I.

Basic English Grammar

PARTS OF SPEECH
1. NOUN
A noun is the name of a person, place, thing, idea, or quality.
Examples: John, Mary, boy, girl, children; Pasadena, CEC; classrooms, notebooks; freedom,
intelligence; hope, anger, joy
2. PRONOUN
A pronoun is usually a substitute for a noun. The noun is called the "antecedent" (but an
indefinite pronoun has no antecedent).
Examples:
a. Personal pronouns: I, mine, me; you, yours; he, his, him; she, hers, her; it, its; we, ours, us;
they, theirs, them.
b. Interrogative pronouns: who, whose, whom, which, what
c. Relative pronouns (include): who, who, whose, which, that; whoever, whomever,
whichever
d. Demonstrative pronouns: this, that, these, those
e. Indefinite pronouns (include): all, another, any, anybody, anyone, anything, both, each,
either, everybody, everyone, everything, many, neither, nobody, no one, none, one, others, some,
somebody, someone, such
f. Intensive or reflexive pronouns: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves,
themselves
3. VERB
A verb expresses an action or a condition (a state of being).
Examples: Robert will eat the hamburger. (action) Sara is happy. (condition or state of
being)
Robert wont eat the hamburger. Sara isnt happy.
Will Robert eat the hamburger? Is Sara happy?

4. ADVERB
An adverb describes a verb, adjective, or other adverb. Adverbs usually tell how (for example:
slowly), when (e.g., lately), where (e.g., there), how much (e.g., very), or why (e.g., therefore).
Example: He always chews his gum loudly.
5. VERBALS
Verbal is a form of a verb that doesn't act as a verb. This is not as confusing as it sounds; we all
know that infinitive forms of verbs (to go, to be) do not function as verbs in that form. Phrases
that include verbals are gerund phrases, participial phrases, and infinitive phrases.
Gerund phrases: these always function as nouns. Their verbals are the present participle ("ing")
forms of verbs. EX: Lying around all day is the worst thing you can do in your condition!
Participal phrases: these always function as adjectives. Their verbals are present participles (the
"ing" form) or past participles (the "ed") form. EX: (Present) The book lying on the counter is
overdue. (Past) Tired from his workout, Jason rested for an hour.
Infinitive phrases: these can function as nouns, adjectives or adverbs. Their verbals are always
infinitive forms. EX: I have lost the chance to say I am sorry. +69588
6. ADJECTIVE
An adjective describes or limits a noun.
Examples: tall, young, pretty, light, blue, new, white (The tall, young, pretty girl is wearing a
light blue dress with her new white shoes.) (NOT: ...a light dress blue with her new shoes
white.)
Adjectives and adverbs have three degrees of comparison: positive, comparative, superlative.
Examples:
Mary has a smart child. Sara has a smarter child. Nancy has the smartest child.
Robert is an intelligent student. William is more intelligent than Robert. Kim is the most
intelligent student.
The red car is expensive. The white car is less expensive. The blue car is the least expensive.
Im a good painter. Shes a better painter. Hes the best painter.
Im a bad singer. Shes a worse singer. Hes the worst singer.

7. CONJUNCTION
A conjunction connects words, phrases, and clauses.
Coordinate conjunctions connect words, phrases, and clauses of equal value: and, or, nor, but
(and sometimes for). e.g., The dog and the cat are hungry.
Correlative conjunctions occur in pairs: both-and, either-or, neither-nor, not only-but also.
e.g., Both the fish and the snake are thirsty.
Subordinate conjunctions connect unequal clauses (dependent clauses with independent clauses).
They include: after, although, as, because, before, if, since, than, though, unless, until, when,
where, while. e.g., After they ate, they had dessert.
8. PREPOSITION
A preposition usually shows the relationship between a noun or pronoun and another part of a
sentence.
There are many prepositions, including: about, above, across, after, against, along, among,
around, as, at, before, behind, below, beneath, between, beyond, beside, besides, by, down,
during, except, from, for, in, inside, into, like, near, next, of, off, on, out, out of, outside, over,
past, round, since, than, through, till, to, toward, towards, under, underneath, unless, until, upon,
up, with, within, without.
Examples: My pencil is under my desk by my foot. Martha drove from LA to NY.
9. INTERJECTION
An interjection is a word that expresses feeling or emotion; usually it is followed by an
exclamation mark.
Examples: Oh! Ah! Wow! Darn! Gosh! Golly! Gee! Ow! Ouch! Yikes! Holy moly!
Yippee! Hooray! Boo! Whew!






IDIOMATIC EXPRESSIONS
An idiom is an expression, word, or phrase that has a figurative meaning or the associative or
connotative meaning. Following is a list of idioms.


Idiom Explanation + Example
1)
Don't give up the
day job.
You are not very good at that. You could definitely not do it
professionally.
"I really like the way you sing, but don't give up your day job.
2) Cash cow.
An easy way to earn money regularly.
"Income tax is a real cash cow for the government."
3)
Bite off more than
you can chew.
Trying to do something that is too difficult or time consuming to
finish.
"I'm glad you want to prepare the report by yourself. Just be sure
that you don't bite off more than you can chew."
4) Clear the air
Discuss something that was causing people to feel upset.
"There seems to have been a misunderstanding. I'd like to explain
what happened, just to clear the air."
5) Turn your back on
Give up on, or abandon.
"I needed your help but you just turned your back on me"
6) Not cut out for
Not suitable for something.
"He tried mountain climbing, but he simply was not cut out for it."
7)
Scrape the bottom
of the barrel
The very last, or the very worst.
"These are the last volunteers we could find. We really had to scrape
the bottom of the barrel to find them."
8) A class act
Sophisticated, above average.
"He offered to help, even though he doesn't know me. He's a real
class act."
9) Clean up your act
Improve your behavior.
"If you are ever going to improve your English skills, you must start
getting in to class on time and doing your homework. Why don't you
clean up your act?"
10)
Get your act
together
Get more organized.
"You have been late for work every day this week. If you want to
keep this job, you must get your act together."
11) A piece of the action
Participation in an activity.
"I heard that you are looking for partners in your new investment. If
you don't mind, I would like to get in on a piece of the action."
12)
Actions speak
louder than words.
People's intentions can be judged better by what they do than what
they say.
"Why don't you give her a hug instead of saying you are sorry,
actions speak louder than words."
13) In the air
Being discussed, generally obvious.
"The days are getting longer and the flowers are blooming. Spring is
in the air."
14) Go ape
Go crazy.
"Jack was really angry. I thought he was going to go ape."
15) A grey area
Something that is difficult to define.
"I researched your case, but there are not any black and white
answers. Your situation seems to fall into a grey area."
16) Up in arms
Angry.
"The crows was agitated. Everyone was up in arms over the
government decision."
17)
Be glad to see the
back of
Be happy when a person leaves.
"That guy bothers me, I'll be glad to see the back of him."
18) Give him/her credit
Acknowledge an achievement or contribution of a person.
"Although he is not easy to work for, you have to give him credit for
managing the company well."
19)
Go behind
someone's back
Do something without telling someone.
"Don't trust Jane. She acts friendly but she's always going behind
someone's back."
20) Each to his own
Everyone is entitled to his own individual opinion.
"I can't say that I like George's new furniture. It seems very plain
and uncomfortable. Oh well, each to his own."
21) Eager beaver
Enthusiastic person.
"John did all of his homework before supper. He sure is an eager
beaver."
22) Early bird
A person who is early, or gets up early.
"Dave was in class 30 minutes before anyone else. What an early
bird."
23) Scratch the surface
Examine only a part of something. Uncover only a few facts about
something
"Cancer research is a very long-term process. So far, we have just
begun to scratch the surface."
24) Give him the slip
Leave him. Hide from him.
"I think that man is following us. Let's give him the slip."
25) Cold shoulder
To treat someone in an unfriendly manner.
"I don't think Jim likes me. I tried to speak with him but he gave me
the cold shoulder."
26) Get the ball rolling
Start something.
"All right everyone, we spent a lot of time planning this project.
Now, it's time to get the ball rolling."
27)
Jump on the
bandwagon
Join a popular trend or activity.
"I like that new procedure and I've decided to jump on the
bandwagon."
28) A losing battle
Something that cannot be accomplished.
"I've tried fixing this phone many times, I just can't do it by myself.
It's a losing battle."
29)
Keep something at
bay
Keep something away.
"Sarah found it difficult to keep the salesperson at bay."
30) Spill the beans
Tell a secret.
"I won't be the one to spill the beans."
31)
Beggars can't be
choosers
People cannot complain about something they get for free.
"I don't like the color of the sweater she gave me, but beggars can't
be choosers."
32) Flesh and blood
A relative.
"I must help him. After all, he's my own flesh and blood."
33) Give the benefit of Believe someone's statement, without proof.
the doubt "The teacher's explanation did not seem logical, but I gave her the
benefit of the doubt."
34) A safe bet
Probably true. Will probably happen.
"It's a safe bet that your English skills improve quickly if you study at
Elanguest."
35) Fit the bill
Seems correct.
"That seems to fit the bill. I'll take it."
36) Black and blue
Bruised.
"He was beaten until he was black and blue."
37) In cold blood
With no compassion or mercy. Usually associated with ruthless
murder.
"The assassin was evil. He killed him in cold blood."
38) Out of the blue
Unexpected.
"A great idea just came to me out of the blue."
39) Call someone's bluff
Make someone prove what they say.
"He implied that he would terminate my contract, but I called his
bluff."
40) Rock the boat
Create problems for other people.
Everyone likes Anthony. He doesn't rock the boat."
41) By the book
Doing something according to rules.
"He's a good cop. He does everything by the book."
42)
Give someone the
boot
Dismiss or get rid of someone.
"Mr. Smith is an easy boss to work for. He doesn't like to give
someone the boot."
43) Get to the bottom of
Learn about and understand fully.
"We are not sure what happened, but we intend to get to the bottom
of this."
44) Out of bounds
Not permitted.
"Hans wanted to ask Mary out on a date, but I explained that she is
out of bounds. Mary is engaged to Jack."
45) Bread and butter
Regular income.
"We are very dependent on our advertising revenue. It's our bread
and butter."
46)
The best thing since
sliced bread
A good invention or innovation.
"I love this paper folding machine. It's the best thing since sliced
bread."
47) Give me a break
Don't expect me to believe or agree with that.
"You think the teacher is joking? Give me a break."
48)
Don't hold your
breath
Don't wait too long because it might not happen.
"Yes, it's possible that they will lower taxes, but don't hold your
breath."
49)
Cross that bridge
when you come to it
Deal with a problem if and when it becomes necessary, not before.
"I'm not too wirried about a possible downturn in the economy.
Anyway, let's cross that bridge when we come to it."
50)
The bubble has
burst
A previously positive situation has encountered a serious problem.
"Last year, the stock market was doing very well. Unfortunately, it
seems that the bubble has burst."


FIGURES OF SPEECH
i. Simile comparison of two unlike ideas or objects, using the word like or as
Lips like rosebuds and kisses like wine

ii. Metaphor a comparison of two dissimilar things
She is an angel in disguise.

iii. Hyperbole exaggeration or overstatement for emphasis
I could eat a horse.

iv. Personification the representation of an object or idea as human
(also known as The jovial moon smiling benignly down at us
Prosopopoeia)



CONTEXT CLUES
Context clues are hints found within a sentence, paragraph, or passage that a reader can
use to understand the meanings of new or unfamiliar words.
Type of
Context
Clue
Definition Signals Examples
Antonym or
Contrast
Clue
Phrases or words that
indicate opposite
but, in contrast,
however, instead of,
unlike, yet
Unlike his quiet and low key
family, Brad is garrulous.
Definition
or Example
Clue
Phrases or words that
define or explain
is defined as, means,
the term, [a term in
boldface or italics] set
off with commas
Sedentary individuals, people
who are not very active, often
have diminished health.
General
Knowledge
The meaning is
derived from the
experience and
background
knowledge of the
reader; "common
sense" and logic.
the information may
be something basically
familiar to you
Lourdes is always sucking up
to the boss, even in front of
others. That sycophant just
doesn't care what others think
of her behavior.
Restatement
or Synonym
Clue
Another word or
phrase with the same
or a similar meaning
is used.
in other word, that is,
also known as,
sometimes called, or
The dromedary, commonly
called a camel, stores fat in its
hump.






II. The Writing Process

Sentence- A sentence is a group of words which expresses a complete thought.

PARTS OF THE SENTENCE
I. SUBJECT The subject of a sentence is a noun or pronoun that does, causes, or receives the
action of the verb. It has gender, number, and person.
II. OBJECT The direct object of a sentence recieves the action of the verb.
A. DIRECT OBJECT - A direct object answers the question who or what of the verb. It
must come directly after the verb. (i.e. I guarded a Sefer Torah. Sefer Torah is the direct
object.)
B. INDIRECT OBJECT - An indirect object feceives the action of the verb indirectly. (ex
Shimon gave the book to me. To meis the indirect object.)
C. OBJECT OF THE PREPOSITION - A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition and a
noun or pronoun, with or without adjectives. The noun or pronoun is the object of the
preposition. (ex. Moshe placed the book on the table. Shimon learned inYeshiva. Table and
Yeshiva are objects of the preposition.)
III. PREDICATE The predicate is the portion of the sentence containing the verb. A predicate
says something about the subject of the sentence.
WRITING A BETTER SENTENCE
Writing Complete, Grammatically Correct Sentences
Sentence Fragments
Run-on Sentences
Subject-Verb Agreement
Parallel Structure
There are four main problems that prevent people from writing complete, grammatical
correct sentences. These problems include: (a) the sentence fragment; (b) the run-on sentence; (c)
lack of subject-verb and pronoun-reference agreement; and (d) la ck of parallel structure.
Sentence Fragments
A fragment is a sentence which is not complete, and therefore not grammatically correct.
Sentence fragments are problematic because they are disjointed and confusing to the reader.
There are three main causes of fragments: (a) a missing subject; (b) a missing verb; (c) "danger"
words which are not finished.
There are three ways to check for sentence completeness:
1. Find the subject. A subject is the noun or pronoun about which something is written. To find
the subject of a sentence, identify who or what is doing the action. If there is no subject, the
sentence is a fragment. Consider the two examples below.
"The student felt nervous before the speech."
"Thought about leaving the room."
The first sentence above is complete, because it contains both a subject and a verb. The subject
of this sentence is the student. The sentence contains a subject which answers the question, "who
or what felt nervous?" The second sentence is a fragment, because there is no identifiable
subject. The sentence does not contain a subject which answers the question, "who or what
thought about leaving?" To correct the second sentence, one could write: "He thought about
leaving the room." Alternatively, on e could combine the two sentences to form one complete
sentence: "The student felt nervous before the speech, and thought about leaving the room."
2. Find the verb. A verb is the action word in a sentence. Verbs express action, existence or
occurrence. To find the verb in a sentence, identify what happened. If there is no identifiable
action, the sentence is a fragment. Consider the two examples below.
"Many scientists, such as Einstein, think in strange ways."
"Many scientists think in strange ways. Einstein, for example."
This first example above has one complete sentence followed by a fragment. "Einstein, for
example" is a fragment because there is no verb. "Einstein" serves as the subject (he is the one
doing something), but the rest of the sentence does not express wh at action he is taking. The
second example is a complete sentence. In this case, the sentence contains both a subject
(scientists) and a verb (think). Alternatively, one could write the following: "Many scientists
think in strange ways. Einstein, for example, could not tolerate more than one bar of soap in his
home." In this case, there are two complete sentences. In the second sentence, the subject is
Einstein and the verb is "could not tolerate."
3. Check for "danger" words. A danger word is one which introduces a thought that requires a
follow-up phrase. Such words are sometimes called "cliff-hangers" because they begin a
statement, but leave it "hanging" without a finish. Consider the phrases below.
"If you come home..."
"When the rain falls..."
"Because he is mean..."
The danger words in the sentences above are "if," "when" and "because." When these words are
used at the beginning of a phrase, they require a follow-up phrase to conclude the thought.
Example: If you come home on time...then what?
Correct: If you come home on time, I will buy you a present.
Example: When it rains...what happens?
Correct: When it rains, the gutters become clogged.
Danger words are helpful when writing sentences, but one must be sure to include a concluding
phrase when these words are used.
Commonly used danger words include: after, unless, although, how, as if, when, because, where,
before, while, if, until, once, so that, since, whether.
Run-on Sentences
A run-on sentence is one which actually contains two (or more) complete sentences without the
proper punctuation to create separate sentences. There are two common forms of the run-on: (1)
the "comma splice" in which a comma is inserted between two comp lete sentences where a
period should actually be used; (2) a lack of punctuation where a semi-colon or period is needed.
Incorrect Examples - The Comma Splice
John is a musician, he plays the guitar for a living.
The girl walked home, she decided not to ride the bus.
He could only guess at the number of guests who attended the party, the entire yard was filled
with people.
In each of the examples above, the two sentences are incorrectly joined by a comma, thus
"splicing" two complete sentences together into one run-on sentence. To correct these run-on's,
the comma should be replaced by a period, thus creating two separate sentences, as shown
below.
Correct Examples
John is a musician. He plays the guitar for a living.
The girl walked home. She decided not to ride the bus.
He could only guess at the number of guests who attended the party. The entire yard was filled
with people.
Incorrect Examples - Lack of Punctuation
There is a problem with the television however no one is available to fix it.
Nobody knows what really happened the policeman said there was a fight.
That is the problem when people have conflict they attack each other personally.
In each of the examples above, some type of punctuation is needed to separate the two parts of
the sentence: either a semi-colon or a period.
Correct Examples
There is a problem with the television; however, no one is available to fix it.
There is a problem with the television. However, no one is available to fix it.
Nobody knows what really happened; the policeman said there was a fight.
Nobody knows what really happened. The policeman said there was a fight.
That is the problem when people have conflict; they attack each other personally.
That is the problem when people have conflict. They attack each other personally.
Subject-Verb Agreement
In order for a sentence to be grammatically correct, the subject and verb must both be singular or
plural. In other words, the subject and verb must agree with one another in their tense. If the
subject is in plural form, the verb should also be in plur al form (and vice versa). To ensure
subject-verb agreement, identify the main subject and verb in the sentence, then check to see if
they are both plural or singular. Consider the examples below.
Incorrect examples - Subject-Verb Agreement
"The group of students are complaining about grades."
The main subject in this sentence is "group," which is singular. The main verb is
"are complaining," which is plural.
"A recipe with more than six ingredients are too complicated."
The main subject in this sentence is "recipe," which is singular. The main verb is "are," which is
plural.
"The facts in that complex case is questionable."
The main subject in this sentence is "facts," which is plural. The main verb, "is," is singular.
"The people is wearing formal attire."
The main subject in this sentence is "people," which is plural. The main verb is "is wearing,"
which is singular.
Correct examples
"The group of students is complaining about grades."
"A recipe with more than six ingredients is too complicated."
"The facts in that complex case are questionable."
"The people are wearing formal attire."
A variation of the subject-verb agreement is pronoun-reference agreement. In the case of
pronoun-reference agreement, all of the pronouns should agree with one another in singular or
plural tense. Consider the examples below.
Incorrect examples - Pronoun-Reference Agreement
"A manager should always be honest with their employees."
The subject in this sentence, "manager," is singular. The corresponding pronoun, "their," is
plural.
"Organizations must be careful about discriminating against its employees."
The subject in this sentence is "organizations," which is plural. The corresponding pronoun, "its,"
is singular.
"If you really care about somebody, let them make their own choices."
In this sentence, the pronoun "somebody" is singular, but the corresponding pronouns, "them"
and "their" are plural.
Correct examples
"A manager should always be honest with his (or her) employees."
"Organizations must be careful about discriminating against their employees."
"If you really care about somebody, let him (or her) make his (or her) own choices."
Parallel Structure
The parallel structure of a sentence refers to the extent to which different parts of the sentence
match each other in form. When more than one phrase or description is used in a sentence, those
phrases or descriptions should be consistent with one an other in their form and wording. Parallel
structure is important because it enhances the ease with which the reader can follow the writer's
idea. Consider the following examples.
Incorrect examples - Parallel Structure
Example One: "He is strong and a tough competitor."
Notice that "strong" and "a tough competitor" are not the in the same form. "Strong" and
"competitive" are consistent in form.
Example Two: "The new coach is a smart strategist, an effective manager, and works hard."
Notice that "a smart strategist" and "an effective manager" are consistent with one another, but
not consistent with "works hard."
Example Three: "In the last minute of the game, John intercepted the football, evaded the
tacklers, and a touchdown was scored."
Notice that the first two phrases in this sentence are consistent with one another: "intercepted the
football" and "evaded the tacklers." However, the final phrase, "and a touchdown was scored" is
not consistent with the first two phrases.
Correct examples
Example One: "He is strong and competitive."
Example Two: "The new coach is a smart strategist, an effective manager, and a hard worker."
Example Three: "In the last minute of the game, John intercepted the football, evaded the
tacklers, and scored a touchdown."
Punctuation Marks



1. Apostrophe: indicates possession when added to a noun. An apotrophe also
indicates that one ormore letters have been left out in a contraction.
Philippa Foots mid-century philosophy is influential in certain academic
corners.
I dont speak French.




2. Brackets: indicate words, punctuation, and formatting inserted into a quote
but not present in the original source.
Fourscore and seven [eighty-seven] years ago. . .




3. Colon: introduces a list, summary, or important conclusion. A colon must
follow an independent clause and may not come between a verb and its object.
I ncorrect: John gave his mother: a quilt, a book, and a bouquet of lilies.
Correct: John gave his mother three things: a quilt, a book, and a bouquet of
lilies.




4. Comma: indicates slight pauses in reading, and differentiates sentence parts.
Commas are used in the following situations.
Before a coordinating conjunction that connects two independent clauses
I thought it would rain, and it did.
After an introductory phrase
After the rainfall, the sun came out.
To separate items in a series
I like rock, pop, jazz, blues, country, and hip-hop.
To set off a parenthetical or nonrestrictive phrase
Amateur salsa dancers, many of whom have little familiarity with traditional
Spanish music, often mistake very different dances such as the mambo and the
samba.
Between the day and year of a date
On August 8, 1976, the world of music changed forever.

To set off quotations that occur within a sentence
Sarah said, I love you, and she meant it.
It always happens this way, he replied, and I never know what to say.
To subdivide numbers into groups of three digits
9,023
4,251,730
To indicate direct address
Greg, give me the remote control.
To separate noncumulative adjectives
The hot, humid, nasty day made Alison irritable.
To indicate omissions of verbs in parallel clauses:
Jenny likes the Mets; Pedro, the Angels; and Frank, the Marlins.



5. Dash: sets off a parenthetical phrase or points attention to a summary
conclusion.
The new fabricintroduced at the fashion show two years agohas become
extremely popular.
Her lips, her eyes, her taste in poetrythey all were perfect.




6. Ellipsis: three periods separated by two spaces that indicate omissions in
quoted material.
And so, my fellow Americans, . . . ask what you can do for your country.




7. Exclamation mark: ends declarative and imperative sentences with a sense
of excitement or urgency.
Get out of here!




8. Hyphen: joins linked words together, especially if they are being used
together as an adjective.
That kind of devil-may-care attitude will get you nowhere.




9. Parentheses: set off a loosely related phrase.
His idea (formed during long hours of driving in heavy traffic) was to begin
riding the train.




10. Period: ends sentences that are not questions.
It was a cloudy day.




11. Question mark: ends sentences that are questions; indicates a query.
Was the house haunted?




12. Quotation marks: serve several purposes. They can:
represent text as speech:
I would have been great, he insisted.
indicate material excerpted from another writers work:
Not every love affair is star-crossd.
indicate titles of poems and short stories:
Shelleys Ode to a Skylark is an extended meditation on spontaneous
artistic creation.
Periods and commas always go inside quotation marks. Question marks,
exclamation marks, semicolons, colons, and dashes go outside quotation marks
unless they are part of the quotation.




13. Semicolon: used to join independent clauses by taking the place of a
conjunction. Semicolons are also used to separate items in series that contain
commas within single-item descriptions.
Betsy liked to sew; it was her passion.
He had an old, unraveling sweater; a newer sweater; and a faded, torn pair of
jeans.




14. Slash: used to indicate multiple possibilities:
Speak to the senator and/or the president.




15. Solidus: same symbol as the slash; indicates line breaks in quotations of
multiple lines of poetry
Still, still to hear her tender-taken breath, / And so live ever, or else swoon
to death.







How to Write Good Paragraph

A good paragraph is a mini-essay. It should demonstrate three components:
1. Introduction, i.e., a topic sentence
2. Body, i.e., supporting details
3. Conclusion or a transitional sentence to the paragraph that follows.

A good paragraph is characterized by unity, coherence, and adequate development.
Unity:
State the main idea of the paragraph in a clearly constructed topic sentence. Make sure each
sentence is related to the central thought.

Coherence:
Arrange ideas in a clear, logical order. Provide appropriate transitions to the subsequent
paragraph.

Adequate development:
Develop your paragraphs with specific details and examples.

Strategies for adequate development:
Elaborate:
Spell out the details by defining, or by clarifying and adding relevant, pertinent information.

I llustrate:
Paint a verbal picture that helps make or clarify your point(s). Well illustrated pieces are easier to
read and follow than those on a high level of abstraction.

Argue:
Give the reasons, justifications, and rationales for the position or view you have taken in the
topic sentence. Draw inferences for the reader and explain the significance of assertions or
claims being made.

Narrate:
Relate the historical development of the phenomenon at issue.

Process:
Describe how something works.

Describe:
Observe without preconceived categories.

Classify:
Organize phenomena or ideas into larger categories that share common characteristics.

Analyze:
Divide phenomena or ideas into elements.

Compare and Contrast:
Show similarities and differences between two or more phenomena or ideas.

Relate:
Show correlations and causes (beware of logical fallacies, however!)



















"Do's and Don'ts" of Formal Writing

Rule no. 1. Do not use contractions (like "don't, wouldn't, shouldn't," etc.). Spell out both words
fully e.g. "do not," "would not," "should not," etc.
Rule no. 2. Do not use slang. If you absolutely cannot live without slang, at least place it
in quotation marks ("Like hey man, lose the groovy lingo. You dig? Later man.")
Rule no. 3. Do not use cliches. Overused and hackneyed old expressions need to be retired and
are usually vague. Cliches are viewed with dismay by most readers. Using your own words leads
to more precision in your word choice and more meaning for your sentence.
Rule no. 4. Do not use the words "really" or "very" to try to emphasize a point (e.g. It was
"really, very" important.) These are almost always unnecessary filler words in spoken language
and the written sentence will sound better without the unneeded redundancy (e.g. "It was
important.")
Rule no. 5. Do not make up words by turning nouns into verbs e.g. "journaling" instead of the
more correct and older "journalizing." Use your Merriam-Webster dictionary.

Rule no. 6. Do use page numbers and a title. Make your title interesting rather something dull
like "Written Assignment 57."
Rule no. 7. Do say exactly what you mean using precise word choices and
giving specific information to support your proposition or thesis. Define your terms.
Rule no. 8. Do tell your reader something new about the subject. Say something significant and
important. Do not blather on. Say something thoughtful and intelligent. This will usually require
some brainstorming, list making, outlining, and other prewriting.
Rule no. 9. Do start off with a clear thesis statement of the main idea. Make sure the first
paragraph leaves a good first impression with a thesis statement, fluent writing, and no
mechanical errors.
Rule no. 10. Do write better than you speak. With writing you have the opportunity to catch and
correct all of those sloppy little things we tend to do in our spoken English.