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JJ 207 Thermodynamics I
JJ 207 Thermodynamics I
Chapter 2
INTRODUCTION
In thermodynamic systems, the working fluid can be in the liquid, steam or gaseous
phase. In this unit, the properties of liquid and steam are investigated in some details
as the state of a system can be described in terms of its properties. A substance that
has a fixed composition throughout is called a pure substance. Pure chemicals (H2O,
N2, O2, Ar, Ne, Xe) are always pure substances. We all know from experience that
substances exist in different phases. A phase of substance can be defined as that part
of a pure substance that consists of a single, homogenous aggregate of matter. The
three common phases for H2O that are usually used are solid, liquid and steam.
When studying phases or phase changes in thermodynamics, one does not need to be
concerned with the molecular structure and behavior of the different phases.
However, it is very helpful to have some understanding of the molecular phenomena
involved in each phase.
Molecular bonds are strongest in solids and weakest in steams. One reason is that
molecules in solids are closely packed together, whereas in steams they are separated
by great distances.
PHASES
The three phases of pure substances are: Solid Phase
In the solid phase, the molecules are;
(a)
Closely bound, therefore relatively dense; and
(b)
Arranged in a rigid three-dimensional pattern so that they do not easily
deform. An example of a pure solid state is ice.
Liquid Phase
In the liquid phase, the molecules are;
(a)
Closely bound, therefore also relatively dense and unable to expand to fill a
space; but
(b)
They are no longer rigidly structured so much so that they are free to move
within a fixed volume. An example is a pure liquid state.
Steam Phase
In the steam phase, the molecules;
(a)
Virtually do not attract each other. The distance between the molecules are
not as close as those in the solid and liquid phases;
1
JJ 207 THERMODYNAMICS I
(b)
Are not arranged in a fixed pattern. There is neither a fixed volume nor a
fixed shape for steam.
The three phases described above are illustrated in Figure below. The following are
discovered:
(a)
The positions of the molecules are relatively fixed in a solid phase;
(b)
Chunks of molecules float about each other in the liquid phase; and
(c)
The molecules move about at random in the steam phase.
(a)
(b)
(c)
STATE 2
STATE 4
STATE 3
Heating water
and steam at
constant pressure
W
W
Liqui
d
Steam
Superheated
Steam
At this point, the steam and liquid are said to be saturated. As more heat is added, the
liquid that was at saturation will start to vaporize until State 2. The two-phase
2
JJ 207 THERMODYNAMICS I
mixture of steam and liquid at State 2 has only one degree of freedom, and as long as
liquid is present, vaporization will continue at constant temperature. As long as liquid
is present, the mixture is said to be wet steam, and both the liquid and steam are
saturated. After all the liquid is vaporized, only steam is present at State 3, and the
further addition of heat will cause the temperature of steam to increase at constant
system pressure. This state is called the superheated state, and the steam is said to be
superheated steam as shown in State 4.
Saturated and Superheated Steam
While tables provide a convenient way of presenting precise numerical presentations
of data, figures provide us with a clearer understanding of trends and patterns.
Consider the following diagram in which the specific volume of H2O is presented as a
function of temperature and pressure:
T, oC
300
Superheated
steam
2
100
Saturated
mixture
Compressed
liquid
20
1
v, m3/kg
JJ 207 THERMODYNAMICS I
change occurs in the process. The temperature of the water no longer continues to
rise. Instead, as we continue to add energy, liquid progressively changes to steam
phase at a constant temperature but with an increasing specific volume. In this part of
the process, we speak of the water as being a saturated mixture (liquid + steam).
This is also known as the quality region.
At State 3, all liquid will have been vaporised. This is the saturated steam state.
As we continue to heat the steam beyond State 3, the temperature of the steam again
rises as we add energy. States to the right of State 3 are said to be superheated
steam.
Summary of nomenclature:
Compressed or subcooled liquid (Between States 1 & 2)
A liquid state in which the fluid remains entirely within the liquid state, and below the
saturation state.
Saturated liquid (State 2)
All fluid is in the liquid state. However, even the slightest addition of energy would
result in the formation of some vapour.
Saturated Liquid-Steam or Wet Steam Region (Between States 2 & 3) Liquid and
steam exist together in a mixture.
Saturated steam (State 3)
All fluid is in the steam state, but even the slightest loss of energy from the system
would result in the formation of some liquid.
Superheated steam (The right of State 3)
All fluid is in the steam state and above the saturation state. The superheated steam
temperature is greater than the saturation temperature corresponding to the pressure.
The same experiment can be conducted at several different pressures. We see that as
pressure increases, the temperature at which boiling occurs also increases.
T, oC
P = 221.2 bar
Critical point
P = 150 bar
P = 80 bar
374.15
P = 10 bar
P = 5 bar
P = 1.01325 bar
Saturated
liquid
T-v diagram of
constant pressure
phase change
processes of a pure
substance at various
pressures for water.
Saturated
steam
JJ 207 THERMODYNAMICS I
At a pressure of 221.2 bar, the specific volume change which is associated to a phase
increase will disappear. Both liquid and steam will have the same specific volume,
0.00317 m3/kg. This occurs at a temperature of 374.15 oC. This state represents an
important transition in fluids and is termed the critical point.
If we connect the locus of points corresponding to the saturation condition, we will
obtain a diagram which allows easy identification of the distinct regions:
Saturated liquid line
P2 = const.
COMPRESS
LIQUID
REGION
P2 > P1
T-v diagram of a
pure substance
P1 = const.
SUPERHEATED
STEAM
REGION
WET STEAM
REGION
The general shape of the P-v diagram of a pure substance is very much like the T-v
diagram, but the T = constant lines on this diagram have a downward trend, as shown
in Fig. 8.2-4.
Saturated liquid line
T2 = const.
WET STEAM
REGION
T2 > T1
T1 = const.
JJ 207 THERMODYNAMICS I
Units
bar
ts
Description
vf
m3/kg
vg
m3/kg
uf
kJ/kg
ug
kJ/kg
hf
kJ/kg
hg
kJ/kg
hfg
kJ/kg
sf
kJ/kg K
sg
kJ/kg K
sfg
kJ/kg K
Change of specific entropy during evaporation
The property of steam tables
JJ 207 THERMODYNAMICS I
ps
vg
C
m3/kg
10
106.4
hf
hfg
bar
hg
sf
kJ/kg
sfg
sg
kJ/kg K
0.01227 42.0
2477.2 0.151
2519.2
8.900
Saturated water and steam at a temperature of 10 oC
8.749
Example 1
Complete the following table for Saturated Water and Steam:
t
o
Ps
vg
bar
0.01
100
hf
m /kg
hfg
hg
sf
kJ/kg
sfg
sg
kJ/kg K
206.1
0.02337
1.01325
8.666
Solution
From page 2 of the steam tables, we can directly read:
t
Ps
vg
bar
m /kg
0.006566
192.6
4.2
2498.3
2502.5
0.015
9.113
9.128
20
0.02337
57.84
83.9
2453.7
2537.6
0.296
8.370
8.666
100
1.01325
1.673
419.1
2256.7
2675.8
1.307
6.048
7.355
hf
hfg
hg
sf
kJ/kg
sfg
sg
kJ/kg K
JJ 207 THERMODYNAMICS I
Part 2
Part 2 (Page 3 to 5 of steam tables) is values of pressure from 0.006112 bar to 221.2
bar followed by values that are suitable for the pressures stated in the table. Table
8.4.1-2 is an example showing an extract from the pressure of 1.0 bar.
p
ts
vg
uf
bar oC
m3/kg
ug
hf
kJ/kg
hfg
hg
sf
sfg
kJ/kg
sg
kJ/kg K
1.0 99.6
417
417 2258 2675 1.303
1.694
2506
7.359
Saturated water and steam at a pressure of 1.0 bar
6.056
Example 2
Complete the missing properties in the following table for Saturated Water
and Steam:
p
bar
0.045
ts
o
vg
m3/kg
uf
ug
hf
kJ/kg
hfg
sf
kJ/kg
31.0
10
hg
sfg
sg
kJ/kg K
2558
0.1944
311.0
5.615
Solution
From page 3 to page 5 of the steam tables, we can directly read:
p
bar
ts
o
vg
3
uf
ug
hf
hfg
hg
sf
kJ/kg
sfg
sg
m /kg
kJ/kg
kJ/kg K
0.045
31.0
31.14
130 2418
130
2428 2558
0.451
7.980
8.431
10
179.9
0.1944
762 2584
763
2015 2778
2.138
4.448
6.586
100
3.360
2.255
5.615
JJ 207 THERMODYNAMICS I
x kg of steam
total mass = 1 kg
(1 - x ) kg of liquid
Liquid-steam mixture
The dryness fraction is defined as follows;
mass of dry saturated steam
total mass
dryness fraction
msteam
mtotal
x = 0.2
At point A, x = 0
At point B, x = 1
Between point A and B, 0 x 1.0
Sat. liquid
x = 0.8
B
ts
vf
vg
JJ 207 THERMODYNAMICS I
For a wet steam, the total volume of the mixture is given by the volume of liquid
present plus the volume of dry steam present.
Therefore, the specific volume is given by,
Now for 1 kg of wet steam, there are (1 x) kg of liquid and x kg of dry steam, where
x is the dryness fraction as defined earlier. Hence,
v = vf(1 x) + vgx
The volume of the liquid is usually negligibly small as compared to the volume of dry
saturated steam. Hence, for most practical problems,
v = xvg
(8.2)
Where,
vf = specific volume of saturated liquid (m3/kg)
vg = specific volume of saturated steam (m3/kg)
x = dryness fraction
Specific enthalpy
In the analysis of certain types of processes, particularly in power generation and
refrigeration, we frequently encounter the combination of properties
U + PV. For the sake of simplicity and convenience, this combination is defined as a
new property, enthalpy, and given the symbol H.
H = U + PV (kJ)
or, per unit mass
h = u + Pv
(kJ/kg)
The enthalpy of wet steam is given by the sum of the enthalpy of the liquid plus the
enthalpy of the dry steam,
h = hf + xhfg
Where,
hf = specific enthalpy of saturated liquid (kJ/kg)
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JJ 207 THERMODYNAMICS I
Summary:
v = xvg
h = hf + xhfg
u = uf + x(ug uf )
s = sf + xsfg
Example 3
For a steam at 20 bar with a dryness fraction of 0.9, calculate the
a)
specific volume
b)
specific enthalpy
c)
specific internal energy
Solution
An extract from the steam tables
p
20
a)
ts
vg
uf
ug
hf
hfg
hg
sf
sfg
sg
212.4 0.09957 907 2600 909 1890 2799 2.447 3.893 6.340
v = xvg
= 0.9(0.09957)
= 0.0896 m3/kg
c)
u = uf + x( ug -uf )
= 907 + 0.9(2600 - 907)
= 2430.7 kJ/kg
b)
h = hf + xhfg
= 909 + 0.9(1890)
= 2610 kJ/kg
11
JJ 207 THERMODYNAMICS I
P
bar
x = 0.9
20
ts = 212.4 oC
v
u
h
s
uf
hf
sf
v m3/kg
vg
ug
hg
sg
Example 4
Find the dryness fraction, specific volume and specific enthalpy of steam at 8 bar and
specific internal energy 2450 kJ/kg.
Solution
An extract from the steam tables,
p
8
ts
vg
uf
ug
hf
hfg
hg
sf
sfg
sg
170.4 0.2403 720 2577 721 2048 2769 2.046 4.617 6.663
At 8 bar, ug = 2577 kJ/kg, since the actual specific internal energy is given as 2450
kJ/kg, the steam must be in the wet steam state ( u < ug).
h
u
= uf + x(ug -uf)
2450 = 720 + x(2577 - 720)
x
= 0.932
v
= xvg
= 0.932 (0.2403)
= 0.2240 m3/kg
P
bar
= hf + xhfg
= 721 + 0.932 (2048)
= 2629.7 kJ/kg
x = 0.932
8
ts = 170.4 oC
v vg
v m3/kg
12
JJ 207 THERMODYNAMICS I
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
600
vg
v 0.206 0.232 0.258 0.282 0.306 0.330 0.354 0.401
10
0.1944
1
8
0
5
5
3
0
0
(179.9)
ug 2584 u 2623 2711 2794 2875 2957 3040 3124 3297
hg 2778 h 2829 2944 3052 3158 3264 3370 3478 3698
sg 6.586 s 6.695 6.926 7.124 7.301 7.464 7.617 7.761 8.028
Superheated steam at a pressure of 10 bar
13
JJ 207 THERMODYNAMICS I
Example 5
Complete the missing properties in the following table for Superheated Steam:
p
t
300
350
400
450
(ts)
vg 0.0498 v
0.0800
40
ug 2602
u
2921
(250.3) hg 2801
h
3094
sg 6.070
s 6.364
Solution
From the steam tables, we can directly read
p
t
300
350
400
450
(ts)
vg 0.0498 v 0.0588 0.0664 0.0733 0.0800
40
ug 2602
u 2728 2828
2921
3010
(250.3) hg 2801
h 2963 3094
3214
3330
sg 6.070
s 6.364 6.584 6.769 6.935
Example 6
Steam at 100 bar has a specific volume of 0.02812 m3/kg. Find the temperature,
degree of superheat, specific enthalpy and specific internal energy.
Solution
First, it is necessary to decide whether the steam is wet, dry saturated or superheated.
At 100 bar, vg = 0.01802 m3/kg. This is less than the actual specific volume of
0.02812 m3/kg. Hence, the steam is superheated. The state of the steam is at point A
in the diagram below.
P
bar
100
425 oC
ts = 311.0 oC
v m3/kg
vg= 0.01802
v = 0.02812
14
JJ 207 THERMODYNAMICS I
vg 0.01802
hg 2725
(311.0) sg 5.615
425
v x 10-2
2.812
3172
6.321
From the superheated table at 100 bar, the specific volume is 0.02812 m3/kg at a
temperature of 425 oC. Hence, this is the isothermal line, which passes through point
A as shown in the P-v diagram above.
Degree of superheat = 425 oC 311 oC
= 114 oC
So, at 100 bar and 425 oC, we have
v = 2.812 x 10-2 m3/kg
h = 3172 kJ/kg
From equation 8.6,
u = h Pv
= 3172 kJ/kg (100 x 102 kN/m2)(2.812 x 10-2 m3/kg)
= 2890.8 kJ/kg
Interpolation
The first interpolation problem that an engineer usually meets is that of reading
between the lines of a published table, like the Steam Tables. For properties which
are not tabulated exactly in the tables, it is necessary to interpolate between the values
tabulated as shown in Fig. 8.5-1 below. In this process it is customary to use a straight
line that passes through two adjacent table points, denoted by and . If we use the
straight line then it is called interpolation.
f(x)
Interpolation
Interpolation
15
JJ 207 THERMODYNAMICS I
The values in the tables are given in regular increments of temperature and pressure.
Often we wish to know the value of thermodynamic properties at intermediate values.
It is common to use linear interpolation as shown in Fig. 8.5-2.
y
y2
(x2 , y2)
y
y1
(x , y)
(x1 , y1)
x
x1
x2
Linear interpolation
From Figure above the value of x can be determined by:
x x1 x 2 x1
y y1 y 2 y1
y y1 x2 x1 x
1
y 2 y1
Single interpolation
Single interpolation is used to find the values in the table when one of the values is
not tabulated. For example, to find the saturation temperature, specific volume,
internal energy and enthalpy of dry saturated steam at 77 bar, it is necessary to
interpolate between the values given in the table.
Example 7
Determine the saturation temperature at 77 bar.
Solution
The values of saturation temperature at a pressure of 77 bars are not tabulated in the
Steam Tables. So, we need to interpolate between the two nearest values that are
tabulated in the Steam Tables.
16
JJ 207 THERMODYNAMICS I
P
77 75
80 75
80
77
2
5
75
290.5
ts
ts
295
ts
24.5
290.5
5
ts = 292.3 oC
Example 8
Determine the specific enthalpy of dry saturated steam at 103 bar.
Solution
hg 2725
103 100
2715 2725
105 100
105
103
hg
100
hg
2725
3 10
2725
5
hg hg2719 kJ/kg
2715
Example 9
Determine the specific volume of steam at 8 bar and 220oC.
Solution
From the Steam Tables at 8 bar, the saturated temperature (ts) is 170.4 oC.
The steam is at superheated condition as the temperature of the steam is 220oC > ts.
An extract from the Steam Tables,
p / (bar)
(ts / oC)
8
v
(170.4)
t
(oC)
200
220
250
0.2610
0.2933
P
250
v 0.27392 m3/kg
v
0.2610 v
0.2933
17
JJ 207 THERMODYNAMICS I
Double Interpolation
In some cases a double interpolation is necessary, and its usually used in the
Superheated Steam Table. Double interpolation must be used when two of the
properties (eg. temperature and pressure) are not tabulated in the Steam Tables. For
example, to find the enthalpy of superheated steam at 25 bar and 320oC, an
interpolation between 20 bar and 30 bar is necessary (as shown in example 8.9). An
interpolation between 300oC and 350oC is also necessary.
Example 10
Determine the specific enthalpy of superheated steam at 25 bar and 320oC.
Solution
An extract from the Superheated Steam Tables:
t(oC)
p(bar)
20
300
320
350
3025
h1
3138
25
30
2995
h2
3117
Firstly, find the specific enthalpy (h1) at 20 bar and 320 oC;
At 20 bar,
T
320 300
350 300
350
320
h1 3070.2 kJ/kg
300
h
3025
h1
3138
Secondly, find the specific enthalpy (h2) at 30 bar and 320 oC;
T
h2 3043.8 kJ/kg
300
h
2995
h2
3117
18
JJ 207 THERMODYNAMICS I
Now interpolate between h1 at 20 bar, 320oC, and h2 at 30 bar, 320oC in order to find
h at 25 bar and 320oC.
h h1
h h1
2
25 20 30 20
P
30
h 3070.2 30438
. 3070.2
25
25 20
30 20
20
h 3057 kJ/kg.
h
h
h1
h2
Example 11
0.9 m3 of dry saturated steam at 225 kN/m2 is contained in a rigid cylinder. If it is
cooled at constant volume process until the pressure drops to180 kN/m2, determine
the following:
a)
mass of steam in the cylinder
b)
dryness fraction at the final state
Sketch the process in the form of a P-v diagram.
Solution
Data: V1 = 0.9 m3 , P1 = 225 kN/m2 = 2.25 bar, P2 = 180 kN/m2 = 1.80 bar
a)
Firstly, find the specific volume of dry saturated steam at 2.25 bar. Note that
the pressure 2.25 bar is not tabulated in the steam tables and it is necessary to use the
interpolation method.
From the Steam Tables,
vg at 2.2 bar = 0.8100 m3/kg
vg at 2.3 bar = 0.7770 m3/kg
vg1 at 2.25 bar,
v g1 0.8100 0.7770 0.8100
2.25 2.20
2.30 2.20
vg1 0.7935 m3/kg
Mass of steam in cylinder, m
V1
vg1
(m3 x kg/m3)
= 1.134 kg
19
JJ 207 THERMODYNAMICS I
b)
At constant volume process,
Initial specific volume = final specific volume
v1 = v2
x1vg1 at 2.25 bar = x2vg2 at 1.8 bar
1(0.7935) = x2 (0.9774)
1(0.7935)
x2
0.9774
P
= 0.81
bar
2.25
1.80
v1 = v2
0.7935 0.9774
v m3/kg
20
JJ 207 THERMODYNAMICS I
TUTORIAL
1.
Each line in the table below gives information about phases of pure
substances. Fill in the phase column in the table with the correct answer.
Statement
Phase
Write the suitable names of the phases for the H2O in the P-v diagram below.
( ii )
P
( iv )
( vi )
(v)
(i)
T2 = const.
( iii)
T2 > T1
T1 = const.
3.
Answer question below:
a. The internal energy of wet steam is 2000 kJ/kg. If the pressure is 42 bar, what is
the value of dryness fraction?
b. Determine the specific volume, specific enthalpy and specific internal energy of
wet steam at 32 bar if the dryness fraction is 0.92.
4.
Find the dryness fraction, specific volume and specific internal energy of
steam at 105 bar and specific enthalpy 2100 kJ/kg.
21
JJ 207 THERMODYNAMICS I
5.
Steam at 120 bar is at 500 oC. Find the degree of superheat, specific volume,
specific enthalpy and specific internal energy.
6.
Steam at 160 bar has a specific enthalpy of 3139 kJ/kg. Find the temperature,
degree of superheat, specific enthalpy and specific internal energy.
7
8.
Determine the degree of superheat and entropy of steam at 10 bar and 380oC.
9.
A superheated steam at 12.5 MN/m2 is at 650oC. Determine its specific
volume.
10.
A superheated steam at 24 bar and 500oC expands at constant volume until the
pressure becomes 6 bar and the dryness fraction is 0.9. Calculate the changes in the
internal energy of steam. Sketch the process in the form of a P-v diagram.
22
JJ 207 THERMODYNAMICS I
BOYLES LAW
The Boyles Law may be stated as follows:
Provided the temperature T of a perfect gas remains constant, then volume, V of a
given mass of gas is inversely proportional to the pressure P of the gas, i.e. P 1/V
(as shown in Fig. 3.1-1), or P x V = constant if temperature remains constant.
P
P 1/V
Graph P 1/V
1/V
23
JJ 207 THERMODYNAMICS I
P1
1
PV = constant
P2
3
P3
V1 V2
V3
Example 12
A quantity of a certain perfect gas is heated at a constant temperature from an initial
state of 0.22 m3 and 325 kN/m2 to a final state of 170 kN/m2. Calculate the final
pressure of the gas.
Solution
From equation P1V1 = P2V2
V2 V1 x
P1
0.22 m 3
P2
325 kN/m
0.421 m 3
170 kN/m
2
CHARLES LAW
The Charless Law may be stated as follows:
Provided the pressure P of a given mass of gas remains constant, then the volume V of
the gas will be directly proportional to the absolute temperature T of the gas, i.e.
V T, or V = constant x T. Therefore V/T = constant, for constant pressure P.
If gas changes from state 1 to state 2 during a constant pressure process, then
24
JJ 207 THERMODYNAMICS I
V1 V2
constant
T1 T2
If the process is represented on a P V diagram as before, the result will be as shown
in Fig. 3.2.
P
V1
V2
V1 V2
T1 T2
T2 T1 x
V2
V1
0.32 m 3
618 K
3
0.54 m
366 K
25
JJ 207 THERMODYNAMICS I
PV
constant R
T
i.e.
P1V1 P2V2
T1
T2
No gases in practice obey this law rigidly, but many gases tend towards it. An
PV
imaginary ideal that obeys the law is called a perfect gas, and the equation
R
T
is called the characteristic equation of state of a perfect gas.
The constant, R, is called the gas constant. The unit of R is Nm/kg K or J/kg K. Each
perfect gas has a different gas constant.
The characteristic equation is usually written
PV = RT
or for m kg, occupying V m3,
PV = mRT
Another form of the characteristic equation can be derived using the kilogram-mole as
a unit. The kilogram-mole is defined as a quantity of a gas equivalent to m kg of the
gas, where M is the molecular weight of the gas (e.g. since the molecular weight of
oxygen is 32, then 1 kg mole of oxygen is equivalent to 32 kg of oxygen).
From the definition of the kilogram-mole, for m kg of a gas we have,
m = nM
(where n is the number of moles).
Note: Since the standard of mass is the kg, kilogram-mole will be written simply as
mole.
Substituting for m from equations above
PV
PV = nMRT or
MR
nT
26
JJ 207 THERMODYNAMICS I
Now Avogadros hypothesis states that the volume of 1 mole of any gas is the same as
the volume of 1 mole of any other gas, when the gases are at the same temperature
and pressure. Therefore V/n is the same for all gases at the same value of P and T.
That is the quantity PV/nT is constant for all gases. This constant is called the
universal gas constant, and is given the symbol Ro.
i.e.
MR Ro
PV
or PV nRoT
nT
or since MR = Ro then,
R
R o
M
Experiment has shown that the volume of 1 mole of any perfect gas at 1 bar and 1 oC
is approximately 22.71 m3. Therefore from equation 3.8
R0
PV 1 x 10 5 x 22.71
8314.4 J/mole K
nT
1 x 273.15
From equation 3.10 the gas constant for any gas can be found when the molecular
weight is known, e.g. for oxygen of molecular weight 32, the gas constant is
R
Ro 8314.4
259.8 J/kg K
M
32
Example 14
0.046 m3 of gas are contained in a sealed cylinder at a pressure of 300 kN/m2 and a
temperature of 45 oC. The gas is compressed until the pressure reaches 1.27 MN/m2
and the temperature is 83oC. If the gas is assumed to be a perfect gas, determine:
a)
b)
Given:
R = 0.29 kJ/kg K
Solution
From the question
V1 = 0.046 m3
P1 = 300 kN/m2
T1 = 45 + 273 K = 318 K
R = 0.29 kJ/kg K
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JJ 207 THERMODYNAMICS I
From equation
PV = mRT
0.1496 kg
RT1
0.29 x 318
P1 P2
T1 T2
P1
P
1.27 x 10
T2 T1 2 318
300
1346 K
dU = Q
Note:
In a reversible constant volume process, no work energy transfer can take place since
the piston will be unable to move i.e. W = 0.
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JJ 207 THERMODYNAMICS I
The reversible constant volume process is shown on a P-V diagram in Figure below:
P
P2
P1
1
V1 = V2
Example 15
3.4 kg of gas is heated at a constant volume of 0.92 m3 and temperature 17 oC until
the temperature rose to 147 oC. If the gas is assumed to be a perfect gas, determine:
a)
b)
c)
Given
Cv = 0.72 kJ/kg K
R = 0.287 kJ/kg K
Solution
From the question
m = 3.4 kg
V1 = V2 = 0.92 m3
T1 = 17 + 273 K = 290 K
T2 = 147 + 273 K = 420 K
Cv = 0.72 kJ/kg K
R = 0.287 kJ/kg K
a)
From equation,
29
JJ 207 THERMODYNAMICS I
b)
From equation,
PV = mRT
307.6 kN/m 2
V1
0.92 m 3
c)
For state 2,
P2V2 = mRT2
mRT2 3.4 kg x 0.287 kJ/kgK x 420 K
P2
445.5 kN/m 2
V2
0.92 m 3
JJ 207 THERMODYNAMICS I
i.e.
Cp
Cv
Note that since Cp - Cv= R, from equation above, it is clear that Cp must be greater
than Cv for any perfect gas. It follows therefore that the ratio Cp/Cv = , is always
greater than unity. In general, is about 1.4 for diatomic gases such as carbon
monoxide (CO), hydrogen (H2), nitrogen (N2), and oxygen (O2). For monatomic gases
such as argon (A), and helium (He), is about 1.6, and for triatomic gases such as
carbon dioxide (CO2), and sulphur dioxide (SO2), is about 1.3. For some hydrocarbons the value of is quite low (e.g. for ethane (C2H6), = 1.22, and for isobutane (C4H10), = 1.11.
Some useful relationships between Cp , Cv , R, and can be derived.
From equation above
Cp - Cv= R
Dividing through by Cv
Cp
R
1
Cv
Cv
Therefore =
Cp
Cv
, then,
31
JJ 207 THERMODYNAMICS I
Cv
R
Cv
R
( 1)
R
( 1)
Cp = Cv =
Cp =
R
( 1)
Example 16
A certain perfect gas has specific heat as follows
Cp = 0.846 kJ/kg K and Cv = 0.657 kJ/kg K
Find the gas constant and the molecular weight of the gas.
Solution
From equation R = Cp - Cv
i.e.
or
From equation M =
i.e.
M=
R0
R
8314
44
189
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JJ 207 THERMODYNAMICS I
NON-FLOW PROCESSES
A process occurs when a systems state (as measured by its properties) changes for
any reason. Processes may be reversible or actual (irreversible). In this context the
word reversible has a special meaning. A reversible process is one that is wholly
theoretical, but can be imagined as one which occurs without incurring friction,
turbulence, leakage or anything which causes unrecoverable energy losses. All of the
processes considered below are reversible and the actual processes will be dealt with
later.
Processes may be constrained to occur at constant temperature (isothermal), constant
pressure, constant volume, polytropic and adiabatic (with no heat transfer to the
surroundings).
W
v
Q
v1
v2
The general relation properties between the initial and final states of a perfect
gas are applied as follows:
p1V1 p 2V2
T1
T2
If the temperature remains constant during the process, T1 = T2 and the above relation
becomes
p1V1 p2V2
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JJ 207 THERMODYNAMICS I
From the equation we can know that an increase in the volume results in a
decrease in the pressure. In other words, in an isothermal process, the pressure is
inversely proportional to the volume.
Work transfer:
Referring to the process represented on the p V diagram in Figure above it is
noted that the volume increases during the process. In other words the fluid is
expanding. The expansion work is given by
2
W pdV
1
2
c
dV
V
1
= c
1
(since pV = C, a constant)
dV
V
2
dV
V
1
V
= p1V1 ln 2
V1
= p1V1
V2
V1
p
= mRT1 ln 1
p2
= mRT1 ln
V2
p
1)
V1
p2
Note that during expansion, the volume increases and the pressure decreases.
On the p V diagram, the shaded area under the process line represents the amount of
work transfer.
Since this is an expansion process (i.e. increasing volume), the work is done
by the system. In other words the system produces work output and this is shown by
the direction of the arrow representing W.
Heat transfer:
Energy balance to this case is applied:
U1 + Q = U2 + W
For a perfect gas
U1 = mcvT1 and U2 = mcvT2
As the temperature is constant
U1 = U2
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JJ 207 THERMODYNAMICS I
Adiabatic process (Q = 0)
If a system is thermally well insulated then there will be negligible heat transfer into
or out of the system. Such a system is thermally isolated and a process within that
system may be idealised as an adiabatic process. For example, the outer casing of
steam engine, steam turbines and gas turbines are well insulated to minimise heat loss.
The fluid expansion process in such machines may be assumed to be adiabatic.
P
1
2
W
v
v1
Thermal insulation
v2
Cp
Cv
p1V1 p2V2
35
JJ 207 THERMODYNAMICS I
p 2 V1
p1 V2
Also, for a perfect gas, the general property relation between the two states is given
by the equation below
p1V1 p 2V2
T1
T2
By manipulating 2 equations above the following relationship can be
determined:
T2 p 2
T1 p1
V
1
V2
W pdV
1
2
c
dV
1V
(since pV = C, a constant)
dV
1 V
p V p 2V2
= 1 1
1
= c
Note that after expansion, p2 is smaller than p1. In the p V diagram, the
shaded area under the process represents the amount of work transfer.
As this is an expansion process (i.e. increase in volume) the work is done by
the system. In other words, the system produces work output and this is shown by the
direction of the arrow representing W.
36
JJ 207 THERMODYNAMICS I
Heat transfer:
In an adiabatic process, Q = 0.
Applying an energy balance to this case
U1 - W = U2
W = U1 U2
Thus, in an adiabatic expansion the work output is equal to the decrease in
internal energy. In other words, because of the work output the internal energy of the
system decreases by a corresponding amount.
For a perfect gas, U1 = mcvT1 and U1 = mcvT1
On substitution
W = mcv(T1-T2)
[larger T- smaller T]
We know
cp- cv = R
or
R
cv =
1
mR(T1 T2)
p1V1 p 2V2
1
Example 17
In an industrial process, 0.4 kg of oxygen is compressed isothermally from 1.01 bar
and 22o C to 5.5 bar. Determine the work done and the heat transfer during the
process. Assume that oxygen is a perfect gas and take the molecular weight of oxygen
to be M = 32 kg/kmole.
Solution
Data: m = 0.4 kg;
p2 = 5.5 bar;
37
JJ 207 THERMODYNAMICS I
5.5
1.01
= 52 kJ
In an isothermal process all the work input is rejected as heat.
Therefore, heat rejected, Q = W = 52 kJ
Example 18
In a thermally insulated reciprocating air compressor, air at 0.98 bar and 20oC is
compressed into one sixth of its original volume. Determine the pressure and
temperature of the air after compression. If the compressor cylinder contains 0.05 kg
of air, calculate the required work input. For air, take = 1.4 and
cv = 0.718
kJ/kgK.
Solution
Data : p1 = 0.98 bar; T1= 20 + 273 = 293 K
V2 1
;
m = 0.05 kg; W = ?
V1 6
As the cylinder is well insulated the heat transfer is negligible and the process
may be treated as adiabatic.
Considering air as a perfect gas
From equation,
p 2 V1
p1 V2
p2 = 0.98 x 61.4
= 12 bar
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JJ 207 THERMODYNAMICS I
V
T
From equation 2 1
T1 V2
T2 = 293 x 60.4
= 600 K
= 327oC
[larger T- smaller T]
= 0.05 x 0.718 (600-293)
= 11 kJ
(n = 1.3)
(n = 1.2)
(n = 1.1)
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JJ 207 THERMODYNAMICS I
P
W
P1
pVn=C
P2
W
v1
v2
Qloss
Polytropic process
At states 1 and 2:
p1V1n p2V2n
or
p 2 V1
p1 V2
Also, for a perfect gas, the general property relation between the two states is given
by
p1V1 p 2V2
T1
T2
By the manipulation of 2 equations above the following relationship can be
determined:
T2 p 2
T1 p1
n 1
n
V
1
V2
n 1
JJ 207 THERMODYNAMICS I
W pdV
1
2
c
dV
n
1V
dV
n
1 V
p V p 2V2
= 1 1
n 1
= c
Note that after expansion p2 is smaller than p1. In the p V diagram, the
shaded area under the process represents the amount of work transfer.
Since this is an expansion process (i.e. increase in volume), the work is done
by the system. In other words, the system produces work output and this is shown by
the direction of the arrow representing W.
Heat transfer:
Energy balance is applied to this case as:
U1 Qloss - W = U2
Qloss = (U1 U2) W
or
W = (U1 U2) - Qloss
Thus, in a polytropic expansion the work output is reduced because of the heat loses.
Example 19
The combustion gases in a petrol engine cylinder are at 30 bar and 800oC before
V
8 .5
expansion. The gases expand through a volume ratio ( 2 ) of (
) and occupy 510
1
V1
cm3 after expansion. When the engine is air cooled the polytropic expansion index n =
1.15. What is the temperature and pressure of the gas after expansion, and what is the
work output?
V2 = 510 cm3
p2 = ?
t2 = ?
Solution
P1= 30 bar
t1 = 800oC
Qloss
State 1
State 2
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JJ 207 THERMODYNAMICS I
Data: p1 = 30 bar;
V2
= 8.5;
V1
V2 = 510 cm3;
t2 = ?
p2 = ?
n = 1.15
W=?
Considering air as a perfect gas, for the polytropic process, the property relation is
given as:
V
T2 T1 1
V2
n 1
1
= 1073x
8.5
1.151
= 778.4 K
= 505.4oC
From equation
V
p 2 p1 1
V 2
1
= 30 x
8.5
1.15
= 2.56 bar
Now,
V2 = 510 cm3 = 510 x 10-6 m3
and,
V2
= 8.5
V1
Then,
510 x10 6
8.5
= 60 x 10-6 m3
V1
W =
= 330 J
= 0.33 kJ
42
JJ 207 THERMODYNAMICS I
2
v
a) Heating
b) Cooling
T1
T2
If the volume remain constant during the process, V2 = V1 and then the above relation
becomes
p1 p 2
T1 T2
or
T2 p 2
T1
p1
From this equation it can be seen that an increase in pressure results from an increase
in temperature. In other words, in constant volume process, the temperature is
proportional to the pressure.
Work transfer:
Work transfer (pdV) must be zero because the change in volume, dV, during the
process is zero. However, work in the form of paddle-wheel work may be transferred.
Heat transfer:
Applying the non flow energy equation
gives
i.e.
Q W = U2 U1
Q 0 = U2 U1
Q = U2 U1
43
JJ 207 THERMODYNAMICS I
This result, which is important and should be remembered, shows that the nett amount
of heat energy supplied to or taken from a fluid during a constant volume process is
equal to the change in the internal energy of the fluid.
5.3
If the change in pressure during a process is very small then that process may be
approximated as a constant pressure process. For example, heating or cooling a liquid
at atmospheric pressure may be analysed by assuming that the pressure remains
constant.
P
W
2
W
v1
v2 v1
v2
Consider the fluid in the piston cylinder as shown in Figure above. If the load on the
piston is kept constant the pressure will also remain constant.
The general property relation between the initial and final states of a perfect gas is
applied as:
p1V1 p 2V2
T1
T2
If the pressure remain constant during the process, p2 = p1 and then the above relation
becomes
V1 V2
T1 T2
or
T2 V2
T1 V1
From this equation it can be seen that an increase in volume results from an increase
in temperature. In other words, in constant pressure process, the temperature is
proportional to the volume.
44
JJ 207 THERMODYNAMICS I
Work transfer:
Referring to the process representation on the p-V diagram it is noted that the volume
increases during the process. In other words, the fluid expands. This expansion work
is given by
2
W pdV
1
p dV
(since p is constant)
= p (V2 V1)
Note that on a p-V diagram, the area under the process line represents the amount of
work transfer.
W = area of the shaded rectangle
= height x width
= p (V2 V1)
(larger volume smaller volume)
Heat transfer:
Applying the non flow energy equation
Q W = U2 U1
or
Q = (U2 U1) + W
Thus part of the heat supplied is converted into work and the remainder is utilized in
increasing the internal energy of the system.
Substituting for W in equation
Q = (U2 U1) + p(V2 V1)
= U2 U1 + p2 V2 p1 V1
= (U2 + p2 V2) (U1 + p1 V1)
(since p2 = p1 )
45
JJ 207 THERMODYNAMICS I
Example 20
The specific internal energy of a fluid is increased from 120 kJ/kg to 180 kJ/kg during
a constant volume process. Determine the amount of heat energy required to bring
about this increase for 2 kg of fluid.
Solution
The non flow energy equation is
Q W = U2 U1
For a constant volume process
W=0
and the equation becomes
Q = U2 U1
Q = 180 120
= 60 kJ/kg
Example 21
2.25 kg of fluid having a volume of 0.1 m3 is in a cylinder at a constant pressure of 7
bar. Heat energy is supplied to the fluid until the volume becomes 0.2 m3. If the initial
and final specific enthalpies of the fluid are 210 kJ/kg and 280 kJ/kg respectively,
determine
a)
the quantity of heat energy supplied to the fluid
b)
the change in internal energy of the fluid
Solution
Data: p = 7.0 bar;
a)
V1 = 0.1 m3 ; V2 = 0.2 m3
46
JJ 207 THERMODYNAMICS I
b)
For a constant pressure process
W = P(V2 V1)
= 7 x 105 x ( 0.2 0.1)
= 7 x 104 J
= 70 kJ
Applying the non-flow energy equation
Q W = U2 U1
gives
U2 U1 = 157.5 70
= 87.5 kJ
47
JJ 207 THERMODYNAMICS I
TUTORIAL
1.
Study the statements in the table below. Mark the answers as TRUE or
FALSE.
STATEMENT
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
TRUE or FALSE
2.
0.04 kg of a certain perfect gas occupies a volume of 0.0072 m3 at a
pressure 6.76 bar and a temperature of 127 oC. Calculate the molecular weight
of the gas (M). When the gas is allowed to expand until the pressure is 2.12
bar the final volume is 0.065 m3. Calculate the final temperature.
3.
Two kilograms of a gas receive 200 kJ as heat at constant volume
process. If the temperature of the gas increases by 100 oC, determine the Cv of
the process.
4.
A perfect gas is contained in a rigid vessel at 3 bar and 315 oC. The
gas is then cooled until the pressure falls to 1.5 bar. Calculate the heat
rejected per kg of gas.
Given: M = 26 kg/kmol and = 1.26.
5.
A mass of 0.18 kg gas is at a temperature of 15 oC and pressure 130
kN/m2. If the gas has a value of Cv = 720 J/kg K, calculate the:
i.gas constant
ii.molecular weight
iii.specific heat at constant pressure
48
JJ 207 THERMODYNAMICS I
mass of air
heat rejected in the process
volume of the air after cooling.
7.
A system undergoes a process in which 42 kJ of heat is rejected. If the
pressure is kept constant at 125 kN/m2 while the volume changes from 0.20 m3
to 0.006 m3, determine the work done and the change in internal energy.
8.
Heat is supplied to a gas in a rigid container.The mass of the container
is 1 kg and the volume of gas is 0.6 m3. 100 kJ is added as heat. If gas has
Cv = 0.7186 kJ/kg K during a process, determine the:
9.
In the cylinder of a large engine, 1.0 kg of carbon dioxide at 527 o C
and
20 bar expands isothermally to a pressure of 1.4 bar. What is the final
volume of the gas?
Take R = 189 Nm/kgK for carbon dioxide.
10.
1 kg of nitrogen (molecular weight 28) is compressed reversibly and
isothermally from 1.01 bar, 20oC to 4.2 bar. Calculate the work done and the
heat flow during the process. Assume nitrogen to be a perfect gas.
11.
Air at 1.02 bar, 22oC, initially occupying a cylinder volume of 0.015
m3, is compressed reversibly and adiabatically by a piston to a pressure of 6.8
bar. Calculate the final temperature, the final volume, and the work done on
the mass of air in the cylinder.
12.
0.112 m3 of gas has a pressure of 138 kN/m2. It is compressed to
690 kN/m2 according to the law pV1.4 = C. Determine the new volume of the
gas.
13.
0.014 m3 of gas at a pressure of 2070 kN/m2 expands to a pressure of
207 kN/m2 according to the law pV1.35 = C. Determine the work done by the
gas during expansion.
14.
A cylinder containing 0.07 kg of fluid has a pressure of 1 bar, a volume
of 0.06 m3 and a specific internal energy of 200 kJ/kg. After polytropic
49
JJ 207 THERMODYNAMICS I
compression, the pressure and volume of the fluid are 9 bar and 0.011 m3
respectively, and the specific internal energy is 370 kJ/kg.
Determine
a)
the amount of work energy required for the compression
b)
the quantity and direction of the heat energy that flows during the
compression.
15.
The pressure of the gas inside an aerosol can is 1.2 bar at a temperature
o
of 25 C. Will the aerosol explode if it is thrown into a fire and heated to a
temperature of 600o C? Assume that the aerosol can is unable to withstand
pressure in excess of 3 bar.
a.
0.05 kg of air, initially at 130o C is heated at a constant pressure of 2
bar until the volume occupied is 0.0658 m3. Calculate the heat supplied and
the work done.
b.
A spherical research balloon is filled with 420 m3 of atmospheric air at
a temperature of 10o C. If the air inside the balloon is heated to 80oC at
constant pressure, what will be the final diameter of the balloon?
50