THERMODYNAMICS CHAPTER 2: PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCES 1

CHAPTER 2
PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCE

Importance of steam

Steam, odourless, invisible gas consisting of vaporized water.

In nature, steam is produced by the heating of underground water by volcanic processes and
is emitted from hot springs, geysers, fumaroles, and certain types of volcanoes.

Steam also can be generated on a large scale by technological systems, as, for example, those
employing fossil-fuel-burning boilers, coal-fired power plants, nuclear reactors, or even by
sunlight in a solar thermal power plant

Steam power constitutes an important power source for industrial society. Water is heated
to steam in power plants, and the pressurized steam drives turbines that produce electrical
current. The thermal energy of steam is thus converted to mechanical energy, which in turn
is converted into electricity.

Figure 2.1: Example of a steam power plant layout

Steam is also widely employed in such industrial processes as the manufacture of steel,
aluminum, copper, and nickel; the production of chemicals; and the refining of petroleum.

In the home, steam has long been used for cooking and heating.

a) b) Figure 2.2 (a&b): Steam used in

domestic household appliances
 THERMODYNAMICS CHAPTER 2: PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCES 2

Pure Substance

Pure substance: Any substance that has a fixed chemical composition throughout

Examples of pure substances; water, nitrogen, helium, and carbon dioxide

Figure 2.3: Examples of pure substance

However, a pure substance does not have to be of a single element or compound, it can be
a mixture of various elements or compounds.

A mixture of water liquid and water vapor, for example, is a pure substance because both
phases have the same chemical composition or homogeneous mixture.

A mixture of liquid air and gaseous air, however, is not a pure substance.

Water Air Gas

vapor
Figure 2.4: Difference between pure
and not pure substances
Water Air
liquid liquid

Not a Pure
Pure substance substance

This is because different air components condense at different temperatures at a specified

pressure and thus the composition of liquid air and gas air will be different.

Phase changes processes of pure substance

A phase is identified as having a distinct molecular arrangement.

This molecular arrangement is homogeneous throughout the system.

The phase separated from the other phases by easily identifiable

boundary surfaces.

Figure 2.5: Phases of pure substance

 THERMODYNAMICS CHAPTER 2: PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCES 3

Solid phase

 The molecules in a solid are arranged in a lattice that

is repeated throughout.
 Three dimensional pattern
 Large attractive forces between atoms or molecules
 The atoms or molecules are in constant motion
– they oscillate in place
 The higher the temperature – the more vibration Figure 2.6: Molecules in solid phase

Liquid phase

 When a solid reaches a sufficiently high temperature

the velocity of the molecules reach a point where the
intermolecular forces are partially defeated and
groups of the molecules break away (melting point)
 In liquid the molecular spacing is not much different
from that of solids, except that they can rotate and
translate freely (they are not at fixed positions relative
to each other) Figure 2.7: Molecules in liquid phase
 Distance between molecules increase slightly as solid
turns to liquid

Gas phase

 In the gas phase, the molecules are far apart from each
other, and a molecular order is nonexistent.
 Molecules move about at random, continually colliding
with each other and the walls of the container
 High kinetic energy
 In order to liquefy, lots of that kinetic energy must be
released Figure 2.8: Molecules in gas phase

Phase change process

THERMODYNAMICS CHAPTER 2: PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCES 4

Compressed liquid (or subcooled liquid): Any liquid that it is not about to
vaporize. The addition of any heat only increases the temperature of the liquid,
but does not cause any liquid to change phase.

At 1 atm and 20°C, water exists in the liquid phase (compressed liquid).

Saturated liquid: Only liquid is present. Any addition of heat will cause some
liquid to vaporize leading to a mixture of saturated liquid and vapor.

At 1 atm pressure and 100°C, water exists as a liquid that is ready to vaporize
(saturated liquid)

Saturated liquid - vapor mixture: Any further addition of heat, causes

more liquid to evaporate to form more vapor.

Saturated vapor

Saturated liquid

Saturated vapour: Exactly enough heat has been added to convert all of
the liquid to vapor.

At 1 atm pressure, the temperature still remains constant at 100°C until

the last drop of liquid is vaporized.

Superheated vapor: All liquid has already been converted to vapor,

and any further addition of heat will only lead to ‘hotter’ vapor.

As more heat is transferred, the temperature of the vapor will now

start to rise leading to a superheated vapor
 THERMODYNAMICS CHAPTER 2: PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCES 5

The aforementioned phase change processes when plotted into T-v diagram for water at 1atm
are as follows:

Figure 2.9: T-v diagram heating process of water at constant pressure

Summary of the phase change process:

 Consider a piston-cylinder device with water inside at 20oC and 1 atm pressure .
 At this P and T, water is called compressed liquid state.
 Compressed liquid means that it is not about to vaporize.
 The system is heated and the piston is allowed to float and thus the pressure will be
constant.
 T and v will increase until the system reaches 100oC at which any addition of heat
will cause some of the liquid to vaporize
 The temperature at which a pure substance changes phase is called the saturation
temperature, Tsat.
 At Tsat, liquid and vapor phases are in equilibrium.
 Adding more heat will cause boiling to start. Liquid gradually evaporates (state 3)
but temperature will remain constant.
 The only change is the increase in the specific volume (v) until it reaches state 4
(saturated vapor).
 Heating the system further, will increase both the temperature and specific volume
(state 5). This single-phase state is called “superheated vapor”
 When experiment is repeated at higher pressures, similar curves will be obtained but
at higher saturated temperature.
 THERMODYNAMICS CHAPTER 2: PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCES 6

P-v-T Diagram
T

Figure 2.10: T-v Diagram

Top view
v
peratur
e
P
Tem
P

w
vie P
P v Tv
iew
Figure 2.11: P-v Diagram
Figure 2.12: P-T Diagram T
v
 THERMODYNAMICS CHAPTER 2: PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCES 7

Steam properties

Between the saturated liquid and the saturated steam, there exist a mixture of steam plus
liquid (wet steam region). To denote the state of a liquid-steam mixture, it is necessary to
introduce a term describing the relative quantities of liquid and steam in the mixture. This is
called the dryness fraction (symbol x). Thus, in 1 kg of wet mixture, there must be x kg of
saturated steam plus (1 – x) kg of saturated liquid.

x kg of steam
total mass = 1 kg

(1 - x ) kg of liquid

Figure 2.13: Liquid-steam mixture

The dryness fraction is defined as follows;

mass of dry saturated steam

dryness fraction 
total mass

msteam
x
mtotal

where mtotal = mliquid + msteam

Sat. steam
Sat. steam
Sat. liquid At point A, x = 0
Sat. liquid
At point B, x = 1
P x = 0.2 x = 0.8
Between point A and B, 0  x  1.0

Note that for a saturated liquid, x = 0;

B and that for dry saturated steam, x = 1.
A

ts

vf vg v

Figure 2.14: P-v diagram showing the location point of the dryness fraction
 THERMODYNAMICS CHAPTER 2: PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCES 8

Specific volume
For a wet steam, the total volume of the mixture is given by the volume of liquid present plus
the volume of dry steam present.

Therefore, the specific volume is given by,

volume of a liquid  volume of dry steam
v
total mass of wet steam

Now for 1 kg of wet steam, there are (1 – x) kg of liquid and x kg of dry steam, where x is the
dryness fraction as defined earlier. Hence,

v = vf(1 – x) + vgx

The volume of the liquid is usually negligibly small as compared to the volume of dry saturated
steam. Hence, for most practical problems,

v = xvg

where,
vf = specific volume of saturated liquid (m3/kg)
vg = specific volume of saturated steam (m3/kg)
x = dryness fraction

Specific enthalpy
In the analysis of certain types of processes, particularly in power generation and
refrigeration, we frequently encounter the combination of properties U + PV. For the sake of
simplicity and convenience, this combination is defined as a new property, enthalpy, and
given the symbol H.
H = U + PV (kJ)

or, per unit mass

h = u + Pv (kJ/kg)

The enthalpy of wet steam is given by the sum of the enthalpy of the liquid plus the enthalpy
of the dry steam,

i.e. h = hf(1 – x) + xhg

h = hf + x(hg – hf )
 h = hf + xhfg
 THERMODYNAMICS CHAPTER 2: PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCES 9

where,
hf = specific enthalpy of saturated liquid (kJ/kg)
hg = specific enthalpy of saturated steam (kJ/kg)
hfg = difference between hg and hf (that is, hfg = hg - hf )

Specific Internal Energy

Similarly, the specific internal energy of a wet steam is given by the internal energy of the
liquid plus the internal energy of the dry steam,
i.e. u = uf(1 – x) + xug
 u = uf + x(ug – uf )

where,
uf = specific enthalpy of saturated liquid (kJ/kg)
ug = specific enthalpy of saturated steam (kJ/kg)
ug – uf = difference between ug and uf

Equation for specific internal energy can be expressed in a form similar to equation for specific
enthalphy. However, the equation above is more convenient since ug and uf are tabulated.
The difference is that, ufg is not tabulated.

Specific Entropy
Entropy is a property associated with the Second Law of Thermodynamics. The entropy of
wet steam is given by the sum of the entropy of the liquid plus the entropy of the dry steam,

i.e. s = sf(1 – x) + xsg

s = sf + x(sg – sf )
 s = sf + xsfg

where,
sf = specific enthalpy of saturated liquid (kJ/kg K)
sg = specific enthalpy of saturated steam (kJ/kg K)
sfg = difference between sg and sf (that is, sfg = sg - sf )

v = xvg
h = hf + xhfg
u = uf + x(ug – uf )
s = sf + xsfg
 THERMODYNAMICS CHAPTER 2: PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCES 10

Property tables

The steam tables which will be used are those arranged by Mayhew and Rogers. Below is a
list of the properties normally tabulated, with the symbols used being those recommended
by British Standard Specifications.

Table 2.1 The property of steam tables

Symbols Units Description
p bar Absolute pressure of the fluid
o
ts C Saturation temperature corresponding to the pressure p bar
3
vf m /kg Specific volume of saturated liquid
vg m3/kg Specific volume of saturated steam
uf kJ/kg Specific internal energy of saturated liquid
ug kJ/kg Specific internal energy of saturated steam
hf kJ/kg Specific enthalpy of saturated liquid
hg kJ/kg Specific enthalpy of saturated steam
hfg kJ/kg Change of specific enthalpy during evaporation
sf kJ/kg K Specific entropy of saturated liquid
sg kJ/kg K Specific entropy of saturated steam
sfg kJ/kg K Change of specific entropy during evaporation

T
Saturated liquid line

Figure 2.15:
P2 T- h graph
ts Saturated steam line showing the
different
type of
Wet steam enthalphy

hf hfg
h  kJ 
superheated
 kg 
hg

h
 THERMODYNAMICS CHAPTER 2: PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCES 11

These steam tables are divided into two types:

Type 1: Saturated Water and Steam (Page 2 to 5 of steam tables)
Type 2: Superheated Steam (Page 6 to 8 of steam tables)

Saturated Water and Steam Tables

The table of the saturation condition is divided into two parts.

Part 1

Part 1 refers to the values of temperature from 0.01 oC to 100oC, followed by values that are
suitable for the temperatures stated in the table. Table 8.4.1-1 is an example showing an
extract from the temperature of 10oC.

Table 2.2 Saturated water and steam at a temperature of 10 oC

t ps vg hf hfg hg sf sfg sg
0
C bar m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg K
10 0.01227 106.4 42.0 2477.2 2519.2 0.151 8.749 8.900

Example 2.1

Complete the following table for Saturated Water and Steam:

t Ps vg hf hfg hg sf sfg sg
o 3
C bar m /kg kJ/kg kJ/kg K
0.01 206.1
0.02337 8.666
100 1.01325

Solution to Example 2.1

t Ps vg hf hfg hg sf sfg sg
o
C bar m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg K

1 0.006566 192.6 4.2 2498.3 2502.5 0.015 9.113 9.128

20 0.02337 57.84 83.9 2453.7 2537.6 0.296 8.370 8.666
100 1.01325 1.673 419.1 2256.7 2675.8 1.307 6.048 7.355
 THERMODYNAMICS CHAPTER 2: PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCES 12

Part 2
Part 2 (Page 3 to 5 of steam tables) is values of pressure from 0.006112 bar to 221.2 bar
followed by values that are suitable for the pressures stated in the table. Table 8.4.1-2 is an
example showing an extract from the pressure of 1.0 bar.

Table 2.3 Saturated water and steam at a pressure of 1.0 bar

p ts vg uf ug hf hfg hg sf sfg sg
o
bar C m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg K
1.0 99.6 1.694 417 2506 417 2258 2675 1.303 6.056 7.359

Note the following subscripts:

f = property of the saturated liquid

g = property of the saturated steam

fg = change of the properties during evaporations

Example 2.2

Complete the missing properties in the following table for Saturated Water and
Steam:

p ts vg uf ug hf hfg hg sf sfg sg
o
bar C m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg K
0.045 31.0 2558
10 0.1944
311.0 5.615

Solution to Example 2.2

p ts vg uf ug hf hfg hg sf sfg sg
o
bar C m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg K
0.045 31.0 31.14 130 2418 130 2428 2558 0.451 7.980 8.431
10 179.9 0.1944 762 2584 763 2015 2778 2.138 4.448 6.586
100 311.0 0.01802 1393 2545 1408 1317 2725 3.360 2.255 5.615
 THERMODYNAMICS CHAPTER 2: PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCES 13

Example 2.3

For a steam at 20 bar with a dryness fraction of 0.9, calculate the

a) specific volume
b) specific enthalpy
c) specific internal energy

Solution to Example 2.3

An extract from the steam tables

p ts vg uf ug hf hfg hg sf sfg sg
20 212.4 0.09957 907 2600 909 1890 2799 2.447 3.893 6.340

a) Specific volume (v),

v = xvg
= 0.9(0.09957)
= 0.0896 m3/kg

b) Specific enthalpy (h),

h = hf + xhfg
= 909 + 0.9(1890)
= 2610 kJ/kg

c) Specific internal energy (u),

u = uf + x( ug -uf )
= 907 + 0.9(2600 - 907)
= 2430.7 kJ/kg

P
bar x = 0.9

20

ts = 212.4 oC

v m3/kg
v vg
uf u ug
hf h hg
sf s sg
 THERMODYNAMICS CHAPTER 2: PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCES 14

Example 2.4

Find the dryness fraction, specific volume and specific enthalpy of

steam at 8 bar and specific internal energy 2450 kJ/kg.

Solution to Example 2.4

An extract from the steam tables,

p ts vg uf ug hf hfg hg sf sfg sg
8 170.4 0.2403 720 2577 721 2048 2769 2.046 4.617 6.663

At 8 bar, ug = 2577 kJ/kg, since the actual specific internal energy is given as 2450 kJ/kg, the
steam must be in the wet steam state ( u < ug).

u = uf + x(ug -uf)
2450 = 720 + x(2577 - 720)

 x = 0.932

v = xvg

= 0.932 (0.2403)

= 0.2240 m3/kg

h = hf + xhfg
= 721 + 0.932 (2048)
= 2629.7 kJ/kg

P
bar x = 0.932

ts = 170.4 oC

v m3/kg
v vg
THERMODYNAMICS CHAPTER 2: PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCES 15

Exercise 2.1

Calculate the specific volume, specific enthalphy and specific internal energy for wet
steam at pressure 15 bar and dryness fraction of 0.8.

Exercise 2.2
Calculate the dryness fraction, specific volume, and specific internal energy for steam at
kJ
pressure 4 bar and specific enthalphy at 2530 kg .
 THERMODYNAMICS CHAPTER 2: PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCES 16

Superheated Steam Tables

The second part of the table is the superheated steam tables. The values of the specific
properties of a superheated steam are normally listed in separate tables for the selected
values of pressure and temperature.

A steam is called superheated when its temperature is greater than the saturation
temperature corresponding to the pressure. When the pressure and temperature are given
for the superheated steam then the state is defined and all the other properties can be found.
For example, steam at 10 bar and 200 oC is superheated since the saturation temperature at
10 bar is 179.9 oC. The steam at this state has a degree of superheat of 200 oC – 179.9 oC =
20.1 oC. The equation of degree of superheat is:

Degree of superheat = tsuperheat – tsaturation

The tables of properties of superheated steam range in pressure from 0.006112 bar to the
critical pressure of 221.2 bar. At each pressure, there is a range of temperature up to high
degrees of superheat, and the values of specific volume, internal energy, enthalpy and
entropy are tabulated.

For the pressure above 70 bar, the specific internal energy is not tabulated. The specific
internal energy is calculated using the equation:

u = h – pv

For reference, the saturation temperature is inserted in brackets under each pressure in the
superheat tables and values of vg, ug, hg and sg are also given.

A specimen row of values is shown below. For example, from the superheated table at 10 bar
and 200 oC, the specific volume is 0.2061 m3/kg and the specific enthalpy is 2829 kJ/kg.

Table 2.4 Superheated steam at a pressure of 10 bar

p
t 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 600
(ts)
vg 0.1944 v 0.2061 0.2328 0.2580 0.2825 0.3065 0.3303 0.3540 0.4010
10
ug 2584 u 2623 2711 2794 2875 2957 3040 3124 3297
(179.9)
hg 2778 h 2829 2944 3052 3158 3264 3370 3478 3698
sg 6.586 s 6.695 6.926 7.124 7.301 7.464 7.617 7.761 8.028
 THERMODYNAMICS CHAPTER 2: PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCES 17

Example 2.5

Complete the missing properties in the following table for Superheated Steam:
p
t 300 350 400 450
(ts)
vg 0.0498 v 0.0800
40 ug 2602 u 2921
(250.3) hg 2801 h 3094
sg 6.070 s 6.364

Solution to Example 2.5

p
t 300 350 400 450
(ts)
vg 0.0498 v 0.0588 0.0664 0.0733 0.0800
40 ug 2602 u 2728 2828 2921 3010
(250.3) hg 2801 h 2963 3094 3214 3330
sg 6.070 s 6.364 6.584 6.769 6.935

Example 2.6

Steam at 100 bar has a specific volume of 0.02812 m3/kg. Find the temperature, degree
of superheat, specific enthalpy and specific internal energy.

Solution to Example 2.6

First, it is necessary to decide whether the steam is wet, dry saturated or superheated.

At 100 bar, vg = 0.01802 m3/kg. This is less than the actual specific volume of 0.02812 m3/kg.
Hence, the steam is superheated. The state of the steam is at point A in the diagram below.

bar

A
100
425 oC
ts = 311.0 oC

v m3/kg
vg= 0.01802
v = 0.02812
 THERMODYNAMICS CHAPTER 2: PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCES 18

An extract from the superheated table,

p
t 425
(ts)
vg 0.01802 v x 10-2 2.812
100 hg 2725 h 3172
(311.0) sg 5.615
s 6.321

From the superheated table at 100 bar, the specific volume is 0.02812 m3/kg at a temperature
of 425 oC. Hence, this is the isothermal line, which passes through point A as shown in the P-
v diagram above.

Degree of superheat = 425 oC – 311 oC

= 114 oC
So, at 100 bar and 425 oC, we have
v = 2.812 x 10-2 m3/kg
h = 3172 kJ/kg

 insert the calculated values into the following equation,

u = h – Pv
= 3172 kJ/kg – (100 x 102 kN/m2)(2.812 x 10-2 m3/kg)
= 2890.8 kJ/kg

Exercise 2.3
Steam enters a turbine at pressure 20 bar and temperature 450°C. Determine the
condition of the steam when it enters the turbine, and what is the value of steams
specific volume, specific internal energy and specific entropy?
 THERMODYNAMICS CHAPTER 2: PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCES 19

Exercise 2.4
kJ
Steam at pressure 120 bar with enthalphy of 3209 kg . Determine its specific volume,
specific internal energy, specific enthalpy, specific entropy and degree of superheat (if any).
 THERMODYNAMICS CHAPTER 2: PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCES 20

Interpolation

Interpolation is used to “read between the lines” of a published table, like the Steam Tables.
For properties which are not tabulated exactly in the tables, it is necessary to interpolate
between the values tabulated as shown in Fig. 2.15 below. In this process it is customary to
use a straight line that passes through two adjacent table points, denoted by  and  to show
the interpolation.

f(x)

Interpolation

x
 
Figure 2.15 Interpolation

The values in the tables are given in regular increments of temperature and pressure. In
order to acquire the thermodynamic properties at intermediate values, linear interpolation
as shown in Fig. 2.16 is used.

y2 (x2 , y2)

y (x , y)
y1 (x1 , y1)

x
x1 x x2
Figure 2.16 Linear interpolation

From Fig. 2.16, the value of x can be determined by:

x  x1 x  x1
 2
y  y1 y 2  y1

x
 y  y1 x2  x1   x
 y 2  y1  1

There are two methods of interpolation:

i. single interpolation
ii. double interpolation
 THERMODYNAMICS CHAPTER 2: PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCES 21

Single interpolation

Single interpolation is used to find the values in the table when one of the values is not
tabulated. For example, to find the saturation temperature, specific volume, internal energy
and enthalpy of dry saturated steam at 77 bar, it is necessary to interpolate between the
values given in the table.

Example 2.7

Determine the saturation temperature at 77 bar.

Solution to Example 2.7

The values of saturation temperature at a pressure of 77 bars are not tabulated in the
Steam Tables. So, we need to interpolate between the two nearest values that are
tabulated in the Steam Tables.

t s  290 .5 295  290 .5

P 
77  75 80  75
80
t s  290 .5 295  290 .5
77 
2 5
75
24.5
ts ts   290 .5
290.5 ts 295 5

ts = 292.3 oC

Example 2.8

Determine the specific enthalpy of dry saturated steam at 103 bar.

Solution to Example 2.8

P
hg  2725 2715  2725

103  100 105  100
105
3 10
103 hg   2725
5
100
hg  2719
hgn kJ/kg
2725 hg 2715
 THERMODYNAMICS CHAPTER 2: PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCES 22

Example 2.9

Determine the specific volume of steam at 8 bar and 220oC.

Solution to Example 2.9

From the Steam Tables at 8 bar, the saturated temperature (ts) is 170.4 oC.
The steam is at superheated condition as the temperature of the steam is 220oC > ts.

An extract from the Steam Tables,

p / (bar) t 200 220 250
(ts / oC) (oC)
8 v 0.2610 v 0.2933
(170.4)

P
v  0.2610 0.2933  0.2610
250 
220  200 250  200
220
200 v  0.27392 m3/kg

v
0.2610 v 0.2933

Double Interpolation

In some cases a double interpolation is necessary, and it’s usually used in the Superheated
Steam Table. Double interpolation must be used when two of the properties (eg.
temperature and pressure) are not tabulated in the Steam Tables. For example, to find the
enthalpy of superheated steam at 25 bar and 320oC, an interpolation between 20 bar and
30 bar is necessary (refer in the following example). An interpolation between 300oC and
350oC is also necessary.
 THERMODYNAMICS CHAPTER 2: PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCES 23

Example 2.10

Determine the specific enthalpy of superheated steam at 25 bar and

320oC.

Solution to Example 8.8

An extract from the Superheated Steam Tables:

t(oC) 300 320 350

p(bar)
20 3025 h1 3138
25 h
30 2995 h2 3117

Firstly, find the specific enthalpy (h1) at 20 bar and 320 oC;

At 20 bar,
T
h1  3025 3138  3025
350 
320  300 350  300
320
300
h1  3070.2 kJ/kg

h
3025 h1 3138

Secondly, find the specific enthalpy (h2) at 30 bar and 320 oC;

At 30 bar,
T h2  2995 3117  2995

320  300 350  300
350

320 h2  3043.8 kJ/kg

300

h
2995 h2 3117
 THERMODYNAMICS CHAPTER 2: PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCES 24

Now interpolate between h1 at 20 bar, 320oC, and h2 at 30 bar, 320oC in order to find h at 25
bar and 320oC.

At 320oC,
P h  h1 h  h1
 2
25  20 30  20
30
h  3070.2 30438
.  3070.2
25 
25  20 30  20
20
h  3057 kJ/kg.
h
h1 h h2

Exercise 2.5
Determine the specific enthalpy of steam at 15 bar and 275oC.
THERMODYNAMICS CHAPTER 2: PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCES 25

Exercise 2.6

Determine the value of specific enthalphy and specific entropy for steam at 5.67 bar and
temperature 332°C.
THERMODYNAMICS CHAPTER 2: PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCES 26
 THERMODYNAMICS CHAPTER 2: PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCES 27

Ideal Gas Model to Properties of Pure Substances

Introduction

Ideal gas or perfect gas is a gas composed of molecules on which no forces act except upon
collision with one another and with the walls of the container in which the gas is enclosed: a
gas that obeys the ideal gas law.

Two of the laws describing the behavior of a perfect gas are Boyle’s Law and Charles’ Law.

Boyle’s Law

The Boyle’s Law may be stated as follows:

Provided the temperature T of a perfect gas remains constant, then volume, V of a given mass
of gas is inversely proportional to the pressure P of the gas.

Boyle’s Law P  1/V if n and T are constant

V decreased P increased
V increased P decreased

If a gas changes from state 1 to state 2 during an isothermal process, then;

P1 V1 = P2 V2 = constant

P1 1
PV = constant
P2 2
3
P3

V1 V2 V3 V

Figure 2 P-V graph for constant temperature

 THERMODYNAMICS CHAPTER 2: PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCES 28

Example 1

A quantity of a certain perfect gas is heated at a constant temperature from an initial state of
0.22 m3 and 325 kN/m2 to a final state of 170 kN/m2. Calculate the final pressure of the gas.

Solution

Given; T1 = T2
V1 = 0.22 m3
P1 = 325 kN/m2
P2 = 170 kN/m2
V2 = ?

From equations; P1 V1 = P2 V2
𝑃1
V2 = V1
𝑃2

3
325 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2
V2 = (0.22 m ) x
170 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2
V2 = 0.421 m3

Charles’s Law
The Charles’s Law may be stated as follows:
Provided the pressure P of a given mass of gas remains constant, then the volume V
of the gas will be directly proportional to the absolute temperature T of the gas, i.e.

V  T, or V = constant x T
Therefore V/T = constant, for constant pressure P.

If gas changes from state 1 to state 2 during a constant pressure process, then;
V1 V2
  constant
T1 T2

1 2

0 V
V1 V2
Figure P-V graph for constant pressure process
 THERMODYNAMICS CHAPTER 2: PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCES 29

Example 2

A quantity of gas at 0.54 m3 and 345 oC undergoes a constant pressure process that causes
the volume of the gas to decreases to 0.32 m3. Calculate the temperature of the gas at the
end of the process.

Solution

Given; V1 = 0.54 m3
T1 = 345 + 273 K = 618 K
P1 = P2
V2 = 0.32 m3
T2 = ?

From equation;

Universal Gases Law

Charles’ Law gives us the change in volume of a gas with temperature when the pressure
remains constant.
Boyle’s Law gives us the change in volume of a gas with pressure if the temperature remains
constant.
The relation which gives the volume of a gas when both temperature and the pressure are
changed is stated as equation:

PV
 constant  R
T
No gases in practice obey this law rigidly, but many gases tend towards it. An
imaginary ideal that obeys the law is called a perfect gas, and the equation PV
R
is called the characteristic equation of state of a perfect gas. T

The constant, R, is called the gas constant. The unit of R is Nm/kg K or J/kg K. Each perfect
gas has a different gas constant. If gas changes from state 1 to state 2 during process, then;

P1V1 P2V2

T1 T2
 THERMODYNAMICS CHAPTER 2: PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCES 30

The characteristic equation is usually written;

PV = mRT
Where; m = mass of gas (kg)

The gas constant, R is different for each gas and its determined from;
Ro
R
M
Where Ro = 8.314 kJ/kmol.K

Molar Mass
The molar mass, M can simply be defined as the mass of one mole
The mass of a system is equal to the product of its molar mass ,M and the mole number N:
m = MN

Example 3
0.046 m3 of gas are contained in a sealed cylinder at a pressure of 300 kN/m2 and a temperature
of 45 oC. The gas is compressed until the pressure reaches 1.27 MN/m2 and the temperature
is 83oC. If the gas is assumed to be a perfect gas, determine:

a) the mass of gas (kg)

b) the final volume of gas (m3)

Given:
R = 0.29 kJ/kg K
Solution
V1 = 0.046 m3
P1 = 300 kN/m2
T1 = 45 + 273 K = 318 K
P2 = 1.27 MN/m2 = 1.27 x 103 kN/m2
T2 = 83 + 273 K = 356 K
R = 0.29 kJ/kg K

From equation 3.6

PV = mRT
P1V1 300 x 0.046
m   0.1496 kg
RT1 0.29 x 318
From equation above, the constant volume process i.e. V1 = V2
P1 P2

T1 T2

P   1.27 x 10 3 
T2  T1  2   318    1346 K
 P1   300 
THERMODYNAMICS CHAPTER 2: PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCES 31

Example 4
0.048 m3 of gas are contained in a sealed cylinder at a pressure of 310 kN/m2 and
a temperature of 45°C. The gas is compressed until the pressure reaches 1.25
MN/m2 and the temperature is 85°C. If the gas is assumed to be a perfect gas,
determine:
i- the mass of gas (kg)
ii- The final volume of gas (m3)
Given: R = 0.29 kJ/kg.K
Solution

Answers; m = 0.161 kg; V2 = 0.0134 m3

Answers :(i) 0.161 kg (ii) 0.0134m3

THERMODYNAMICS CHAPTER 2: PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCES 32

Example 5

0.04 kg of a certain perfect gas occupies a volume of 0.0072 m3 at a pressure 6.76

bar and a temperature of 127 oC. Calculate the molecular weight of the gas (M).
When the gas is allowed to expand until the pressure is 2.12 bar the final volume
is 0.065 m3. Calculate the final temperature.

Solution

Answers; Final Temperature = 859.5°C

Answer: 859.5 °C
 THERMODYNAMICS CHAPTER 2: PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCES 33

Specific Heat
The specific heat is defined as the energy required raising the temperature of a unit mass of
substances by one degree. In thermodynamics, two specified conditions are used, those of
constant volume and constant pressure.
Specific Heat Capacity at Constant Volume (Cv)
For a reversible non-flow process at constant volume;
dQ = mCvdT
For a perfect gas the values of Cv are constant for any one gas at all pressures and
temperatures
Heat flow in a constant volume process, Q12 = mCv(T2 – T1)
The reversible constant volume process is shown on a P-V diagram in Fig. 1.

P2 2

P1 1

V
V1 = V2
Figure 3.4 P-V diagram for reversible constant volume process

Example 6
3.4 kg of gas is heated at a constant volume of 0.92 m3 and temperature 17 oC
until the temperature rose to 147 oC. If the gas is assumed to be a perfect gas,
determine:
a) the heat flow during the process
b) the beginning pressure of gas
c) the final pressure of gas
Given ; Cv = 0.72 kJ/kg K ; R = 0.287 kJ/kg K
Solution
From the question
m = 3.4 kg
V1 = V2 = 0.92 m3
T1 = 17 + 273 K = 290 K
T2 = 147 + 273 K = 420 K
Cv = 0.72 kJ/kg K
R = 0.287 kJ/kg K
THERMODYNAMICS CHAPTER 2: PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCES 34

a) From equation,
Q12 = mCv(T2 – T1)
= 3.4 x 0.72(420 – 290)
= 318.24 kJ

b) From equation,
PV = mRT

Hence for state 1,

P1V1 = mRT1
mRT1 3.4 kg x 0.287 kJ/kgK x 290 K
P1   3
 307 .6 kN/m 2
V1 0.92 m

c) For state 2,
P2V2 = mRT2
mRT 2 3.4 kg x 0.287 kJ/kgK x 420 K
P2   3
 445 .5 kN/m 2
V2 0.92 m

Example 7

Two kilograms of a gas receive 200 kJ as heat at constant volume process.

If the temperature of the gas increases by 100 oC, determine the Cv of the
process.
Solution

Answers; 0.268 kJ/kg.K

 THERMODYNAMICS CHAPTER 2: PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCES 35

Specific Heat Capacity at Constant Pressure (Cp)

For a reversible non-flow process at constant pressure;
dQ = mCpdT
For a perfect gas the values of Cp are constant for any one gas at all pressures and
temperatures;
Heat flow in a reversible constant pressure process, Q = mCp(T2 – T1)

Relationship Between The Specific Heats

Using h = u +Pv, the relationship between the specific heats for ideal gases is

h = u + Pv
dh = du +d (RT)
Cp dT = Cv dT + RdT
Cp = Cv + R
R = Cp + Cv
Where R is the particular gas constant, the specific heats ratio is defined as
𝐶𝑝
γ=
𝐶𝑣
𝑅
Cv =
𝛾−1
𝛾𝑅
Cp =
𝛾−1

Example 8
A certain perfect gas has specific heat as follows
Cp = 0.846 kJ/kg K and Cv = 0.657 kJ/kg K
Find the gas constant and the molecular weight of the gas.
Solution
From equation 3.16
R = C p - Cv
i.e. R = 0.846 – 0.657 = 0.189 kJ/kg K
or R = 189 Nm/kg K
R0
M=
R
8314
i.e. M=  44 kg/mol
189
THERMODYNAMICS CHAPTER 2: PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCES 36

Example 9

A perfect gas is contained in a rigid vessel at 3 bar and 315 oC. The gas is then
cooled until the pressure falls to 1.5 bar. Calculate the heat rejected per kg of gas.
Given: M = 26 kg/kmol and  = 1.26.

Solution

Answers; R =319.8 J/kg.K, Cv =1.230 kJ/kg.K, Q =361.6kJ/kg

Example 10

A mass of 0.18 kg gas is at a temperature of 15 oC and pressure 130 kN/m2. If

the gas has a value of Cv = 720 J/kg K, calculate the:
i. gas constant
ii. molecular weight
iii. specific heat at constant pressure
iv. specific heat ratio

Solution

Answers; R = 0.426 kJ/kg.K; M = 19.52 kg/kmol; Cp = 1.146 kJ/kg.K; γ = 1.59