KNOWLEDGE TEAM C&I

DEFINITION
Vibration is oscillating motion
of a particle or body about a
fixed reference point. Such
motion
may
be
simple
harmonic
(sinusoidal)
or
complex (non-sinusoidal).

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QUANTIFYING VIBRATION
AMPLITUDE

Peak Level

Peak - To Peak

PEAK LEVEL

Average (Rectified)

RMS

RMS

AVERAGE t

PEAK TO PEAK

Takes into account the time history of vibration.

T

RMS = (1/T)0 x2(t)dt

1

Average = (1/T)0 |x|dt

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UNITS OF VIBRATION
a) ACCELERATION, measured
in g or [m/s2] ;
b) VELOCITY, measured in
[m/s];
c) DISPLACEMENT, measured
in [m].
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CHARACTERISTICS OF
VIBRATION
Vibration may be characterized by :
a)the frequency in Hz;
b) the amplitude of the measured
parameter, which may be
displacement, velocity, or
acceleration.
Normally referred to as the vibration
amplitude when expressed in units,
but vibration level when expressed
in decibels.
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DECIBEL NOTATION APPLIED

TO VIBRATION MEASUREMENT

Because of the wide range of vibration

amplitudes found in engineering, it is
convenient to express the measured
amplitude in DECIBELS with reference
to a fixed value.

Reference values which are

internationally accepted are as follows:
a) for velocity, the reference is 10-3m/s ;
b) for acceleration, the reference is 10-5
m/s2.

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Contd.

If Measured amplitude is A1 and

Reference amplitude is A0, the
vibration level expressed in
decibels is : 20log10 A1/A0 dB

Eg: If acceleration amplitude of a

vibrational body is 2g,
acceleration vibration level
(2 x 9.81) m/s2
= 20log10
= 125.8 dB
10-5 m/s2

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RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE

VIBRATION PARAMETERS
Assuming that the vibration is simple harmonic
motion, then
displacement x = A sin wt
velocity v = Aw cos wt
acceleration a = -Aw2 sin wt
Where: w = 2Df rad/s
f = frequency of vibration in Hz
Frequencies are the same in each case, although
there is a phase shift. The amplitudes of the
above parameters are thus
displacement amplitude = A
velocity amplitude = Aw
acceleration amplitude = Aw2
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CHOOSING PARAMETER

The choice of the best parameter

depends on a number factors:
a) the frequency and amplitude
characteristics of the vibration,
b) the mass of the vibrating
structure, and
c) the type and size of the
transducer available.

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Contd.
 If

the velocity, acceleration, and

displacement amplitudes are
measured at various frequencies,
the resulting graphs of amplitude
vs. frequency are referred to as
the vibration spectra, and the
shape of graphs are referred to as
the spectral shapes.

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Contd.
Eg:
Each have different
average slopes.
Their peaks occur at
the same frequencies.
The amplitude range
required to display the
velocity spectrum is
the smallest and thus
occupies the least
dynamic range.
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Contd.

All the frequency components on the velocity

curve need a smaller relative change before
they begin to influence the overall vibration
level.

The low frequency acceleration and high

frequency displacement components need to
exhibit much larger changes before they
influence the overall vibration level.

Display in turn each of the three parameters

and choose the one which has the flattest
spectrum.

This will enable one to detect machine faults,

which produce an increase in vibration level,
at an early stage.

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EFFECT OF THE TRANSDUCER ON

THE VIBRATING STRUCTURE

In general, the larger the mass of the

vibration transducer, the greater its
sensitivity.
Unfortunately, the addition of the
transducer's mass (m1) to the mass (m0) of
the vibrating structure changes the resonant
frequency of the vibrating system as follows:

where f1 = resonant frequency of the

structure with the mass added
and f0 = resonant frequency of the structure
before the transducer is added.

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VIBRATION-MEASURING DEVICES


The Non Contact Type Method





Eddy Current
Laser Doppler Vibrometer
Capacitive

The Seismic-Mass Transducer



Displacement Pick-Up

Velocity Pick-Up

Acceleration Pick-Up

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EDDY PROBE

The sensor is fixed to the bearing

housing. A gap, is produced between
the end of the sensor and the shaft.
A coil with cable capacitance of the
measuring lead is fed to the natural
frequency of the tuned circuit by the
matching unit.
Through the alternating
electromagnetic field, eddy current is
induced in the metal object being
measured,
This current becomes greater, the
smaller the distance between the coil
and the object.

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Contd.
The resultant modulated signal is separated
from the high frequency carrier voltage, is
linearized and converted by an output
amplifier into a load independent voltage
proportional to the distance.

The level of the direct voltage is a measure

of the mean distance between sensor and
shaft, while the superimposed alternating
value corresponds to the relative shaft
vibration.

The connecting lead between the sensor

and
the
matching
unit
affects
the
measurement. It is therefore permanently
connected to the sensor and must not be
shorted.

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Laser Doppler Vibrometer

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SEISMIC-MASS TRANSDUCER

The seismic mass is a body of metal,

suspended from a resilient support.
Deflection of support is proportional to
the force applied to it.
The inertia of the seismic mass causes
it to lag behind the motion of the
casing when the casing is accelerated,
causing a deflection in the support.
This deflection forms the input to a
transducer, which produces a
proportional output signal.

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SEISMIC-MASS TRANSDUCER

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Contd.

By choosing suitable values for the mass,

the stiffness of the support and the
damping, and by using an appropriate
transducer, the same basic arrangement of
seismic pickup can be designed as a
displacement pickup, a velocity pickup or
an acceleration pickup (accelerometer).
The seismic pickup is essentially a damped
spring-mass system, and will have a
natural frequency of vibration given by:

where
wn is the natural angular frequency (rad/s)
is the spring stiffness (N/m)
n is the mass (kg).
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DISPLACEMENT PICKUPS

Have a relatively large seismic mass

and a relatively resilient support.

This gives a low value of wn to the

spring-mass system.

Figure 5 shows the frequency

response of such a pickup with
various values of damping ratio .

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Contd.

For w/wn >> 1, the displacement of the

seismic mass relative to the casing is
practically equal to the displacement
applied to the casing.
Displacements will be nearly 180o out of
phase with each other.
The casing moves in one direction, the
seismic mass moves in the opposite
direction relative to it it virtually stands
still.
= 0.707 gives the least variation of
displacement ratio for values of (w/wn) > 1).
At this value of we can bring (w/wn) down
to about 1.75 before the error in
displacement measurement exceeds 5%.
So displacement pickups are often
designed to have a damping ratio of about
0.7.

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Contd.

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VELOCITY PICKUPS

A signal proportional to velocity may

be obtained from a vibration by:
1) differentiating the signal from a
displacement pickup by passing it
through a differentiating circuit.
2) integrating the signal from an
accelerometer by passing it through
an integrating circuit.
3) using a seismic velocity pickup.

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Contd.
from an
accelerometer gives much
more accurate result than
differentiating from a
displacement pickup,
because differentiation
amplifies any errors in the
signal, whereas integration
diminishes them.

Integrating

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Contd.

Designed to have a low

value of wn
operate at angular
frequencies well above
wn
the motion of the
seismic mass is
virtually the same as
that of the casing.

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Contd.
When coupling the seismic sensor to the
vibrating structural element, a relative
movement is generated between permanent
magnet and plunger coil. A voltage is
induced in the coil which is proportional to
the vibration velocity.
e = b.l.v
Where
e = induced voltage.
b = magnetic induction of permanent
magnet.
l = length of conductors in the plunger
coil.
v = speed of vibration
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The frequency response of the absolute

vibration sensor is shown

v
mV
20

rms

rms

= 1mm/s

02

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22

10

14

100

1000hZ

ACCELERATION PICKUPS
(ACCELEROMETERS)
At w/wn << 1 the displacement of
the seismic mass relative to the
casing tends to zero.

The seismic mass is accelerating
with the same acceleration as the
casing.

To give it these accelerations,
corresponding forces must be
applied by the spring because:
force = mass x acceleration.

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Contd.

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Contd.

For < 1.0, seismic accelerometer

will give accurate readings of
acceleration for w/wn = 0 to 0.2.
At = 0.7 accurate measurement up
to w/wn = 0.5.
Most accelerometers, however, use a
piezoelectric crystal as a combined
'spring' and transducer, and for
crystal 0.
Frequency response of a piezoelectric
accelerometer can be assumed to be
that shown by the curve for = 0.01

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THE PIEZOELECTRIC ACCELEROMETER

Relatively robust and reliable so

that its characteristics remain
stable over a long period of time

The piezoelectric accelerometer is

self-generating, so that it doesn't
need a power supply

No moving parts to wear out

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Contd.
Material:
Piezoelectric Material, i.e.,
polarized ferroelectric ceramic.
Type:
 Compression
 Shear
 Bending

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COMPRESSION ACCELEROMETER

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SHEAR ACCELEROMETER

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BENDING/TENSION
ACCELEROMETER

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ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCE

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Contd.

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Contd.

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VIBRATION AND THE HUMAN BODY

EFFECTS:

BLURRED VISION

LOSS OF BALANCE

LOSS OF
CONCENTRATION

DAMAGE TO INTERNAL
ORGANS

WHITE FINGER
SYNDROME
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VIBRATION SPECTRUM
ANALYSIS
A

t
A

White noise

f
An Impulse
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1/T

f
A Wide Pulse

1/T

f
A Wider Pulse

Amplitude

FFT SIGNAL PROCESSING

Tim
e

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Amplitude

Amplitude

Tim
e

cy
en
u
eq
Fr

Contd.

Vibration

Frequency in Hz/CPS can

be expressed in CPM as:
CPM = Hertz x 60 Seconds/Minute

If a m/c has z RPM and vibration
frequency is z CPM then it is called
1X component, i.e.,
z CPM = 1X m/c RPM

Similarly 2z, 3z CPM are 2X, 3X
components respectively and so on.

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Contd.

Unbalance => 1X component in horizontal and

vertical direction
Looseness, misalignment, resonance and
reciprocating forces => 2X, 3X and higher
multiples.
Problems with gears usually result in
vibration at frequencies related to the "gear
mesh" frequency or the product of the number
of teeth on the gear multiplied by the gear
RPM.
Aerodynamic and hydraulic problems with
fans and pumps will normally show vibration
frequencies that are the product of the m/c
RPM times the number of fan blades or
impeller vanes.
This is also called Blade Pass Frequency.

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HEALING BEARING
A

t
A

Fault Increase => Pulse T increase =>

Decaying White Noise => No More Frequency
to Excite Accelerometer => Healing. But
Bearing approaching failure.
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PRACTICAL APPLICATION
Machine Classes

Velocity (mm/s)
PEAK

RMS

0.40

0.25

0.64

0.45

1.0

0.71

1.58

1.12

2.5

1.8

4.0

2.8

6.4

4.5

10.0

7.1

15.8

11.2

25.0
40.0
64

18.0
28
45

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II

III

IV

A
A

B
C

B
C

B
C

C
D

MACHINE CLASSES
CLASS I

Small Sized Machine (Production electrical

motors up to 15 KW)

CLASS II

Medium Sized Machine (Electrical motor 1575 KW) without special foundations. Rigidly
mounted engines or machines (up to 300
KW) on special foundations

CLASS III Large Prime movers and other large machine

with rotating mass mounted on rigid &
heavy foundations which are relatively stiff
in the direction of Vibration measurement

CLASS IV Large Prime movers and other large machine

with rotating mass mounted on foundations
which are relatively soft in the direction of
Vibration measurement (Eg: Turbo
generator)

CLASS V

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Reciprocating machines on Soft & Hard

foundationsHeavy Grinding Mills, Vibrating
Screen, System with unbalanceable Inertia
effects

THANKS
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