1

MAPUA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

SCHOOL OF EECE





Lecture Notes in Transmission
Media and Antenna Systems




Prepared and Compiled by:
Engr. Jennifer C.Dela Cruz
Engr. Flordeliza L. Valiente

ECE123- Transmission Media and Antenna Systems

TRANSMISSION LINES

A system of conductors having a precise geometry and arrangement that

is used to transfer power from source to load with minimum loss.
Means of conveying information from one point to another.
The conductive connections between system elements which carry signal
power.

Types of Transmission Lines
A. DIFFERENTIAL OR BALANCED LINE where neither conductor is grounded
1. Two-Wire Open Lines are parallel lines and have uses such as power lines,
rural telephone lines, and telegraph lines. This type of line has high radiation
losses and is subject to noise pickup.

2. Twin Lead has parallel lines and is most often used to connect televisions to
their antennas.

3. A TWISTED PAIR consists of two insulated wires twisted together. This line
has high insulation loss.


4. A SHIELDED PAIR has parallel conductors separated by a solid dielectric and
surrounded by copper braided tubing. The conductors are balanced to ground.



Equation of the Characteristic Impedance for Parallel wire lines

B. SINGLE-ENDED OR UNBALANCED LINE where one conductor is grounded
1. RIGID COAXIAL LINE contains two concentric conductors insulated from each
other by spacers. Some rigid coaxial lines are pressurized with an inert gas to
prevent moisture from entering. High frequency losses are less than with other
lines.


S
d

d
S
Z
o
2
log 276 =

2. FLEXIBLE COAXIAL LINES consist of a flexible inner conductor and a

concentric outer conductor of metal braid. The two are separated by a
continuous insulating material.


Equation of the Characteristic Impedance for Concentric lines



COMMMON LOSSES IN A TRANSMISSION LINE
COPPER LOSSES can result from power (I
2
R) loss, in the form of heat, or skin
effect. These losses decrease the conductivity of a line.
DIELECTRIC LOSSES are caused by the heating of the dielectric material
between conductors, taking power from the source.
RADIATION AND INDUCTION LOSSES are caused by part of the
electromagnetic fields of a conductor being dissipated into space or nearby
objects.
A transmission line is electrically LONG if its physical length is greater than /16,
otherwise, the line is SHORT.
Ex. A 10m line is electrically short at 1000Hz and electrically long at 600MHz
D
d
d
D
Z
r
o
log
138

LUMPED CONSTANTS are theoretical properties (inductance, resistance, and

capacitance) of a transmission line that are lumped into a single component.





DISTRIBUTED CONSTANTS are constants of inductance, capacitance and
resistance that are distributed along the transmission line.






LEAKAGE CURRENT flows between the wires of a transmission line through the
dielectric. The dielectric acts as a resistor.

A
th

T

T
p
T
m


An ELECTRO
hrough it.
Transverse
The E and H
erpendicula
The velocity
medium with
OMAGNETIC
e Electrom
H-fields and
ar to each o
of the radi
h dielectric
C FIELD ex
magnetic W
the directi
other
io waves in
constant
r
xists along t




Wave
on of motio
free space
r
:
c
v =

transmissio
on of TEM w
e is c=3 x 1
c
r
=

;
on line whe

waves are m
10
8
m/sec, b

f
v

en current f
mutually
but in a
6
flows

Table of Velocity Factor and Dielectric Constant of different Materials

Material Velocity
Factor (k)
Relative Dielectric
Constant (
r
)
Vacuum 1.0000 1.0000
Air 0.9997 1.0006
Teflon Foam 0.8200 1.4872
Teflon 0.6901 2.1000
Polyethylene 0.6637 2.2700
Paper. praffined 0.6325 2.5000
Polysterene 0.6325 2.5000
Polyvinyl chloride 0.5505 3.3000
Rubber 0.5774 3.0000
Mica 0.4472 5.0000
Glass 0.3651 7.5000

ITERATIVE CIRCUIT








Sending
End
Receiving
End

TRANSMISSION LINE GENERAL EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

R, L, G & C are all per unit length
Note: At RF R and G are ignored or line is considered lossless
Where: R = / unit l G = S / unit l
L = H / unit l C = F / unit l
CHARACTERISTIC IMPEDANCE (Zo)
Reference input impedance
Impedance measured at the input when its length is infinite
Also known as the surge impedance

E - dE
E
dE
Z
Y

Where: Z = R + jL , series impedance / section

Y = G + jC , shunt admittance / section
By KCL: By KVL:
I + dI = I + EY E - dE = E IZ
dI = EY (dS) --------- (1)
dE = IZ (dS) ---------- (2)

--------- (3)

--------- (4)
Differentiate I and E with respect to S:


General Solution :




But = ZY = complex propagation constant
dI
dS
= EY
dE
dS
= IZ
IZY
dS
I d
=
2
2
EYZ
dS
E d
=
2
2

ZY ZY
e I e I I

+ =
2 1

ZY ZY
e E e E E

=
2 1

--------- (5)
--------- (6)

10

Propagation constant, , determines the variation of V or I with distance

along the line: V = V
s
e
-S
; I = I
s
e
-S
, where V
S
, and I
S
are the voltage
and current at the source end, and S = distance from source.


where = attenuation constant ( neper/m or dB/m)
= phase delay constant (rad/m)
substitute (6) to (4)





Compare this to (5)


where I
1 =
E
1
/ Zo and I
2 =
-E
2
/ Zo
therefore



C j G
L j R
Z
o

+
+
=

Y
Z
Z
o
=

--------- (7)
( )( ) j C j G L j R + = + + =

( )
IZ
dS
e E e E d
ZY ZY
=

2 1

Z
e ZY E e ZY E
I
ZY ZY

=
2 1

Y
Z
E
Z
ZY E
I
1 1
1
= =

11

At Radio Frequency



WAVELENGTH
- distance travelled by a point in the time required to complete one cycle.



Where:
v = velocity of propagation along the line
f = frequency of operation
C = velocity of light , 3 x 10
8
m/s
k = velocity factor, 0<k<1
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
1. Determine the wavelengths of the electromagnetic waves in free space
with the following frequencies: __ kHz, ____kHz, ____ MHz and ___GHz.







C
L
Z
o
=

f
v
kc
c
v
r
= = =

;

--------- (8)
--------- (9)

12

2. For a given length of a coaxial cable with distributed capacitance C = ___

pF/m and distributed inductance L = ______ nH/m, determine the velocity
factor and velocity of propagation.










3. A very low loss cable has ___pF/ft of distributed capacitance and
_____nH/ft of distributed inductance. Calculate the following:
a. the capacitance of 4-ft length of this line
b. the characteristic impedance
c. the velocity of propagation.
d. The ratio of the shield diameter to center diameter of the coax.

13

4. Calculate the actual length in feet of a half-wavelength coax with velocity
factor of _____ at ______MHz.







5. What is the separation of two towers in feet, if the operating frequency is
_______Hz and the phase separation is _____
o
.

14

STANDING WAVE
- an interference pattern made by two sets of traveling waves going on
opposite direction.
From (6)



at the load; S = 0 , E = E
L

E
L
= E
1
+ E
2
--------- (10)
I
L
= I
1
+ I
2
--------- (11)
LOSSLESS LINE TERMINATED WITH SHORT CIRCUIT






REFLECTION COEFFICIENT,
- A measure of the degree of mismatch between the load and the line


Reflected Incident
Antinode
Node Distancealongtheline
1
2
1
2
1
2
I
I
Z I
Z I
E
E
O
O

=

= =

S ZY S ZY
e E e E E

=
2 1

--------- (12)

15

From (10)
E
L
= E
1
+ E
2

I
L
Z
L
= I
1
Z
o
I
2
Z
o

I
1
Z
L
+ I
2
Z
L
= I
1
Z
Lo
I
2
Z
o

I
1
(Z
L
Z
o
) = - I
2
(Z
L
+ Z
o
)



If = 0 , Z
L
= Z
o
( perfect match )
= 1 , Z
L
=

( open circuit )
= -1 , Z
L
= 0

( short circuit )

STANDING WAVE RATIO (SWR)
- ratio of maximum to minimum I or V







=
+

=
o L
o L
Z Z
Z Z
I
I
1
2

+
= =
1
1
MIN
MAX
V
V
SWR

1
1
+

=
SWR
SWR

--------- (13)
--------- (14)

16

If Z
L
is purely resistive




Position of the Voltage Maxima and voltage Minima

S
max -
position of the voltage maxima with respect to the load

S
min -
position of the voltage minima with respect to the load



Where: m any positive even integer
n any positive odd integer
for the postion of the first V
max
m = 0
for the postion of the first V
min
n = 1 therefore;


O
L
Z
R
SWR =

L
O
R
Z
SWR =

If Z
L
> Z
O
If Z
O
> Z
L
V
max
V
min
( )

2
180
max
o
m
S
+
=

( )

2
180
min
o
n
S
+
=

2
max
= S

2
180
min
o
S
+
=

17

SAMPLE PROBEMS
1. A transmitter delivers 100W into a ____ lossless line that is
terminated with an antenna that has an impedance of ____,
resistive. Calculate the reflection coefficient and voltage standing
wave ratio on the line.









2. A _____ line is terminated by a load of __________
operating at 10MHz. Find:
a. the reflection coefficient and SWR
b. the input impedance of line 685
0
long
c. the position of the first voltage minimum in meters.
d. the position of the first voltage maximum in meters

=
+
=

o
o o
S S
360
2
180
2
180
2
min max

4
min max

= S S

18

3. A transmission line has a characteristic impedance of _____
and a reflection coefficient equal to 0.44448
o
. Find the load and
SWR of the line.

19

4. Determine the reflection coefficient and SWR of a transmission

line with incident voltage E
i
=_____V and a reflected voltage E
R

=____V.






5. Using a TDR, a transmission-line impairment is located 100m
from the source. If the elapsed time from the beginning of the
pulse to the reception of the echo is ____s, determine the
velocity factor






VOLTAGE AND CURRENT AT ANY POINT ALONG THE LINE
From (10 )



[ ]
1 2 1
/ E E E E
L
+ =

+ =1
1
E
E
L

+
=
1
1
L
E
E

20

Substitute to (6)


Equation of voltage at any point along the line

For current,


Equation of current at any point along the line
INPUT IMPEDANCE, Z
IN

( )
( )
S ZY S ZY
L
O L L
e e
Z
Z Z E
E +
+
=
2

( )
( )
S ZY S ZY
O
O L L
e e
Z
Z Z I
I
+
=
2

( )
( )
O L
O L
L
Z Z
Z Z
E
E
+

+
=
1
1

( )

+
= =
L
O L L
Z
Z Z E
E E
2
1 2

--------- (15)
( )
L
O L L
Z
Z Z E
E
2
1
+
=

--------- (16)
--------- (17)
--------- (18)
( )
( )
( )
( )
S ZY S ZY
O
O L L
S ZY S ZY
L
O L L
e e
Z
Z Z I
e e
Z
Z Z E
I
E

+
+
+
=
2
2

21

If
and

(substitute)








Recall:







[ ]
[ ] S Z Z
S Z Z
Z Z
L O
O L
O IN

tanh
tanh
+
+
=

O L
O L
Z Z
Z Z
+

=

ZY =

S
O L
O L
S
S
O L
O L
S
O IN
e
Z Z
Z Z
e
e
Z Z
Z Z
e
Z Z

+
=

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
S
O L O L
S
S
O L O L
S
O IN
e Z Z Z Z e
e Z Z Z Z e
Z Z

+
+ +
=

( ) ( ) [ ]
( ) ( ) [ ] 2 / 1
2 / 1
x e e Z e e Z
x e e Z e e Z
Z Z
S S
L
S S
O
S S
O
S S
L
O IN




+ +
+ +
=

2
sinh
A A
e e
A

=

2
cosh
A A
e e
A

+
=
A A
A A
e e
e e
A

= tanh

[ ]( )
[ ]( ) S S Z S Z
S S Z S Z
Z Z
L O
O L
O IN


cosh / 1 sinh cosh
cosh / 1 sinh cosh
+
+
=

--------- (19)

22

Manipulating tanh S:
CASE I:
0; = 0 =
say = 0.1; S = 2m; = 0.2
tanh(0.2) = 0.1974
CASE II:
0; 0 S = S + jS
say = 0.1; = 0.2; S = 10m; S = 1 + j2

tanh A =
e
(1 +j2)
= e
1
e
j2

Recall Eulers Identity
e
jA
= 1A = cosA jsinA
CASE III:
= 0; 0 S = jS
tanhS = tanh jS
let S = A

tanh jA =

e
(1+j2)
e
(1+j2)
e
(1+j2)
+e
(1+j2)
e
jA
e
jA
e
jA
+e
jA

23

tanh jA =

=

tanh jA = j tan A
therefore: tanh jS =j tan S ---- substitute in (19)



- for lossless line
Note: cosh jx = cosx
sinhjx = jsinx
LOSSLESS TRANSMISSION LINE
1. No attenuation
2. No power loss ( R=0, G=0 )

Wavelength : distance that provides a phase shift 2 radian



cosA+jsinA (cosA jsinA)
cosA+jsinA+(cosA jsinA)
2jsinA
2cosA
[ ]
[ ] S jZ Z
S jZ Z
Z Z
L O
O L
O IN

tan
tan
+
+
=

2 360
= = =
o
f
v

--------- (20)

24

Complex Propagation Constant
= ( R + jL )(G +jC ) = + j ; j = j LC





INPUT IMPEDANCE, Z
IN
, for special termination cases.


CASE I: Z
L
= Z
O
(matched line)

Z
IN
= Zo

CASE II: Z
L
= 0 (short circuited line)

Z
IN
= Zo
[Z
O
+jZ
L
tanS]
[Z
L
+jZ
O
tanS]
1
Z
O

jZ
O
tanS

= =
f
v
2

LC
1
=

LC
v
1
=

O IN
Z Z =

--------- (21)
--------- (22)
[ ]
[ ] S jZ Z
S jZ Z
Z Z
L O
O L
O IN

tan
tan
+
+
=

25

CASE III: Z
L
= (open circuited line)
Z
IN
= Zo =

By LHospitals Rule

Z
IN
= Zo

Z
IN
= Zo then

Z
OC
Z
SC
= j Z
O
tan S ( Z
O
/ j tan S) = Z
O
2



Z
IN
for special lengths
CASE I: S = /4 (quarter wavelength)

Z
IN
= Zo = since tan(/2) =


[Z
O
+jtanS]
[+jZ
O
tanS]

[(Z
O
/Z
L
)+j(Z
L
/Z
L
)tanS]
[(Z
L
/Z
L
)+j(Z
O
/Z
L
)tanS]
1
0
jtanS
1
{Z
O
+jZ
L
tan[(2/)(/4)]}
{Z
L
+jZ
O
tan[(2/)(/4)]}

S jZ Z
O IN
tan =

S jZ Z
O IN
cot =
SC OC O
Z Z Z =

--------- (23)
--------- (24)
--------- (25)

26

By LHospitals Rule

Z
IN
= Zo = j Z
O
2
/ jZ
L


CASE II: S = /2 (half wavelength)

Z
IN
= Zo
Since tan 180
o
= 0

Z
IN
= Z
O

SAMPLE PROBLEMS
1. A transmission line has a characteristics impedance Z
O
= _____, the
input impedance 0.23 from the load is _____________. Find the
load, SWR and reflection coefficient of the line.












[Z
O
/tanS+jZ
L
]
[Z
L
/tanS+jZ
O
]
{Z
O
+jZ
L
tan[(2/)(/2)]}
{Z
L
+jZ
O
tan[(2/)(/2)]}
Z
L

Z
O
L
O
IN
Z
Z
Z
2
=

L IN
Z Z =

27

2. Calculate the length of a short-circuited line necessary to simulate an

inductance of ____H at _____Hz.














3. For a 50 lossless line operating at _______Hz, determine the input
impedance at a distance of ______ from the open circuited
termination.

28

4. Determine the characteristic impedance of a ______ section of a line

that simulates an inductance of ____H when short-circuited and a
capacitance of ______F when open-circuited at _____Hz.













5. A 150 air-filled lossless line is used to propagate a ______Hz signal.
Calculate the input impedance for a 5m length of this line when the
load is _________.

COURSEWORK 2
See appendix A
End of topic discussion for Quiz 1

29

MATCHING NETWORKS

General rule: to tune out unwanted load reactance (if any) and the
transformation of the resulting impedance to the value required.
I. QUARTER-WAVE TRANFORMER
1. Z
L
= R
L
; R
L
Z
O







2. Z
L
= R
L
jX
L
(complex)

; R
L
Z
O










Z
L
Z
O
Z
OT
Z
IN
Z
O
Z
L
Z
O
Z
OT
R
IN
=R
L
jX
L

S
L
OT
IN
Z
Z
Z
2
4 /
=

L O OT
R Z Z =
L O OT
R Z Z =

2
180
O
MIN
m
S
+
=

2
180
O
MAX
n
S
+
=
SWR
Z
R
O
MIN
=

SWR Z R
O MAX
=

30

II. MATCHING STUBS

Condition: Z
L
= R
L
jX
L
; R
L
= Z
O

1. Series Short Circuit Stubs





Z
ins
= j tan S (Z
os
) = -jX
L

S = tan
-1
(-X
L
/Z
os
)

Double stub





S = tan
-1
(-X
L
/ 2Z
os
)
Z
ins
= -jX
L
/ 2

= j tan S (Z
os
)

Z
L
=R
L
+jX
L
Z
os
Z
ins
Z
O
Z
L
=R
L
+jX
L
Z
os
Z
os
Z
ins
Z
O

31

2. Series open Circuit Stubs

Z
ins
= -jX
L
= -j cot S (Z
os
)

S = tan
-1
(Z
os
/ X
L
)


3. Shunt Short Circuit Stubs






Y
ins
= 1 / Z
ins
= -jB = 1 / (j Z
OS
tan S)
S = tan
-1
(Y
OS
/ B)
Z
L
=R
L
+jX
L
Z
os
Z
ins
Z
O
Z
L
=R
L
+jX
L
Z
os

32

4. Shunt Open Circuit Stubs





Y
ins
= 1 / Z
ins
= ( j tan S) / Z
OS
= -jB

S = tan
-1
(-BZ
OS
) or S = tan
-1
(-B / Y
OS
)

Z
L
=R
L
+jX
L
Y
L
=G+jB

33

REACTANCE PROPERTIES OF SHORTED AND OPEN TRANSMISSION LINES

Impedanceseenby
thegenerator

/4
HighR

X
C

X
L

LowR
X
L
X
C

34

SAMPLE PROBLEMS

1. It is required to match a _____ load to a ______ transmission line
to reduce the SWR along the line to unity. What must be the
characteristic impedance of the /4 transformer to be used for
this purpose?








2. A load Z
L
= 100 j80 is connected to a line whose characteristic
impedance is _____ . Calculate the nearest point to the load at
which a /4 transformer maybe inserted to provide correct
matching and the characteristic impedance of the transformer.

35

3. A ____________ load is to be matched to a 300 line to give a

SWR equal to 1. Calculate the reactance of stub (shunt) and
characteristic impedance of /4 transformer both connected
directly to the load.












4. A transmission line has a characteristic impedance of _____ and a
reflection coefficient equal to 0.44448
o
. Find
a) the load and SWR of the line.
b) The nearest point to the load where a quarter wave
transformer must be inserted to reduce SWR to 1.
c) The characteristic impedance of the transformer.
d) The nearest point to the load where a series short circuit
must be placed to reduce SWR to 1.
e) The length of the stub.

36

37

5. A transmission line has a characteristics impedance Z

O
= _____,
the input impedance ______ from the load is 44.72163.435
o
.
a) the load, reflection coefficient and SWR of the line, the
nearest point to the load where a quarter wave transformer
must be inserted to reduce SWR to 1.
b) the characteristic impedance of the transformer.
c) the nearest point to the load where a shunt open circuit stub
must be placed to reduce SWR to 1.
d) the length of the stub.

38

COURSE WORK 3
See appendix A

T

The Smith
The S
imped
The c
ortho
One s
the o
Smith




h Chart (
Smith chart
dance prob
coordinates
ogonal circle
set represe
ther the no
h Chart App
Determin
Finding Z
Finding st
Solution f
( Polar Im
is a graphi
blems.
on the cha
es.
nts the nor
ormalized re
plications:
ing Load im
i
of a shorte
tub location
for quarter-
mpedanc
ical device
art are base
rmalized res
eactive com
mpedance Z
ed or open
n for match
-wave trans
ce Diagra
in solving t
ed on the in
sistive comp
mponent,
Z
L,
load adm
line and te
hing purpos
sformer ma
am)
transmission
ntersection
ponent, r (=
jx (= jX/
mittance Y
L

erminated li
es
atching
n-line
of two sets
= R/Z
o
), an
/Z
o
).

, SWR, ||
ines
39
s of
nd

40

SAMPLE PROBLEMS
See Appendix B for copies of the Smith Chart to be used in
these Exercise.

1. A transmission line has a characteristic impedance of _____
and a reflection coefficient equal to 0.44448
o
. Find
a. the load and SWR of the line.
b. The input impedance 120
o
from the load
c. The nearest point to the load where a quarter wave
transformer must be inserted to reduce SWR to 1.
d. The characteristic impedance of the transformer.
e. The nearest point to the load where a series short circuit
must be placed to reduce SWR to 1.
f. The length of the stub.

2. A transmission line has a characteristics impedance Z
O
=
_____, the input impedance ______ from the load is
44.72163.435
o
.
a. the load impedance, reflection coefficient and SWR of the
line
b. the nearest point to the load where a quarter wave
transformer must be inserted to reduce SWR to 1.
c. the characteristic impedance of the transformer.
d. The load admittance
e. the nearest point to the load where a shunt open circuit
stub must be placed to reduce SWR to 1.
f. the length of the stub.

41

COURSEWORK 4
See appendix A

End of topic discussion for Quiz 2

COURSEWORK 5
Answer Questions 14-1 to 14-25 of the Textbook using 3 different book
titles from the Library

RADIOWAVE PROPAGATION

Radio Frequency Bands and Major Services
ELF Extremely Low Frequency (30-300Hz)
Submarine Applications
VLF Very Low Frequency (3kHz-30kHz)
Radio waves at these frequencies are very reliable for long-range
communications. Attenuation of the ground waves is very small, and
the sky wave reflection is good.
Radio Navigation, Aeronautical Communications and Maritime Mobile
Communications
LF Low Frequency (30kHz - 300kHz)
Attenuation of ground waves is higher than VLF. Sky absorption begins to
be a factor , especially at the higher end of this band.
Radio Navigation, Aeronautical Communications and Maritime Mobile
Communications

42

MF Medium Frequency (300kHz 3MHz)

This region includes the standard AM broadcast band in which it is
possible to obtain reliable ground wave coverage up to 100 miles from the
transmitting antenna.
Amateur Communications and Maritime and Aeronautical Communications
HF High Frequency (3MHz 30MHz)
Sky wave propagation is the only reliable means of communicating over
long distances especially at the upper end of this band
Short Wave Broadcasting Point-to-Point Communications and Land,
Maritime and Aeronautical Communications
VHF Very High Frequency (30MHz 300MHz)
This region includes the commercial FM and VHF TV bands. Line of sight
is the principal means of communication.
Short Wave Broadcasting Point-to-Point Communications and Land,
Maritime and Aeronautical Communications
UHF Ultra High Frequency (300MHz 3GHz)
Line of sight propagation is possible beyond the optical horizon due to the
increasing refraction effects on earths atmosphere
TV Broadcasting, Radioastronomy, Aeronautical and land mobile
Communications and Satellite Communications.
SHF - Super High Frequency (3GHz 30GHz)
Represents the upper limit of frequencies that have any practical use in
radio-wave communication using standard method of generating and
transmitting signals.
Microwave Relays, Satellite and Exploratory Communications

Free Space is an idealised wave environment where there are no other
transverse electromagnetic (TEM) wave, no gravity, no obstructions, no
atmosphere, no celestial events, no terrestrial events, no electrical noise, and no

43

observers. In short, the wave environment is free from everything except the
wave itself.
space that does not interfere with the normal radiation and propagation
of waves (epitome of nothingness).








A radiated TEM wave in free space is often referred to as being in time
phase and space quadrature. This means that the E and H fields rise and fall
together in time, but are 90
0
apart in space.

The Isotropic model:
In free space, the TEM wave is thought as emanating from a
dimensionless source. Mathematically, such a zero-dimensional source is
obviously a point source. Moreover, the waves regarded as radiating
uniformly in all direction from this point as illustrated in Figure3. Consequently,
we call such a radiation point as isotropic source. The radiated energy of equal
intensity is required by a sphere whose surface area is given by: 4r
2

44

POLARIZATION:
The orientation of the E-field component of the TEM wave is called its
polarization. If the direction remains constant with time at a fixed point in space,
the field is said to be linearly polarized. For wave propagation near the earths
surface, the term vertical, horizontal and slant polarization are frequently used to
denote linear polarizations with appropriate orientations.

Direction of
travel
r anyfixeddistancefromthe
sourcetowheretheintensity
ismeasured

45

POWER DENSITY, FIELD STRENGTH ATTENUATION

POWER DENSITY is the total power radiated per unit area.
Isotropic Source




Field Strength or intensity of the signal at a distance R; E is in V/m.
from,









P
D
power density at any
pt. on the surface of a
spherical wavefront
Note:P
T
=P
t
G
t
;
2
4 R
P
P
t
D

=

= =

= = 377 120
9
10
36
1
7
10 4

x
x
o
o
Zs

120
2 2
E E
= =
S
Z
P

120
2
2
4
E
=
R
t
P

R
Pt 30
= E

46

ATTENUATION
The reduction of power density with distance is equivalent to a power loss and is
commonly called wave attenuation.




SAMPLE PROBLEMS
1. Determine the power density for a radiated power of _____W at a
distance of ____km from an isotropic antenna.




2. Determine the electric field intensity for a radiated power of ____W and a
distance of ____km from a dipole antenna.



2
1
log 10
D
D
a
P
P
=

47

3. The power density at a point from a source is _____W, and the power
density at another point is ______W; determine the attenuation in
decibels.





OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF RADIO WAVES
a. REFLECTION the return or change in direction of light, sound radiowaves
striking a surface or traveling from one medium to another.
Electromagnetic reflection occurs when an incident wave strikes a boundary
of two media and some or all of the incident power does not enter the second
material.

48

b. REFRACTION the bending of a radio wave when it passes obliquely from

one medium to another in which the velocity of propagation is different.
from rare to denser medium it will be refracted towards the normal










c. DIFRACTION the scattering of waves as it passes the edges of an object or
opening. Diffraction is defined as the modulation or redistribution of energy
within a wavefront when it passes near the edge of an opaque object.
Diffraction is the phenomena that allows light or radio waves to propagate
(peek) around corners.

by Snells law:

B
A
A
B
v
v
n
n
= =
2
1
sin
sin

Where:

1
= angle of incidence

2
= angle of refraction
n
A
= refractive index of medium 1
n
B
= refractive index of medium 2
v
A
= velocity of the wave in medium 1
v
B
= velocity of the wave in medium 2

49

d. ABSORPTION the dissipation of energy by radiation passing through a

medium.

e. INTERFERENCE - Radio wave interference occurs when two or more
electromagnetic waves combine in such a way that system performance is
degraded. It is subject to the principle of linear superposition of
electromagnetic waves and occurs whenever two or more waves
simultaneously occupy the same point in space.
.





Propagation of Electromagnetic Waves

50

GROUND or SURFACE WAVES

Provide reliable 24 hour/day communication capability for frequencies of
up to about 3MHz.
Primary mode of communication is the LF and MF bands.




Notes:
Ground waves must be vertically polarized. This is because the electric
field in a horizontally polarized wave would be parallel to the earths
surface, and such waves would be short-circuited by the conductive
ground.
Common uses:
Ship-to-Ship Communications
Ship-to-Shore Communications
Radio Navigation
Maritime Mobile Communications
Disadvantages of Ground Wave Propagation
- requires a relatively high transmission power
- limited to VF,LF and MF bands
- ground losses vary considerably with surface material
Advantages of Ground Wave Propagation
- given enough power, ground waves can be used to communicate
between any two locations in the world.
- Ground waves are relatively unaffected by changing atmospheric
conditions

Direction of wave travel

Increasing
Tilt
Earth
Wavefront
Direction of wave travel
Increasing
Tilt
Earth
Wavefront

51

SKY WAVES
Takes advantage of the ionosphere (30-250 miles above the earths
surface) that surrounds the earth to provide worldwide communications
with reasonably good quality, reliability and moderate power.








Notes:
Almost all HF propagation, and night time long distance MF propagation is
by sky wave.
Above 30MHZ, waves are more likely to penetrate the ionosphere and
continue moving out into space.
Ionosphere is most dense during time of maximum sunlight
In general, the lower the frequency, the more easily the signal is
refracted.
In the UHF and SHF bands, a very small percentage of the waves energy
is refracted back to earth
Under the best conditions, the maximum distance of a single hop is about
2000 miles

52

IONOSPHERIC LAYER
The ionosphere is composed of three distinct layers, designated from lowest level
to highest level (D, E, and F) as shown in figure

A

V
ap

S
b
re

S
sk








Amount of io
1. amou
2. seaso
3. sunsp
4. weath
5. local
Virtual Heigh
appears to h
Skip Zone
ecomes too
eturned to
Skip distanc
ky wave wa

onization de
unt of sunlig
on of the ye
pots
her conditio
terrain
ht is the h
have been r
is the zone
o weak for
earth
ce - is the d
as received
epends on
ght
ear
ons
height abov
reflected.
e of silence
reception a
distance fro

the followin
ve Earths s
between th
and the poin
om the tra
ng factors:
surface from
he point wh
nt where th
nsmitter to
m which a r
here the gro
he sky wave
o the point
refracted wa
ound wave
e is first
where the

53
wave

first

54

Relationship between skip zone, skip distance and ground wave

The amount of refraction depends on three (3) factors:
1. density of the ionized layer
2. frequency of the radio wave (3 30 MHz)
3. angle at which the wave enters the ionosphere
Critical Angle - above which the signal will not be refracted enough to return to
earth
- maximum vertical angle at which the signal can be propagated and
still be refracted back by the ionosphere.
Critical Frequency (f
c
) the highest frequency returned to earth when radiated
upward in a vertical direction










effects of ionospheric density on radio wave

55

Frequency versus refraction and distance

Incidence angle of radio wave

56

Formulas For Sky Waves

From geometry (assuming flat earth):
d = 2h
v
tan
i

where h
v
= virtual height of F-layer

From theory (secant law):
MUF = f
c
sec
I

MAXIMUM USABLE FREQUENCY

The higher the frequency of a radio wave, the lower the rate of refraction
by the ionosphere. Therefore, for a given angle of incidence and time of
day, there is a maximum frequency that can be used for communications

i
h
v
d
F-Layer
Earth

57

between two given locations. This frequency is known as the MAXIMUM

USABLE FREQUENCY (MUF).
Varies between 8MHz to 30MHz with
Time of day
Distance
Direction
Season
Solar Activity

OPTIMUM WORKING FREQUENCY
The most practical operating frequency is one that you can rely onto have the
least number of problems.

FOT = 0.85 MUF

FREE SPACE LOSS
Defined as the loss incurred by a radio wave as it travels in a straight line
through a vacuum with no absorption or reflection of energy from nearby
objects.

L
p
(dB) = 92.4 + 20log f + 20log D
where : f = frequency of radio wave in GHz
D = distance in km
If f is in MHz, replace 92.4 above by 32.4

58

Fade Margin
To account for changes in atmospheric conditions, multipath loss, and terrain
sensitivity, a fade margin, F
m
, must be added to total system loss:
F
m
(dB) = 30log d + 10log(6ABf) - 10log(1-R) -70
where d = distance (km)
f = frequency (GHz)
R = reliability (decimal value)
A = terrain roughness factor (0.25 to 4),
B = factor to convert worst-month probability to annual probability
(0.125 to 1 depending on humidity or dryness).
A roughness factor
= 4 over water or very smooth terrain
= 1 over average terrain
= 0.25 over very rough, mountainous terrain
B- factor to convert worst-month probability to annual probability
= 1 to convert an annual availability to a worst month basis
= 0.5 for hot humid areas
= 0.25 for average inland areas
= 0.125 for very dry mountainous areas

TROPOSPHERIC SCATTER (TROPOSCATTER)
Is a special case of skywave propagation used for frequencies higher than
those in standard skywave propagation technique.
Troposphere (6-10mi above the earths surface) is used as a reflector of
UHF signals.

59

Is used when reliable long distance communication link is needed across

the deserts, mountain regions, off shore drilling platform and between
distant islands.

60

SPACE WAVES

Travel in a straight line from the transmitting antenna to receiving antenna.
Space-wave propagation (also called line-of-sight LOS), requires a path where
both antennas are visible to one another and there are no obstructions. VHF and
UHF communications typically use this path (frequencies above 30MHz).

LOS radio horizon for a single antenna is given as:



Therefore, for transmit and receive antennas, the distance between two antenna
is


Where:
d total distance in km.
dt radio horizon for transmit antenna in km
dr radio horizon for receive antenna in km
ht antenna height in m
hr antenna height in m

t
t
h d 4 =

( )
R T r t
h h d d d + = + = 4

61

SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS
System composed of a communications satellite in stationary orbit
approximately 22,000 miles above the earths surface, an earth-bound
transmitting antenna, and an earth bound receiving antenna.
Required escape velocity: 17,500 mi/hr
Lowest practical orbit: 100 miles above sea level





Satellite positions:
LEO (Low Earth Orbit)
MEO (Medium Earth Orbit)
HEO (High Earth Orbit)

SAMPLE PROBLEMS
1. Determine the MUF for a critical frequency of ____Hz and an angle of
incidence of ____degrees.




Earth Apogee
Perige
30mins
30mins

62

2. Determine the radio horizon distance for a transmit antenna that is ___ft
and a receiving antenna that is ____ft.




3. Determine the fade margin for a ___km microwave hop. The RF frequency
is ___GHz, the terrain is ____ and the reliability objective is 99.9995%.




4. Determine the path loss for the following frequencies and distances:
Frequency(MHz) Distance (D)

63

TELEVISION BROADCAST BAND

Channel
Frequency
(MHz)

2 54-60
Low Band
VHF
3 60-66
4 66-72
5 76-82
6 82-88
7 174-180
High Band
VHF
8 180-186
9 186-192
10 192-198
11 198-204
12 204-210
13 210-216
14 to 83 470-890 UHF Band
73,74 Govn.t & Non-Govnt Operations/ Mobile
75 NAVI (ILS/Mbeacon)
88-108 FM Band
108-136 Aero Comm
136-174 Mobile/Marine/Air/Land

COURSEWORK 6
See Appendix A
End of topic discussion for Quiz 3

64

ANTENNA SYSTEMS
Antenna
consist of a wire or other conductor, or a collection of wires or conductors,
that converts electrical energy into electromagnetic waves for transmission, and
electromagnetic waves into electrical energy for reception
An antenna is a passive reciprocal device.
It acts as a transducer to convert electrical oscillations in a transmission line or
waveguide to a propagating wave in free space and vice versa.
It functions as an impedance matcher between a transmission line or
waveguide and free space.
All antennas have a radiation pattern which is a plot of the field strength or
power density at various angular positions relative to the antenna.

Basic Antenna Operation:




Antenna Parameters
Radiation Pattern
A polar diagram or graph representing field strengths or power densities
at various angular positions relative to an antenna.
Near and Far Fields
The term near field refers to the field pattern that is close to the antenna,
and the term far field refers to the field pattern that is at great distance.

65

Antenna Impedance and Efficiency

Za = Ra + jXa where: Ra= antenna resistance
Ra = Re + Rr Xa=antenna reactance



Radiation resistance is the resistance that, if it replaced the antenna,
would dissipate exactly the same amount of power that the antenna
radiates.
Feed-point impedance Ra = 73 (of which between 68 to 70 is the
radiation resistance). This is true for a simple dipole antenna.

Rr = radiation resistance (ohms)
P = power radiated by the antenna (watts)
i = antenna current at the feedpoint (ampere)
2
i
P
R
r
=

66

Antenna efficiency is the ratio of the power radiated by an antenna to the sum of
the power radiated and the power dissipated or the ratio of the power radiated
by the antenna to the total input power.




Directive gain and Power gain
Directive gain is the ratio of the power density radiated in a particular
direction to the power density radiated to the same point by a reference
antenna, assuming both antennas are radiating the same amount of power.
Directivity is the maximum directive gain; gain in the direction of one of
the major lobes of radiation pattern.




Transmitting gain (A
t
) If an antenna radiates A watts and a standard antenna
radiates B watts at the same locations, directions and conditions, the
transmitting gain is A/B.
Receiving gain (A
r
) If an antenna receives A watts and a standard antenna
receives B watts under the same condition, then the receiving gain is A/B.
Power gain(Ap) is given by: Ap = D
where:
= antenna efficiency
P
rad
= radiated power
P
in
= input power
% 100
% 100 % 100
X
R R
R
x
P P
P
x
P
P
e r
r
D rad
rad
in
rad
+
=
+
= =

where:
D = directive gain
P
D
= power density at some point with a given antenna
P
Dr
= power density at the same point with a reference
antenna
Dr
D
P
P
D =

67

If an antenna is lossless, it radiates 100% of the input power and the power gain
is equal to the directive gain. The power gain for an antenna is also given in
decibels relative to some reference antenna. Therefore, power gain is


Effective Isotropic Radiated Power
Effective Isotropic Radiated Power (EIRP) or simply ERP (effective
radiated power) is defined as an equivalent transmit power and is expressed as:
EIRP = P
t
G
t
(watts) = P
in
A
p

or:
EIRP
(dBW)
= 10 log (P
t
G
t
) = 10 log (P
in
A
p
)



To determine the power density at a given point distance R from a transmit
antenna,



Received Power



where: P
t
= total radiated power
G
t
= transmit antenna directive gain
A
p
= transmit antenna power gain
P
in
= input power
Ap Ap
dB
log 10
) (
=

2 2
4 4 R
G P
R
EIRP
P
t t
D

= =

where:
Pr= received power
P
D
= power density
Ae = effective capture area
Ae P
D
= Pr

68

The effective capture area of an antenna can be defined as:

The received power is therefore given by the equation.




Antenna Input Impedance
Antenna input impedance is simply the ratio of the antennas input voltage
to input current.
Zin = Ei / Ii
Antenna input impedance is generally complex; however, if the feedpoint is at a
current maximum and there is no reactive component, the input impedance is
equal to the sum of the radiation resistance and the effective resistance.
Antenna Polarization
The polarization of the antenna refers simply to the orientation of the
electric field with respect to the ground. An antenna may be linearly, elliptically,
or circularly polarized.

where:
Ae= effective capture area(meters
2
)
Gr = receive antenna power gain
(unitless)
=wavelength of receive signal (meters)

4
2
r
G
Ae =

2
2
) 4 ( R
G G P
P
r t t
r

69

Antenna beamwidth is simply the angular separation between the two

half-power points on the major lobe of an antennas plane radiation pattern.








Antenna Bandwidth
This refers to the frequency range over which operation is satisfactory and
is generally taken between the half-power points.

3dB
6dB
9dB
0.9GHz 3GHz
BW=2.1GHz

70

SAMPLE PROBLEMS
1. For an antenna with input power P
in
=___W, rms current I=__A, and
effective resistance Re=2, determine:
a. Antennas radiation resistance
b. Antennas efficiency
c. Power radiated from the antenna, P
rad
.













2. Determine the power density at a point __km, from an antenna that has
input power P
in
= 40W, efficiency =____%, and directivity D = 16dB.

71

3. What is the dB gain of an antenna that delivers a 100 V signal over that
of an antenna that delivers 75 V?






4. What is the ERP if the output of a transmitter is ____ kW, the coax line
loss is _____ W, and antenna power gain is 3 dB?





BASIC ANTENNAS
Elementary Doublet
A dipole which is infinitely thin and has length l which is very short
compared to the wavelength
An elementary doublet has uniform current throughout its length.
However, the current is assumed to vary sinusoidally in time and at any instant :
i(t) = I sin(2ft +)
With the aid of Maxwells equations, it can be shown that the far (radiation)field
is:

R
lI
E

sin 60
=

72

Half-Wave Dipole
If the elements are each cut to one-quarter wavelength, the resultant
antenna is called half-wave dipole or Hertz antenna.










Grounded Dipole
A monopole (single pole) antenna one-quarter wavelength long, mounted
vertically with the lower end either connected directly to ground or grounded
through the antenna coupling network, is called a Marconi antenna.

Symbol Symbol

Balanced Feedline
/2
Balanced Feedline
/2

73

Resonant Antenna:
Corresponds to a resonant line, and the dipole antenna is a good example
whose length is a multiple of quarter wavelength.






Non-Resonant Antenna:
No standing waves and its radiation pattern is unidirectional. Usually
terminated with a load resistor
1. Long Wire Antenna
2. Rhombic Antenna
3. Vee Antenna

SAMPLE PROBLEMS
1. What is the length in feet of a half-wave dipole antenna operating at
_______Hz?

74

2. What is the frequency of operation of a dipole antenna cut to length of

_____ m?







3. Determine the radiator of a Marconi antenna cut for the frequency of
channel ___ of the TV broadcast channel.







4. A dipole is 10cm long. If the 10MHz current flowing through it is 2A, what
is the Field Strength 20km away from it in the direction of maximum
radiation?

75

Antenna Impedance Matching

Antenna should be matched to their feedline for maximum power transfer
efficiency by using an LC matching network.
A simple but effective technique for matching a short vertical antenna to a
feedline is to increase its electrical length by adding an inductance at its base.
This inductance, called a loading coil, cancels the capacitive effect of the
antenna.
Another method is to use capacitive loading.
Antenna Loading







Inductive Loading Capacitive Loading

76

Antenna Arrays An assembly of two ore more antenna elements (often / 2)

situated in close proximity to each other so that their induction fields interact to
produce a radiation pattern that is a vector sum of the individual ones.
In a phased array, all elements are fed or driven; i.e. they are connected to
the feedline.
Some arrays have only one driven element with several parasitic elements
which act to absorb and reradiate power radiated from the driven element.

Broadside Array one of the simplest form of antenna array consisting of a
number of dipoles having equal size, equally spaced along straight line and are
individually fed in the same phase from the same source.
with axis placed vertically, radiation would have a narrow bidirectional
horizontal pattern

+
+ + + +
+ + + +
- - - -
- - - -
ant. boom
-
/2
0
+
-
0 180 360 540
f
Z
X
Y
Solid Radiation
Pattern
(Bi-directional)

77

End-Fire ArrayAn array where the magnitude of the current in each element is
the same but there is a phase difference (90 degrees) between these currents
progressively from left to right.








Turnstile ArrayIt consists of two half wave dipoles mounted at right angles to
other in the same horizontal plane. When the two antennas are excited by equal
currents 90 degrees out of phase, a figure 8 radiation patterns merge to form
omnidirectional pattern.








Radiation Pattern
(Unidirectional)
+
+ +
+ +
- -
- -
ant. boom
-
+
+
-
-
+
+
-
-
0
90
180
270360
/4
0
270
90
180
EACH ELEMENT
IS /4
COAXIAL
FEED LINE
Radiation Pattern
(Omnidirectional)
Vector sum of the two patterns

78

Yagi-Uda Array
An array consisting of a driven element and two ore more parasitic elements.
Driven elements elements directly connected to the transmitter output.
Parasitic Element elements not directly connected to the transmitter output
a. reflector b. director









Characteristics of Yagi Array
relatively narrow bandwidth since it is resonant
3-element array has a gain of about 7 dBi
more directors will increase gain and reduce the beamwidth and feedpoint
impedance
a folded dipole is generally used for the driven element to widen the bandwidth
and increase the feedpoint impedance.

+5% /2
DRIVEN POLE
DIRECTOR
- 5% /2
0.1
0.1
REFLECTOR
Direction of max radiatio
Radiation Pattern
(Unidirectional)

79

WIDEBAND AND SPECIAL PURPOSE ANTENNAS

Folded Dipole
Often used alone or with other elements
- for TV and FM broadcast receiving antennas because it has a wider bandwidth
and four times the feedpoint resistance of a single dipole.











Log-Periodic Dipole Array (LPDA)
type of antenna whose array elements increase logarithmically corresponding to
a design ratio no less than 1 and the opposite ends of the array form an angle of
used in television reception including UHF range






I/2
I/2
/2
/4
Rr= 4 x 73 = 292
BW = 10% fc a.) LC Circuit b.) Transmission Line
4
3
3
2
2
1
R4
R3
R3
R2
R2
R1

l
l
l
l
l
l
= = = = = =
l
5
l
6
R
5
R
6
DIPOLES

Beam direction

80

= design ratio < 1 Typical values: = 0.7 = 30

Characteristics of LPDA
feedpoint impedance is a periodic function of log f
unidirectional radiation and wide bandwidth
shortest element is less than or equal to /2 of highest frequency, while
longest element is at least /2 of lowest frequency
reasonable gain, but lower than that of Yagi for the same number of
elements
used mainly as HF, VHF, and TV antennas

Loop Antenna
Single turn coil carrying RF current; used particularly for DF(Direction Finding)
applications
Main characteristics:
very small dimensions
bidirectional
greatest sensitivity in the plane of the loop
very wide bandwidth
efficient as RX antenna with single or multi-turn loop






feeder
SQUARE LOOP
feeder
CIRCULAR LOOP

81

Helical Antenna
a broadband VHF and UHF antenna which is used when it is desired to provide
circular polarization characteristics.
Used for satellite and probe communication (radio telemetry)
broadband ( + 20% of f
c
)
circularly polarized
A
p
=

15 dB;
-3dB
= 20
o
are typical










( )
3
2
15

D NS
G =

Where:
G = gain with respect to isotropic antenna
N = number of turns in the helix(any positive integer)
S = turn spacing 4
D = diameter of the helix
= wavelength
= Beamwidth
NS D

52
=

Helix /3
axial radiation
/4

/
8
coaxial
feed
0
.
8

Ground Plane

82

Discone Antenna
A combination of a disk and a cone in close proximity. It is a ground plane
antenna evolved from the vertical dipole and having a very similar radiation
pattern. It is characterized by an enormous bandwidth for both input impedance
and radiation pattern and behaves as though the disk were a reflector.
A wideband antenna which has usable characteristics over a frequency
range of nearly 10:1, used to radiate a vertically polarized wave in all the
horizontal directions (omnidirectional)














Coaxial
Disc
Cone
Feed
D
D
2/3D
D/25

83

UHF & MICROWAVE ANTENNAS

highly directive and beamwidth of about 1
o
or less
antenna dimensions >> wavelength of signal
front-to-back ratio of 20 dB or more
utilize parabolic reflector as secondary antenna for high gain
primary feed is either a dipole or horn antenna
use for point-to-point and satellite communications

Antenna with Parabolic Reflector
FP + PP = FQ + QQ = FR + RR = K
Plane waves emanating from its surface travel in a narrow beam which not only
increases gain, but also reduces susceptibility to noise.



a. b. c.
Various feed situation for a parabolic, (a) insufficient illumination (b) ideal
illumination (c) spillover
FOCUS
DIRECTRIX
A
P
Q
R
R'
Q'
P'
B
R'
D
Plane waves leaving
a parabolic surface:
Plane waveform

84

Remedy:
spherical reflector used to reduce back lobe radiation
Cassegrain Antenna (eliminates spill over)
Power gain and -3 dB
beamwidth are:




spherical reflector
primary feed dipole
at focus
Paraboloid
2
2 2

D
A
p
=

D

70
=

0
=2
primary paraboloid reflector
vertex primary feedhorn
seconary reflector
at focus

85

for lossless,


Horn Antenna
To overcome the difficulties in radiating energy using a waveguide, the mouth of
the waveguide maybe opened out, as was done to the transmission line, but this
time an electromagnetic horn results instead of the dipole.
There are several possible horn configurations, the most common are
(a) Sectoral horn flares out in one direction only.
(b) Pyramidal Horn flares out in both direction and has the shape of
a truncated pyramid
(c) Conical Horn flares out in both directions and is a logical
termination for a circular waveguide.
Special horn antennas are the Cass-horn and the Hoghorn antenna, which are
rather difficult to classify since each is a cross between a horn and a parabolic
reflector.



2
2
6

D
A
p
=

Where: = antenna efficiency(0.55 is typical);
D = dish diameter (m); and
= wavelength (m)
= beamwidth between half-power points, in degrees

0
= beamwidth between two nulls, in degrees

86

Lens Antenna
The lens antenna is yet another example of how optical principles may be
applied to microwave antennas. It is used as a collimator at frequencies well in
excess of 3 GHz and works in the same way as a glass lens used in optics.








Principle of Wave Collimation
The function of the lens is to straighten out the wavefront ensuring that signals
are in phase after passing thru it.
Advantages: Greater design tolerances, no primary antenna to be mounted and
obstruct radiation.
Disadvantages: Greater bulk, expense and design difficulties.




Cross section of
zoned lenses
used to reduce
attenuation
plane
wavefront
curved
wavefronts

87

SAMPLE PROBLEMS
1. A helical antenna with ___ turns is to be constructed for a frequency of
_____MHz, if the helix diameter is ___m and turn spacing of ____m find:
a) The power gain
b) The beamwidth











2. Dimension the elements of a Yagi antenna for ____MHz operation using
0.2 inter element spacing.

88

3. Determine the gain of a 6-ft parabolic dish operating at ______MHz.








4. Design a log periodic antenna for the ____ broadcast band using design
ratio factor () of 0.95 and = 0.08.

89

5. Design a five-element Yagi-Uda antenna for ___MHz operation with three

directors using 0.2 inter-element spacing.

COURSE WORK 7
See Appendix A

90

WAVEGUIDE
- A specially constructed hollow metallic pipes or system of
conductors and insulators for carrying electromagnetic waves.
- They are used for microwave frequencies for the same purposes
as transmission lines were used for lower frequencies.







Reasons for using waveguide rather than coaxial cable at microwave frequency:
easier to fabricate
no solid dielectric and I
2
R losses
At microwave signal frequencies (between 100 MHz and 300 GHz), two-
conductor transmission lines of any substantial length operating in standard TEM
mode become impractical. Lines small enough in cross-sectional dimension to
maintain TEM mode signal propagation for microwave signals tend to have low
voltage ratings, and suffer from large, parasitic power losses due to conductor
"skin" and dielectric effects
Waveguides do not support TEM waves inside because of boundary conditions.
Waves travel zig-zag down the waveguide by bouncing from one side wall to the
other.

91

RECTANGULAR WAVEGUIDE
Mode of Operation
Mode Type Propagation Properties
Transverse Electric (TE) Electric field is perpendicular to the
direction of wave propagation
Transverse Magnetic (TM) Magnetic field is perpendicular to the
direction of wave propagation

DOMINANT MODE OF OPERATION
The most natural mode of operation for a waveguide, this mode is the lowest
possible frequency that can be propagated
For a waveguides mode of operation, the two submodes are:
1. TE
mn
for the transverse electric mode.
2. TM
mn
for the transverse magnetic mode.

Where: m number of half-wavelength across
waveguide width (the a dimension)
n number of half-wavelength along
waveguide height (the b dimension)
TE
mn
means there are m number of half-wave variations of the transverse E-
field along the a side and n number of half-wave variations along the b side.
The magnetic field forms closed loops horizontally around the E-field

92

E-Field Pattern of TE
1 0
Mode




Wavelength for TE & TM Modes
Cutoff wavelength
Smallest free-space wavelength that is just unable to propagate in the
waveguide under given conditions.
The wavelength of the lowest frequency that can be accommodated in a
given waveguide.

( ) ( )
2 2
/ /
2
b n a m
c
+
=

a
b

g
/2

93

Any signal with >

c
will not propagate down the waveguide.
For air-filled waveguide, cutoff freq., f
c
= c/
c

TE
10
is called the dominant mode since
c
= 2a is the longest wavelength of
any mode.
Guide wavelength



Group Velocity
The speed of transmission of a signal along a waveguide




Phase Velocity
The apparent speed of propagation along a waveguide based on the
distance between wavefronts along the walls of the waveguide.




( ) ( )
2 2
/ 1 / 1 f f
or
c c
g

=

( )
2
/ 1
c
g
g
c or c v

=

( )
2
/ 1
c
g
p
c
or c v

94

Waveguide Impedance





Where: Z
O
= 120 or 377 for air-filled waveguide
Circular/Cylindrical Waveguides
A waveguide having a circular cross-section, used whenever a rotating
element (radar antenna) must be attached to the transmitter/receiver.

Differences versus rectangular waveguides :


c
= 2r/B
mn


where: r = waveguide radius
B
mn= Bessel function solution for a particular m,n
mode being propagated
=1.84 for the dominant mode of operation.
All TE
mn
and TM
mn
modes are supported since m and n subscripts are defined
differently.
Dominant mode is TE
11
.
( )
( )
2
2
/ 1
/ 1
c o TM
c
o
TE
Z Z
Z
Z


=

95

Advantages: higher power-handling capacity, lower attenuation for a given cutoff

wavelength.
Disadvantages: polarization may rotate.
FIELD PATTERN FOR CIRCULAR WAVEGUIDE







Optical Fiber Communications

96

Core - Thin glass center of the fiber where the light travels
Cladding - Outer optical material surrounding the core that reflects the
light back into the core
Buffer coating - Plastic coating that protects the fiber from damage and
moisture
Compared to conventional metal wire (copper wire), optical fibers are:
Less expensive - Several miles of optical cable can be made cheaper
than equivalent lengths of copper wire. This saves your provider (cable
TV, Internet) and you money.
Thinner - Optical fibers can be drawn to smaller diameters than copper
wire.
Higher carrying capacity - Because optical fibers are thinner than
copper wires, more fibers can be bundled into a given-diameter cable than
copper wires. This allows more phone lines to go over the same cable or
more channels to come through the cable into your cable TV box.
Less signal degradation - The loss of signal in optical fiber is less than
in copper wire.
Light signals - Unlike electrical signals in copper wires, light signals from
one fiber do not interfere with those of other fibers in the same cable.
This means clearer phone conversations or TV reception.
Low power - Because signals in optical fibers degrade less, lower-power
transmitters can be used instead of the high-voltage electrical transmitters
needed for copper wires. Again, this saves your provider and you money.
Digital signals - Optical fibers are ideally suited for carrying digital
information, which is especially useful in computer networks.
Non-flammable - Because no electricity is passed through optical fibers,
there is no fire hazard.

97

Lightweight - An optical cable weighs less than a comparable copper

wire cable. Fiber-optic cables take up less space in the ground.
Flexible - Because fiber optics are so flexible and can transmit and
receive light, they are used in many flexible digital cameras for the
following purposes:
Medical imaging - in bronchoscopes, endoscopes, laparoscopes
Mechanical imaging - inspecting mechanical welds in pipes and
engines (in airplanes, rockets, space shuttles, cars)
Plumbing - to inspect sewer lines
Disadvantages:
higher initial cost in installation & more expensive to repair/maintain
Optical Fiber Link







Transmitter - Produces and encodes the light signals
Optical fiber - Conducts the light signals over a distance
Optical regenerator - May be necessary to boost the light signal (for
long distances)
Optical receiver - Receives and decodes the light signals

Input
Signal
Coder or
Converter
Light
Source
Source-to-fibre
Interface
Fibre-to-light
Interface
Light
Detector
Amplifier/Shaper
Decoder
Output
Fibre-optic Cable
Transmitter
Receiver

98

Optical fibers come in two types:

Single-mode fibers
Multi-mode fibers








Single-mode step-index fiber:
minimum signal dispersion; higher TX rate possible
difficult to couple light into fiber; highly directive light source (e.g. laser)
required; expensive to manufacture
Multimode step-index fibers:
inexpensive; easy to couple light into fiber
result in higher signal distortion; lower TX rate

Multimode graded-index fiber:
intermediate between the other two types of fibers

Single-mode step-index fibre
Multimode step-index fibre
Multimode graded-index fibre
n
1
core
n
2
cladding
n
o
air
n
2
cladding
n
1
core
Variable
n
n
o
air
Light
ray
Index porfile

99

Acceptance Cone & Numerical Aperture

Acceptance angle,
c
, is the maximum angle in which external light rays may
strike the air/fiber interface and still propagate down the fiber with <10 dB loss.



Numerical aperture:



Losses In Optical Fiber Cables
The predominant losses in optic fibers are:
absorption losses due to impurities in the fiber material
material or Rayleigh scattering losses due to microscopic irregularities in the
fiber
chromatic or wavelength dispersion because of the use of a non-
monochromatic source
radiation losses caused by bends and kinks in the fiber

n
2
cladding
n
2
cladding
n
1
core
Acceptance
Cone

C
2
2
2
1
1
sin n n
C
=

2
2
2
1
sin n n NA
C
= =

100

modal dispersion or pulse spreading due to rays taking different paths down the
fiber
coupling losses caused by misalignment & imperfect surface finishes

Absorption Losses In Optic Fiber








Fiber Alignment Impairments

Axial displacement Gap displacement
Angular displacement Imperfect surface finish

L
o
s
s

(
d
B
/
k
m
)
1
0
0.7 0.8
Wavelength (m)
0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7
2
3
4
5
6
Peaks caused
by OH
-
ions
Infrared
absorption
Rayleigh scattering
& ultraviolet
absorption

101

Light Sources

Light-Emitting Diodes (LED)made from material such as AlGaAs or GaAsP
light is emitted when electrons and holes recombine
either surface emitting or edge emitting

Injection Laser Diodes (ILD)similar in construction as LED except ends are
highly polished to reflect photons back & forth

ILD versus LED

Advantages:
more focussed radiation pattern; smaller fiber
much higher radiant power; longer span
faster ON, OFF time; higher bit rates possible
monochromatic light; reduces dispersion

Disadvantages:
much more expensive
higher temperature; shorter lifespan

Light Detectors

PIN Diodes
photons are absorbed in the intrinsic layer
sufficient energy is added to generate carriers in the depletion layer for current
to flow through the device
Avalanche Photodiodes (APD)
photogenerated electrons are accelerated by relatively large reverse voltage
and collide with other atoms to produce more free electrons

102

avalanche multiplication effect makes APD more sensitive but also more noisy
than PIN diodes.


SAMPLE PROBLEMS
1. A wave is propagated in a parallel-plane waveguide. The frequency is
___GHz, and the plane separator is ___cm. Calculate:
a) The cutoff wavelength for the dominant mode.
b) The wavelength in a waveguide.












2. A rectangular waveguide is ___cm by ___cm. Calculate the cut-off
frequency of the dominant mode.

103

3. A rectangular waveguide measures ___x___cm and has a 9GHz signal

propagated in it. Calculate the cut-off wavelength, the guide wavelength,
the group and phase velocities and the characteristics impedance for the
TE
1,0
mode.















4. A waveguide has an internal width a of ___ cm, and carries the dominant
mode of a signal of unknown frequency. If the characteristic impedance is
_____, what is the frequency?

104

5. Calculate the numerical aperture and the maximum angle of acceptance

for a fiber with core and cladding refraction indices of ____ and ____
respectively.







6. Determine the critical angle for a glass (n=___)/quartz (n=____)
interface. If the angle of incidence is 38
o
determine the angle of
refraction.





End of topic discussion for Quiz 4

COURSEWORK 8
See Appendix A

105

106

ECE123 COURSE WORK 2

Name: ___________________________ Date: _____________
Signature: _______________________ Section: ___________

Shade the letter of the corresponding answer. Strictly No Erasures.
A B C D
1. O O O O
2. O O O O
3. O O O O
4. O O O O
5. O O O O
6. O O O O
7. O O O O
8. O O O O
9. O O O O
10. O O O O
A B C D
11. O O O O
12. O O O O
13. O O O O
14. O O O O
15. O O O O
16. O O O O
17. O O O O
18. O O O O
19. O O O O
20. O O O O
GRADE

107

ECE123 COURSE WORK 3

Name: ___________________________ Date: _____________
Signature: ________________________ Section: ___________

Show complete solution.











GRADE

108

109

110

ECE123 COURSE WORK 4

Name: ___________________________ Date: _____________
Signature: _______________________ Section: ___________

Use the Smith Chart provided in Appendix B. Show complete solution.











GRADE

111

112

ECE123 COURSE WORK 6

Name: ___________________________ Date: _____________
Signature: _______________________ Section: ___________

Shade the letter of the corresponding answer. Strictly No Erasures.
A B C D
1. O O O O
2. O O O O
3. O O O O
4. O O O O
5. O O O O
6. O O O O
7. O O O O
8. O O O O
9. O O O O
10. O O O O
A B C D
11. O O O O
12. O O O O
13. O O O O
14. O O O O
15. O O O O
16. O O O O
17. O O O O
18. O O O O
19. O O O O
20. O O O O

GRADE

113

ECE123 COURSE WORK 7

Name: ___________________________ Date: _____________
Signature: ________________________ Section: ___________

Shade the letter of the corresponding answer. Strictly No Erasures.
A B C D
1. O O O O
2. O O O O
3. O O O O
4. O O O O
5. O O O O
6. O O O O
7. O O O O
8. O O O O
9. O O O O
10. O O O O

A B C D
11. O O O O
12. O O O O
13. O O O O
14. O O O O
15. O O O O
16. O O O O
17. O O O O
18. O O O O
19. O O O O
20. O O O O

GRADE

114

ECE123 COURSE WORK 8

Name: ___________________________ Date: _____________
Signature: ________________________ Section: ___________

Shade the letter of the corresponding answer. Strictly No Erasures.
A B C D
1. O O O O
2. O O O O
3. O O O O
4. O O O O
5. O O O O
6. O O O O
7. O O O O
8. O O O O
9. O O O O
10. O O O O
A B C D
11. O O O O
12. O O O O
13. O O O O
14. O O O O
15. O O O O
16. O O O O
17. O O O O
18. O O O O
19. O O O O
20. O O O O
GRADE

115

References
Electronic Communications Systems Fundamentals Through Advanced 5
th
Edition
by Wayne Tomasi (textbook)
Electronic Communication Systems by George Kennedy and Bernard Davis
EE555 powerpoint presentation of Heng Chan of Mohawk College
Naval Electrical Engineering Training Series Module 10, Integrated Publishing