Heat and Thermodynamics

Topic 1.3: Heat Transfer Mechanism

Based from Sears and Zemansky’s University Physics

with Modern Physics 13th ed
Mechanism of Heat Transfer
• Three Mechanisms of Heat Transfer
● Convection: is the process in which heat is carried from place to place bulk movement
of a fluid.
● Conduction: is the process whereby heat is transferred directly through a material, with
any bulk motion of the material playing no role in the transfer.
● Radiation: is the process in which energy is transferred by means of electromagnetic
waves.

Heat transfer occurs only between regions

that are at different temperatures, and the
direction of heat flow is always from higher
to lower temperature.
Convection
● The process in which heat is carried from place to place bulk movement of a fluid.
– Forced convection: fluid is circulated by a blower or a pump/ mixes the warmer
and cooler portions of a fluid
– Natural convection: temperature difference causes the density at one place in a
fluid to be different from the density at another.

The forced convection generated by a Air cooled by the cooling coil sinks
pump circulates radiator fluid through an to the bottom of the refrigerator.
automobile engine to remove excess heat.
Convection

• A complex process in general and the working equation depends on the specific
scenario
• When boiling water, heat is transferred within the water via convection, NOT
conduction
• Hence it is possible to show that ice need not melt in boiling water!
Heat Conduction
• The process whereby heat is transferred directly through a material, with any bulk motion of
the material playing no role in the transfer.
A: cross-sectional area of the rod
L: length of the rod
TH: higher temperature end of the rod
TC: colder temperature end of the rod

• The heat transferred through conduction is given by

𝒌𝑨𝚫𝑻𝒕
𝑸=
𝑳
• Heat current (H) is defined as the rate at which heat is transferred per unit time:
𝒅𝑸
𝑯= SI unit of H is watt = joule/ sec.
𝒅𝒕
• For a conducting rod, the heat current is calculated using:
𝑻𝑯 − 𝑻𝑪
𝑯 = 𝒌𝑨
𝑳
● k is the thermal conductivity of the material (SI unit: W/m·K)

● (TH – TC)/L is also known as the temperature gradient

Heat Conduction
Heat Conduction
Heat Conduction
Example: One end of an insulated metal rod is maintained at 100.0°C, and the other
end is maintained at 0.00°C by an ice-water mixture. The rod is 60.0 cm long and has a
cross-sectional area of 1.25 cm2. The heat conducted by the rod melts 8.50 g of ice in
10.0 min. Find the thermal conductivity of the metal.

E1. What is the heat current into the metal rod? Lice = 3.34 x 105 J/kg
𝑄 𝑚𝐿 8.50 × 10−3 3.34 × 105
𝐻= = = = 4.731667
𝑡 𝑡 600
(b) Recall that power is energy/ time which translates into heat/ time

𝑇𝐻 − 𝑇𝐶 𝐻𝐿 4.731667 60.0 × 10−2

𝐻 = 𝑘𝐴 𝑘= =
𝐿 𝐴 𝑇𝐻 − 𝑇𝐶 1.25 × 10−4 100.0 − 0.00

𝑊
𝑘 = 227.12
𝑚⋅𝐾
Heat Conduction
Rods in series:
● If heat flows through two different materials in series, the temperature T at the
interface between them is intermediate between TH and TC, sot he temperature
difference across the two materials are (TH – T) and (T – TC).
● In steady-state flow, the same heat must pass through both materials, so the heat
current H must be the same in both materials.
𝐻𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 𝐻𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟

𝑇𝐻 − 𝑇 𝑇 − 𝑇𝐶
𝑘𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝐴 = 𝑘𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝐴
𝐿𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝐿𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟
Heat Conduction
Example: A carpenter builds an exterior house wall with a layer of wood 3.0 cm thick
on the outside and a layer of Styrofoam insulation 2.2 cm thick on the inside wall
surface. The wood has k=0.080 W/m·K and the Styrofoam has k=0.010 W/m·K. The
interior surface temperature is 19.0°C, and the exterior surface is –10.0°C. (a) What is
the temperature at the plane where the wood meets the Styrofoam? (b) What is the
total rate of heat flow per square meter through this wall?
(a) The heat current 𝐻𝑤𝑜𝑜𝑑 = 𝐻𝑆𝑡𝑦𝑟𝑜
through the wood is equal
to the heat current through 𝑇 − 𝑇𝐶 𝑇𝐻 − 𝑇
the Styrofoam: 𝑘𝑤𝑜𝑜𝑑 𝐴 = 𝑘𝑆𝑡𝑦𝑟𝑜 𝐴
𝐿𝑤𝑜𝑜𝑑 𝐿𝑆𝑡𝑦𝑟𝑜

E2. What is the total heat 𝑘𝑤𝑜𝑜𝑑 𝐿𝑆𝑡𝑦𝑟𝑜 𝑇 − 𝑇𝐶 = 𝑘𝑆𝑡𝑦𝑟𝑜 𝐿𝑤𝑜𝑜𝑑 𝑇𝐻 − 𝑇

current per square meter
through this wall? 𝑘𝑤𝑜𝑜𝑑 𝐿𝑆𝑡𝑦𝑟𝑜 𝑇𝐶 + 𝑘𝑆𝑡𝑦𝑟𝑜 𝐿𝑤𝑜𝑜𝑑 𝑇𝐻
𝑇= = −5.8∘ 𝐶
𝑘𝑤𝑜𝑜𝑑 𝐿𝑆𝑡𝑦𝑟𝑜 + 𝑘𝑆𝑡𝑦𝑟𝑜 𝐿𝑤𝑜𝑜𝑑
𝐻 = 11 𝑊 Τ𝑚2
Heat Conduction
Rods in parallel:
● If heat flows through two or more
parallel paths, then the total heat
current H is the sum of the currents H1,
H2, … for the separate paths.
● In parallel heat flow the temperature
difference is the same for each path,
but L, A, and k may be different.

𝑇𝐻 − 𝑇𝐶 𝑇𝐻 − 𝑇𝐶
𝐻𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝐻𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 + 𝐻𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 = 𝑘𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝐴𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 +𝑘𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟
𝐿𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝐿𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟
Radiation
The process in which energy is transferred by means of electromagnetic waves.
• The heat transferred through radiation is
𝑸 = 𝑨𝒆𝛔𝒕𝑻𝟒 A: surface area
T: surface temperature (in K)
The rate at which an object radiates energy is e: emissivity (0≤e≤1)
proportional to the fourth power of its absolute σ: Stefan-Boltzmann constant
temperature. This is known as Stefan’s law
σ = 5.6704 × 10−8 𝑊 Τ𝑚2 ⋅ 𝐾 4
𝐐 𝑨𝒆𝝈𝒕𝑻𝟒
𝓟= = = 𝑨𝒆𝛔𝑻𝟒
𝐭 𝒕

𝓟 is the power in watts radiated from the surface of the object

Emissivity is a dimensionless number that represents the ratio of the rate of radiation
from a surface to the rate of radiation from an equal area of an ideal radiating surface
at the same temperature.
Radiation
Radiation and Absorption:
• While a body at absolute temperature T is radiating, its surrounding at temperature T0
are also radiating, and the body absorbs some of this radiation.

𝓟𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝑨𝒆𝛔𝑻𝟒 − 𝑨𝒆𝛔𝑻𝟒𝑺 = 𝑨𝒆𝛔 𝑻𝟒 − 𝑻𝟒𝟎

A body that is a good absorber of radiation

An ideal reflector (e=0), which
must also be a good emitter. An ideal radiator,
absorbs no radiation at all, is
(e=1), is also an ideal absorber, absorbing all
also a very ineffective
the radiation that strikes it. Ideal radiator is
radiator.
called a blackbody.
Radiation
Radiation
Radiation
Example: The operating temperature of a tungsten filament in an incandescent light
bulb is 2450 K, and its emissivity is 0.350. Find the surface area of the filament of a 150-
W bulb if all the electrical energy consumed by the bulb is radiated by the filament as
electromagnetic waves.
σ = 5.6704 × 10−8 𝑊 Τ𝑚2 ⋅ 𝐾 4

The highlighted statement means that the power electrical input is equal to the rate of
radiation.

E3. Continue the solution and show that A = 2.1 cm2

Example: A tungsten (e=0.350) sphere with radius 1.50 cm is suspended within a large
evacuated enclosure whose wall are at 290.0 K. What power input is required to
maintain the sphere at a temperature of 3000.0 K if heat conduction along the
supports is neglected?

𝑎𝑛𝑠. : 𝑃 = 𝐻𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 4.53 × 103 𝑊