland
Islands". Monsignor Michael McPartland, the Apostolic Prefect of the Falkland Islands, stated that "[Francis] must be seen as Pope first and where he comes
from should not figure in the equation. But I would also like to think he would have a beneficial impact and perhaps be able to express some soothing words that
would help the situation here." As of March 2014, Francis himself has not made any comment over the sovereignty dispute since becoming pope. On the first
Holy Thursday following his election, Francis washed and kissed the feet of ten male and two female juvenile offenders, not all Catholic, aged from 14 to 21,
imprisoned at Rome's Casal del Marmo detention facility, telling them the ritual of foot washing is a sign that he is at their service. He told them to "Help one
another. This is what Jesus teaches us." and "Do not let yourselves be robbed of hope." According to church experts, this was the first time that a pope had
included women in this ritual. One of the male and one of the female offenders was Muslim. Canon lawyer Edward Peters criticized the inclusion of women as a
break with canon law, although not with any "divine directive". On March 31, 2013 Francis used his first Easter homily to make a plea for peace throughout the
world, specifically mentioning the Middle-East, Africa, and North and South Korea. He also spoke out against those who give in to "easy gain" in a world filled
with greed, and made a plea for humanity to become a better guardian of creation by protecting the environment. He said that "We ask the risen Jesus, who turns
death into life, to change hatred into love, vengeance into forgiveness, war into peace." Although the Vatican had prepared greetings in 65 languages, Francis
chose not to read them. According to the Vatican, the pope "at least for now, feels at ease using Italian, the everyday language of the Holy See". On April 15, 2013
Francis reaffirmed the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith's criticism of the U.S. Leadership Conference of Women Religious. He reinstated the "program
of reform", reaffirming the reprimand of American sisters (female religious) issued by his predecessor, Pope Benedict XVI. The New York Times reported that
the Vatican had formed the opinion in 2012 that the sisters' group was tinged with feminist influences, focused too much on ending social and economic injustice
and not enough on stopping abortion, and permitted speakers at its meetings who questioned church doctrine. On May 12, 2013 Francis carried out his first
canonizations, of candidates approved for sainthood during the reign of Benedict XVI: the first Colombian saint, Laura of Saint Catherine of Siena, the second
female Mexican saint, Maria Guadalupe Garcia Zavala, both of the 20th century, and the 813 15th-century Martyrs of Otranto. He said: "While we venerate the
martyrs of Otrante, ask God to support the many Christians who still suffer from violence and give them the courage and fate and respond to evil with goodness."
He also commented on abortion, saying legislation should be introduced to "protect all human beings from the first moment of their existence." He also called for
a more "merciful" Church and less centralization of decision making. A February 2014 survey by World Values Survey cited in the Washington Post and Time
shows how the unity Pope Francis had created could be challenged. Although views about Francis personally were favorable, many Catholics disagreed with at
least some of his teachings. The survey found that members of the Roman Catholic Church are deeply divided over abortion, artificial contraception, divorce, the
ordination of women and married men. In the same month Pope Francis asked parishes to provide answers to an official questionnaire described as a "much
broader consultation than just a survey" regarding opinions among the laity. He continued to assert Catholic doctrine, in less dramatic tone than his recent
predecessors, who maintained that the Catholic Church is not a democracy of popular opinion. Linda Woodhead of Lancaster University writes of the survey
Francis initiated, "its not a survey in any sense that a social scientist would recognize." Woodhead said that many ordinary Catholics would have difficulty
understanding theological jargon there. Nonetheless, Woodhead suspected the survey might be influential: But surveys are dangerous things. They raise
expectations. And they play to peoples growing sense that they have voice and choiceeven in a traditional Church. If it turns out that those voices are ignored
or, worse, corralled more firmly into the existing sheepfold of moral teaching, the tension may reach a breaking point. Perhaps Francis is clever enough to have
anticipated that, and perhaps he has subtle plans to turn such a crisis to good ends. Perhaps not. The Catholic Church in England and Wales as of April 2014
had refused to publish results of this survey; a Church spokesman said a senior Vatican official had expressly asked for summaries to remain confidential, and
that orders had come from the Pope that the information should not be made public until after October. This disappointed many reformers who hoped the laity
would be more involved in decision-making. Call to Action for example said, "People who had completed this "challenging" questionnaire would be saddened and
perplexed if the results were withheld." Some other Roman Catholic churches, for example in Germany and Austria published summaries of the responses to the
survey, which showed a wide gap between Church teaching and the behaviour of ordinary Catholics. In a column he wrote for the Vatican's semi-official
newspaper L'Osservatore Romano, the head Prefect of the Supreme Tribunal of the Apostolic Signatura, US Cardinal Raymond Leo Burke, who has a long-
standing reputation as one of the churchs most vocal conservative hard-liners, said that Pope Francis opposed both abortion and gay marriage. The Vatican's
chief spokesman, Father Federico Lombardi, also noted in the Vatican Press Office during the 2014 consistory meetings that Pope Francis and Cardinal Walter
Kasper would not change or redefine any dogmas pertaining to Church theology on doctrinal matters. In the first months of Francis's papacy, the Institute for the
Works of Religion, informally known as the Vatican Bank, said that it would become more transparent in its financial dealings. There had long been allegations
of corruption and money laundering connected with the bank. Francis appointed a commission to advise him about reform of the Bank, and the finance
consulting firm Promontory Financial Group was assigned to carry out a comprehensive investigation of all customer contacts of the bank on these facts. Because
of this affair the Promoter of Justice at the Vatican Tribunal applied a letter rogatory for the first time in the history of the Republic of Italy at the beginning of
August 2013. In January 2014 Francis replaced four of the five cardinal overseers of the Vatican Bank, who had been confirmed in their positions in the final
days of Benedict XVI's papacy. Lay experts and clerics were looking into how the bank was run. Ernst von Freyberg was put in charge. Moneyval feels more
reform is needed. But an Italian investigation into allegations of money laundering which the bank denies continues (...) Francis has made it clear that, if the
bank cannot be adequately reformed, he would have no compunction about closing it for good. On June 29, 2013, Pope Francis published his first encyclical
titled Lumen Fidei. On November 24, 2013, he published his apostolic exhortation Evangelii Gaudium. In January 2014 Pope Francis reduced the number of
awards associated with the use of the title Monsignor from three to one, Chaplain to His Holiness. He announced that it would henceforth be awarded only to
diocesan priests at least 65 years old. During his 15 years as archbishop of Buenos Aires, Francis had never asked that any of his priests receive the title, and was
understood to associate the title with clerical "careerism". At the first consistory of his papacy, held on February 22, 2014, Francis created 19 new cardinals. At the
time of their elevation to that rank, 16 of these new cardinals were under eighty years of age and thus eligible to vote in a papal conclave. The new appointees
included 9 prelates from South America, Africa and Asia,[258] including appointees in some of the world's poorest countries, such as Chibly Langlois from Haiti
and Philippe Nakellentuba Ouedraogo from Burkina Faso.[259] The consistory was a rare occasion where Francis and his predecessor, Benedict XVI, made a
joint public appearance. Francis told La Civilt Cattolica that the church does not need to speak constantly of the issues of abortion, artificial contraception and
homosexuality. He thought that other issues, notably the duty to help those who are poor and marginalized, have been neglected. He said: The church's pastoral
ministry cannot be obsessed with the transmission of a disjointed multitude of doctrines to be imposed insistently. ... We have to find a new balance; otherwise
even the moral edifice of the Church is likely to fall like a house of cards, losing the freshness and fragrance of the Gospel. He added that the church had focused
in trivial issues, and as such should not be so prone to condemn, and that priests should be more welcoming. He said the confessional should be used to motivate
people to better themselves. Although many understand him to be liberalizing the papacy, others point to the fact that no major progressive changes have
occurred to the church during the first year of his service. Some, most notably Cafeteria Catholics continue to express hope and fervour that the Pontiff will
change Catholic doctrine and theology in order to embrace a more worldly and openly tolerant vision of Catholicism regardless of certain biblical teachings. His
motto, Miserando atque eligendo, is about Jesus' mercy towards sinners. The phrase is taken from a homily of St. Bede, who commented that Jesus "saw the tax
collector and, because he saw him through the eyes of mercy and chose him, he said to him: 'Follow me'" (italics added to refer to English translation of the Latin
motto). The motto is a reference to the moment when he found his vocation to the priesthood, at the age of 17. He started a day of student celebrations by going
to confession. As cardinal he thought that people may only feel comfortable with God if they had encountered mercy. People that receive mercy would be more
willing to treat others in a similar way. As a result, their moral code is modified. He described Christian morality is an "unjust" mercy, which means that a
Christian may know the sins of someone else and treat him with mercy all the same. The Gospel reading for the Sunday he was scheduled to give his first public
address as pope was on Jesus' forgiveness of the adulterous woman. This allowed him to discuss several ideas. For example, the principle that God never wearies
of forgiving the human race, the significance of mercy, and to never tire in asking for forgiveness. At the University of Molise Francis described environmental
concerns as,a great contemporary challenge and added, When I look at ... so many forests, all cut, that have become land that can [no] longer give life,
Francis believes development should respect what Christians see as creation. Francis believes exploiting the earth is sinful and has frequently called for defending
the environment. Another theme Pope Francis emphasized in his first address to the cardinals is the approach to evangelization. He talked about the significance
of the Holy Spirit for it. It is a theme he has repeated in other occasions, specifically in his biography, where he spoke about pastoral reforms and making the
Church closer to the people. He observed that the church may not attract people if they are forced to fit within complex structures and habits. He thought that
the church should not regulate faith, but rather facilitate faith. He compared the "Aparecida" document with the Evangelii Nuntiandi exhortation. He pointed that
the main idea of the document is to actively preach for society at large. He rejected the strong conservatism that follows documents to the letter, and encouraged a
pragmatic approach instead. For instance, he proposed that if fewer people go to Mass, then the priests should find alternative ways to reach the people. At a
meeting of Latin American bishops in 2007, Bergoglio said that, despite its growth, poverty had not been reduced, and asked for a better income distribution. On
September 30, 2009, Bergoglio spoke at a conference organized by the Argentina City Postgraduate School (EPOCA) at the Alvear Palace Hotel in which he
quoted the 1992 "Documento de Santo Domingo" by the Latin American Episcopal Conference, saying "extreme poverty and unjust economic structures that
cause great inequalities" are violations of human rights. He went on to describe social debt as "immoral, unjust and illegitimate". During a 48-hour public servant
strike in Buenos Aires, Argentina, Bergoglio criticized unequal treatment of the judiciary to poor and rich people. In 2002, during an economic crisis, Bergoglio
harshly criticized those in power, saying, "Let's not tolerate the sad spectacle of those who no longer know how to lie and contradict themselves to hold onto their
privileges, their rapaciousness, and their ill-earned wealth." During a May 2010 Mass celebrated by twenty bishops commemorating the Argentina Bicentennial in
front of the basilica of Lujn, an important Catholic institution and destination of pilgrimage, Bergoglio criticized the reduced social concern over poverty, and
exhorted Catholics to ask the Virgin of Lujn to "take care of our motherland, particularly those who are most forgotten". In line with the Catholic Church's
efforts to care for AIDS victims, in 2001 he visited a hospice where he washed and kissed the feet of twelve AIDS patients. As Pope Francis he spoke out over
the collapse of Rana Plaza garment factory in April 2013, which killed over a thousand people, and condemned the low pay workers received. In his message for
the Roman Catholic Church's World Day of Peace, he criticized the "widening gap between those who have more and those who must be content with the
crumbs" and called on nations to narrow the wealth gap. During a May 2014 meeting with U.N. Secretary General Ban Ki-moon, Francis called on the United
Nations to encourage the "legitimate distribution" of wealth. Pope Francis urged world leaders to prevent excessive monetary ambitions, which he said had
become similar to an idolatry of money, and urged them to provide more welfare aid. Dealing with the Great Recession, the pope criticized unbridled capitalism,
considering that it judged human beings purely by their ability to consume goods and made people miserable. He said that social inequality is caused by
economic liberalism, and preferred economic systems with a higher intervention by the state. Chancellor of Germany Angela Merkel consulted Francis on May
18, 2013, and later the same day called for more stringent controls of financial markets. Francis has referred many times to the Eurozone crisis that affect Greece
and Roman Catholic Southern European nations.[288] Nevertheless, Pope Francis considers that starvation and homeless people are bigger problems than the
financial crises. George Haley of New Haven University said that Francis thinks that capitalism should reduce income disparity, and proposed that he used the
diplomatic influence of the Vatican to suggest changes in national economies. Rohit Arora is concerned that Francis has not come up with any specific way to
solve income inequality and believes if the pope is serious he should do so. Joseph Pastore believes the wealth of the Catholic Church prevents Francis from
taking a polarizing position and is unsure how far Francis can reform the Church. Pope Francis denounced the "autonomy of the marketplace" and "financial
speculation" as tyranny in his 84-page apostolic exhortation Evangelii Gaudium: Just as the commandment "Thou shalt not kill" sets a clear limit in order to
safeguard the value of human life, today we also have to say "thou shalt not" to an economy of exclusion and inequality. Such an economy kills. ... A new tyranny
is thus born, invisible and often virtual, which unilaterally and relentlessly imposes its own laws and rules. To all this we can add widespread corruption and self-
serving tax evasion, which has taken on worldwide dimensions. The thirst for power and possessions knows no limits. Pope Francis' views were called Marxist by
Rush Limbaugh and other conservatives as a result of his critique of capitalism with absolute market autonomy. Pope Francis responded that "Marxist ideology is
wrong. But I have met many Marxists in my life who are good people, so I dont feel offended ... there is nothing in the exhortation that cannot be found in the
social doctrine of the church." He later postulated that the Communists "stole" the flag of Christianity as "the flag of the poor is Christian. Poverty is at the center
of the Gospel." Throughout his papacy, Pope Francis has been a vocal opponent of both the practice and legality of abortion. In March 2013, shortly after his
election to the papacy, Francis sent a letter to bishops in his native Argentina, asking them to use the Aparecida document to deny communion to Catholic
politicians who support legal abortion. In May 2013, Francis unexpectedly participated in Italy's pro-life march in Rome, asking its participants to protect human
life "from the moment of conception". Also, as the mostly Catholic country of Ireland was preparing legislation to legalize abortion, Francis sent a message to the
Irish asking them to protect the lives of both the unborn and the vulnerable people. Also in May 2013, during a Wednesday audience Francis officially blessed
the pro-life march in Szczecin, Poland, one of Europe's largest pro-life events and, speaking in Italian, encouraged the Poles to defend the unborn. He mantained
that human life should be respected all the way from conception to the natural death. At a September 2013 meeting with Catholic gynecologists, Francis
condemned abortion saying that: "Every child that isn't born, but is unjustly condemned to be aborted, has the face of Jesus Christ, has the face of the Lord."
Roberto Bosca at the University of Astral in Buenos Aires says that Pope Francis is to some extent sympathetic towards Liberation theology: "Despite Bergoglio's
reputation as an opponent of liberation theology during the 1970s, Bosca insists that wasn't actually the case. He said Bergoglio accepted the premise of liberation
theology, especially the option for the poor, but in a 'nonideological' fashion." Leonardo Boff says the label of a closed-minded conservative doesn't fit Francis.
Others appreciate that the new pope ministered frequently in slums, and that his writings do not see social action as heretical. Boff said, With this pope, a Jesuit
and a pope from the Third World, we can breathe happiness. Pope Francis has both the vigor and tenderness that we need to create a new spiritual world. Pope
Francis comes with the perspective that many of us in Latin America share. In our churches we do not just discuss theological theories, like in European
churches. Our churches work together to support universal causes, causes like human rights, from the perspective of the poor, the destiny of humanity that is
suffering, services for people living on the margins. Rachel Donadio of the New York Times wrote, Francis speeches clearly draw on the themes of liberation
theology, a movement that seeks to use the teachings of the Gospel to help free people from poverty and that has been particularly strong in his native Latin
America. ... Francis studied with an Argentine Jesuit priest who was a proponent of liberation theology, and Father Lombardi acknowledged the echoes. But
what is clear is that he was always against the strains of liberation theology that had an ideological Marxist element, he said. Others think that Francis is more
conservative. Consortium News claims Francis has a traditional, limited approach to helping poor people and is uneasy about Liberation theology: "The new
pope has not been comfortable with liberation theology. It is possible to speak on behalf of the poor without supporting the real fundamental changes that are
present with liberation theology." and that "Bergoglio's approach fits with the Church's attitude for centuries, to give 'charity' to the poor while doing little to change
their cruel circumstancesas Church grandees hobnob with the rich and powerful." Author Matthew Fox wrote in an article in Tikkun magazine that Bergoglio
"fought liberation theology tooth and nail as head of the bishops' conference and he was an effective instigator of papal attitudes in this regard (the CIA under
Reagan linked up with Pope John Paul II to kill liberation theology...)." According to Sandro Magister, Pope Francis is more concerned about militant secularism
than liberation theology. Magister said that Francis cared about the global spread of concepts including easy legal abortion and gay marriage, which Francis sees as
the work of the devil and the Antichrist. Magister said that the aims of liberation theology are less important for Francis than fighting secularism. In September
2013, after Pope Francis met with Gustavo Gutirrez, a pioneer of liberation theology, the Vatican newspaper L'Osservatore Romano published an essay stating
that with the election of the first pope from Latin America, liberation theology could no longer "remain in the shadows to which it has been relegated for some
years, at least in Europe. Francis spoke out often about the "fundamental importance" of women in the Roman Catholic Church, stressing that they have a
special role in spreading the faith, and that they were the "first witnesses" of the resurrection of Jesus. Francis has addressed the subject of women in the church a
number of times. Like Benedict XVI and John Paul II before him, he views women in the Church as "special" and fundamentally different from men. Without
women, the Church "would be missing maternity, affection, tenderness." Despite this, in the opinion of Francis, all people in the Church should follow the
teachings of the Magisterium given by the men who are pope and bishops faithfully and obediently remaining loyal to the catechism. Francis was non committal
about whether women should lead more in administration and pastoral activities but has ruled out the possibility of female priests, saying that: "As far as the
ordination of women, the Church has already spoken out and the answer is no. John Paul II made the Church's stance definitive. The door is closed. But let me
tell you something, Our Lady was more important than the apostles, bishops, deacons and priests. Women play a role that's more important than that of bishops,
or priests. How? This is what we have to explain better publicly. Erin Saiz Hanna of the Women's Ordination Conference, however, says that the Pontifical
Biblical Commission had once concluded that there were no scriptural or theological problems with ordaining women. Hanna accused Francis of citing only
precedents he personally favors: Pope Francis' cop-out rationale illustrates a very selective theology: to blame a previous pope for his stance on women priests,
and then in the very same interview contradict his predecessors by acknowledging an open understanding for gay priests. ... He could have quoted the Vatican's
own the [sic] Pontifical Biblical Commission that concluded in 1976 that there is no valid scriptural or theological reason for denying ordination to women.
Cardinal Timothy Dolan thinks female cardinals are a theoretical possibility because cardinals do not need to be ordained. Despite this female cardinals were
ruled out in December 2013, when Francis said, "Women in the Church must be valued, not 'clericalized'. Whoever thinks of women as cardinals suffers a bit
from clericalism." By contrast award winning journalist, Angela Bonavoglia claims a Papal Commission found no scriptural objection to womens ordination.
Bonavoglia notes that Paul refers to Junia the Apostle and Phoebe the deacon and claims archaeological evidence for women clerics in the early church: If you
[Pope Francis'] believe that advocating for a woman cardinal smacks of "clericalism," then what does an all-powerful, all-male college of cardinals smack of? If you
are against clericalism, then dismantle it. If you are not, then end the church's indefensible gender apartheid and open the doors of sacramental and executive
power to women. Francis believes clergy should be shepherds looking after the people, but knows that clerics can be tempted and corrupted by power. When the
clergy take from the people instead of giving, simony and other corruption can follow. Love between the clergy and the people is destroyed. Francis fears some
clerics "become wolves and not shepherds". He criticized "spiritual worldliness", which can be defined as deceitfully trying to appear holy and said that "Careerism
and the search for a promotion [to the hierarchy] come under the category of spiritual worldliness." Francis gave an example of clerical vanity, "Look at the
peacock; it's beautiful if you look at it from the front. But if you look at it from behind, you discover the truth ... Whoever gives in to such self-absorbed vanity has
huge misery hiding inside them." Francis believes bishops and priests should resist the temptations of money, "careerism" and "vanity". In September 2013, Pope
Francis approved the excommunication of Australian priest Greg Reynolds, the first during his papacy. He was accused of heresy and sacrilegious treatment of
the consecrated host. His public preaching contradicting church teaching was also referenced in the letter of excommunication. A letter sent by Melbourne
Archbishop Denis Hart to the priests of his diocese cited his support for the ordination of women and "his public celebration of the Eucharist when he did not
hold faculties to act publicly as a priest". Reynolds said that his support of same sex marriage was also a factor, though not mentioned. As a cardinal, Bergoglio's
views regarding the celibacy of priests were recorded in the book On Heaven and Earth, a record of conversations conducted with a Buenos Aires rabbi. He
commented that celibacy "is a matter of discipline, not of faith. It can change," but added: "For the moment, I am in favor of maintaining celibacy, with all its pros
and cons, because we have ten centuries of good experiences rather than failures ... Tradition has weight and validity." He noted that "in the Byzantine, Ukrainian,
Russian, and Greek Catholic Churches ... the priests can be married, but the bishops have to be celibate". He said that many of those in Western Catholicism
who are pushing for more discussion about the issue do so from a position of "pragmatism", based on a loss of manpower. He states that "If, hypothetically,
Western Catholicism were to review the issue of celibacy, I think it would do so for cultural reasons (as in the East), not so much as a universal option." He
emphasized that, in the meantime, the rule must be strictly adhered to, and any priest who cannot obey it "has to leave the ministry". The National Catholic
Reporter's Vatican analyst, Thomas Reese, also a Jesuit, called Bergoglio's use of "conditional language" regarding the rule of celibacy "remarkable". He said that
phrases like "for the moment" and "for now" are "not the kind of qualifications one normally hears when bishops and cardinals discuss celibacy." Reports that
Francis considered that the use of methods intended for contraception with the purpose of preventing disease might be permissible were disputed by others who
said he was "unwaveringly orthodox on matters of sexual morality". Before becoming Pope he opposed the free distribution of contraceptives when it was
introduced by the Kirchner government. As bishop and Pope, Francis restated the Church's teaching: that homosexual practice is intrinsically immoral, but that
every homosexual person should be treated with respect and love (because temptation is not in and of itself sinful). He opposes same-sex marriage; when
Argentina was considering legalizing it in 2010, Bergoglio opposed the legislation, calling it a "real and dire anthropological throwback". In July 2010, while the law
was under consideration, he wrote a letter to Argentina's cloistered nuns in which he said the Argentine family could be seriously harmed, its identity with father,
mother, children was, Bergoglio felt at risk. Children would face discrimination and lose the development that a father and mother give and Bergoglio believed
God wants. Let's not be naive: This is not a simple political fight; it is a destructive proposal to God's plan. This is not a mere legislative proposal (that's just its
form), but a move by the father of lies that seeks to confuse and deceive the children of God ... Let's look to St. Joseph, Mary, and the Child to ask fervently that
they defend the Argentine family in this moment... May they support, defend, and accompany us in this war of God. After L'Osservatore Romano reported this,
several priests expressed their support for the law and one was defrocked. Observers believe that the church's opposition and Bergoglio's language worked in
favor of the law's passage and that in response, Catholic officials adopted a more conciliatory tone in later debates on social issues such as parental surrogacy.
Rubin, Bergoglio's biographer, said that while taking a strong stand against same-sex marriage, Bergoglio raised the possibility in 2010 with his bishops in
Argentina that they support the idea of civil unions as a compromise position. According to one news report, "a majority of the bishops voted to overrule him".
Miguel Woites, the director of the Catholic News Agency of Argentina, denied that Bergoglio ever made such a proposal, but additional sources, including two
Argentine journalists and two senior officials of the Argentine bishops conference, supported Rubin's account. According to two gay rights activists, Marcelo
Mrquez and Andrs Albertsen, in private conversations with them, Bergoglio expressed support for the spiritual needs of "homosexual people" and willingness
to support "measured actions" on their behalf. Discussing homosexuals (people in general and clergy), he said in July 2013 "If a person is gay and seeks God and
has good will, who am I to judge them?", reminding people to seek and encourage obedience to God, echoing the sentiments of Saint Peter in Acts 10:34b-35, "I
truly understand that God shows no partiality, but in every nation anyone" who respects God and "does what is right is acceptable". These remarks have been seen
as an encouraging change of tone from the papacy, so much so that the American LGBT magazine The Advocate named Pope Francis their Person of the Year
for 2013. On January 5, 2014, the Vatican denied that the Pontiff supports gay unions. In response to various Italian tabloid articles released in the media,
Vatican spokesman Father Federico Lombardi cited that various media misinterpretations are "paradoxical" and manipulative in misusing Pope Francis' words
noted in response to children growing up in non-traditional families. Popular mainstream media frequently portray Pope Francis either as a progressive papal
reformer or with liberal, moderate values. The Vatican has claimed that Western news outlets often seek to portray his message with a less-doctrinal tone of
papacy, in hopes of extrapolating his words to convey a more merciful and tolerant message. Reporters have extrapolated that the Pontiff plans to change Catholic
doctrine as part of a reform of the Roman Curia. In the news media, both faithful and non-believers often refer to a "honeymoon" phase in which the Pope has
changed the tone on Catholic doctrines and supposedly initiated ecclesiastical reform in the Vatican. In December 2013, both Time and The Advocate
magazines named the Pontiff as their Person of the Year in praise and hopes of reforming the Roman Curia while hoping to change the Catholic Church's
doctrine on various controversial issues. In addition, Esquire magazine named him as the Best-dressed man for 2013 for his simpler vestments often in tune with
a modern simplistic design on sartorial fashion. Rolling Stone magazine followed in January 2014 by making the Pontiff their featured front cover. The magazine
Fortune also ranked Pope Francis as number #1 in their list of 50 greatest leaders. In March 2013, a new song was dedicated to Francis and released in Brazilian
Portuguese, European Portuguese and Italian, titled Come Puoi ("How You Can"). Also in March, Pablo Buera, the mayor of La Plata, Argentina, announced
that the city had renamed a section of a street leading up to a local cathedral Papa Francisco. There are already efforts to name other streets after him, as well as a
school where he studied as a child. A proposal to create a commemorative coin as a tribute to Pope Francis was made in Argentina's lower house on November
28, 2013. On the coins it would read, "Tribute from the Argentine People to Pope Francis." beneath his face. As of May 2013, sales of papal souvenirs, a sign of
popularity, were up. His full title, rarely used, is: His Holiness Francis, Bishop of Rome, Vicar of Jesus Christ, Successor of the Prince of the Apostles, Supreme
Pontiff of the Universal Church, Primate of Italy, Archbishop and Metropolitan of the Roman Province, Sovereign of the Vatican City State, Servant of the
servants of God. The best-known title, that of "Pope", does not appear in the official list of titles, but is commonly used in the titles of documents, and appears, in
abbreviated form, in their signatures as "PP." standing for Papa (Pope). It is customary when referring to popes to translate the regnal name into local languages.
Thus he is Papa Franciscus in Latin (the official language of the Holy See), Papa Francesco in Italian (the language of the Vatican), Papa Francisco in his native
Spanish, and Pope Francis in English. The charges appeared on Bergoglio's previous coat of arms, used when he was Archbishop of Buenos Aires, but as pope
he changed the tincture of the star and the spikenard from argent (silver) to or (gold). The first version of the papal coat of arms published by the Vatican
adopted the five-pointed star from Bergoglio's previous one, but it was later changed to eight points; the representation of the spikenard was also slightly altered.
He wrote the following books: 1982 - Meditaciones para religiosos (Meditations for the Religious) (in Spanish). 1992 - Reflexiones en esperanza (Reflections of
Hope) (in Spanish), 2003 - Educar: exigencia y pasin: desafos para educadores cristianos (To Educate: Exactingness and Passion: Challenges for Christian
Educators) (in Spanish), 2003 - Ponerse la patria al hombro: memoria y camino de esperanza (Putting the Motherland on One's Shoulders: Memoir and Path of
Hope) (in Spanish), 2005 - La nacin por construir: utopa, pensamiento y compromiso: VIII Jornada de Pastoral Social (The Nation to Be Built: Utopia,
Thought, and Commitment) (in Spanish), 2006 - Corrupcin y pecado: algunas reflexiones en torno al tema de la corrupcin (Corruption and Sin: Some
Thoughts on Corruption) (in Spanish), 2006) - Sobre la acusacin de s mismo (On Self-Accusation, (or from the Italian, Humility: The Road towards God) (in
Spanish), 2007 - El verdadero poder es el servicio (True Power Is Service) (in Spanish), 2009 - Seminario: las deudas sociales de nuestro tiempo: la deuda social
segn la doctrina de la iglesia (Seminar: the Social Debts of Our Time: Social Debt According to Church Doctrine) (in Spanish), 2010 - Sobre el cielo y la tierra
(On Heaven and Earth) (in Spanish), 2010 - Seminario Internacional: consenso para el desarrollo: reflexiones sobre solidaridad y desarrollo (International
seminar: Consensus about Development: Reflexions on Solidarity and development) (in Spanish), 2011 - Nosotros como ciudadanos, nosotros como pueblo:
hacia un bicentenario en justicia y solidaridad (Ourselves as Citizens, Ourselves as a People: towards a Bicentenary in Justice and Solidarity) (in Spanish), 1995 -
La vida sagrada y su misin en la Iglesia y en el mundo (in Spanish), 2001 - "Episcopus minister Evangelii Iesu Christi propter spem mundi: relatio post
disceptationem". 2003 - "For Man", A Generative Thought: An Introduction to the Works of Luigi Giussani. Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press. pp. 79,
2004 - Dilogos entre Juan Pablo II y Fidel Castro (Dialogues Between John Paul II and Fidel Castro) (in Spanish). Buenos Aires: Ciudad Argentina, 2007 -
"Buscar el camino hacia el futuro, llevando consigo la memoria de las races". Humanitas (in Spanish) (National Humanities Institute) (47), 2007 - El santito
Ceferino Namuncur: relato en verso (in Spanish), official Vatican transcript in English of IEC Catechesis The Eucharist: Gift from God for the life of the world
(2008) (originally given in Spanish), 49th International Eucharistic Congress, Quebec, Canada and Agencia Informativa Catlica Argentina (19992012).
Documentos de los obispos: Homilas y documentos del cardenal Bergoglio (in Spanish).

Nicols Maduro Moros (Spanish pronunciation: [nikolaz mauo moos]; born November 23, 1962) is a Venezuelan
politician who has been President of Venezuela since April 19, 2013 (Acting from March 5 until April 19, 2013). Previously he
served under President Hugo Chvez as Minister of Foreign Affairs of Vemezuela from August 9, 2006 until January 9, 2013 and
as Vice President of Venezuela from October 13, 2012 until March 5, 2013. He was also Speaker of the National Assembly of
Venezuela from January 2005 until August 6, 2006. A former bus driver, Maduro rose to become a trade union leader, before
being elected to the National Assembly in 2000. He was appointed to a number of positions within the Venezuelan Government
under Chvez, ultimately being made Foreign Minister in 2006. He was described during this time as the "most capable
administrator and politician of Chvez's inner circle". After Chvez's death was announced on March 5, 2013, Maduro assumed the
powers and responsibilities of the President. A special election was held on April 14, 2013 to elect a new President, and Maduro
won by a 1.5 percent margin as the candidate of the United Socialist Party; he was formally inaugurated on April 19, 2013. Nicols Maduro was born on
November 1962 in Caracas, Venezuela, the son of a union leader. He attended a public high school at the Liceo Jos valos in El Valle, a working-class
neighborhood on the western outskirts of Caracas. His first introduction to politics was when he became a member of his high school's student union. Maduro
was raised as a Roman Catholic, and his paternal family ancestry is of Sephardic Jewish origin. In 2012 it was reported that he was a follower of Indian guru
Sathya Sai Baba. After leaving school, Maduro found employment as a bus driver for many years. He began his political career in the 1980s, by becoming an
unofficial trade unionist representing the bus drivers of the Caracas Metro system. He was also employed as a bodyguard for Jos Vicente Rangel during Rangel's
unsuccessful 1983 presidential campaign. During the 1990s, Maduro was instrumental in founding the Movement of the Fifth Republic, which supported Hugo
Chvez in his run for president in 1998. Maduro was elected on the MVR ticket to the Venezuelan Chamber of Deputies in 1998, to the National Constituent
Assembly in 1999, and finally to the National Assembly in 2000, at all times representing the Capital District. The Assembly elected him as Speaker, a role he
held from 2005 until 2006. On August 9, 2006, Maduro was appointed Minister of Foreign Affairs of Venezuela. According to Rory Carroll, Maduro does not
speak foreign languages. During his time as Minister of Foreign Affairs, Venezuela's foreign policy stances included support for Libya under Muammar Gaddafi,
and a turnaround in relations with Colombia. Chvez appointed Maduro Vice President of Venezuela on October 13, 2012, shortly after his victory in that
month's presidential election. Two months later, on December 8, 2012, Chvez announced that his recurring cancer had returned and that he would be returning
to Cuba for emergency surgery and further medical treatment. Chvez said that should his condition worsen and a new presidential election be called to replace
him, Venezuelans should vote for Maduro to succeed him. This was the first time that Chvez named a potential successor to his movement, as well as the first
time he publicly acknowledged the possibility of his demise. Chvez's endorsement of Maduro sidelined Diosdado Cabello, a former Vice President and
powerful Socialist Party official with ties to the armed forces, who had been widely considered a top candidate to be Chvez's successor. After Maduro was
endorsed by Chvez, Cabello "immediately pledged loyalty" to both men.
My firm opinion, as clear as the full moon irrevocable, absolute, total is...that you elect Nicolas Maduro as President. I ask this of you from my heart. He is
one of the young leaders with the greatest ability to continue, if I cannot. - Hugo Chvez (December 2012)
Upon the death of Chvez on March 5, 2013, Maduro assumed the powers and responsibilities of the President. He appointed Jorge Arreaza to take his place as
Vice President. Since Chvez died within the first four years of his term, the Constitution of Venezuela states that a presidential election had to be held within 30
days of his death. Maduro was unanimously adopted as the Socialist Party's candidate in that election. At the time of his assumption of temporary power,
opposition leaders argued that Maduro violated articles 229, 231, and 233 of the Venezuelan Constitution, by assuming power over the President of the National
Assembly. In his speech during the short ceremony in which he formally took over the powers of the President, Maduro said: "Compatriots, I am not here out of
personal ambition, out of vanity, or because my surname Maduro is a part of the rancid oligarchy of this country. I am not here because I represent financial
groups, neither of the oligarchy nor of American imperialism...I am not here to protect mafias nor groups nor factions." On April 14, 2013, Maduro was elected
President of Venezuela, narrowly defeating opposition candidate Henrique Capriles with just 1.5% of the vote separating the two candidates. Capriles
immediately demanded a recount, refusing to recognize the outcome as valid. Maduro was later formally inaugurated as President on April 19, 2014, after the
election commission had promised a full audit of the election results. One of the first important presidential programs of Nicolas Maduro became the "Safe
Homeland" program, a massive police and military campaign to build security in the country. 3,000 soldiers were deployed to decrease homicide in Venezuela,
which has one of the highest rates of homicide in Latin America. Most of these troops were deployed in the state of Miranda (Greater Caracas), which has the
highest homicide rate in Venezuela. According to the government, in 2012, more than 16,000 people were killed, a rate of 54 people per 100,000, although the
Venezuela Violence Observatory, a campaign group, claims that the homicide rate was in fact 73 people per 100,000. The government claims that the Safe
Homeland program has reduced homicides by 55%. In October 2013, Maduro requested an enabling law to rule by decree in order to fight corruption and to
also fight what he called an 'economic war'. On October 24, 2013 he announced the creation of a new agency, the Vice Ministry of Supreme Happiness, to
coordinate all the social programmes. In early December a blackout occurred during a speech in which he spoke on television about plans to reduce inflation
battering the automotive industry. He then suggested an act of sabotage and called for the military to be on high alert. In response to media coverage of the 2014
Venezuelan protests, Maduro expelled CNN. According to the 2013 Global Misery Index Scores, Venezuela was ranked as the top spot globally with the highest
misery index score. According to Professor Ramn Piango, a sociologist from the Venezuelan University of IESA, "Maduro has a very strong ideological
orientation, close to the communist ideology. Contrary to Diosdado, he is not very pragmatic." However, the World Socialist Web Site has argued that Maduro
intends to roll back Chvez's reforms, noting that, "In the conduct of his campaign, Maduro has continued his appeal to right-wing and nationalist sentiments, with
repeated invocations of patriotism and the fatherland". Maduro is married to Cilia Flores, a lawyer and politician who replaced Maduro as President of the
National Assembly in August 2006, when he resigned to become Minister of Foreign Affairs; she became the first woman to serve as President of the National
Assembly. In 2014, Maduro was in TIME Magazines The 100 Most Influential People. In the article, it explained that whether or not Venezuela collapses "now
depends on Maduro" saying that it also depends on if Maduro "can step out of the shadow of his pugnacious predecessor and compromise with his opponents".
The TIME article further explained how "Maduro is struggling as a litany of ills, from soaring inflation to food shortages, fans popular discontent."

Valeri Bganba (born August 26, 1953) is the current Speaker of the People's Assembly of Abkhazia since April 3, 2012 and
acting President of Abkhazia since June. He was elected as speaker on April 3, 2012. Bganba became acting President on June
1, 2014, following the resignation of Alexander Ankvab as a result of the 2014 Abkhazian political crisis. Valeri Bganba was
born on August 26, 1953 in the village of Bzyb in the Gagra District. Between 1971 and 1976 he attended the Kuban
Agriculture Institute. In 1991, Valeri Bganba was elected to Abkhazia's Supreme Soviet. In 1998, and again in 2001, he was
elected Chairman of the Gagra District Assembly. In December 2002 Bganba was appointed Governor of the Gagra District,
succeeding Grigori Enik, who had been appointed Head of the State Customs Committee. On May 25, 2006, Bganba was
released from office by President Sergei Bagapsh upon his own request, and succeeded by Astamur Ketsba. In March 2007, Bganba once more became a
member of the People's Assembly of Abkhazia when in the general election he won a second round victory in constituency no. 9. In the March 2012 elections,
he was one of only five deputies to retain their seat, winning a 52.90% first round victory in constituency no.9 over his only opponent. During the first session of
the 5th convocation of the People's Assembly on April 3, 2012, Bganba was elected Speaker, defeating Raul Khajimba by 21 votes to 11. Bganba's predecessor as
Speaker Nugzar Ashuba had failed to get re-elected.
Vladimir Delba (born September 26, 1974) is Minister of Finance of Abkhasia since October 10, 2011 and the current acting
Prime Minister of Abkhazia since June 2, 2014. After serving as Deputy Minister for Finance in the Government of President
Bagapsh, Delba was appointed Finance Minister and Vice-Premier by Alexander Ankvab in his government on October 10, 2011. On
June 2, 2014, following Leonid Lakerbaia's resignation as a result of the 2014 Abkhazian political crisis, Vladimir Delba was appointed
acting Prime Minister.


Sibel Siber (born 1960) is a Turkish Cypriot politician and Prime Minister of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus
from June 13 until September 2, 2013. At present she is the Speaker of Parliament, the Republican Assembly of Northern
Cyprus. She has been the second woman to occupy this post, after Fatma Ekenolu. Siber studied medicine at Istanbul
University, where she graduated in 1983.


zkan Yorgancolu (born 1954) is a Cyprus political leader who has been serving as the Prime Minister of the island nation's
Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus since September 2, 2013. He was born in Lempa, a village in Paphos, the southwestern district of
the island which was, at the time, a British crown colony, Yorgancolu studied at Istanbul University's Department of Economics and
Public Finance, receiving his Political Science degree in 1980. On April 28, 2005, he was appointed as Minister of Youth and Sports in
the cabinet of TRNC Prime Minister Ferdi Sabit Soyer who served from April 2005 to May 2009. He replaced Soyer as chairman of the
Republican Turkish Party and following the July 28, 2013 Parliamentary election and the defeat of Prime Minister rsen Kk who
served from 2010, Yorgancolu submitted his cabinet list to TRNC President Dervi Erolu on August 31, 2013 and replaced interim
Prime Minister Sibel Siber on September 2, 2013.


Domenty Sardionovich Kulumbegov (Russian: , born January 4, 1955) is the current Prime Minister of South
Ossetia since January 20, 2014. He was acting in that capacity until April 2, 2014. Kulumbegov was born in Thinala in Gori district in the Georgian SSR.

Jiang Yi-huah (Chinese: ; pinyin: Jing Yhu; born November 11, 1960) is a Taiwanese politician and is
currently the Premier of the Republic of China (ROC) since February 18, 2013. Prior to his appointment as the
Premier, Jiang was the Vice Premier of the Republic of China (ROC) from February 6, 2012 until February 18,
2013. He served as Minister of the Interior of the Republic of China (ROC) from September 10, 2009 until
February 6, 2012 and Minister of Research, Development and Evaluation Commission of the Executive Yuan of the
Republic of China (ROC) from May 20, 2008 until September 10, 2009. Jiang was born in Keelung, a city in
northern Taiwan in 1960. During high school when he was 13, it was reported that he once wrote an essay saying
that his dream career is to be the President of the Republic of China once he grow up. He earned his bachelor's and
master's degree in political science from National Taiwan University (NTU). He did his doctoral degree in political
science from Yale University, United States in 1993. Upon graduation, he returned to Taiwan to become a professor
at NTU. Jiang entered politics for the very first time in 2008 when he was appointed as the Minister of Research,
Development and Evaluation Commission of the Executive Yuan in May 20, 2008. During a press conference in June 2009, Jiang said that the Human Rights
Protection and Promotion Committee of the Executive Yuan has decided to abolish Article 80 of the Social Order Maintenance Act which regulates sexual
transaction that can cause detention or fining of the sex workers. However, the final decision will be left to the local governments. On September 10, 2009, Jiang
was appointed as ROC Minister of the Interior (MOI). At the age of 49, he was the youngest person to ever hold the office. The handing over ceremony from the
outgoing Minister Liao Liou-yi was presided by ROC Premier Wu Den-yih in Taipei. Speaking at Legislative Yuan on October 2009, Jiang, accompanied by
Premier Wu Den-yih, said that Uyghur activist Rebiya Kadeer should not be permitted to enter Taiwan because her World Uyghur Congress is closely associated
with terrorist group. His remark was supported by the Premier. In December 2009, Jiang said that officials from Ministry of the Interior and Ministry of Justice
should ensure justice and fairness in ROC administrative electoral process by avoiding stumping on the candidates. In March 2010, Jiang said that Taiwan will
have seven kinds of local elections being held all in one day starting in 2014. MOI officially launched the "1996 Hotline of Interior Affairs" in November 2011
after three months operation trial. Speaking at the press conference, Jiang said that the MOI is in charge of almost everything in people's daily life, ranging from
marriage and birth registration, various social welfare and subsidies provider, petition service, corruption reporting, housing transfer registration and emergency
reporting. In order to make their service more efficient and more convenient to people, MOI has merged some of their service hotline into one single number.
Jiang was appointed to become ROC Vice Premier on February 6, 2012. With this, he had to resign from his professorship at NTU. In July 2012, Jiang said that
the Executive Yuan is mulling immigration and population policy in order to attract foreign talents, boost human capital and improve Taiwan's competitiveness.
He added that policies from various ministries will be integrated so that this regulation change won't affect much to the current local employment. Jiang was sworn
in as the President of the Executive Yuan on February 18, 2013 at the Presidential Office in the ceremony presided over by Vice President Wu Den-yih, thus
making him the Premier of the Republic of China. After the inauguration, Jiang pledged to push for government reform. Jiang also wanted to meet with all
opposition party leaders in near future upon his inauguration as Premier. He wishes to see a change in ROC political culture and improve communication
between the ruling party and opposition parties to have a more effective legislative. Two weeks into his premiership in early March 2013, Jiang stated that he will
tender his resignation from the Premier of the Republic of China if the nation votes to halt the construction of Taiwan's 4th nuclear power plant in the upcoming
referendum due to the long ongoing debate of nuclear power plants in Taiwan. He even added that Taiwan will face energy crisis in the future once Taiwan's first
and second nuclear power plant have reached the end of their life cycle respectively and the fourth plant hasn't been put online. In mid-March 2013 speaking at
the Legislative Yuan, Jiang said that all nuclear power plants in Taiwan will be decommissioned by 2055, including the currently constructed Longmen Nuclear
Power Plant, based on their 40-year operating lifecycle. In early April 2013, Jiang promised that he will remove the nuclear disposal area from its current place at
Orchid Island in Taitung County once the new site has been identified, although no time table has been announced for the relocation. In the process of doing the
job, Jiang will establish the relocation committee, considering name changing and cash compensation and investigating on any illegal activity in the decision
making process. Responding the offer from China National Nuclear Corporation to give land space for Taipower in storing the radioactive waste in Gansu
province, Jiang said that he had no information regarding to the matters and said that it will not be politically feasible. He further added that even the Executive
Yuan cannot make the decision unilaterally. In middle April 2013, Jiang toured the 4th nuclear power plant in Gongliao, New Taipei. He made a contradicting
remark saying that referendum to decide the fate of the nuclear plant is not needed if the safety issues of the plant cannot be guaranteed, because ROC
government would not issue the operating license once it has been completed. In March 2013, Jiang reiterated his support to the 1992 Consensus policy of
governing the relations between Taiwan and Mainland China that there is one China. However, he further explained that the KMT's point of view of one-China
is that both sides maintain the status quo (no independence, no reunification, no use of force), not the immediate reunification. However, he is still not sure if
Beijing allows Taiwan's interpretation of "One-China" as the "Republic of China". In March 2013, commenting on the increasing of water scarcity in Taiwan, Jiang
said that he hoped that this year typhoon will come early to bring rains and thus more water to the drought-hit regions in the island. The rainfall in Taiwan in the
first quarter of 2013 hasn't been that good because two rainfall catchment areas, the Shihmen Dam and Zengwun Dam, hit their second lowest and lowest marks
respectively. His government also have prepared some contingency plan to deal with this water shortage problem, such as reducing water consumption, rationing
water for irrigation and controlling water used for car wash and swimming pools. Another response to water shortage in Taiwan, Jiang also instructed the ROC
Ministry of the Interior to conduct a study on the possibility of reusing water from the treated waste water at the waste water treatment plant as another alternative
water resource. After a 6.0 Richter-scale earthquake strike with the epicenter in Nantou County on March 27, 2013, Jiang initiated a cabinet emergency task force
to work with the relevant agencies to respond to the earthquake situation. He also urged the relevant government agencies to reassess the safety standards for any
local infrastructure building. In March 2013, Jiang reassured the government's 3% annual increase of sewage drainage rate for houses in Taiwan. He urged ROC
officials to maintain the goal target. In April 2013, responding to the remark from the DPP legislator, Jiang reaffirmed that the detention of former ROC
President Chen Shui-bian in Taipei Prison is not politically-motivated, but purely because of his corruption crime. Amid the rising tension in the Korean
Peninsula in April 2013, Jiang said that the ROC government has been paying a very close attention to any latest development in the situation. The ROC Ministry
of Foreign Affairs has also been in close communication with the Taipei Mission in Korea in Seoul and its Busan branch in South Korea, he added. Jiang further
explained that the ROC government has prepared contingency plans responding to the current situation. ROC Ministry of Economic Affairs will provide the
information about economic situation in South Korea to the Taiwanese business people and general assistance. The ROC Financial Supervisory Commission will
carry out measures to maintain the stability of Taiwan's capital market. The ROC Ministry of National Defense will also be standby to provide any assistance.
After Taiwan's first confirmed H7N9 flu case on April 24, 2013, the first outside Mainland China, Jiang gathered officials from Department of Health, Ministry
of Transportation and Communications and Council of Agriculture to discuss responsive measures to this outbreak. He said that the ROC government will bring
forward the ban on slaughtering fowls in traditional markets to mid of June by asking the Council of Agriculture to communicate with the slaughterhouses around
Taiwan. Commenting on Taiwan's Q1 2013 lower-than-expected 1.54% economic growth in end of April 2013, Jiang said that the low figure was due to the lack
of consumer spending, slow export rates and the gloomy global economic situation. However, he looked forward to speed up the launching of free economic
zones around Taiwan and creating emerging markets. He also plan to push the Taoyuan Aetropolis project. He promised that the government will continue to
implement measures to boost Taiwan's GDP over 3% for 2013. In end of April 2013, Jiang reassured that the minimum wage hike will keep going on starting 1
April 2013 based on what had been announced before from NT$18,780 to NT$19,047, despite Taiwan's lower-than-forecast economic growth in Q1 2013,
which stood at 1.54%, a 1.72% lower than the initial forecast at 3.26%. In early May 2013, Jiang said that he hates corruption and wish to have all of his Executive
Yuan officials free from such involvement. He requested ROC Minister of Justice Tseng Yung-fu to look into any unsuitable officials for their position. He
requested not only the heads of government to maintain their integrity, but also all of the other officials working under them. The move came after several
corruption cases involving Cabinet Secretary-General Lin Yi-shih and Kuomintang Taipei City Councilor Lai Su-ju. Speaking at the Executive Yuan in early May
2013 regarding Taoyuan International Airport MRT construction delay, Jiang said that the delay has hampered the development of Taiwan and eroded public
confidence and trust in the government. He urge all of the government agencies to learn from this mistake and not to repeat the same thing again in the future.
He suggested that the cabinet to establish a task force to supervise the status of major construction projects being undertaken by government agencies. After the
shooting incident of Taiwanese fisherman by Philippine government vessel on 9 May 2013 at the disputed water in South China Sea, Jiang asked the Executive
Yuan to hold a meeting in which he then instructed the cabinet members to negotiate with the government of Philippines. Commenting on Taiwan's 2013 global
competitiveness ranking decline by the International Institute for Management Development in end of May 2013, Jiang ask all of the government sectors to make
improvements and address the relevant problems. He added that economic stimulus have been implemented last year, but the questions remain on whether the
government can fully implement them.

State of Buenos Aires
The State of Buenos Aires (Estado de Buenos Ayres) was a secessionist republic resulting from the overthrow of the Argentine Confederation government in the
Province of Buenos Aires on September 11, 1852. The State of Buenos Aires was never recognized by the Confederation or by foreign nations; it remained,
however, nominally independent under its own government and constitution. Buenos Aires rejoined the Argentine Confederation after its victory at the Battle of
Pavn in 1861.
List of Governors of the State of Buenos Aires
Manuel Guillermo Pinto (1783 June 28, 1853) was twice served as provisional Governor of the State of Buenos Aires from
September 11 until October 31, 1852, and from December 7, 1852, until his death on June 28, 1853. He was an Argentine general and
lawmaker. Pinto was born in Buenos Aires, and studied at the Royal College of San Carlos. He completed further studies in Spain, but
returned to fight during the British invasions of the Ro de la Plata, in 1807. He was among the signatories to the Cabildo abierto that
voted in favor of Independence on May 22, 1810, and fought during the Argentine War of Independence in various auxiliary posts,
reaching the rank of Colonel in 1815. Pinto served as leader of the Council of Representatives during the progressive tenure of Buenos
Aires Province Governor Martn Rodrguez, from 1821 to 1824, and represented Misiones Province from 1824 to 1827. He was again
elected President of the Buenos Aires Legislature in 1833, but stepped down upon the granting of absolute power to Governor Juan
Manuel de Rosas, in 1835. He returned to public life following the defeat of Rosas in the Battle of Caseros in 1852, and following a
September 11, 1852, uprising by the province in a bid for greater autonomy, he twice served as provisional Governor of the State of
Buenos Aires from September 11 to October 31, 1852, and December 7, 1852, until his death on June 28, 1853.
Valentn Alsina (1802 September 6, 1869) was twice served as provisional Governor of the State of Buenos Aires from October
31 until December 7, 1852 and December 21, 1858 until October 2, 1859. He was an Argentine lawyer and politician. Alsina was born
in Buenos Aires and studied law at the University of Crdoba. He occupied diverse posts in government, and had a successful civil
career as an advocate and professor of law at the University of Buenos Aires. Under the government of Juan Manuel de Rosas, he had
to leave the country, as his liberal ideas did not please the dictator at all. From his refuge in Montevideo, he supported the opposition
against de Rosas, both financially and through publications. When Rosas was deposed by Justo Jos de Urquiza, Alsina returned to
Buenos Aires, and he was elected provincial Governor in 1852. However, he resigned after a few months, shortly before a military coup
took place. In 1853, Buenos Aires left the Argentine Confederation and declared itself an independent State. Alsina, a fervent
supporter of Buenos Aires Province independence, became Governor again in 1857. In 1859, open hostilities broke out between
Buenos Aires and the Argentine Confederation, led by Urquiza. After the defeat of the Buenos Aires army at the Battle of Cepeda on
October 23, 1859, Alsina had to resign his post, and shortly after Buenos Aires rejoined the Confederation. Alsina became a member
of the Argentine Senate in 1862. When Bartolom Mitre (President of Argentina between 1862 and 1868) offered him a position as
member of the Argentine Supreme Court he refused and remained serving as a Senator until his death, which occurred just a few months after he took the oath
of his son Adolfo Alsina, who became Vice President of Argentina in 1868.
Pastor Obligado (August 9, 1818 March 12, 1870) was an Argentine lawyer and lawmaker who served as Governor of the
secessionist State of Buenos Aires from June 28, 1853 until December 21, 1858. Obligado was born in Buenos Aires to Juana Mara
Tejedor and Manuel Obligado. The elder Obligado had enrolled at the bar at the Royal Audiencia of Charcas, was among the
signatories of the Open Cabildo of May 22, 1810, that ushered the May Revolution, and served as Economy Minister for the subsequent
Directorate. The younger Obligado married the former Fortunata Gmez in 1839, and they had four children. He earned a law degree
at the University of Buenos Aires in 1845, and despite having publicly supported Governor Juan Manuel de Rosas, Obligado was
appointed provincial circuit judge the day after Rosas' 1852 overthrow. He advocated against Buenos Aires' ratification of the San
Nicols Agreement, and became one of a leading group of Unitarian Party lawmakers most opposed to any pact signed with the now
paramount Entre Ros Governor, Justo Jos de Urquiza. This group, which also included Adolfo Alsina, Valentn Alsina, Jos Mrmol,
and Carlos Tejedor, spearheaded the September 11, 1852, establishment of the State of Buenos Aires, seceding from the Argentine
Confederation led by Urquiza. Obligado's advocacy on behalf of the Port of Buenos Aires and the Buenos Aires Customs (the chief
sources of public revenue), as well as the support from Domingo Sarmiento and Rufino de Elizalde helped result in his election as Governor by the Legislature
on June 28, 1853. Governor Obligado obtained passeage of the Constitution of Buenos Aires on April 12, 1854, and initiated an ambitious public works
program, installing the first gas lamps and running water system in the city, and establishing what later became the Colegio Nacional de Buenos Aires, as well as a
network of public primary schools for the largely illiterate population at the time. The 1854 constitution, drafted by Dalmacio Vlez Srsfield, asserted the
sovereignty of Buenos Aires, including its right to engage in its own diplomatic relations, as well as a bicameral legislature and freedom of worship. Obligado
abolished slavery and reformed the practice of emphyteusis, after which land could be sold at a regulated rate of 16,000 silver pesos (pesos fuerte, nearly at par
with the U.S. dollar) per square league (4,428 acres). He established a national mint under the auspices of the Bank of the Province of Buenos Aires, and
subsidies for industry and commerce; on August 30, 1857, the recently established Buenos Aires Western Railway inaugurated its first line, designed by British
engineer William Bragge. Obligado attended the first demonstration of the telegraph in Argentina on October 14, 1855. The event, coordinated by French
engineer Adolphe Bertonnet, failed to persuade the governor, however, despite its enthusiastic coverage by the official news daily, Dalmacio Vlez Srsfield's El
Nacional. The establishment of a free trade agreement by the Confederation between the Port of Rosario (its chief port) and the Port of Montevideo proved
detrimental to Buenos Aires trade. Worsening relations thus led to the re-election of the more intransigent Valentn Alsina as Governor at the end of 1858, and
in February 1859, Alsina enacted retaliatory tariffs against Confederate goods. Tensions culminated in the Battle of Cepeda (1859) and the Battle of Pavn
(1861), leading to significant concessions from the Confederation toward Buenos Aires, and to their reunification in December 1861. Obligado served in the
Buenos Aires Legislature following the end of his tenure as governor, fought in the Battles of Cepeda and Pavn, and served in Bartolom Mitre's cabinet as
Minister of War following the 1862 election of the Buenos Aires leader as President of Argentina. Obligado served concurrently in the Argentine Chamber of
Deputies, to which he was elected in 1862. He died in Crdoba Province in 1870, at age 51, and was interred at La Recoleta Cemetery.
Free Ilocos
Free Ilocos was a state in Northern Luzon which was declared independent by revolutionary Diego Silang in December 14, 1762. Villa Fernandina, or modern
day Vigan was designated as the capital of the independent state. Diego Silang led a revolt to liberate Ilocos from Spanish colonial rule taking advantage of the
Spanish colonial government's momentary loss due to the British occupation of Manila. Diego Silang accepted an offer of protection and friendship sent by the
British Governor of Manila, Dawsonne Drake, on September 24, 1762. Free Ilocos was effectively disestablished upon Diego Silang's assassination in 1763.
Leader of Free Ilocos
Diego Silang y Andaya (December 16, 1730 May 28, 1763) was a revolutionary leader who conspired with British forces to overthrow Spanish rule in the
northern Philippines and establish an independent Ilocano nation. His revolt was fueled by grievances stemming from Spanish taxation and abuses, and by his
belief in self-government, that the administration and leadership of the Roman Catholic Church and government in the Ilocos be invested in trained Ilocano
officials. Born in Aringay, Pangasinan (an area in present-day Caba or Aringay, La Union), Silang's mother was Ilocano; his father was Pangasinense. Young
Diego worked as a messenger for a local Castilian priest in Vigan, Ilocos Sur. Bright, passionate, and fluent in Spanish, he ferried correspondence from the Ilocos
to Manila; journeys that gave him his first glimpse of colonial injustice and that planted the seed of rebellion. Spain allied with France during the Seven Years'
War, in opposition to Great Britain. The British in response sought to diminish the Spanish Empire. The seizure of Manila by British naval forces in October,
1762, and the subsequent surrender of the Spanish Philippines to Britain during the British occupation of the Philippines, inspired uprisings in the farthest north
of Ilocos Norte and Cagayan, where anti-Spanish sentiments festered. Though Silang initially wanted to replace Spanish functionaries in the Ilocos with native-
born officials and volunteered to head Ilocano forces against the British, desperate Spanish administrators instead transferred their powers to the Catholic Bishop
of Nueva Segovia (Vigan), who rejected Silang's offer. Silang's group attacked the city and imprisoned its priests. He then began an association with the British
who appointed him governor of the Ilocos on their behalf and promised him military reinforcement. The British force never materialized. Diego Silang was
killed by one of his friends, a Spanish-Ilocano mestizo named Miguel Vicos, whom church authorities paid to assassinate Silang with the help of Pedro Becbec.
He was 32 years old. After Silang's death, his Spanish-Ilocana mestiza wife, Josefa Gabriela, took command of the revolt and fought courageously. The Spanish
sent a strong force against her. She was forced to retreat to Abra. Gabriela led her troops towards Vigan but was driven back. She fled again to Abra, where she
was captured. Gabriela and her men were summarily hanged on September 20, 1763; she being hanged the last.

Khafajah
Khafajah or Khafaje (ancient Tutub) is an archaeological site in Diyala Province (Iraq). It was part of the city-state of Eshnunna. The site lies 7 miles (11 km) east
of Baghdad and 12 miles (19 km) southwest of Eshnunna. Khafajah was excavated for 7 seasons in the early 1930s primarily by an Oriental Institute of Chicago
team led by Henri Frankfort with Thorkild Jacobsen and Pinhas Delougaz. For two seasons, the site was worked by a joint team of the American Schools of
Oriental Research and the University of Pennsylvania. Khafajah lies on the Diyala River, a tributary of the Tigris. The site consists of four mounds, labeled A
through D. The main one, Mound A, extends back as far as the Uruk period and contained an oval temple, a temple of the god Sin, not surely and a temple of
Nintu. The Dur-Samsuiluna fort was found on mounds B and C. Mound D contained private homes and a temple for the god Sin where the archive tablets
where found in two heaps. Khafajah was occupied during the Early Dynastic Period, through the Sargonid Period, then came under the control of Eshnunna after
the fall of the Ur III Empire. Later, after Eshnunna was captured by Babylon, a fort was built at the site by Samsu-iluna of the First Babylonian Dynasty and
named Dur-Samsuiluna.
List of Rulers of Khafajah or Khafaje (Tutub)
Sumina-arim was a ruler of Khafajah or Khafaje (ancient Tutub) in early 1800s BC.
Iku-pi-Sin was a ruler of Khafajah or Khafaje (ancient Tutub) in early 1800s BC.
Isme-bali was a ruler of Khafajah or Khafaje (ancient Tutub) in early 1800s BC.
Tattanum was a ruler of Khafajah or Khafaje (ancient Tutub) in early 1800s BC.
Hammi-dusur was a ruler of Khafajah or Khafaje (ancient Tutub) around 1800 BC.

Der
Der (Sumerian: ALUDi-e-ir) was a Sumerian city-state at the site of modern Tell Aqar near al-Badra in Iraq's Wasit Governorate. It was east of the Tigris River
on the border between Sumer and Elam. Its name was possibly Durum. Der was occupied from the Early Dynastic period through Neo-Assyrian times. The
local deity of the city was named Ishtaran, represented on Earth by his minister, the snake god Nirah. In the late 3rd millennium, during the reign of Sulgi of the
Third Dynasty of Ur, Der was mentioned twice. The Sulgi year name 11 was named "Year Ishtaran of Der was brought into his temple", and year 21 was named
"Year Der was destroyed". In the second millennium, Der was mentioned in a tablet discovered at Mari sent by Yarim-Lim I of Yamhad, the tablet includes a
reminder to Yasub-Yahad king of Der about the military help given to him for fifteen years by Yarim-Lim, followed by a declaration of war against the city in
retaliation for what Yarim-Lim described as evil deeds committed by Yasub-Yahad. Rim-Sin I of Larsa reported destroying Der in his 20th year. Ammi-Ditana of
Babylon also recorded destroying the city wall of Der in his 37th year, that he said had been built earlier by Damqi-ilishu of the Sealand Dynasty. In 720 BC the
Assyrian king Sargon II moved against Elam, but the Assyrian host was defeated near Der by the combined army of king Humban-Nikash I of Elam and king
Marduk-apla-iddina II of Babylon. While it appear that no excavation has occurred at Der, several notable objects have been discovered nearby, including a
kudurru (discovered at Sippar) which confirmed the name of the site. The site itself has been heavily damaged by water over the centuries and was considered not
worth excavating.
List of Rulers of Der
Ninudsha was a ruler of the Sumerian city-state of Der in the second half 20th century BC.
Anummuttabil was a ruler of the Sumerian city-state of Der around 1940 BC.
Yasub-Yahad was a ruler of the Sumerian city-state of Der around 1780s BC. Der was mentioned in a tablet discovered at Mari sent by Yarim-Lim I of
Yamhad, the tablet includes a reminder to Yasub-Yahad king of Der about the military help given to him for fifteen years by Yarim-Lim, followed by a
declaration of war against the city in retaliation for what Yarim-Lim described as evil deeds committed by Yasub-Yahad.
Warasa was a ruler of the Sumerian city-state of Der around 1770s BC.

Diniktum
Diniktum, inscribed Di-ni-ik-tumKI, was a middle bronze-age town located somewhere in the lower Diyala region of Mesopotamia, on the Tigris river
downstream from Upi and close to the northern border of Elam. It is possibly at or in the vicinity of Tell Muammad, which lies in southeastern part of modern
Baghdad. It is mentioned in the Harmal geographical list. It enjoyed independence briefly during the 18th century under the reigns of the Amorite chieftains (ra-
b-an MAR.D) Itur-arrum, attested on a single seal from Enunna, and Sn-gmil, son of Sn-mi and a contemporary of Zimri-Lim (ca. 17101698 BC short)
of Mari and ammu-rap (ca. 17281686 BC short) of Babylon.
List Rulers of Diniktum
Itur-arrum was a ruler of ancient Sumerian city-state of Diniktum during the 18th century BC. He was attested on a single seal from Enunna, and other ruler
of Diniktum Sn-gmil, son of Sn-mi and a contemporary of Zimri-Lim (ca. 17101698 BC short) of Mari and ammu-rap (ca. 17281686 BC short) of
Babylon.
Itur-arrum was a ruler of ancient Sumerian city-state of Diniktum during the 18th century BC. He was attested on a single seal from Enunna, and was
contemporary of Zimri-Lim (ca. 17101698 BC short) of Mari and ammu-rap (ca. 17281686 BC short) of Babylon.In an old Babylonian letter from Yarim-
Lim I, the king of Iamad whose capital was Halab, ancient Aleppo, to the Yaub-Yahad, the king of Dr, he says: Certainly. Sn-gmil, king of Diniktum. very
much like you would repeatedly respond to me by means of lies and provocations. Having docked 500 boats in Diniktum's quay. I "sank" (supported?) his land as
well as him for 12 year!" - Iarm-Lm, Tablet A. 1314, Letter to Yaub-Yahad.

Eshnunna
Eshnunna (modern Tell Asmar in Diyala Province, Iraq) was an ancient Sumerian (and later Akkadian) city and city-state in central Mesopotamia. Although
situated in the Diyala Valley north-east of Sumer proper, the city nonetheless belonged securely within the Sumerian cultural milieu. The tutelary deity of the city
was Tishpak (Tipak). Occupied from the Jemdet Nasr period about 3000 BC, Eshnunna was a major city during the Early Dynastic period. Starting with the rise
of the Akkadian Empire, Eshnunna oscillated between times of independence and domination by empires such as the Third Dynasty of Ur and Isin. Because of
its control over lucrative trade routes, Eshnunna did function somewhat as a gateway between Mesopotamian and Elamite culture. The trade routes gave it access
to many exotic sought-after goods such as horses from the north, copper, tin, and other metals and precious stones. In a grave, a pendant made of copal from
Zanzibar was found. After rising to prominence as an independent state in the early second millennium, during the time of Shamshi-Adad, Eshnunna was
occupied by Elam, then conquered by Hammurabi of Babylon in the 38th year of his reign, and absorbed within the Old Babylonian Empire (sometimes called
the First Babylonian Dynasty). Thereafter, the city appears but rarely in cuneiform textual sources, reflecting a probable decline and eventual disappearance. The
remains of the ancient city are now preserved in the mound of Tell Asmar, some 38 km in a straight line northeast of Baghdad and 30 km in a straight line
southeast of Baqubah, excavated in six seasons between 1930 and 1936 by an Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago team led by Henri Frankfort with
Thorkild Jacobsen and Seton Lloyd. Despite the long passage of time since the excavations at Tell Asmar, the work of examining and publishing the remaining
finds from that dig continues to this day. These finds include roughly 1500 cuneiform tablets. In the late 1990s, Iraqi archaeologists worked at Tell Asmar. The
results from that excavation have not yet been published. The Laws of Eshnunna consist of two tablets, found at Shaduppum (Tell Harmal) and a fragment found
at Tell Haddad, the ancient M-Turan. They were written sometime around the reign of king Dadusha of Eshnunna and appear to not be official copies. When
the actual laws were composed is unknown. They are similar to the Code of Hammurabi. During the Early Dynastic period, the Abu Temple at Tell Asmar
(Eshnunna) went through a number of phases. This included the Early Dynastic Archaic Shrine, Square Temple, and Single-Shrine phases of construction. They,
along with sculpture found there, helped form the basis for the three part archaeological separation of the Early Dynastic period into ED I, ED II, and ED III for
the ancient Near East. A cache of 12 gypsum sculptures, in a geometric style, were found in the Square Temple. They are some of the best known examples of
ancient Near East sculpture.
List of Rulers of Eshnunna
Urguedinna was a ruler of ancient Sumerian (and later Akkadian) city and city-state of Eshnunna in central Mesopotamia around 2035 BC.
Kallamu was a ruler of ancient Sumerian (and later Akkadian) city and city-state of Eshnunna in central Mesopotamia around 2030 BC.
Ituria was a ruler of ancient Sumerian (and later Akkadian) city and city-state of Eshnunna in central Mesopotamia from 2025 BC until 2020 BC.
Ilushuilia was a ruler of ancient Sumerian (and later Akkadian) city and city-state of Eshnunna in central Mesopotamia from 2020 BC until 2000 BC.
Nurakhum was a ruler of ancient Sumerian (and later Akkadian) city and city-state of Eshnunna in central Mesopotamia during 1990s BC.
Kirikiri was a ruler of ancient Sumerian (and later Akkadian) city and city-state of Eshnunna in central Mesopotamia during 1980s BC.
Bilalama was a ruler of ancient Sumerian (and later Akkadian) city and city-state of Eshnunna in central Mesopotamia around 1975 BC.
Isharramashu was a ruler of ancient Sumerian (and later Akkadian) city and city-state of Eshnunna in central Mesopotamia in 20th century BC.
Usurawasu was a ruler of ancient Sumerian (and later Akkadian) city and city-state of Eshnunna in central Mesopotamia in 20th century BC.
Ur-Ninmar was a ruler of ancient Sumerian (and later Akkadian) city and city-state of Eshnunna in central Mesopotamia in 20th century BC.
Ur-Ningizzida was a ruler of ancient Sumerian (and later Akkadian) city and city-state of Eshnunna in central Mesopotamia in 20th century BC.
Ipiq-Adad I was a ruler of ancient Sumerian (and later Akkadian) city and city-state of Eshnunna in central Mesopotamia in 20th century BC.
Sarriia was a ruler of ancient Sumerian (and later Akkadian) city and city-state of Eshnunna in central Mesopotamia during early 19th century BC.
Warassa was a ruler of ancient Sumerian (and later Akkadian) city and city-state of Eshnunna in central Mesopotamia in 19th century BC.
Belakum was a ruler of ancient Sumerian (and later Akkadian) city and city-state of Eshnunna in central Mesopotamia in 19th century BC.
Ibal-pi-El I was a ruler of ancient Sumerian (and later Akkadian) city and city-state of Eshnunna in central Mesopotamia in 19th century BC.
Ipiq-Adad II was a ruler of ancient Sumerian (and later Akkadian) city and city-state of Eshnunna in central Mesopotamia from 1840 BC until 1820 BC.
Naram-Suen (also transcribed Narm-Sn, Naram-Sin) was a king who ruled over Eshnunna during the later 19th century BCE, during its brief time of
political power. He may or may not be the same person as a contemporaneous King of Assyria named Naram-Suen. He was son of Ipiq-Adad II, contemporary
of Shamshi-Adad
Dannum-tahaz was a ruler of ancient Sumerian (and later Akkadian) city and city-state of Eshnunna in central Mesopotamia in late 19th century BC.
Dadusha was a ruler of ancient Sumerian (and later Akkadian) city and city-state of Eshnunna in central Mesopotamia from 1778 BC until 1779 BC. He was
son of Ipiq-Adad II, contemporary of Shamshi-Adad.
Ibal-pi-El II was a ruler of ancient Sumerian (and later Akkadian) city and city-state of Eshnunna in central Mesopotamia from 1779 BC and 1765 BC. He
was contemporary of Zimri-Lim of Mari. He was killed by Siwe-palar-huppak of Elam who captured Eshnunna.
Silli-Sin was a ruler of ancient Sumerian (and later Akkadian) city and city-state of Eshnunna in central Mesopotamia from 1764 BC and 1762 BC.

Kisurra
Kisurra (modern Tell Abu Hatab, Al-Qdisiyyah Governorate, Iraq) was an ancient Sumerian city situated on the west bank of the Euphrates, 7 kilometres (4.3
mi) north of Shuruppak. The cities name has been described as meaning the "place of spinning" and also as "boundary-ditch". Kisurra's main deity was Ninurta.
Later, Ishara's main Mesopotamian cult centre was at Kisurra, although she is also thought to have been worshipped across a wide area amongst Syrians,
Canaanites, and Hittites. Kisurra was established ca. 2700 BC, during the Sumerian Early Dynastic II period. The southern end of the Isinnitum Canal was
joined back into the Euphrates at Kisurra. The city lasted as a center for commerce and transport through the Akkadian and part of the Babylonian Empires,
until cuneiform texts and excavation show a decline during the time of Hammurabi (c.1800 BCE).
List of Kings of Kisurra
Itur-ama was a ruler of ancient Sumerian city-state of Kisurra around 2138 BC. He was built the 'gate of Hadi-el', the wall of Kisurra.
Manabaltiel was a ruler of ancient Sumerian city-state of Kisurra around 2113 BC. In 2113 BC the city of Kisurra lost its independence under the suzerainty
of the Kings of the City Ur.
arrasyurrm was a ruler of ancient Sumerian city-state of Kisurra around 2108 BC.
Ubaya was a ruler of ancient Sumerian city-state of Kisurra around 2093 BC.
Zikrum was a ruler of ancient Sumerian city-state of Kisurra around 2078 BC.
Ibbi-ama was a ruler of ancient Sumerian city-state of Kisurra from 2030 BC until 2013 BC. King Ur Nammu of Ur removes King Ibbi-ama from the
throne in 2013 BC.

Kingdom of Urkesh
Urkesh or Urkish (modern Tell Mozan; Arabic: ) is a tell, or settlement mound, located in the foothills of the Taurus Mountains in Al-Hasakah
Governorate, northeastern Syria. It was founded during the fourth millennium BC possibly by the Hurrians on a site which appears to have been inhabited
previously for a few centuries. Urkesh was an ally of the Akkadian Empire through what is believed to have been a dynastic marriage tradition. Tar'am-Agade the
daughter of the Akkadian king, Naram-Sin, is believed to have been married to the king of Urkesh. During the early second millennium BC the city passed into
the hands of the rulers of Mari, a city a few hundred miles to the south. The king of Urkesh became a vassal (and apparently an appointed puppet) of Mari. The
people of Urkesh evidently resented this, as the royal archives at Mari provide evidence of their strong resistance; in one letter, the king of Mari tells his Urkesh
counterpart that "I did not know that the sons of your city hate you on my account. But you are mine, even if the city of Urkesh is not." In the middle of the
millennium, Tell Mozan was the location of a Mitanni religious site. The city appears to have been largely abandoned circa 1350 BC, although the reason for this
is unknown to archaeologists at this time.
List of Kings of the Kingdom of Urkesh
Upkish was a King of Urkesh around 2250 BC.
Tish-atal was a King of Urkesh in 21th century BC. He was (king) endan of Urkesh during the Third Dynasty of Ur. He was one of the earliest known Hurrian
rulers, but the archaeological record is fragmentary for this period, and no precise date can be ascribed to his reign. In older literature the name Tishari is
sometimes used, but it has now been established that the correct rendering is Tish-atal. Two other rulers with a similar name are known from around the same
period, Tish-atal of Nineveh and Dishatal, king of Karahar. These are thought to be distinct persons, so the name was probably common in the area where the
Hurrians lived. A cuneiform inscription about a temple of Nergal is the only source for Tish-atal. The text is found on two bronze lion statuettes, but there is a
better preserved copy on a stone tablet, now in the Louvre Museum, along with one of the lions. This famous inscription is the earliest known writing in the
Hurrian language. The following translation is given by Mirjo Salvini: Tish-atal, endan of Urkesh, has built a temple for Nergal. May the god Lubadag protect it.
He who destroys this temple, may Lubadag destroy. May the god [...] not hear his prayers. May the lady of Nagar, Shimaga and the storm god curse ten thousand
times he who destroys it.
Shatar-mat was a King of Urkesh.
Atal-shen was a King of Urkesh.
Ann-atal was a King of Urkesh around 2050 BC.
Te'irru was a King of Urkesh around 1800 BC.

Hatra
Hatra (Arabic: al-ar) is an ancient city in the Ninawa Governorate and al-Jazira region of Iraq. It is known as al-Hadr, a name which appears once in
ancient inscriptions, and it was in the ancient Persian province of Khvarvaran. The city lies 290 km (180 mi) northwest of Baghdad and 110 km (68 mi) southwest
of Mosul. Hatra was probably built in the 3rd or 2nd century BC by the Seleucid Empire. After its capture by the Parthian Empire, it flourished during the 1st
and 2nd centuries AD as a religious and trading center. Later on, the city became the capital of possibly the first Arab Kingdom in the chain of Arab cities
running from Hatra, in the northeast, via Palmyra, Baalbek and Petra, in the southwest. The region controlled from Hatra was the Kingdom of Araba, a semi-
autonomous buffer kingdom on the western limits of the Parthian Empire, governed by Arabian princes. Hatra became an important fortified frontier city and
withstood repeated attacks by the Roman Empire, and played an important role in the Second Parthian War. It repulsed the sieges of both Trajan (116/117) and
Septimius Severus (198/199). Hatra defeated the Iranians at the battle of Shahrazoor in 238, but fell to the Iranian Sassanid Empire of Shapur I in 241 and was
destroyed. The traditional stories of the fall of Hatra tell of an-Nadira, daughter of the King of Araba, who betrayed the city into the hands of Shapur. The story
tells of how Shapur killed the king and married an-Nadira, but later had her killed also. Hatra is the best preserved and most informative example of a Parthian
city. It is encircled by inner and outer walls nearly 4 miles (6.4 km) in circumference and supported by more than 160 towers. A temenos () surrounds the
principal sacred buildings in the citys centre. The temples cover some 1.2 hectares and are dominated by the Great Temple, an enormous structure with vaults
and columns that once rose to 30 metres. The city was famed for its fusion of Greek, Mesopotamian, Canaanite, Aramean and Arabian pantheons, known in
Aramaic as Bei lh ("House of God"). The city had temples to Nergal (Assyrian-Babylonian and Akkadian), Hermes (Greek), Atargatis (Syro-Aramaean), Allat
and Shamiyyah (Arabian) and Shamash (the Mesopotamian sun god).[1] Other deities mentioned in the Hatran Aramaic inscriptions is the Aramaean Ba'al
Shamayn, and the female deity known as Ashurbel, which latter is perhaps the assimilation of the two deities the Assyrian god Ashur and the Babylonian Bel,
despite their being individually masculine.
List of Rulers of Hatra
Worod was a Lord (mry) of Hatra, an ancient town in modern Iraq around AD 110.
Manu was a Lord (mry) of Hatra, an ancient town in modern Iraq from AD 115 until AD 116/117.
Elkud was a Lord (mry) of Hatra, an ancient town in modern Iraq AD 117 until AD 120.
Nashrihab was a Lord (mry) of Hatra, an ancient town in modern Iraq. Nashrihab is known from many inscriptions of his son Naru and ruled from about
AD 120 until AD 125. He was most likely the son of Elkud, who reigned before him.
Naru was a Lord (mry) of Hatra, an ancient town in modern Iraq. He is attested by at least in 34 inscriptions found in the Hatra. Three of the inscriptions are
dated (between AD 128/29 and AD 137/38). A fourth one dates most likely after he died and gives the year 176/177 BC. The inscription dated to year AD
137/138 reports the building of the city wall and a city gate. Naru carried the enigmatic title mry' , wish might translate as master, governor or administrator. He
was the son of Nashrihab and father of Wolgash and Sanatruq I.
Wolgash or Vologash was a King (mlk) of Hatra, an ancient Kingdom in modern Iraq. He is known from more than 20 inscriptions found at Hatra and
reigned from about AD 140 until AD 180. He was the son of Naru who reigned from about AD 128 until AD 140. He was one of the first rulers of Hatra
calling himself mlk (king), but he bears also the title mry' (lord). Both titles are also attested for his brother Sanatruq I. It is unclear whether they both reigned
together and took of the title king at some point in their reign, or whether Sanatruq succeeded Wolgash. His successor was either his brother or his nephew
Abdsamiya.
Sanatruq I was a King (mlk) of Hatra, an ancient Kingdom in modern Iraq. He is known from more than 20 inscriptions found at Hatra and reigned from
about AD 140 until AD 180. Only one of his inscription is dated (year AD 176/177). He was the son of Naru who reigned from about AD 128 to AD 140. He
was one of the first ruler of Hatra calling himself mlk (king), but he bears also the title mry' (administrator).[2] Both titles are also attested for his brother
Vologash or Wolgash. It is unclear whether they both reigned together and took of the title king at some point in their reign, or whether Sanatruq succeeded
Wolgash. His son and successor was Abdsamiya.
Abdsamiya was a King (mlk) of Hatra, an ancient Kingdom in modern Iraq. He reigned from about AD 180 until AD 205. Abdsamiya was the son of king
Sanatruq I and the father of Sanatruq II. Abdsamiya is known from eight inscriptions found at Hatra. One of them reports the building of a porticus for the king
and is dated to year AD 192/93. Another inscription appears on a statue and is dated to AD 201/202. Abdsamiya is most likely also mentioned by Herodian
(3.1.3). There he appears as Barsemias. He supported in year AD 192 Pescennius Niger against Septimius Severus.
Sanatruq II was the last King (mlk) of Hatra, an ancient Kingdom in modern Iraq, ruling from about AD 200 until AD 240/41. He was the son of king
Abdsamiya and is attested by nine inscriptions discovered at Hatra. Only two of these inscription bear year datings, both are hard to read.(perhaps AD 231 and
AD 237/38). Sanatruq II appears in Syrian sources as Sanatru and in Arab sources as Daizian/Saitrun. One of his inscriptions was found on a statue showing him
standing. His wife was perhaps Abbu. There are two sons known. Abdsamiya was named after his grandfather. He was his heir. Another son, Mana is attested in
year AD 235 and seems to had Arabia of Wal under his control. This is a region southeast of Edessa. From the latter evidence it seems that Sanatruq II
expanded his territory. The daughter Duspari is known from a statue, dated to year AD 238. As second statue belongs to her daughter Samay. Under Sanatruq II
Hatra became a vassal of the Romans. Around AD 226/227 the Sassanians attacked the city without success, but was finally conquered and destroyed by the
Sassanians, perhaps around AD 240/41.

Terqa
Terqa is the name of an ancient city discovered at the site of Tell Ashara on the banks of the middle Euphrates in Deir ez-Zor Governorate, Syria, approximately
80 km from the modern border with Iraq. Its name had become Sirqu by Neo-Assyrian times. Little is yet known of the early history of Terqa, though it was a
sizable entity even in the Early Dynastic period. In the 2nd millennium BC it was under the control of Shamshi-Adad, followed by Mari in the time of Zimri-Lim,
and then by Babylon after Mari's defeat by Hamurabi of the First Babylonian Dynasty, Terqa became the leading city of the kingdom of Khana/Hana after the
decline of Babylon. Later, it fell into the sphere of the Kassite dynasty of Babylon and eventually the Neo-Assyrian Empire. A noted stele of Assyrian king
Tukulti-Ninurta II was found at Terqa. The principal god of Terqa was Dagan.
List of Rulers of Terqa
Iaggidlim (Yagid-Lim) was a ruler of Terqa, ancient city in present Syria Aaround 1825 BC.
Iakhdunlim (Yakhdun-Lim) was a ruler of Terqa, ancient city in present Syria around 1800 BC.
Sumu-Yaman was a ruler of Terqa, ancient city in present Syria from 1793 BC until 1791 BC.
Shamsiadad d'Ekallatum was a ruler of Terqa, ancient city in present Syria from 1791 BC until 1782 BC.
Yashmakhadad was a ruler of Terqa, ancient city in present Syria from 1782 BC until 1775 BC.
Zimrilim (Zimri-Lim) was a ruler of Terqa, ancient city in present Syria from 1775 BC until 1759 BC.
Kibri-Dagan was a ruler of Terqa, ancient city in present Syria around 1759 BC.
Yapah-Sumu was a ruler of Terqa, ancient city in present Syria in 18th century BC.
Isi-Sumu-Abu was a ruler of Terqa, ancient city in present Syria in 18th century BC.
Yadikh-Abu was a ruler of Terqa, ancient city in present Syria around 1721 BC. Contemporary of Samsu-iluna of Babylon, 7 year names known
Gandash was a ruler of Terqa, ancient city in present Syria around 1720 BC.
Agum I was a ruler of Terqa, ancient city in present Syria around 1700 BC.
Kastiliyasu was a ruler of Terqa, ancient city in present Syria around 1670 BC.
Sunuhru-Ammu was a ruler of Terqa, ancient city in present Syria around 1660 BC.
Ammi-Madar was a ruler of Terqa, ancient city in present Syria around 1660 BC.
Iddin-Kaka was a ruler of Terqa, ancient city in present Syria around 1600 BC.
Isar-Lim was a ruler of Terqa, ancient city in present Syria in early 16th century BC.
Iggid-Lim was a ruler of Terqa, ancient city in present Syria in 16th century BC.
Iish-Dagan was a ruler of Terqa, ancient city in present Syria in early 15th century BC.
Hammurapih was a ruler of Terqa, ancient city in present Syria around 1475 BC.

Arrapha
Arrapha or Arrapkha (Akkadian: Arrapa, Syriac: , Arabic: , Turkish: Arrapha) was an ancient city in what today is northeastern Iraq, on the
site of the modern city of Kirkuk. It began as a city of the Gutian people, became Hurrian, and was an Assyrian city during most of its occupation. In 1948,
Arrapha became the name of the residential area in Kirkuk which was built by the North Oil Company as a settlement for its workers. The city was founded
around 2000 BC by Hurrian-related Zagros MountainsTaurus Mountains dwellers who were known as the Gutian people by lowland-dwellers of Southern
Mesopotamia. Arraphkha was the capital of the Guti kingdom (Gutium), which is mentioned in cuneiform records about 2400 BC. Arrapha was an important
trading center in the 18th century BC. By the 14th century it was a largely Hurrian city, the capital of the small, Hurrian kingdom of Arrapkha, situated along the
southeastern edge of the area under Mittani domination. The city reached great prominence in the 11th and 10th centuries BC under Assyrian rule. In 615 BC,
seeing the Assyrians occupied with the Babylonians, the Median king Cyaxares successfully invaded Arrapha, which was one of the last strongholds of the Neo-
Assyrian Empire. The region later became part of Achaemenid Persia. During the Parthian and Sassanid Empire the site was the capital of a small kingdom
called " ", that is Beth Garmai, in Aramaic. Arrapha is mentioned until Hellenistic times, at which point the settlement was refounded under the name
Karka. Arrapha has not been excavated yet, due to its location beneath Kirkuk
List of Rulers of Arrapha
Kipi-Teshshup was a ruler of Arrapha, ancient city in what today is northeastern Iraq in the 15th century BC.
Iti-Teshshup was a ruler of Arrapha, ancient city in what today is northeastern Iraq in the second half 15th century BC.
Iti-Tilla was a ruler of Arrapha, ancient city in what today is northeastern Iraq.
Muteja was a ruler of Arrapha, ancient city in what today is northeastern Iraq.
ar-Teshshup was a ruler of Arrapha, ancient city in what today is northeastern Iraq.
Tarmi-Teshshup was a ruler of Arrapha, ancient city in what today is northeastern Iraq.
Arali was a ruler of Arrapha, ancient city in what today is northeastern Iraq.

Byblos
Byblos was a Canaanite city called Gubal during the Bronze Age, at which time it also appears as Gubla in the Amarna letters. During the Iron Age the city is
called Gebal in Phoenician (Phoenician: ) and appears in the Hebrew Bible under the name Geval (Hebrew: ). It was much later referred to as Gibelet,
during the Crusades. The city's Canaanite/Phoenician name (GBL, i.e. Gubal, Gebal, etc.) can be derived from gb, meaning "well" or "origin", and El, the name of
the supreme god of Byblos' pantheon. The present-day city is known by the Arabic name Jubayl or Jbeil ( ), a direct descendant of the Canaanite name.
However, the name[clarification needed] is most likely derived from the Phoenician word GBL meaning "boundary", "district" or "mountain peak"; in the Ugaritic
language GBL can mean "mountain", similarly to Arabic jabal. The name Byblos is Greek (Greek: ). Papyrus received its early Greek name (byblos,
byblinos) from its being exported to the Aegean through Byblos, and the Greek words biblion, plural biblia, and ultimately the word "Bible" ("the (papyrus) book")
are traced to that name.
List of Rulers of Byblos
Rib-Hadda (also rendered Rib-Addi, Rib-Addu, Rib-Adda) was king of Byblos during the mid fourteenth century BCE. He is the author of some sixty of the
Amarna letters all to Akhenaten. His name is Akkadian in form and may invoke the Northwest Semitic god Hadad, though his letters invoke only Ba'alat Gubla,
the "Lady of Byblos" (probably another name for Asherah). Letter EA 362 written by Rib-Hadda to Pharaoh, one of the Amarna letters, Louvre Museum Rib-
Hadda's letters often took the form of complaints or pleas for action on the part of the reigning Pharaoh. In EA 105, he begged Pharaoh to intervene in a dispute
with Beirut, whose ruler had confiscated two Byblian merchant vessels. In EA 122, Rib-Hadda complained of an attack by the Egyptian commissioner Pihuri,
who killed a number of Byblos' Shardana mercenaries and took captive three of Rib-Hadda's men. Rib-Hadda was involved in a long-standing dispute with Abdi-
Ashirta, the ruler of Amurru (probably in southeastern Lebanon and southwestern Syria), who hired mercenaries from among the Habiru, Shardana, and other
warlike tribes. EA 81 contains a plea for Egyptian aid against Amurru, whose ruler Rib-Hadda accused of luring away his followers and inciting them to rebellion.
He reported further that an assassin sent by Abdi-Ashirta had attempted to kill him.[2] Rib-Hadda pleaded with Akhenaten to send archers to defend him from
the forces of Amurru and from his own increasingly resentful peasantry. In one of the most poignant of the Amarna texts, Rib-Hadda wrote "the people of
Ammiya have killed their lord and I am afraid." (EA 75). He added: "like a bird in a trap so I am here in Gubla (ie: Byblos)." (EA 74 & EA 81)[3] Zemar, a city
previously under his control, fell to Abdi-Ashirta (EA 84). Shortly thereafter the Egyptian commissioner Pahannate was withdrawn from northern Canaan, leaving
Rib-Hadda without even the appearance of Egyptian support. His pleas for assistance evidently went unanswered (EA 107) and caused much annoyance to
Akhenaten. Akhenaten's irritation with Rib-Hadda is recounted in EA 117 where the pharaoh is quoted saying to Rib-Hadda "Why do you alone keep writing to
me?" (EA 117)[4] While Abdi-Ashirta is reported to have been killed in EA 101, this only provided temporary relief to Rib-Hadda since the former was
succeeded by his son Aziru; Rib-Hadda soon after complains about the depredations caused by "the sons of Abdi-Ashirta" in several Amarna letters to Akhenaten
such as EA 103 and EA 109. In EA 89, Rib-Hadda reported a coup d'etat in neighboring Tyre, in which the ruler of Tyre, his fellow kinsmen, was killed along
with his family. Rib-Hadda's sister and her daughters, who had been sent to Tyre to keep them away from Abdi-Ashirta's Amurru invaders, were also presumed
to be among those killed. If this was not bad enough, Rib-Hadda wrote again to report that the Hittites were invading Egyptian protectorates in Syria and burning
"the King's lands". (EA 126). At one point Rib-Hadda was forced to flee to exile in Beirut, under the protection of king Ammunira. (EA 137) In EA 75, Rib-
Hadda details the changing political situation around Byblos: [Ri]b Hadda says to his lord, king of all countries, Great King: May the Lady of Gubla grant power
to my lord. I fall at the feet of my lord, my Sun, 7 times and 7 times. May the king, my lord, know that Gubla (ie: Byblos), the maidservant of the king from
ancient times, is safe and sound. The war, however, of the Apiru against me is severe. (Our) sons and daughters and the furnishings of the houses are gone, since
they have been sold [in] the land of Yarimuta for our provisions to keep us alive. "For the lack of a cultivator, my field is like a woman without a husband." I have
written repeatedly to the palace because of the illness afflicting me, [but there is no one] who has looked at the words that keep arriving. May the king give heed
[to] the words of [his] servant... ...The Apiru killed Ad[una the king] of Irqata-(Arqa), but there was no one who said anything to Abdi-Ashirta, and so they go on
taking (territory for themselves). Miya, the ruler of Arani, seized Ar[d]ata, and just now the men of Ammiy<a> have killed their lord. I am afraid. May the king
be informed that the king of Hatti has seized all the countries that were vassals of the king of Mitan<ni>...Send arc[hers]. An aged and ailing Rib-Hadda continued
to write to Pharaoh, telling him of violent upheavals in Phoenicia and Syria, including revolutions instigated by Abdi-Ashirta's son Aziru coupled with incursions
by Apiru raiders. (e.g., EA 137) Rib-Hadda was ultimately exiled by his younger brother Ilirabih and not long afterwards, killed at the behest of Aziru. This event
is mentioned in Amarna letter EA 162 from Akhenaten to Aziru.
Ili-Rapih was the follow-on mayor in Gubla-(modern Byblos), and the brother of Rib-Hadda, the former mayor of Gubla, (who was the prolific author of letters
to pharaoh); Ili-Rapih is in the 1350-1335 BC Amarna letters correspondence, and wrote 2 follow-on letters to the Pharaoh after the death of Rib-Haddi. Of note,
Ili-Rapih's name is referenced in only one letter in the entire Amarna letters corpus, besides his own 2 authored letters of EA 139, and 140, (EA is for 'el
Amarna'), that being letter EA 128, (Rib-Haddi letter no. 57 of 68). EA 139, title: "A new voice, an old story", "To the king, [my] lo[rd, my Sun]: Message of Ili-
ra[pih, your servant]; message of Gu(b)la, [your maidservant. I fall at] the feet of the lord, the Sun, 7 times and [7 times]. Do not neglec[t Gu-la, your city and the
city of [your] ancesto[rs] from most ancient times. Moreover, behold Gu-la! Just as Hikuptah, so is Gu-la to the king, my lord. Do not neglect the delicts of a
serva[nt], for he acted as he pleased in the lands of the king-(i.e. the "king's" brother: Rib-Hadda). Here is the crime that Aziru ... against the king: [he kill]ed the
king of Ammiya, and [the king of E]ldata-(Ardata), and the king of Ir(qata)-(="King Aduna"), [and a co]mmissioner of the king, my lord. He also broke into
Sumur. [And indeed] he is now intent on [committing] a cri(me) against the king. Moreover, ... ...May the king (my) lord, know [I] am his loyal servant. And so
let him send a garrison to his city30 to 50 men as far as Gubla. The king is to take (n)o account of whatever Aziru sends him. Where were the things that he
sends coveted? It is property belonging to a royal whom he has killed that he sends to you. Look, Aziru is a reb(el) against the king, my lord." -EA 139, lines 1- 40
(complete, but major lacuna: lines 20-28) Note that Gubla's name is abbreviated in this letter, (Gu-la), except for one usage. EA 140, title: "Again, the crimes of
Aziru"; letter Part 1 of 2-(lost): "[To] the king, the lord, my Sun: Message of Gubla), your maidservant; message of Ili-rapih, your servant. I fall at the feet of my
lord, the Sun, 7 times and 7 times. The king, my lord, shall not neglect Gubla, his maidservant, a city of the king from most ancient times. Moreover why did the
king communicate through Aziru? He does as he pleases. Aziru killed Aduna, and a magnate. He took their cities. To him belongs Sumur-(Zemar); to him
belong the cities of the king. Gubla alone is a ... of the king. Moreover, he broke into Sumur and Ullassa. Moreover, Aziru even [com]mitted a crime [wh]en he
was brought [in]to you-(i.e. over-to you, (in Egypt)). The crime [was against] us. He sent [his] men [t]o Itakkama [and] he smote all the land of Amqu and (their)
territories. Moreover, is not the king of Hatta active, and the king of Narima-(Mittani) and..? (lacuna-- continuation to 2nd letter, (Letter 2 lost)" -EA 140, lines 1-
33 (complete)(Letter: Part 1 of 2 parts) EA 128, title: No title, since badly damaged, Letter EA 128, no. 57 of 68, by Rib-Hadda-(?) of Gubla/Byblos. A
postscript ending on letter no. 128 exists: "...Message of Ili-rapih: I fall 7 times and 7 times beneath the feet of the king, my lord. And may the king, my lord, hear
about the deed of (that) criminal-(Aziru(?)) ..." -EA 128, ending, (these are postscript lines on the damaged letter). The first historical reference to Beirut dates
from the 14th century BC, when it is mentioned in the cuneiform tablets of the Amarna letters, three letters that Ammunira of Biruta (Beirut) sent to the pharaoh
of Egypt. Biruta is also referenced in the letters from Rib-Hadda, king of Byblos. The oldest settlement was on an island in the river that progressively silted up.
The city was known in antiquity as Berytus. This name was taken in 1934 for the archaeological journal published by the Faculty of Arts and Sciences at the
American University of Beirut.

Beirut
King of Beirut
Ammunira was the king of Beirut in the mid-fourteenth century BC. He is mentioned in several of the Amarna letters, and authored letters EA 141-43 (EA
for 'el Amarna').

Kingdom of Ammuru
Amurru was an Amorite kingdom located at the territory that spans modern western and north-western Syria and northern of modern Lebanon, which made up
northern Syrian during the 14th12th centuries BC. The first documented leader of Amurru was Abdi-Ashirta, under whose leadership Amurru was part of the
Egyptian empire. His son Aziru made contact with the Hittite king Suppiluliuma I, and eventually defected to the Hittites. The Amurru kingdom was destroyed
by the Sea Peoples around 1200 BC.
List of Kings of the Kingdom of Ammuru
Abdi-Ashirta was a ruler of the Kingdom of Amurru from 1350 BC until 1340 BC who was in conflict with King Rib-Hadda of Byblos. Amurru was then a
new kingdom in southern Syria subject to nominal Egyptian control. Rib-Hadda complained bitterly to Pharaoh Akhenaten in the Amarna letters (EA) of
Abdi-Ashirta's attempts to carve out a larger kingdom for himself at the former's expense. Abdi-Ashirta's death is mentioned in EA 101 by Rib-Hadda in a letter
to Akhenaten. Unfortunately for Rib-Hadda, Abdi-Ashirta was succeeded by his equally capable son Aziru, who would later capture, exile and likely kill Rib-
Hadda. Aziru subsequently defected to the Hittites, which caused Egypt to lose control over her northern border province of Amurru which Aziru controlled.
Pu-Bahla was a ruler of the Kingdom of Amurru from 1340 BC until 1330 BC.
Aziru was the Canaanite ruler of the Kingdom of Amurru, modern Lebanon, in the 14th century BC. He was the son of Abdi-Ashirta, the previous Egyptian
vassal of Amurru and a direct contemporary of Akhenaten. The dealings of Aziru are well-known from the Amarna letters. While being a formal vassal of Egypt,
he tried to expand his kingdom towards the Mediterranean coast and captured the city of Sumur (Simyrra). This was seen with alarm by his neighbouring states,
particularly Rib-Hadda, the king of Gubla, (Byblos), who pleaded for Egyptian troops to be sent for their protection. Rib-Hadda was ultimately exiledand
probably not long afterwardskilled at the behest of Aziru. Rib-Hadda had left his city of Byblos for 4 months to conclude a treaty with the king of Beirut,
Ammunira, but when he returned home, he learned that a palace coup led by his brother Ilirabih had unseated him from power. He temporarily sought refuge
with Ammunira and unsuccessfully appealed for support from Egypt to restore him to the throne. (EA 136-138; EA 141 & EA 142) When this failed, Rib-Hadda
was forced to ignominiously appeal to his sworn enemy, Aziru, to place him back on the throne of his city. Aziru promptly betrayed him and dispatched Rib-
Hadda into the hands of the rulers of Sidon where Rib-Hadda almost certainly met his death.This event is mentioned in Amarna letter EA 162 by Akhenaten to
Aziru when the pharaoh demanded that Aziru travel to Egypt to explain his actions. Aziru was detained in Egypt for at least a year before being released when the
advancing Hittites conquered the important city of Amki thereby threatening Amurru (EA 170). Aziru was allowed to leave Egypt and return to his kingdom.
Aziru had, however, made secret contacts with the Hittite king Suppiluliuma I, and sometime upon his return to Amurru, he permanently switched his allegiance
to the Hittites to whom he remained loyal until his death.[5] Henceforth, Amurru remained firmly in Hittite hands until the reign of the 19th dynasty Pharaohs
Seti I and Ramesses II.
Duppi-Teshub was a King of the Kingdom of Amurru around 1330 BC.
Ben-Teshina was a King of the Kingdom of Amurru from 1330 BC until 1290 BC and from 1270 BC until 1260 BC.
Sapili was a King of the Kingdom of Amurru from 1290 BC until 1270 BC.
Sausgamuwa I was a King of the Kingdom of Amurru from 1260 BC until ?.
Sausgamuwa II was a King of the Kingdom of Amurru around 1200 BC.

Kingdom of Irqata (Arqa)
Arqa (Phoenician: Irqata; Hebrew: , Arkat in the Bible) is a village near Miniara in Akkar District of the North Governorate in Lebanon, 22 km northeast of
Tripoli, near the coast. It is significant for the Tell Arqa, an archaeological site that goes back to Neolithic times, and during the Crusades there was a strategically
significant castle. It is mentioned in antiquity in the Amarna letters of Egypt-(as Irqata), as well as in Assyrian documents. The Roman town was named Caesarea
of Lebanon or Arca Caesarea. The Emperor Alexander Severus was born there. The city-state Irqata was the 3rd city of the Rib-Hadda letters, (68 letters), that
were the last hold-outs against the Hapiru. Sumur(u)-(Zemar) was the 2nd hold-out city besides Rib-Hadda's Byblos, (named Gubla). Eventually, the 'king of
Irqata' , Aduna was killed along with other city kings, and also the 'mayor' of Gubla, Rib-Hadda. Rib-Hadda's brother, Ili-Rapih, became the successor mayor of
Gubla, and Gubla never fell to the Hapiru. During Rib-Hadda's lengthy opposition to the Habiru, even the city-state of "Irqata and its elders", wrote to the
Egyptian pharaoh Akhenaten for assistance. (EA 100, EA for 'el Amarna'). The letter is entitled: "The city of Irqata to the king". This tablet-(i.e. tablet letter) is a
tablet from Irqata. To the king, our lord: Message from Irqata and its el[d]ers. We fall at the feet of the king, our lord, 7 times and 7 times. To our lord, the Sun:
Message from Irqata. May the heart of the king, (our) lord, know that we guard Irqata for him. When the [ki]ng, our lord, sent D[UMU]-Bi-ha-a, he said to [u]s,
"Message of the king: "Guard Irqata"! " The sons of the traitor to the king seek our harm; Irqata see[ks] loyalty to the king. As to [ silver ] having been given to
S[u]baru al[ong with] horses and cha[riots] , may you know the mind of Irqata. When a tablet from the king arrived (saying) to ra[id] the land that the 'A[piru] had
taken [from] the king, they wa[ged] war with us against the enemy of our lord, the man whom you pla[ced] over us. Trulywe are guarding the l[and]. May the
king, our lord, heed the words of his loyal servants. May he grant a gift to his servant(s) so our enemies will see this and eat dirt. May the breath of the king not
depart from us. We shall keep the city gate barred until the breath of the king reaches us. Severe is the war against usterribly! terribly! -EA 100, lines 1-44
(complete).
King of the Kingdom of Irqata (Arqa)
Aduna was a King of the Kingdom of Irqata. The city-state Irqata was the 3rd city of the Rib-Hadda letters, (68 letters), that were the last hold-outs against the
Hapiru. Sumur(u)-(Zemar) was the 2nd hold-out city besides Rib-Hadda's Byblos, (named Gubla). Eventually, the 'king of Irqata' , Aduna was killed along with
other city kings, and also the 'mayor' of Gubla, Rib-Hadda. Rib-Hadda's brother, Ili-Rapih, became the successor mayor of Gubla, and Gubla never fell to the
Hapiru.
Local Chieftain of Jerusalem
Abdi-Heba (Abdi-Kheba, Abdi-Hepat, or Abdi-Hebat) was a local chieftain of Jerusalem during the Amarna period (mid-1330s BC). Abdi-Heba's name can
be translated as "servant of Hebat", a Hurrian goddess. Some scholars believe the correct reading is Ebed-Nob[citation needed]. Whether Abdi-Heba was himself
of Hurrian descent is unknown, as is the relationship between the general populace of pre-Israelite Jerusalem (called, several centuries later, Jebusites in the
Bible) and the Hurrians. Egyptian documents have him deny he was a aznu and assert he is a soldier (we'w), the implication being he was the son of a local
chief sent to Egypt to receive military training there. Also unknown is whether he was part of a dynasty that governed Jerusalem or whether he was put on the
throne by the Egyptians. Abdi-Heba himself notes that he holds his position not through his parental lineage but by the grace of Pharaoh, but this might be
flattery rather than an accurate representation of the situation. At this time the area he administered from his garrison may have had a population of fifteen
hundred people and Jerusalem would have been a 'small highlands stronghold' in the fourteenth century BC with no fortifications or large buildings. During
Abdi-Heba's reign the region was under attack from marauding bands of Apiru. Abdi-Heba made frequent pleas to the Pharaoh of Egypt (probably Amenhotep
III), for an army or, at least, an officer to command. Abdi-Heba also made other requests for military aid in fighting off his enemies, both Canaanite warlords and
bands of Apiru: Say to the king, my lord: Message of Abdi-Heba, your servant. I fall at the feet of my lord 7 times and 7 times. Consider the entire affair. Milkilu
and Tagi brought troops into Qiltu against me... ...May the king know (that) all the lands are at peace (with one another), but I am at war. May the king provide
for his land. Consider the lands of Gazru, Aqaluna, and Lakisi. They have given them [my enemies] food, oil and any other requirement. So may the king
provide for archers and send the archers against men that commit crimes against the king, my lord. If this year there are archers, then the lands and the hazzanu
(client kings) will belong to the king, my lord. But if there are no archers, then the king will have neither lands nor hazzanu. Consider Jerusalem! This neither my
father nor my mother gave to me. The strong hand (arm) of the king gave it to me. Consider the deed! This is the deed of Milkilu and the deed of the sons of
Lab'ayu, who have given the land of the king to the 'Apiru. Consider, O king, my lord! I am in the right!.... EA 287. As a result, conspiracy charges are made
against Abdi Heba, who defended himself strenuously in his correspondence with Pharaoh. In later years Abdi-Heba appears to have reconciled with the Apiru,
or at least certain bands of them, and hired mercenaries from among their ranks. Indeed, though he earlier complained about the depredations of Labaya,
Shuwardata, king of the Canaanite town of Keilah as well as other places in the Judean highlands, refers to him as a "new Labaya": Say to the king, my lord, my
god, my Sun: Message of Shuwardata, your servant, the dirt at your feet. I fall at the feet of the king, my lord, my god, my Sun, 7 times and 7 times. The king, my
lord, permitted me to wage war against Qeltu (Keilah). I waged war. It is now at peace with me; my city is restored to me. Why did Abdi-Heba write to the men of
Qeltu, "Accept silver and follow me?"... Moreover, Labaya, who used to take our towns, is dead, but now another Labaya is Abdi-Heba, and he seizes our town.
So, may the king take cognizance of his servant because of this deed... EA 280. Abdi-Heba's ultimate fate is unknown. Abdi-Heba was the author of letters EA
285-290: EA 285title: "The soldier-ruler of Jerusalem", EA 286title: "A throne granted, not inherited", EA 287title: "A very serious crime"', EA 288title:
"Benign neglect", EA 289title: "A reckoning demanded" and EA 290title: "Three against one"'

Kingdom of Tikunani
Tikunani throve as a small city-state in Mesopotamia around the middle of the second millennium BC. Tikunani is best known for a cuneiform document from
the reign of Tunip-Teup (a Hurrian-named king, contemporaneous with Hattusili I of the Hittites, around 1550 BC) containing a list of names of Habiru
soldiers.
King of the Kingdom of Tikunani
Tunip-Teup was a King of the Kingdom of Tikunani, small city-state in Mesopotamia around 1550 BC (contemporaneous with Hattusili I of the Hittites,
around 1550 BC) containing a list of names of Habiru soldiers. Tikunani is best known for a cuneiform document from the reign of Tunip-Teup. The
discovery of this text generated much excitement, for it provided much-needed fresh evidence about the nature of the Habiru (or Hapiru). It turned out that the
majority of Tunip-Tessup's Habiru soldiers had Hurrian names that could not be explained in any Canaanite language (the family which Hebrew belongs to) or
any other Semitic language. The rest of the names are Semitic, except one which is Kassite. The Tikunani Prism is a clay artifact with an Akkadian cuneiform
inscription listing the names of 438 Habiru soldiers of King Tunip-Teup of Tikunani (a small Mesopotamian kingdom). The Prism is 8 inches tall, with a
square base roughly 2 by 2 inches. It is in a private collection of antiquities in England, and its provenance is unknown.


Kingdom of Ashdod
Ashdod (Hebrew: About this sound (audio) (help info); Arabic: , Isdud) is the fifth-largest city in Israel and former ancient kingdom, located in
the Southern District of the country, on the Mediterranean coast, located 32 kilometres (20 mi) south of Tel Aviv, 20 km (12 mi) north of Ashkelon and 53 km
(33 mi) west of Jerusalem. Human settlement in Ashdod dates from the Paleolithic Age. Ashdod is mentioned in documents written in Ugaritic, a language of
ancient Canaan. At the end of the 13th century BCE the Sea Peoples conquered and destroyed Ashdod. By the beginning of the 12th century BC, the Philistines,
generally thought to have been one of the Sea Peoples, ruled the city. During their reign, the city prospered and was a member of the Philistine pentapolis, which
included Ashkelon, Ekron, Gath, and Gaza in addition to Ashdod. In 950 BC Ashdod was destroyed during Pharaoh Siamun's conquest of the region. The city
was not rebuilt until at least 815 BC. Around 715 BC, it was conquered by Sargon II, who destroyed the city and exiled its residents, including some Jews who
were subsequently settled in Media and Elam. Asddu led the revolt of Philistines, Judeans, Edomites, and Moabites against Assyria after expulsion of king
Akhimeti, whom Sargon had installed instead of his brother Azuri. Gath (Gimtu) belonged to the kingdom of Ashdod at that time. An Assyrian general Tartan
gained control of Ashdod in 711 BC, and forced the "usurper" Yamani to flee. Mitinti was king at the time of Sennacherib, and Akhimilki in the reign of
Esarhaddon. Psamtik I of Egypt is reported to have besieged the great city Azotus for twenty-nine years (Herodotus, ii. 157); the biblical references to the
remnant of Ashdod (Jeremiah 25:20; cf Zephaniah 2:4) are interpreted as allusions to this event.
List of Kings of the Kingdom of Ashdod
Akhimeti was a King of the Kingdom of Ashdod in late 8th century BC. Around 715 BC, it was conquered by Sargon II, who destroyed the city and exiled its
residents, including some Jews who were subsequently settled in Media and Elam. Asddu led the revolt of Philistines, Judeans, Edomites, and Moabites against
Assyria after expulsion of king Akhimeti, whom Sargon had installed instead of his brother Azuri.
Azuri was a King of the Kingdom of Ashdod in late 8th century BC.
Yamani was a King of the Kingdom of Ashdod in late 8th century BC. An Assyrian general Tartan gained control of Ashdod in 711 BC, and forced the
"usurper" Yamani to flee.
Mitinti was a King of the Kingdom of Ashdod during 690 BC and 680 BC.
Akhimilki was a King of the Kingdom of Ashdod during 670s BC and 660s BC.

Zemar
Zemar (Biblical Hebrew: , Tzumur; Egyptian: Smr; Akkadian: Sumuru; Assyrian: Simirra) was a Phoenician city in what is now Syria. Zemar was a major
trade center. Zemar (as "Sumura" or "Sumur") appears in the Amarna letters; Ahribta is named as its ruler. It was under the guardianship of Rib-Hadda, king of
Byblos, but revolted against him and joined Abdi-Ashirta's expanding kingdom of Amurru. Pro-Egyptian factions may have seized the city again but Abdi-
Ashirta's son Aziru recaptured Zemar. It has been linked by Maurice Dunand and N. Salisby to the archaeological site of Tell Kazel in 1957.
Ruler of Zemar
Ahribta was a ruler of Zemar in 14th century BC. Zemar (as "Sumura" or "Sumur") appears in the Amarna letters; Ahribta is named as its ruler. It was under the
guardianship of Rib-Hadda, king of Byblos, but revolted against him and joined Abdi-Ashirta's expanding kingdom of Amurru. Pro-Egyptian factions may have
seized the city again but Abdi-Ashirta's son Aziru recaptured Zemar.

Gath
Gath, Gat, or Geth (Hebrew: , Winepress; Latin: Geth), often referred to as Gath of the Philistines, was one of the five Philistine city-states, established in
northwestern Philistia. According to the Bible, the king of the city was Achish, in the times of Saul, David, and Solomon. It is not certain whether this refers to
two or more kings of the name 'Achish' or not. Gath was also the home city of Goliath and his brothers, as well as of Itai and his 600 soldiers who aided David in
his exile from Absalom. David, while running from Saul, escaped to Gath, and served under its king Achish. During Solomon's reign, Shemei goes to Gath to
return his escaped slave (I Kings). In II Kings, the city of Gath is mentioned as being captured by Hazael of Aram Damascus. Recent excavations at the site have
produced dramatic evidence of a siege and subsequent destruction of the site in the late 9th century BC, most probably related to this event, although a stone
inscription disclosing the name of the city has yet to be discovered. Gath is also mentioned in the El-Amarna letters as Gimti/Gintu, ruled by a king Shuwardata,
and possibly by Abdi-Ashtart as well. While scholars who have studied historical geography are still divided about the location of the biblical city known as Gath,
and although the active archaeological site at "Tel Zafit" in Tel Tzafit National Park has been given the name "Gath" by modern archaeologists, there still exists a
prevalent view amongst other scholars today that the biblical Gath was located where Ramlah is now built, based on a medieval Jewish tradition passed down by
Ishtori Haparchi.
King of Gath (Tell es-Safi)
uwardata, also uardatu, (Shuwardata) is understood by most scholars to be the king of the Canaanite city of Gath (Tell es-Safi), although some have
suggested that he was the 'mayor' of Qiltu, (Keilah?, or Qi'iltu) during the 1350-1335 BC Amarna letters correspondence. uwardata was the author of 8 letters to
the Egyptian pharaoh. Besides letters EA 283, and EA 366, (EA for 'el Amarna'), only letter 280 tells of intrigues: See Labaya, or Abdi-Heba, as EA 280 claims:
"Moreover, Lab'ayu who used to take our town, is dead, but now [an]other Lab'ayu is 'Abdi-Heba, and he seizes our town." The other 5 letters do refer to the
following: Qeltu-(Qiltu, Keilah:); silver (as mercenary pay); the Sun, (as R); the archer-forces; and the only reference to Rahmanu, an Egyptian official, (letter EA
284, "The powerful hand of the king"). All uwardata's letters are addressed to the Ancient Egyptian pharaoh, (King): "To the king, my lord, my god, my Sun:
Message of uwardata, your servant. I fall at the feet of the king, my lord. I fall at the feet of the king, my lord, 7 times and 7 times more (i.e. 'overflowing'-(mlu)).
The king, my lord, has written me, "Enter and pay me homage." Into the presence of the king, my lord! Would that it were possible to enter into the presence of
the king, my lord, to receive the ... and the .... of the king, my lord. Since Yanhamu is with you, speak with him. If there are still no archers available, then may
the king, my lord, take me away. May the king, my lord, be informed that 30cities have waged war against me. I am alone! The war against me is severe. The
king, my lord, has cast me from his hand. May the king, my lord, send archers. May the king, my lord, ta(k)e me away. Since Yanhamu, that is, the commissioner
of the king, my lord, is there, may the king, my lord, spea[k] with him, (asking), "Is the war against uwardata severe, or is it not?" " -EA 283, lines 1-33
(complete). uwardata must have been an important regional individual, since he claims 30, ..cities, sub-cities, or city-states have been warring with his city. EA
366: "A rescue operation"--(no. 8 of 8): "Say to the king, my lord, my Sun, my god: Message of uwardata, your servant, the servant of the king and the dirt at your
feet, the ground you tread on. I prostrate myself at the feet of the king, my lord, the Sun from the sky (i.e. 'heaven:' a-me), 7 times and 7 times, both on the
stomach and on the back. May the king, my lord, be informed that the 'Apiru that rose up: na-a-a-a against the lands, the god of the king, my lord, gave to me
and I smote him. And may the king, my lord, be informed that all my brothers have abandoned me. Only Abdi-Heba and I have been at war with (that) 'Apiru.
Surata, the ruler of Akka, and Endaruta, the ruler of Akapa, (these) two also have come to my aid: na-az-a-q (have been summoned to help) with 50chariots,
and now they are on my side in the war. So may it seem right in the sight of the king, my lord, and may he send Yanhamu so that we may all wage war and you
restore the land of the king, my lord, to its borders: up-s-hi. ((i.e. 'up-si-hi='borders' referring to article: Upu, also of the "Amarna letters"-?, putting Shuwardata's
location on the perimeter?)) -EA 366, lines 1-34 (complete). List letters: EA 278title: "As ordered", EA 279title: "A wasteland", EA 280title: "Lab'ayu
redevivus", EA 281title: "Rebellion", EA 282title: "Alone",EA 283title: "Oh! to see the king, EA 284title: "The powerful hand of the king" and from the later
corpus: EA 366title: "A rescue operation." David Rohl, in his book Pharaohs and Kings, suggests the name Suwardata has the same meaning ("Gift of the Sun
God") as the Hurrian name Akishimige, of which Achish may be the abbreviation. In addition, 'Suwardata' is strikingly similar to Suryadata which also means gift
of the Sun God in Sanskrit (from 'Surya' - the Sun God and 'datta/data' - meaning 'given' or 'gift'; the entire name translates to (roughly), Gift of the Sun God or
Given by the Sun God).

Kingdom of Hazor
Tel Hazor (Hebrew: ), also Hatzor and Tell el-Qedah, is an archaeological tell at the site of ancient Hazor, located in the Upper Galilee, north of the Sea
of Galilee, in the southern Hula Valley overlooking Lake Merom. In the Middle Bronze Age (around 1750 BCE) and the Israelite period (ninth century BCE),
Hazor was the largest fortified city in the country and one of the most important in the Fertile Crescent. It maintained commercial ties with Babylon and Syria,
and imported large quantities of tin for the bronze industry. In the Book of Joshua, Hazor is described as the head of all those kingdoms (Josh. 11:10). The
Hazor expedition headed by Yigal Yadin in the mid-1950s was the most important dig undertaken by Israel in its early years of statehood. Tel Hazor is the largest
archaeological site in northern Israel, featuring an upper tell of 30 acres and a lower city of more than 175 acres. In 2005, the remains of Hazor were designated a
World Heritage Site by UNESCO as part of the Biblical Tels - Megiddo, Hazor, Beer Sheba.
List of the Kings of the Kingdom of Hazor
Abdi-Tirshi (Hasura) was a King of the Kingdom of Hazor in 14th century. The14th century documents, from the El Amarna archive in Egypt, describe the
king of Hazor (in Amarna letters called Hasura), Abdi-Tirshi, as swearing loyalty to the Egyptian pharaoh. However, EA 148 specifically reports that Hasura's
king had gone over to the Habiru, who were invading Canaan.
Jabin was a King of the Kingdom of Hazor 13th century BC at the time of the entrance of Israel into Canaan (Joshua 11:1 - 14), whose overthrow and that of the
northern chief with whom he had entered into a confederacy against Joshua was the crowning act in the conquest of the land (Joshua 11:21 - 23; comp 14:6 - 15).
The Battle of the Waters of Merom, fought at Lake Hula, was the last of Joshua's battles of which we have any record. Here for the first time the Israelites
encountered the iron chariots and horses of the Canaanites. According to Norman Gottwald, Joshua had nothing to do with the incident, which probably reflects
a tradition of the late 13th century BC destruction of Hazor by part of a group later identified with the Israelite tribe of Naphtali. According to the Book of
Joshua Hazor was the seat of Jabin, a powerful Canaanite king that led a Canaanite confederation against Joshua, but was defeated by Joshua, who burnt Hazor to
the ground. According to the Book of Judges Hazor was the seat of Jabin, the king of Canaan, whose commander, Sisera, led a Canaanite army against Barak, but
was ultimately defeated. Textual scholars believe that the prose account of Barak, which differs from the poetic account in the Song of Deborah, is a conflation of
accounts of two separate events, one concerning Barak and Sisera like the poetic account, the other concerning Jabin's confederation and defeat. In addition, the
Book of Judges and Book of Joshua may be parallel accounts referring to the same events, rather than describing different time periods, and thus they may refer
to the same Jabin, a powerful king based in Hazor, whose Canaanite confederation was defeated by an Israelite army. Israel Finkelstein claims that the Israelites
emerged as a subculture within Canaanite society and rejects the biblical account of the Israelite conquest of Canaan. In this view, the Book of Joshua conflates
several independent battles between disparate groups over the centuries, and artificially attributes them to a single leader, Joshua. Nevertheless, one
archaeological stratum, dating from around 1200 BC, shows signs of catastrophic fire, and cuneiform tablets found at the site refer to monarchs named Ibni Addi,
where Ibni may be the etymological origin of Yavin (Jabin). The city also show signs of having been a magnificent Canaanite city prior to its destruction, with great
temples and opulent palaces, split into an upper acropolis, and lower city; the town evidently had been a major Canaanite city.
Jabin was a King of the Kingdom of Hazor around 1080 BC, called "the king of Canaan," who overpowered the Israelites of the north one hundred and sixty
years after Joshua's death, and for twenty years held them in painful subjection. The whole population were paralyzed with fear, and gave way to hopeless
despondency (Judges 5:6 - 11), until Deborah and Barak aroused the national spirit, and gathering together ten thousand men, gained a great and decisive victory
over Jabin in the plain of Esdraelon (Judges 4:10 - 16; compare Psalms 83:9). This was the first great victory Israel had gained since the days of Joshua. For the
next forty years, they never needed to fight another battle with the Canaanites (Judges 5:31).

Kingdom of Haram
aram (Old South Arabian rm-m, with mimation aramum) is an ancient city in the north of al-Jawf in modern day Yemen, at about 1100 metres above sea
level. It is bordered by the Yemeni Highlands to the north, in the west by the ancient Kaminahu (present day Kamna), in the east by the ancient Qarnwu
(modern Ma'n) and in the south by the Ghayl, otherwise known as the village of al-azm. In early times aram was a city state, which however by the early 7th
century BC (according to the so-called Long Chronology) was already a vassal of the Kingdom of Saba to the south and of its ruler Karibil Watar I. During the
war of Saba against Awsn and the city states of Nashan and Nashq, the aramite king Yadhmurmalik supported Saba with an army under the leadership of one
General Hanba from the clan of Naman. It is from this time that the temple of Bant d dates, it is situated in front of the gates of aram, and contains many
dedicatory inscriptions, including some to the aramite god Mutibbnatyan. At the time of the founding of the Kingdom of Man at the latest, the capital of
which, Qarnwu, was only 6 kilometers away, aram lost its importance. After the end of the Minaean Kingdom, it regained its importance for a while under
Sabaean rule. It is not clear just when aram was abandoned.
List of Kings of the Kingdom of Haram
Yadhmurmalik was a King of the Kingdom of Haram jointly with Watar'il around 685 BC. During the war of Saba against Awsn and the city states of
Nashan and Nashq, the aramite king Yadhmurmalik supported Saba with an army under the leadership of one General Hanba from the clan of Naman.
Bi'athtar was a King of the Kingdom of Haram jointly with Yadhmurmalik around 685 BC.
Watar'il was a King of the Kingdom of Haram jointly with Yadhmurmalik around 685 BC.
Yaschhurmalik Nabat was a King of the Kingdom of Haram in the 7th century BC.
Watar'il Dharihan was a King of the Kingdom of Haram in the 7th century BC.
Yuhar'il was a King of the Kingdom of Haram in the 7th century BC.
Ma'adkarib Raydan was a King of the Kingdom of Haram in the 7th century BC.

Kingdom of Kaminahu
Kaminahu (Old South Arabic kmnhw; modern Kamna) is the name of an ancient South Arabian city in the northern al-Jawf region of present day Yemen, 107
km north-east of Sana'a at about 1100 meters above sea level. In early times Kaminahu like other towns in al-Jawf such as aram and Nashan, was an
independent city state. In about 715 BC Kaminahu was conquered by Yithaamar Watar I of Saba', after which it annexed Nashan and the neighbouring town of
Manhiyat. In the war against Nashan led by Karib'il Watar I. (ca. 685 BC) and probably in the one against Awsn, Ilsama from Kaminhau along with
Yadhmurmalik from aram supported the Sabaeans; as a reward Kamninahu was allotted an irrigation canal conquered from Nashan. It seems that Kaminahu
was flourishing at this time, because Ilsama is mentioned in many inscriptions. Building inscriptions also relate that Ilsama Naba of Kaminahu built the city
fortifications of Nashq. Various dedicatory inscriptions from this period allow us to surmise that in Kaminahu, apart from Athtar Hagar, a special form of the god
Athtar, there were local gods Nabal and Mdhww were also worshiped. After the founding of the Kingdom of Ma'n, in the 6th century BCE, Kaminahu lost its
importance.
List of Kings of the Kingdom of Kaminahu
'Ammyitha was a King of the Kingdom of Kaminahu.
Ammschafiq was a King of the Kingdom of Kaminahu.
Muhaqim was a King of the Kingdom of Kaminahu.
Ilsamawas a King of the Kingdom of Kaminahu.
Nabatali (Amir) was a King of the Kingdom of Kaminahu during 680 BC. He was son of Ilsama, ally of Karib'il Watar I.
mrkrb Rym was a King of the Kingdom of Kaminahu in 7th century BC. He was son of Ilsama, King of the Kingdom of Kaminahu.
Sumhuyafa was a King of the Kingdom of Kaminahu in 7th century BC.
Ilsama Naba was a King of the Kingdom of Kaminahu in 7th century BC. Building inscriptions also relate that Ilsama Naba of Kaminahu built the city
fortifications of Nashq.
Wahbu was a King of the Kingdom of Kaminahu in 7th century BC.
Ilsama rn was a King of the Kingdom of Kaminahu in 7th century BC.

Kingdom of Lihyan
Lihyan (Arabic: ) is an Ancient North Arabian kingdom. It was located in northwestern Arabia, and is known for its Ancient North Arabian inscriptions
dating to ca. the 6th to 4th centuries BC. Dedanite is used for the older phase of the history of this kingdom since their capital name was Dedan (see Biblical
Dedan), which is now called Al-`Ula oasis located in northwestern Arabia, some 110 km southwest of Teima. The Lihyanites later became the enemies of the
Nabataeans. the Romans have invaded the Nabataeans and destroyed their kingdom in 106 AD. which encouraged the Lihyanites to establish their independent
Kingdom to manage their country. This was headed by the King (Timmy), one of the former royal family, which governed Al-Hijr before the Nabataean invasion.
The Arab genealogies consider the Banu Lihyan to be descended from the Adnanite Arabs from Ishmael. The descendants of Lihyan founded the Arab
kingdom of Lihyan, and presently live in the desert between Mecca and Jeddah. Their cities included Higra, Al-`Ula, Al-Khuraibah, Teima, Oman.
List of Kings of the Kingdom of Lihyan
Kabeer Al ibn mata' Al was a King of the Kingdom of Lihyan.
Jashim ibn shahr was a King of the Kingdom of Lihyan.
Hinas ibn shahr was a King of the Kingdom of Lihyan.
Takhmy ibn lthan was a King of the Kingdom of Lihyan.
Shamit Jashim ibn lthan was a King of the Kingdom of Lihyan.
Jlt qoos was a King of the Kingdom of Lihyan.
Mn'y lthan ibn Hinas was a King of the Kingdom of Lihyan.
Hinas ibn talny was a King of the Kingdom of Lihyan.
Talny ibn hinas was a King of the Kingdom of Lihyan.
'Abdan hinas was a King of the Kingdom of Lihyan.
Slih was a King of the Kingdom of Lihyan.
Fthij was a King of the Kingdom of Lihyan.
Mas'ud was a King of the Kingdom of Lihyan.
Shahr ibn hinas was a King of the Kingdom of Lihyan.