Chapter 02 HEAT

2.
HEAT CONDUCTION CONCEPTS, THERMAL RESISTANCE, AND THE

OVERALL HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT
2.1
Prove that if k varies linearly with T in a slab, and if heat transfer is onedimensional and steady, then q may be evaluated precisely using k evaluated at
the mean temperature in the slab.
Solution:
Differential Equation,
2T 2T 2T q&
1 T
+ 2 + 2 + =
2
x
y
z
k
t
123
14243 {
=0
= 0 , since steady
= 0 , since
T T ( y or z )
The ordinary differential equation is

d 2T
=0
dx 2
Integrating twice
T = C1 x + C2
Two Boundary Condition,
T(x = 0) = T1, and T(x = L) = T2,
Solving for C1 and C2.
T1 = C2
T2 = C1L + C2
T T
C1 = 1 2
L
Then
(T T )
T T
T = 1 2 x + T1 = T1 1 2 x
L
L
T T1 x
=
T2 T1 L
dT
d
T T
(T T )
q = k
= k T1 1 2 x = k 1 2
dx
dx
L
L
T
q=k
L
Using k = k o (1 + aT )
dT
dT
q = k
= ko (1 + aT )
dx
dx
qdx = k o (1 + aT )dT
Integrating:
T
qL = k o [T + 12 aT 2 ]T
2
qL = k o (T2 T1 ) + 12 a T2 T1
2
)]
1
2. HEAT CONDUCTION CONCEPTS, THERMAL RESISTANCE, AND THE

q = ko
[(T T ) + a(T
2
1
2
T1
)]
T1 )
L
(T T )
q = k o [1 + 12 a (T1 + T2 )] 1 2
L
T
q = k o [1 + 12 a(T1 + T2 )]
L
since ko [1 + 12 a (T1 + T2 )] = kave, q may be evaluated precisely using k evaluated at the mean
temperature in the slab.
q = k o [1 + 12 a(T2 + T1 )]
2.2
(T
Invent a numerical method for calculating the steady heat flux through a plane
wall when k(T) is an arbitrary function. Use the method to predict q in an iron slab
1cm thick if the temperature varies from 100 C on the left to 400 C on the right.
How far would you have erred if you had taken kave = (kleft + kright) / 2 ?
Solution:
Tabulating Thermal Conductivity of iron slab, Table A.1.
T, C
-100
0
100
200
300
400
k , W/m.K
98
84
72
63
56
50
dT
dx
Numerical Method, q = constant,
Then q = k
i =5
qx = k i Ti
i =1
where i is the number of increment stages.

ki = average at that stage, and
i = change of temperature at that stage.
The x = 1 cm = 0.01 m
Numerical Calculation:
Stage
Range Temp.,
C
T i
2
ki
kiTi

1
2
3
4
5
-100 to 0
0 to 100
100 to 200
200 to 300
300 to 400
-100
-100
-100
-100
-100
91
78
67.5
59.5
53
-9100
-7800
-6750
-5950
-5300
i =5
k T = -34,900 W/m
i
i =1
i =5
qx = k i Ti
i =1
q(0.01 m) = - (-34,900 W/m)

q = 3,490,000 W/m2
Using average value:
kave = (kleft + kright) / 2 = (91 + 53) / 2 = 72 W/m.K

k (T Tright )
q = ave left
L
(
72)( 100 400 )
q=
= 3,600,000 W/m2
0.01
error = q = 3,600,000 W/m2 3,490,000 W/m2 = 110,000 W/m2 or 3.2 % above the
numerical result.
2.3
The steady heat flux at one side of a slab is a known value qo. The thermal
conductivity varies with temperature in the slab, and the variation can be
expressed with a power series as
i =n
k = AiT i
i =0
(a) Start with eqn. (2.10) and derive an equation that relates T to position in the slab,
x. (b) Calculate the heat flux at any position in the wall from this expression using
Fouriers law. Is the resulting q a function of x ?
Solution:
(a)
T
Eq. (2.10) k T + q{& = c
t
=0
123
= 0 since steady
k T = 0
d (k T )
=0
dx
k T = C
3

dT
= C1
dx
i=n
i
AiT dT = C1dx
i =0
i =n
AiT i dT = C1 dx

i =0
Boundary Conditions:
x = 0, T = T1 and x = L, T = T2
i +1
i =n
AiT1
C1 (0) + C2 =
= C2
i =0 i + 1
i +1
i +1
i=n
i=n
AT
AT
C1 (L ) + C2 = C1 L + i 1 = i 2
i +1
i=0 i + 1
i=0
i +1
i +1
i =n
i=n
AiT2
AT
i 1
C1 = i =0 i + 1 i = 0 i + 1
L
Then
i +1
i +1
i +1
i=n
i =n
AiT i +1 i = n AiT2
AiT1 x i = n AiT1

i=0 i + 1
i =0 i + 1 i =0 i + 1 L i =0 i + 1
k
dT
dx
Differentiating above result,
q = k
(b)
i = n AiT2 i +1 i =n AiT1i +1 1
i=n
i dT

A
T
=
i
i =0
dx i =0 i + 1 i =0 i + 1 L
i +1
i +1
i=n
dT i =n AiT2
AiT1 1

k
=
dx i =0 i + 1 i =0 i + 1 L
Then,
i = n AiT2 i +1 i =n AiT1i +1 1

q =
i = 0 i + 1 i =0 i + 1 L
The resulting q is not a function of x.
2.4
Combine Ficks law with the principle of conservation of mass (of the dilute
species) in such a way as to eliminate ji, and obtain a second-order differential
equation in m1. Discuss the importance and the use of the result.
Solution:
Eq. (2.19), Ficks law

r
j1 = D 12m1
Then
m
j1 = D 12 1
x
m
j1 = D12 1
x
x + x
x
By law of conservation of masses, j1 = 0.
m1
m
1 =0
x x +x x x
m1
x
x + x
m1
x
x
2 m1
=0
x 2
m1
x
2 m1
=0
x 2
The importance and the use of the result simplify the means to use the Ohms law for
electrical resistance, or heat transfer equation for steady state analogy.
2.5
Solve for the temperature distribution in a thick-walled pipe if the bulk interior
temperature and the exterior air temperature, Ti and To , are known. The interior
and the exterior heat transfer coefficients are hi and ho , respectively. Follow the
method in Example 2.6 and put your result in the dimensionless form.
T Ti
= fn(Bii , Bio , r ri , ro ri )
Ti To
Solution:
Follow Ex. 2.6
Eq. (2.23)
h [(C1 ln r + C2 ) T ] = k (C1 ln r + C2 )
r
kC
h [(C1 ln r + C2 ) T ] = 1
r
To > To
Then, r = ro ,
ho [(C1 ln ro + C 2 ) To ] =
kC1
ro

ho [To C1 ln ro C2 ] =
kC1
ro
at r = ri , in reverse.
kC1
ri
kC
hi [(C1 ln ri + C 2 ) Ti ] = 1
ri
Then:
kC
C
To C1 ln ro C 2 = 1 = 1
ho ro Bio
kC
C
C1 ln ri + C2 Ti = 1 = 1
hi ri Bii
Adding:
1
1
To Ti C1 (ln ro ln ri ) = C1
Bio Bii
1
r
1
To Ti = C1
+ ln o
ri
Bio Bii
hi [Ti (C1 ln ri + C 2 )] =
C1 =
To Ti
1
r
1
+ ln o
ri
Bio Bii
C
C2 = Ti + 1 C1 ln ri
Bii
(To Ti ) ln ri
To Ti
C2 = Ti +
1
r 1
r
1
1
Bii
+ ln o
+ ln o
ri Bio Bii
ri
Bio Bii
1
1
r
r
1
1
C2 (Bii )
+ ln o = Ti Bii
+ ln o + To Ti Bii (To Ti ) ln ri
ri
ri
Bio Bii
Bio Bii
1
1
r
r T T
1
1
C2
+ ln o = Ti
+ ln o + o i (To Ti ) ln ri
ri
ri Bii
Bio Bii
Bio Bii
(Ti To ) 1 ln r i
Bii
C2 = Ti
1
r
1
+ ln o
ri
Bio Bii

Then: T = C1 ln r + C2
(Ti To ) 1 ln r i
To Ti
Bii
ln r + T
T =
i
1
r
1
1
r
1
+
+ ln o
+ ln o
Bio Bii
ri
ri
Bio Bii
(T
T=
(T
T=
(T
T=
1
r (T T )
1
Ti ) ln r + Ti
+
+ ln o o i + (Ti To ) ln ri
Bii
ri
Bio Bii
1
r
1
+
+ ln o
ri
Bio Bii
1
r
r (T T )
1
Ti ) ln + Ti
+
+ ln o o i
Bii
ri
ri
Bio Bii
1
r
1
+
+ ln o
ri
Bio Bii
r (T T )
Ti ) ln o i
Bii
ri
+ Ti
1
ro
1
+
+ ln
Bi
Bi
i
ri
o
r 1
Ti )ln +
ri Bii
T Ti =
1
r
1
+
+ ln o
ri
Bio Bii
r 1
ln +
T Ti
ri Bii
=
To Ti
r
1
1
+
+ ln o
Bio Bii
ri
(T
r 1
ln +
T Ti
ri Bii
=
r
Ti To
1
1
+
+ ln o
Bio Bii
ri
2.6 Put the boundary conditions from Problem 2.5 into a dimensionless form so that Biot
number appear in them. Let the Biot numbers approach infinity. This should get you
7

back to the conditions for Example 2.5. Therefore, the solution that you obtain in
Problem 2.5 should reduce to the solution of Example 2.5 when the Biot numbers
approach infinity. Show that this is the case.
Solution:
Result from Problem 2.5.
r 1
ln +
T Ti
ri Bii
=
r
Ti To
1
1
+
+ ln o
Bio Bii
ri
if Bii , Bio
Then, Ti Ti , To To
r
ln + 0
T Ti
ri
=
Ti To
r
0 + 0 + ln o
ri
r
ln
r
T Ti
= i
r
To Ti
ln o
ri
The result is the same as Example 2.5.

2.7 Write an accurate explanation of the idea of critical radius of insulation that your kid
brother or sister, who is still in grade school, could understand. (if you don not have
an available kid, borrow one to see if your explanation really works.)
Solution:
Step 1. Write down equation (2.25).
Ti T
ln ro
r
1
+ i
h 2 ro l
2 kl
Step 2. Multiply numerator and denominator by ri.
Q=

ri (Ti T )
ri ln ro
ri
ri
+
h 2 ro l
2 kl
Step 3. Let x = ro/ri, then:
ri (Ti T )
Q=
1
r ln ( x )
+ i
h 2 xl 2 kl
Step 4. Let constant a = ri (Ti T ) ,
1
r
b=
, c= i .
h 2 l
2 kl
Q=
Q=
= a + c ln x
b
x
+ c ln x
x
Step 5. Differentiate y with respect to x then equate to zero to find x for maximum or
minimum Q.
a
Q = a (bx 1 + c ln x )
dQ
c
2
= a (bx 1 + c ln x ) bx 2 + = 0
dx
x
bx 2 +
c
=0
x
c b
=
x x2
b
x=
c
Step 6. To check if this is maximum or minimum. Solve for the second derivative,
positive for minimum and negative for maximum.
dQ
2
= a (bx 1 + c ln x ) ( bx 2 + cx 1 )
dx
dQ
2
= a (bx 1 + c ln x ) (bx 2 cx 1 )
dx
d 2Q
3
2
= 2a(bx 1 + c ln x ) ( bx 2 + cx 1 )(bx 2 cx 1 ) + a(bx 1 + c ln x ) ( 2bx 3 + cx 2 )
2
dx
d 2Q
3
2
2
= 2a (bx 1 + c ln x ) ( bx 2 + cx 1 ) a(bx 1 + c ln x ) (2bx 3 cx 2 )
2
dx
assume, 0.5 cm OD copper line, ri = 0.005 m / 2 = 0.0025 m, l = 1 m,
k = 0.074 W/m.K, h = 20 W/m2.K

1
1
=
= 0.00796
h 2 l (20 )(2 )(1)
r
0.0025
c= i =
= 0.00538
2 kl (2 )(0.074)(1)
b=
b h 2 l k
0.074
x= =
=
=
= 1.48
c ri h ri (20 )(0.0025)
2 kl
3
d 2Q
1
2
1 2
= 2a (0.00796 )(1.48) + (0.00538) ln (1.48) (0.00796)(1.48) (0.00538)
2
dx
2
1
3
2
a (0.00796)(1.48) + (0.00538) ln (1.48) 2(0.00796 )(1.48) (0.00538)(1.48)
d 2Q
= 2a (2,382,200)(1.2 1012 ) a(17,837 )(2.4547 10 3 ) = 43.87a is negative,
dx 2
therefore, it is maximum at x = 1.48 = ro/ri.
][
][
]
]
Step 7. Critical radius of insulation = rcrit = ro.

rcrit
k
=
ri
h ri
k
rcrit =
h
2.8 The slab shown in Fig. 2.22 is embedded on five sides in insulation materials. The
sixth side is exposed to an ambient temperature through a heat transfer coefficient.
Heat is generated in the slab at the rate of 1.0 kW/m3. The thermal conductivity of the
slab is 0.2 W/m.K. (a) Solve for the temperature distribution in the slab, noting any
assumptions you must make. Be careful to clearly identify the boundary conditions.
(b) Evaluate T at the front and back faces of the slab. (c) Show that your solution
gives the expected heat fluxes at the back and front faces.
Fig. 2.22
10

Solution:
q& = 1.0 kW/m3 = 1000 W/m3

k = 0.2 W/m.K
h = 20 W/m2.C
T = 25 C
Assume no thermal radiation.
(a) First boundary condition, Eq. 2.11
2T 2T 2T q&
1 T
+ 2 + 2 + =
2
x
y
z
k
t
123
14243
= 0 , since steady
= 0 , sinceT T ( y or z )
Then,
d 2T
q&
=
2
dx
k
q& 2
T =
x + C1 x + C 2 ,
2k
dT
q&
= x + C1
dx
k
Second boundary condition,
qconvection = qconduction at the wall

h (T T ) = k
T
x
L = thickness
q& 2
q& 2
q&
h
x + C1 x + C2 T = k
x + C1 x + C2 = k x + C1
x 2 k
2k
at x = 0
11

q&
q&
h (0 ) + C1 (0) + C 2 T = k (0 ) + C1
2k
h (C2 T ) = kC1
C1 =
h
(T C2 )
k
at x = L
q& 2
q&
h
L + C1 L + C 2 T = k L + C1
2k
q& 2 h
q&
k h
L + (T C2 )L + C 2 T = L
(T C2 )
2k
k
h
h k
q& 2 h L
hL
q&
L +
T
C2 + C 2 T = L T + C2
2k
k
k
h
q&L q&k
C2 =
+ T
2h h 2
h
q&L q&k
C1 = T
2 + T
k
2h h
h q&L q&k q& L k

+ = +
k 2h h 2 k 2 h
q&x 2 q& L k
q&L q&k
T =
+ + x
+ T
2k k 2 h 2h h 2
k
x2 L 1 L
T T = q& + x +
+ 2
2k 2k h 2h h
C1 =
(b) q& = 1.0 kW/m3 = 1000 W/m3

at the front: x = L = 0.10 m
(0.10)2 (0.10) 1
(0.10 ) (0.20 )
T f 25 = (1000)
+ (0.10 ) +
+
2
2(20) (20)
2(0.20) 2(0.20) 20
T f - 25 = 2
T f = 27 C
at the back: x = 0
(0.10 ) 1
(0.10 ) (0.20 )
Tb 25 = (1000 )0
+ (0 ) +
+
2
2(20) (20)
2(0.20 ) 20
Tb - 25 = -3
Tb = 22 C
12

(c ) Check of heat flux.

x2 L 1 L
k
T T = q& + x +
+ 2
2k 2k h 2h h
dT
x L 1
= q&

dx
k 2k h
at the back of the slab, x = 0

x L 1
= kq&

k 2k h x = 0
x =0
L 1
qb = kq& +
2k h
q&L q&k
q&L q&k
qb =
=
+
h
h
2
2
qb = k
T
x
at the front of the slab, x = L

T
x L 1
= kq&

x x = L
k 2k h x = L
L L 1
q f = kq&

k 2k h
q&L q&k
qf =
2
h
q f = k
Putting equation into neat dimension form.

x2 L 1 L
k
T T = q& + x +
+ 2
2k 2k h 2h h
q& x 2 L k kL k 2
T T = + x +
+
k 2 2 h 2 h h 2
x2 1
k k
k 2
x
+
+
2
2
2 2
2
L
2
L
h
L
2
h
L
h
L
2
q&L2 x 2k x k
2k 2
T T =
1
+
+
+
2k L h L L h L h 2 L2
2
T T 1 2k x x k
2k 2
=
1
+
q&L2
2 h L L L h L h 2 L2
k
T T =
q&L2
k
13

or
2
T T 1 2k x x k 2k
= 1 +

1 +
q&L2
2 h L L L h L h L
k
2
d T T 1 2k 1 x 1
=
1
+
2
= 0
2
dx q&L 2 h L L L L
k
x 1 2k
= 1 +
L 2 hL
x 1
2(0.2 )
= 0.6
= 1 +
L 2 (20 )(0.1)
0.2
T T 1
2(0.2 )
2(0.2 )
2
(0.6) (0.6 )
1 +
= 1 +
2
q&L
2 (20 )(0.1)
(20 )(0.1) (20)(0.1)
k
x
T T
= 0.12 , = 0.6
2
q&L
L
k
x
x
T T
T T
and at = 0,
= -0.06 : = 1,
= 0.04
2
q&L
q&L2
L
L
k
k
Plotting:
q&L q&k q&L q&k

= q&L
2
h 2
h
Heat energy generated at the back of the slab is equal to half of the total energy plus the
film coefficient effect. Heat energy generated at the front of the slab is equal to the half of
the total energy less the film coefficient effect. Thus giving the solution appears to be
correct.
Therefore
Total
Energy
Generated
14
q f qb =

2.9 Consider the composite wall shown in Fig. 2.23. The concrete and brick sections are
of equal thickness. Determine T1, T2, q, and the percentage of q that flows through the
brick. To do this, approximate the heat flow as one-dimensional. Draw the thermal
circuit for the wall and identify all four resistances before you begin.
Figure 2.23
Solution:
Thermal Circuit:
T = Tw1 Tw2 = 370 C 66 C = 304 C

15

1
Rtotal = Rt fir +
1
Rtcinder
+ Rt pine
Rtbrick
L fir
0.025 m
0.2273
=
=
k fir Afir (0.11W / m C )( A)
A
Lcinder
0.075 m
0.1974
Rtcinder =
=
=
kcinder Acinder (0.76 W / m C ) A
A
2
Lbrick
0.075 m
0.2174
Rtbrick =
=
=
A
k brick Abrick (0.69 W / m C )
A
2
L pine
0.05 m
0.3402
Rt pine =
=
=
k pine Apine (0.147 W / m C )( A)
A
Rt fir =
( )
( )
Rtotal =
0.2273
+
A
1
A
A
+
0.1974 0.2174
0.3402
A
0.671
A
T
304
Q=
=
= 453.06 A
Rtotal 0.671
A
Q
q = = 453.06 W/m2
A
Solving for T1 and T2.
Rtotal =
Fir:
Q=
T fir
Rt fir
453.06 A =
(370C T )
1
0.2273
T1 = 267 C
Yellow Pine:
T
Q = pine
Rt pine
453.06 A =
(T
66 )
0.3402
A
2
T2 = 220 C
16

For concrete cinder block.

(267 220) = 238.1A
T
Q1 = cinder =
Rtcinder
0.1974
A
For building brick
(267 220 ) = 216.2 A
T
Q2 = brick =
Rtbrick
0.2174
A
Q = Q1 + Q2 = 238.1A + 216.2A = 454.3A W
q = 454.3A ~ 453.06A
Percentage of q that flows through the brick
Q
216.2 A
= 2 (100%) =
(100% ) = 47.6 %
Q1
454.3 A
2.10 Compute Q and U for Example 2.11 if the wall is 0.3 m thick. Five (each) pine
and sawdust layers are 5 and 8 cm thick, respectively; and the heat transfer
coefficients are 10 on the left and 18 on the right. Tl = 30 C and Tr = 10 C.
Solution:
Thermal Circuit
17

Rtotal = Rt1conv +
1
1
Rt pine
+ Rt 2conv
Rt sawdust
T
Tl Tr
=
1
1
1
Rttotal
+
+
hl A k p Ap k s As hr A
+
L
L
L = 0.3 m
hl = 10 W/m2.C
Q=
hr = 18 W/m2.C
Thermal conductivity of pine and sawdust, Appendix A.
k p = 0.14 W/m.C
k s = 0.06 W/m.C
Tl = 30 C
Tr = 10 C
Assume 1 m length
Ap = 5(0.05 m)(1 m) = 0.25 m2
As = 5(0.08 m)(1 m) = 0.40 m2
30 10
Q=
1
1
1
+
+
(10)(0.65) (0.14)(0.25) + (0.06)(0.40) (18)(0.65)
(0.3)
(0.3)
Q = 3.7565 W
18

Q
3.7565
=
AT (0.65)(30 10 )
U = 0.29 W/m2.K
U=
2.11 Compute U for the slab in Example 1.2.
Solution:
Fig. 1.7
Ls = 2 mm = 0.002 m
Lc = 3 mm = 0.003 m
ks = 17 W/m.K
kc = 372 W/m.K
Thermal Circuit
Q=
T
T
=
Rt 2 Ls + Lc
ks A kc A
19

1
Q
=
2
L
L
AT
s
+ c
ks
kc
1
U=
= 4109 W/m2.C
2(0.002 ) 0.003
+
17
372
U=
2.12
Consider the tea kettle in Example 2.10. Suppose that the kettle holds 1 kg of
water (about 1 liter) and that the flame impinges on 0.02 m2 of the bottom. (a)
Find out how fast the water temperature is increasing when it reaches its boiling
point, and calculate the temperature of the bottom of the kettle immediately below
the water if the gases from the flame are at 500 C when they touch the bottom of
the kettle. Assume that the heat capacity of the aluminum kettle is negligible. (b)
There is an old parlor trick in which one puts a paper cup of water over an open
flame and boils the water without burning the paper. Explain this using an
electrical analogy.
Solution:
(a)
U = 192.1 W/m2.K
hb = 5000 W/m2.K
cp = 4187 J/kg.K
dT
= UAT = UA(T T )
dt
T = 100 C
Q = mc p
dT
2
2
(1 kg)(4187 J/kg.K)
= (192.1 W/m .K)(0.02 m )(500 C 100 C)
dt
dT
= 0.367 C/s
dt
Q = hb A(T1 T ) = UA(T T )
(5000)(0.02)(T1 100) = (192.1)(0.02)(500 100)
T1 = 115.37 C
(b)
Assume negligible paper cup thickness.

20

Burning temperature of paper cup is at 235 C from various sources.

Check for temperature of paper cup at water boiling temperature of 100 C. Use the
same data as in (a)
Tboiling water = 100 C
T flame = 500 C
q=
T flame Tboiling water

1 L 1
+ +
h k hb
h = 200 W/m2.K
hb = 5000 W/m2.K
L
0
k
Thermal Circuit
Then,
500 100
q=
= 76,923 W/m2.
1
1
+
200 5000
Tc = paper cup temperature
q
76,923
Tc = T flame = 500
h
200
Tc = 115.4 C << 235 C
Therefore paper cup will not burn.
2.13
Copper plates 2 mm and 3 mm in thickness are processed rather lightly together.

Non-oil bearing steam condenses under pressure at Tsat = 200 C on one side
( h =12,000 W/m2.K) and methanol boils under pressure at 130 C on the other
( h =9,000 W/m2.K). Estimate U and q initially and after extended service. List the
relevant thermal resistance in order of decreasing importance and suggest whether
or not any of them can be ignored.
Solution:
21

Thermal conductivity of copper @ 150 C, k = 239 W/m.K

Initially:
Rtotal = Rt steam + Rt c + Rtc + Rtmethanol
1
2
After Extended Service:
Rtotal = Rt steam + Rtc + Rt contact + Rtc + Rt methanol
1
2
List of thermal resistance in order of decreasing importance,
(0.002 m ) = 8.3682 106
L
Rtc1 =
=
kA (239W / m.K )A
A
L
(0.003 m) = 1.2552 105
Rtc2 =
=
kA (239 W / m.K ) A
A
1
Rtcontact =
hc A
hc = 20,000 W/m2.K
1
1
5.0 10 5
=
=
hc A (20,000W / m 2 .K )A
A
1
1
8.333 105
Rt steam =
=
=
hs A (12,000 W / m 2 .K )A
A
1
1
1.111 10 5
Rt methanol =
=
=
hm A (9,000 W / m 2 .K )A
A
Rtcontact =
These shows that not any of them can be ignored.

Initially:
Rtotal = Rt steam + Rt c + Rtc + Rtmethanol
1
2
8.3682 10 6 1.2552 10 5 8.333 10 5 1.111 10 5 1.1536 10 4
+
+
+
=
A
A
A
A
A
T
Q=
= UAT
Rtotal
1
1
= 8669 W/m2.K
U=
=
Rtotal A (1.1536 10 4 )
Q
q = = UT = (8669)(200 130) = 606,830 W/m2.
A
Rtotal =
After Extended Service:

Rtotal = Rt steam + Rtc + Rt contact + Rtc + Rt methanol
1
2
22

8.3682 106 1.2552 10 5 5.0 10 5 8.333 10 5 1.111 10 5
+
+
+
+
A
A
A
A
A
4
1.6536 10
Rtotal =
A
T
Q=
= UAT
Rtotal
1
1
= 6048 W/m2.K
U=
=
Rtotal A (1.6536 10 4 )
Q
q = = UT = (6048)(200 130) = 423,360 W/m2.
A
Rtotal =
2.14
0.5 kg/s of air at 20 C moves along a channel that is 1 m from wall to wall. One
wall of the channel is a heat exchange surface (U = 300 W/m2.K) with steam
condensing at 120 C on its back. Determine (a) q at the entrance; (b) the rate of
increase of temperature of the fluid with x at the entrance; (c) the temperature and
heat flux 2 m downstream.
Solution:
m& = 0.5 kg/s
T1 = 20 C
L=1m
U = 300 W/m2.K
T = 120 C
(a) At the entrance
q = U (T T1 ) = (300 W/m2.K)(120 C 20 C) = 30,000 W/m2
(b) At the entrance
dQ = UdA(T T ) = m& c p dT
Let w = width
dA = wdx
dx
m& = wL
dr
Then
dQ = Uwdx (T T ) = wLc p dT
dT U (T T )
=
dt
c p L
L = 1.0 m
23

Density of air at 20 C, = 1.205 kg/m3.

Specific heat of air at 20 C, cp = 1006 J/kg.K
dT (300 )(120 20 )
=
= 24.75 C/s
dt (1.205)(1006 )(1)
(c) For square channel, w = L = 1 m
dT
dt
dT
dx
U (T T )
c p L
dx U (T T )
=
dt
c p L
=
m& U (T T )
=
c p L
wL
dT Uw(T T )
=
dx
m& c p
dT
dx
dT
Uwdx
=
T T
m& c p
T T Uwx
ln 1 =
T T2 m& c p
at x = 2 m, solve for T2.
120 20 (300)(1)(2)
=
ln
120 T2 (0.5)(1006 )
T2 = 89.7 C
q2 = U (T T2 ) = (300 W/m2.K)(120 C 89.7 C) = 9090 W/m2.
2.15
An isothermal sphere 3 cm in diameter is kept at 80 C in a large clay region. The

temperature of the clay far from the sphere is kept at 10 C. How much heat must
be supplied to the sphere to maintain its temperature if kclay = 1.28 W/m.K?
(Hint: You must solve the boundary value problem not in the sphere but in the
clay surrounding it.)?
Solution:
Laplacian equation (2.12)
2T 2T 2T
+
+
x 2 y 2 z 2
For clay from the source in any position:
2T =
24

2T 2T 2T
=
=
x 2 y 2 z 2
2T
2T
2T
2T = 3 2 = 3 2 = 3 2
x
y
z
Heat diffusion equation:
T
kT + q& = c
t
123
= 0 since steady
q&
2T =
k
Note: x, y, z are interchangeable, use the following step.
Boundary condition no.1 for x-coordinate.

2T
q&
3 2 =
x
k
2
q&
T
=
2
3k
x
T
q&
= x + C1
x
3k
q& 2
T =
x + C1 x + C2
6k
Other Boundary condition, y- and z- coordinates.
q& 2
T =
y + C1 y + C 2
6k
q& 2
T =
z + C1 z + C2
6k
Boundaries:
x1 = 3 cm / 2 = 1.5 cm = 0.015 m
T
as y 2 , z 2 , x2 x1 ,
= 0 at maximum
x
T
q&
= x1 + C1 = 0
x
3k
&q
C1 =
x1
3k
as x2 , z 2 , y2 y1 , T1 = 80 C
q& 2
T1 =
y1 + C1 y1 + C2
6k
q&
but is also C1 =
y1
3k
then
25

q& 2 q& 2
q& 2
y1 +
y1 + C2 =
y1 + C2
6k
3k
3k
q& 2
C2 = T1
y1
3k
as x2 , y2 , z 2 0, T2 = 10 C
q& 2
T2 =
z 2 + C1 z 2 + C 2 = 0 + 0 + C2
6k
T2 = C2
q& 2
T2 = T1
y1
3k
q& 2
y1 = T1 T2
3k
x1 = y1 = z1 = 0.015 m
q& 2
x1 = T1 T2
3k
3k (T1 T )
q& =
2
x1
4 3
but Q = q&V = q& x1
3
T1 =
4 3 3k (T1 T2 )
Q = x1
2
x1
3
Q = 4 x1k (T1 T2 )
Q = 4 (0.15 m )(1.28W / m.K )(80 C 10 C ) = 16.9 W
2.16
Is it possible to increase the heat transfer from a convectively cooled isothermal

sphere by adding insulation? Explain fully.
Solution:
Determine first the temperature distribution and heat flux.
Step 1. T = T(r)
Step 2. Laplacian equation
1
1 2 (rT )
1

T
2T
2
T
+ 2
sin
+
r r 2
r sin
r 2 sin 2 2
For isothermal, or uniform sphere surface temperature
1 2 (rT )
2T
r r 2
Step 3. Heat diffusion equation
T
kT + q& = c
t
26

2T +
1 T
q&
=
k
23
t
{
1
=0
= 0 since steady
1 (rT )
2 (rT )
=
0
,
=0
r r 2
r 2
2
Step 4. Integrate once:
(rT )
= C1 ; integrate again: rT = C1r + C 2
r
C2
r
Step 5. The first boundary condition is T(r = r1) = Ti. The second boundary condition
must be expressed as an energy balance at the outer wall.
T = C1 +
qconvection = qconduction at the wall

or
T
t r = ro
Step 6. From the first boundary conditon we obtain
C
T = C1 + 2
r
C
C
h C1 + 2 T = k C1 + 2
r
r r = ro
t
r = ro
h (T T )r = ro = k
C
C
h T C1 2 = k 22
ro
ro
Eliminating C1:
C
kC
T C1 2 = 22
ro h ro
C kC
C1 = T 2 22
ro h ro
Then,
C
C kC C
Ti = C1 + 2 = T 2 22 + 2
ri
ro h ro
ri
1 1
k
Ti T = C2
2
r
r
h
r
o
i o
(
Ti T
Ti T )ro
C2 =
=
1 1
k
ro
k

1
2
ri ro h ro
ri
h ro
27

(T T )r
1
k
1
ro
k ro h ro
1
h ro
ri
(Ti T ) 1 k
C1 = T
ro
k h ro
1
h ro
ri
C1 = T
Step 7.
T = C1 +
C2
r
k
(Ti T ) ro
1
+

ro
k h ro ro
k r
1
h ro
h ro
ri
ri
Rearranging:
ro
k
ro
1
1+
1+
r
h ro
T T
Bi
=
= r
r
k
r
1
Ti T
o
o
1
1
ri
h ro
ri
Bi
T = T
(T T )
i
ro
2
T
(T T )
r
Step 8. q radial = k
=k
r
1 i
r
o
Bi
ri
Q = qradial (4 r 2 )
4 ro
Q=k
(T T )
ro
1 i
r 1 Bi
i
4 ro
(T T )
Q=k
ro
k i
r 1 h r
o
i
Ti T
Ti T
=
1
1
1
1 1 1
1

2
2
4 ri k 4 ro k h 4 ro
4 k ri ro h 4 ro
dQ
Step 9. Determine critical radius of insulation, setting
=0
dro
Q=
28

1
dQ
(Ti T )
2
=0
=
+
2
2
3
dro 1 1 1
4
r
k
h
4
o
o
2
4 k ri ro h 4 ro
1
2
+
cannot be equal to zero except for approaching infinity. As the
2
3
4 ro k h 4 ro
outside radius ro increases the heat transfer always decreases, so it is not possible.
Since
2.17 A wall consists of layers of metals and plastic with heat transfer coefficients on
either side. U is 255 W/m2.K and the overall temperature difference is 200 C. One layer
in the wall is stainless steel (k = 18 W/m.K) 3 mm thick. What is T across the stainless
steel?
Solution:
kT
L
T2 T1 = 200 C, L = 3 mm = 0.003 m
(18)T
q = (255)(200) =
(0.003)
T
= 8.5 C
q = U (T2 T1 ) =
2.17
A 1 % carbon-steel sphere 20 cm in diameter is kept at 250 C on the outside. It

has 8 cm diameter cavity containing boiling water ( h inside is very high) which
is vented to the atmosphere. What is Q through the shell?
Solution:
Neglect h inside.
Thermal conductivity of 1% carbon steel at 175 C.
k = 42.25 W/m.K
ro = (1/2)(20 cm) = 10 cm = 0.10 m
ri = (1/2)(8 cm) = 4 cm = 0.04 m
Derivation:
1 2 (rT )
=0
r r 2
2 (rT )
=0
r 2
(rT )
= C1
r
rT = C1r + C 2
C
T = C1 + 2
r
29

T (r = ri ) = Ti = 250 C
T (r = ro ) = To = 100 C
C
Ti = C1 + 2
ri
C
To = C1 + 2
ro
1 1
To Ti = C 2
ro ri
T T
C2 = o i
1 1
ro ri
(T
To = C1 +
(T
C1 = To
(T
T = To
(T
T To =
1
T )i
ro
1 1
ro ri
1
T )i
ro
1 1
ro ri
1
Ti ) (To Ti ) 1
ro +
r
1 1
1 1
ro ri
ro ri
1 1
Ti )
r ro
1 1
ro ri
1
(To Ti ) 2
T
r
=
1
1
r
ro ri
T
Q = kA
r
2
A = 4 r
30

Ti )(4 )
1 1
ro ri
(42.25)(250 100)(4 )
Q=
= 5,309 W
1
1
0.10 0.04
2.18 A 1% carbon-steel sphere 20 cm in diameter is kept at 250 C on the outside. It has
an 8 cm diameter cavity containing boiling water ( hinside is very high) which is
vented to the atmosphere. What is Q through the shell.
Q = k
(T
Solution:
To = 250 C
Ti = 100 C Boiling
ro = (1/2)(20 cm) = 10 cm = 0.10 m
ri = (1/2)(8 cm) = 4 cm = 0.04 m
For 1 % carbon steel, k = 42 W/m.K at 20 0 C, Table A.1
dT
Q = kA
dr
Qdr = k (4 r 2 )dT
dr
Q 2 = 4 kdT
r
r dr
Q rio 2 = 4 k (To Ti )
r
ro
1
Q = 4 k (To Ti )
r ri
1 1
Q = 4 k (To Ti )
ri ro
4 k (To Ti ) 4 (42)(250 100 )
=
Q=
= -5278 W
1 1
1
1
ri ro
0.04 0.10
2.19
A slab is insulated on one side and exposed to a surrounding temperature , T ,

through a heat transfer coefficient on the other. There is nonuniform heat
generation in the slab such that q& = [A(W / m 4 )][x (m )] , where x = 0 at the insulated
wall and x = L at the cooled wall. Derive the temperature distribution in the slab.
Solution:
2T
q
=
2
x
k
31

2T
Ax
=
2
x
k
Integrating once,
T
Ax 2
=
+ C1
x
2k
Ax 3
T =
+ C1 x + C2
6k
qconvection = qconduction
T
h (T T )x = L =
x x = L
Ax 3
Ax 2
+ C1 x + C2 T = k
+ C1
6k
x= L
2k
x=L
AL3
AL2
+ C1 L + C 2 T = k
+ C1
6k
2k
C2 = T
k
AL2 AL3
C1
+
C1 L
h
2k 6k
at x = 0
Ax 3
Ax 2
h
+ C1 x + C2 T = k
+ C1
6k
x=0
2k
x =0
h (0 + 0 + C 2 T ) = k (0 + C1 )
kC
C2 = T 1
h
Then,
k
AL2 AL3
+
C1 L
C2 = T C1
2k 6k
h
AL2 AL3
+
C1 L = 0
2k
6k
AL AL2
C1 =
+
2h
6k
k AL AL2
C2 = T 2
+
h 2h 6k
Ax 3 AL AL2
kAL
+
+
x + T 2
6k 2h 6k
2h
3
2
Ax AL AL kAL
T T =
+
+
x 2
6k 2h 6k
2h
3
Ax
AL
k 1 L
T T =
+
x +
6k
2
h h 3k
T =
AL2
6h
AL2
6h
32

2.20
800 W/m3 of heat is generated within a 10 cm diameter nickel-steel sphere for

which k = 10 W/m.K. The environment is at 20 C and there is a natural
convection heat transfer coefficient of 10 W/m2.K around the outside of the
sphere. What is its center temperature at the steady state?
Solution:
1 2 (rT )
q&
=
r r 2
k
q = 800 W/m3
ro = (1/2)(10 cm) = 5 cm = 0.05 m
k = 10 W/m.K
T = 20 C
h = 10 W/m2.K
2 (rT )
q&
= r
2
r
k
(rT )
q&
= r 2 + C1
2k
r
q&
rT = r 3 + C1 r + C 2
6k
q& 2
C
T = r + C1 + 2
6k
r
T
h (T T )r = ro = k
r r = ro
T
q&
C
= r 22
r
3k
r
C
C
q&
q&
h r 2 + C1 + 2 T = k r 22
r
r r = ro
6k
r = ro
3k
q& 2
C
k q&
C
ro + C1 + 2 T = ro 22
6k
ro
h 3k
ro
2
q&r
C
kq&
kC
o + C1 + 2 T =
ro + 22
6k
ro
3h k
h ro
2
kC2 C2 kq&
q&ro
C1 =
+
ro +
+ T
2
ro 3h k
6k
h ro
Let Ti center temperature, r = 0
q&
C
T = r 2 + C1 + 2
6k
r
&q 3
rT = r + C1 r + C 2
6k
at r = 0 , C2 = 0
33

C1 =
2
kq&ro q&ro
+
+ T
3h k 6k
then,
2
q& 2 kq&ro q&ro
T = r +
+
+ T
6k
3h k 6k
center temperature , r = 0
2
kq&ro q&ro
Ti =
+
+ T
3h k 6k
2
(
10)(800 )(0.05) (800 )(0.05)
Ti =
+
+ 20
3(10 )(10)
6(10 )
Ti = 21.37 C
2.21
An outside pipe is insulated and we measure its temperature with a thermocouple.

The pipe serves as an electrical resistance heater, and q& is known from resistance
and current measurements. The inside of the pipe is cooled by the flow of liquid
with a known temperature. Evaluate the heat transfer coefficient, h , in terms of
known information. The pipe dimension and properties are known. [Hint:
Remember that h is not known and we cannot use a boundary condition of the
third kind at the inner wall to get T(r).]
Solution:
T = inside bulk temperature, C
ro = outside pipe diameter, m
r i = inside pipe diameter, m
k = thermal conductivity, W/m.K
q& = heater load, W/m3
Step 1. T = T(r)
Step 2.
1 T 1 2T 2T q&
1 T
+ 2 + =
r
+ 2
2
r r r 1
r 4
4
244
z
k
t
3
123
= 0 , sinceT =T ( , z )
= 0 , since steady
1 T
q& T
q&r
r
= ; r
=
r r r
k r r
k
Step 3. Integrate once,
T
q&r 2
r
=
+ C1
r
2k
T
q&r C1
=
+
r
2k r
Step 4. Integrate again.
34

q&r 2
+ C1 ln r + C2
4k
Step 5. Second boundary condition.
T =
qconvection = qconduction
T
h (T T ) = k
r
2
q&r
q&r C1
h
+ C1 ln r + C2 T = k
+
2k r
4k
q&r 2
q&r kC
h T +
C1 ln r C 2 = + 1
4k
2
r
q&r 2
q&r kC1
T +
C1 ln r C2 =
+
4k
2h h r
Step 6. Substitute r = ri, r = ro then determine C1 and C2.
Equation 1
2
q&ro
q&r kC
T +
C1 ln ro C 2 = o + 1
4k
2h h ro
Equation 2
2
q&ri
q&r kC
T +
C1 ln ri C 2 = i + 1
4k
2h h ri
Subtract Eq. 2 from 1
r
q& 2
q& (r r ) kC 1 1
2
ro ri C1 ln o = o i + 1
4k
2h
h ro ri
ri
ro 2 ri 2 ro ri
q&
+
4k
2h
C1 =
r k 1 1
ln o +
ri h ro ri
ro 2 ri 2 ro ri
k
ln ro +
&
q
+
2
4
k
2
h
h
r
q&ro
q&r
o
C2 = T +

+ o
4k
2h
r k 1 1
ln o +
ri h ro ri
C 2 = T + q&
ro 2 ro
ln
4k ri
2
2
2
2
ro
r
kri
r
r
r ln ro ri ln ro ro ln ro ri ln ro ro
r
kr
k
k
+
o o
+
+ i 2 +
+ o ln o +
2o
2
2
4k
4k
2h
2h
4h 4h ro 2h
2h ro 2h ri 2h
2h ri
4h 4h ri
ro k 1 1
ln +
ri h ro ri
35

2
2
2
ro 2
ro
ri
ri
ri
kri
ro
kro
ln
(
r
)
+
ln
(
r
)
+
ln
(
r
)
+
+
ln
(
r
)
i
o
o
i
4h ri 4k
2h
4h ro 2h 2 ro 2h
2h 2 ri
4k
C 2 = T + q&
r k 1 1
ln o +
ri h ro ri
2
2
2
ri 2
ro
ri
ro
r
r
kri
kr
ln (ri ) +
+ i ln (ro ) o ln (ri ) +
2o
ln (ro )
2
4k
4h ro 4h ri 2h
2h
2h ro 2h ri
4k
C 2 = T + q&
r k 1 1
ln o +
ri h ro ri
2
2
1 2
ro 1
1 ri
k ri ro
2
+

ri ln ro ro ln ri +
(
r
ln
r
r
ln
r
)
+
i
o
o
i
ri 2h
4h ro
2h 2 ro ri
4k
C 2 = T + q&
r k 1 1
ln o +
ri h ro ri
Then:
r 2 ri 2 ro ri
ln r
q& o
+
4k
2
2h
q&r
T =
+
+ T +
4k
r k 1 1
ln o + +
ri h ro ri
2
2
1 2
r r
r 1
1 ri
2
q&
ri ln ro ro ln ri +
+ o +
(ri ln ro ro ln ri ) + k 2 i + o
ri 2h
4h ro
2h ro ri
4 k
r k 1 1
ln o + +
ri h ro ri
2
2
r 2 ro r 2 1 1 1 2
r 1
1 2
1
1
1 2
1 ri
q&
o +
(ri ln ro ro ln ri ) + k 2 ri ro
ln +
ro ln r
ri ln r +
ro ln r
ri ln r +
ri ln ro ro 2 ln ri +
+
4k
2h
2h
4k
4 h ro
ri 2h
2h ro ri
4k ri 4 h ro ri 4 k
T T =
r k 1 1
ln o +
ri h ro ri
T T =
1
r
q& r 2 ln o
ri
4k
T T =
r2 1 1 1
r 2 ro 2
k ri ro
+ ro 2 ln r ro 2 ln ri ri 2 ln r + ri 2 ln ro +
(
) 1i
4h r r + 2h ro ln r ri ln r + ri ln ro ro ln ri + 4h r r + 2h 2 r r
i
i
i
o
o
o
ro k 1 1
ln +
ri h ro ri
1 2 r
q& ro ln
ri
4k
r
ri 2 ln
ro
2 ro
r ln
ri
r 2
+
4h
1 1 1
r
+
ro ln
r
r
2
h
i
o
ri
r k 1 1
ln o +
ri h ro ri
For a given r and T, solve for h ,

r 2 ro
1 2 r
2
ro ln ri ln r ln
4k
ri
ro
ri
r
r 1 ri 2 ro 2
r2 1 1 1
B = + ro ln ri ln +
4 ro ri 2
r
r
4
r
r
i
o
i
o
Let A =
36
r 1
ri ln +
ro 4h
ri 2 ro 2

+ k2
r
2h
r
i
o
ri ro

ro ri

C=
k ri ro

2 ro ri
r
D = ln o
ri
1 1
E = k
ro ri
T T
q&
1
x=
h
Then:
(A + Bx + Cx 2 )
F=
(D + Ex)
FD + EFx = A + Bx + Cx 2
Cx 2 + (B EF )x + ( A FD ) = 0
Using,
ax 2 + bx + c = 0
F=
b b 2 ac
1
, use positive value since x = is always positive.
a
h
a=C
b = B EF
c = A FD
x=
For r = ro , T = To , thermocouple measurement

2 ro
ro
ro
2
2
ro ln ri ln ro ln = 0
ri
ro
ri
2
r
r 1 r 2 r 2
r 1 1 1
B = o + ro ln o ri ln o + i o
4 ro ri 2
ri
ri
ro 4 ro
2
r
r 1 r 2 r 2
r 1 1 1
B = o + ro ln o ri ln o + i o
4 ro ri 2
ri
ri
ro 4 ro
2
r 1r2 r 2
r 1 1 1
B = o + ro ln o + i o
4 ro ri 2
ri
ri 4 ro
Then,
kr r
a = C = i o < 0
2 ro ri
A=
1
4k
37

1 ri 2 ro 2
+
r
4
r
i
o
ro 1 ri 2 ro 2 1 1 (T T )
1 1
2 1
k
b = B EF = ro + ro ln +
r r
r
r
2
r
4
r
r
q&
o
i
i
i
o
i
o
(T T ) ro
c = A FD = o
ln < 0
q&
ri
1 1 1
r
+ ro ln o
ro ri 2
ri
r
B= o
4
b 2 4ac > 0 ,
then
b b 2 4ac 1
x=
=
a
h
a
h=
b b 2 4ac
2.22
>0.
Consider the hot water in Problem 1.11. Suppose that it is insulated with 2 cm of a
material for which k = 0.12 W/m.K, and suppose that h = 16 W/m2.K. Find (a) the
time constant T for the tank, neglecting the casing and insulation; (b) the initial
rate of cooling in C/h ; (c) the time required for the water to cool from its initial
temperature of 75 C to 40 C ; (d) the percentage of additional heat loss that would
result if an outer insulation were held on by eight steel rods, 1 cm in diameter,
between the inner and outer casings.
Solution:
(a)
T=
T = time constant
cV
mc
hA
hA
m = 100 kg
A = 1.3 m2
h = 16 W/m2.K
Specific heat of water at 75 C, Table A.6
cp = 1009 J/kg.K
(100 kg )(1009 J / kg.K )
T=
(16W / m2 .K )(1.3 m2 )
T = 4851 s
(b) Q = UA(T T ) = mc p
dT
dt
T = 20 C
38

T = 75 C to 40 C
1 1 L
= +
U h k
L = 2 cm = 0.02 m
k = 0.12 W/m.K
1 1 0.02
= +
U 16 0.12
U = 4.364 W/m2.K
Initial rate of cooling:
dT UA(T T ) (4.364 )(1.3)(75 20)
=
=
= 0.0031 C/s = 11.16 C/hr
dt
mc p
(100)(1009)
(c)
dT UA(T T )
=
dt
mc p
dT
UAt
=
(T T ) mc p
T T UAt
ln 2 =
T1 T mc p
40 20 (4.364)(1.3)t
ln
=
(100)(1009)
75 20
t = 17,992 s = 5 hrs
(d) Derive and solve for the resistance of steel rods.

Equation of circle:
(x a )2 + y 2 = r 2
y 2 = r 2 (x a )
A = y 2 = r 2 (x a )
dT
Q = kA
dx
Qdx
= kdT
2
2
r (x a )
Qdx
= r 2 kdT
2
xa
1
r
but
du
= tanh 1 u + C
2
1 u
39

xa
r
1
du = dx
r
then,
1
Qdx
r
= r kdT
2
xa
1
r
1
Qdx
x
Q x12 r
= r kT
2
xa
1
x a
1 x a
Q tanh 1 2
tanh 1
= r kT
r
r
T
Q=
Rr
u=
1 x 2 a
1 x1 a
tanh r tanh r
Rr =
rk
1
L
1
=
+
U A kA h A + 1 (8)
Rr
x1 = 0.02 m
x2 = 0.02 m + 0.01 m = 0.03 m
a = 0.02 m + 0.005 m = 0.025 m
r = 0.005 m
For steel rod, ks = 43 W/m2.K, Table A.1 at 1% carbon steel.
[tanh 1 (1) tanh 1 ( 1)]
Rr =
(0.005)(43)
since tanh-1(1) , tanh-1(-1)
use 1 ~ 0.999,999,999,999
[
tanh 1 (1) tanh 1 ( 1)]
Rr =
= 35
(0.005)(43)
1
L
1
=
+
U A kA h A + 1 (8)
Rr
40

1
0.02
1
=
+
U (1.3) (0.12 )(1.3) (16)(1.3) + 1 (8)
(35)
2
U = 4.3766 W/m .K
U = 4.3766 4.364 = 0.0126 W/m2.K
U
Percentage increase =
(100% ) = 0.0126 (100% ) = 0.29%
U
4.364
2.23
A slab of thickness L is subjected to a constant heat flux q1, on the left side. The
right-hand side if cooled convectively by an environment at T . (a) Develop a
dimensionless equation for the temperature of the slab. (b) Present dimensionless
equation for the wall temperatures as well. (c) If the wall is firebrick, 10 cm thick,
q1 is 400 W/m2, h = 20 W/m2.K, and T = 20 C, compute the left hand and right
hand temperatures.
Solution:
(a) q1 = k
T
dT
= k
dx
r
dT
q
= 1
dx
k
q
T = 1 x + C1
k
Then at the outer wall
T
h (T T )x = L = k
r x = L
q
h 1 x + C1 T = q1
k
x=L
h 1 L + C1 T = q1
k
q1 q1
C1 = + L + T
h k
Then:
q
q q
T = 1 x + 1 + 1 L + T
k
h k
L
1 x
T T = q1 +
k h k
L x 1
+
T T = q1
h
k
(b)
Dimensionless equation
41

L x 1
T T = q1
+
h
k
q LLx k
T T = 1
+
k L
hL
T T L x k
=
+
q1 L
L
hL
k
(c)
For firebrick, Table A.2, Appendix A
k = 0.1 W/m.K
q1 = 400 W/m2
h = 20 W/m2.K
T = 20 C
L = 10 cm = 0.1 m
At x = 0, left hand
Tl 20
0.1 0
0. 1
=
+
0.1
(20 )(0.1)
(400)(0.1)
0.1
Tl = 440 C
At x = L = 0.10 m, right hand
Tr 20
0.1 0.1
0.1
=
+
0. 1
(20 )(0.1)
(400)(0.1)
0.1
Tr = 40 C
2.24
Heat flows steadily through a stainless steel wall of thickness Lss = 0.06 m, with a
variable thermal conductivity of kss = 1.67 + 0.0143T (C). It is partially insulated
on the right side with glass wool of thickness Lgw = 0.1 m, with a thermal
conductivity of kgw = 0.04. The temperature on the left-hand side of the stainless
steel is 400 C and on the right-hand side of the glass wool is 100 C. Evaluate q
and Ti.
Solution:
T
x
For stainless steel, T1 = 400 C, T2 = Ti but unknown, k = 1.67 + 0.0143 T = a + bT.
dT
q = (a + bT )
dx
1
qx = aT + bT 2 + C1
2
at the left hand side x = 0, Tl = T1 = 400 C

q = k
42

1 2
C1 = aTl + bTl
2
1
2
qx = a (Tl T ) + b Tl T 2
2
at the left hand side x = x2,
For glass wool, kgw = 0.04 W/m.K
2T
q
=
2
x
kLgw
q
T
=
x + C1
x
kL gw
q
T =
x 2 + C1 x + C 2
2kL gw
at x = Lgw + Lss = 0.1 m + 0.06 m = 0.16 m, T = Tr = 100 C
q
1 2
Tr =
L2 + aTl + bTl L + C2
2kL gw
2
q
1 2
C2 = Tr +
L2 aTl + bTl L
2kL gw
2
T =
q
1 2
q
1 2
x 2 + aTl + bTl x + Tr +
L2 aTl + bTl L
2kL gw
2
2kL gw
2
T Tr =
q
(L2 x 2 ) aTl + 1 bTl 2 (L x )
2kL gw
2
Equating to Find T at x = Lss = 0.06 m, L x = Lgw.
1 2
1
2
T Tr + aTl + 2 bTl L gw 2kL gw a(Tl T ) + b Tl T 2
2
=
2
L2 Lss
Lss
2
T 100 + (1.67 )(400) + (0.0143)(400) (0.10)(2)(0.04)(0.10) (1.67 )(400 T ) + 1 (0.0143)(400)2 T 2
2
2
=
0.06
(0.16)2 (0.06)2
T + 81.2 668 1.67T + 1144 0.00715T 2

=
2.75
0.06
0.02182T + 1.772 = 1812 1.67T 0.00715T 2
0.00715T 2 + 1.69182T 1810.228 = 0
T 2 + 236.62T 253179 = 0
Ti = 398.6 C
1
2
2
qLss = a(Tl Ti ) + b Tl Ti
2
1
2
2
q(0.06 ) = (1.67 )(400 398.6) + (0.0143) (400 ) (398.6 )
2
43

q = 172.3 W/m2.
Rework Problem 1.29 with a heat transfer coefficient ho = 40 W/m2.K on the
outside (i.e., on the cold side).
2.25
Solution: k = k o (1 + aT 2 )
ko = 0.15 W/m.K
a = 10-4 C-2
Ti = 100 C
T = 0 C
L = 0.005 m
2T
T
= 0,
= C1
2
x
x
T = C1 x + C2
at x = 0 , T = Ti
Ti = C1 (0) + C 2
C2 = Ti
) Tx
h (C L + C T ) = k [1 + a(C L + C ) ]C
(C L + C T ) = k [1 + a(C L + C ) ]C
h
ho (T T )x = L = k
T
x
= k o 1 + aTo
x=L
[1 + a(C L + T ) ]C
h
(C L + T T ) = k
1
ko C1 ko aC1
(C1 L + Ti )2
ho
ho
ko aC1
(C1 L + Ti )2 + (C1 L + Ti ) + koC1 T = 0
ho
ho
ko aC1 2 2
kC
2
C1 L + 2C1 LTi + Ti + C1 L + Ti + o 1 T = 0
ho
ho
(C L + T ) T
1
ko aL2 3 2k o aLTi 2 ko aTi

kC
C1 +
C1 +
C1 + C1 L + o 1 + Ti T = 0
ho
ho
ho
ho
2
ko aL2 3 2ko aLTi 2 k o aTi

k
C1 +
C1 +
+ o + L C1 + (Ti T ) = 0
ho
ho
ho
ho
This is a cubic form of equation, solve by finding the root. C1 < 0 since T < Ti
Solving the cubic equation.
44

3
C1 +
2
2Ti 2 Ti
1
h
h (T T )
C1 + 2 + 2 + o C1 + o i 2 = 0
L
aL ko aL
ko aL
L
Using Cardanos Method:

x 3 + a1 x 2 + b1 x + c1 = 0
2Ti
T
1
h
h (T T )
; b1 = i2 + 2 + o ; c1 = o i 2
L
L aL k o aL
k o aL
2
a1 =
p1 = b1
a1
T
1
h
4T
= i2 + 2 + o i2
3
L aL k o aL 3L
2
p1 =
ho
1
T
+ 2 i2
k o aL aL 3L
3
2a1 9a1b1
27
8Ti 3 2Ti
2 3 9
ho (Ti T ) L L
q1 =
+
k o aL2
q1 = c1 +
2
1
h
Ti
2 + 2 + o
L aL k o aL
27
16Ti 18Ti 18Ti 18hoTi

3 3
ho (Ti T )
L3
L
aL
k o aL2
q1 =
+
27
k o aL2
16Ti 18Ti 18Ti 18hoTi
3 3
ho (Ti T )
L3
L
aL
k o aL2
+
q1 =
27
k o aL2
h (T T ) 2T
2T
2hoTi
q1 = o i 2 i 3 i 3
k o aL
27 L 3aL 3k o aL2
3
h (T 3T ) 2T
2T
q1 = o i 2 i 3 i 3
3k o aL
27 L 3aL
3
q1
q
p
1 + 1
2
4 27
p
a
x = C1 = 1 u 1
3u
3
in order for C1 < 0, u > 0.
Then,
u=3
q
q
p
u= 1+ 1 + 1
2
4 27
p
a
x = C1 = 1 u 1
3u
3
C2 = Ti
3
45

T = C1 x + C2
Substitute Values,
ho = 40 W/m2.K
a = 10-4 C-2
ko = 0.15 W/m.K
Ti = 100 C
T = 0 C
L = 0.005 m
h
1
T
40
1
(100 ) = 8.0 x 108
p1 = o + 2 i 2 =
+ 4
2
2
4
k o aL aL 3L (0.15)(10 )(0.005) (10 )(0.005) 3(0.005)
2
h (T 3T ) 2T
(40 )[100 3(0 )] 2(100) 2(100)
2T
q1 = o i 2 i 3 i 3 =
2
3
3
3k o aL
27 L 3aL 3(0.15)(10 4 )(0.005) 27(0.005) 3(10 4 )(0.005)
q1 = 2.3704 1012
3
2.3704 1012
(
2.3704 1012 ) (8.0 108 )
u=
+
+
= 14,930
2
4
27
2T 2(100)
a1 = i =
= 40,000
L
0.005
8.0 108
40000
C1 =
149300
= -10,402
3(14930 )
3
C 2 = 100 C
T = C1 x + C2 = 10402 x + 100
2
Tabulation:
x, m
0.000
0.001
0.002
0.003
0.004
0.005
T, C
100
89.6
79.2
68.8
58.4
48.0
Plot:
46

q = ho (To T ) = ho ( 10402 L + 100 T )
q = (40)[ 10402(0.005) + 100 0] = 1,920 W/m2.

2.26
A scientist proposes an experiment for the space shuttle in which he provides

underwater illumination in a large tank of water at 20 C, using a 3 cm diameter
spherical light bulb. What is the maximum wattage of the bulb in zero gravity that
will not boil the water?
Solution:
ro = (1/2)(3 cm) = 1.5 cm = 0.015 m
T = 20 C
Ti = 100 C
q&
2T + = 0
k
2
q&
T 2T 2T
+ 2 + 2 =
2
k
x
y
z
2
2
2
T T T
=
=
x 2 y 2 z 2
2T
q&
3 2 =
x
k
2
T
q&
=
2
x
3k
T
q&
= x + C1
x
3k
&q 2
T =
x + C1 x + C2
6k
q& 2
T =
y + C1 y + C 2
6k
q& 2
T =
z + C1 z + C2
6k
T = To , ( x, y, z ) = (ro ,0,0) = (0, ro ,0) = (0,0, ro )
47

To =
q& 2
ro + C1 ro + C 2
6k
as z , y , x = ro ,
T
= 0, maximum T.
x
q&
r o + C1
3k
q&
C1 = r o
3k
q& 2 q& 2
To = ro + ro + C 2
6k
3k
q& 2
ro
To = C 2 +
6k
as z , y , x = 0, T = T ,
0=
T =
q&
(0)2 + C1 (0 ) + C2
6k
C2 = T
q& 2
ro
6k
q& 2
To T =
ro
6k
Q
q& =
V
Q 2
To T =
ro
6kV
4 3
V = ro
3
Q
Q
2
To T =
ro =
8k ro
4
3
6k ro
3
Q = 8k ro (To T )
For water at 20 C, k = 0.0181 W/m.K
Q = 8(0.0181)( )(0.015)(100 20) = 0.55 W
To = T +
2.27
A cylindrical shell is made of two layers an inner one with inner radius = ri and
outer radius = rc and an outer one with inner radius = rc and outer radius = ro.
There is a contact resistance, hc, between the shells. The materials are different,
and T1(r = ri) = Ti and T2(r = ro) = To. Derive an expression for the inner
temperature of the outer shell (T2c).
48

Solution:
r
r
ln c ln o
r
r
1
+ i + c
Rt =
hc Ac 2lk1
2lk 2
r
r
ln c
ln o
r A
r A
1
+ i c+ c c
Rt =
hc Ac 2lk1 Ac 2lk 2 Ac
r
r
rc ln c rc ln o
1
ri +
rc
+
Rt =
hc Ac
k1 Ac
k 2 Ac
r
r
rc ln c rc ln o
1
ri +
rc
Rt Ac = +
hc
k1
k2
Then.
T T
T T
Q = o i = 2c i
Rt Ac Rtc1 Ac
r
rc ln c
1
ri
Rtc1 Ac = +
hc
k1
To Ti
T2 c Ti
=
r
r
r
rc ln c rc ln o
rc ln c
1
ri
ri +
rc 1 +
+
hc
k1
k2
hc
k1
r
rc ln c
r
(To Ti ) 1 + i
hc
k1
T2 c = Ti +
r
r
rc ln c rc ln o
1
ri +
rc
+
hc
k1
k2
or
Q=
To Ti
T T
= o 2c
Rt Ac Rtc 2 Ac
49

To Ti
T T
= o 2c
r
r
r
rc ln c rc ln o ro ln o
1
rc
ri +
rc
+
hc
k1
k2
k2
ro
ro ln
r
(To Ti ) c
k2
T2 c = To +
r
r
rc ln c rc ln o
1
ri +
rc
+
hc
k1
k2
2.28
A 1 kW commercial electrical heating rod, 8 mm in diameter and 0.3 m long is to

be used in a highly corrosive gaseous environment. Therefore, it has to be
provided with a cylindrical sheath of fireclay. The gas flows by at 120 C, and h =
is 230 W/m2.K outside the sheath. The surface of the heating rod cannot exceed
800 C. Set the maximum sheath thickness and the outer temperature of the
fireclay. [Hint: use heat flux and temperature distribution. Then use the additional
convective boundary condition to obtain the sheath thickness.]
Solution:
ri = inside radius of insulation = (1/2)(8 mm) = 4 mm = 0.004 m
ro = outside radius of insulation
T = 120 C
h = 230 W/m2
Ti = 800 C
l = 0.3 m
Q = 1 kW = 1000 W
2T +
q&
1 T
=
k
t
{
123
=0
= 0 , since steady
1 T
r
=0
r r r
T
r
=0
r r
T
r
= C1
r
50

T C1
=
r
r
T = C1 ln r + C2
Then,
T
qradial = k
r
Q = qA = q (2 rL )
Q
C
q=
= k 1
2 rL
r
Q
C1 =
2 rkL
at ri = 0.004 m, Ti = 800 C
Ti = C1 ln ri + C 2
Q
Ti =
ln ri + C 2
2 kL
Q
C2 = Ti +
ln ri
2 kL
Q
Q
T =
ln r + Ti +
ln ri
2 kL
2 kL
T Ti =
T = Ti
r
Q
ln
2 kL ri
r
Q
ln
2 kL ri
and
h (T T )r = ro = k
T
r
r = ro
r
Q
C
h Ti
ln o T = k 1
2 kL ri
ro
r
Q
Q
h Ti T
ln o =
2 kL ri 2 ro L
r
Q
Q
Ti T
ln o =
2 kL ri 2 ro Lh
r
Q k
+ ln o = Ti T
2 kL ro h
ri
For fireclay, k = 1.0 W/m.K
Substitute values:
51

1000 1
r
+ ln o = 800 120 = 680
2 (1)(0.3) ro (230)
0.004
By Trial and error:

ro = 0.0088 m
Maximum thickness = ro ri = 0.0088 m 0.004 m = 0.0048 m = 4.8 mm
r
1000
Q
0.0088
ln o = 800
ln
To = Ti
2 kL ri
2 (0.3) 0.004
To = 382 C
2.29
A very small diameter, electrically insulated heating wire runs down the center of
a 7.5 mm diameter rod of type 304 stainless steel. The outside is cooled by natural
convection ( h = 6.7 W/m2.K) in room air at 22 C. if the wire releases 12 W/m,
plot Trod vs. radial position in the rod. (Stop and consider carefully the boundary
conditions for this problem.)
Solution:
2T +
q&
1 T
=
k
t
123
= 0 , since steady
1 T
q&
r
=
r r r
k
T
q
r
= r
r r
k
T
q&
r
= r 2 + C1
r
2k
T
q&
C
= r+ 1
r
2k
r
&q 2
T = r + C1 ln r + C2
4k
at r = ri = 0
T
q&
r
= r 2 + C1
r
2k
0 = 0 + C1
C1 = 0
q&
T = r 2 + C2
4k
T
h (T T )r = ro = k
r r =ro
52

q& 2
q&
h
ro + C 2 T = k ro
4k
r =ro
2k
q&
q& 2
C2 =
ro +
ro + T
2h
4k
Then,
q&
q&
q& 2
ro + T
T = r2 +
ro +
4k
2h
4k
q& 2 2
q&
ro
T T =
ro r +
4k
2h
Plot: ro = 0.0075 mm, h = 6.7 W/m2.K
Q
q& = L2
ro
Q = 12 W/m
L
T = 22 C
For 304 stainless steel, say k = 14 W/m.K
12
q& =
= 67,906 W/m3
2
(0.0075)
(67,906) (0.0075)2 r 2 + (67,906) (0.0075)
T 22 =
4(14)
2(6.7 )
2
T = 60.075 1212.607r
r, m
0.0000
0.0015
0.0030
0.0045
0.0060
0.0075
r, mm
0.0
1.5
3.0
4.5
6.0
7.5
T, C
60.075
60.072
60.064
60.050
60.031
60.007
53

To = 60.075 1212.607(0.0075) = 60.007 C

2
2.30
A contact resistance experiment involves pressing two slabs of different materials

together, putting a known heat flux through them, and measuring the outside
temperature of each slab. Write the general expression for hc in terms of known
quantities. Then calculate hc if the slabs are 2 cm thick copper and 1.5 cm thick
aluminum, if q is 30,000 W/m2, and if the two temperatures are 15 C and 22.1 C.
Solution:
Known quantities:
T1 = outside temperature of left slab
T4 = outside temperature of right slab
L1, L2 = thicknesses
k1, k2 = thermal conductivities
Let left slab has a higher temperature than right slab.
T T
T T
q = k1 2 1 = k 2 4 3 = hc (T2 T3 )
L1
L2
qL1
k1
qL
T3 = T4 + 2
k2
T2 = T1
qL
qL
q = hc T1 1 T4 + 2
k1
k 2
54

L L
q = hc (T1 T4 ) q 1 + 2
k1 k 2
q
hc =
L1 L2
(T1 T4 ) q +
k1 k 2
hc =
1
(T1 T4 ) L1 + L2
k k
q
2
1
Copper: L1 = 2 cm = 0.02 m, k1 = 398 W/m.K

Aluminum: L2 = 1.5 cm = 0.015 m, k2 = 237 W/m.k
T1 = 22.1 C, T2 = 15 C, q = 30,000 W/m2.
1
hc =
= 8,122 W/m2.K
(22.1 15) 0.02 + 0.015
30,000
237
398
2.31
A student working heat transfer problems late at night needs a cup of hot cocoa to
stay awake. She puts milk in a pan on an electric stove and seeks to heat it as
rapidly as she can, without burning the milk, by turning the stove on high and
stirring the milk continuously. Explain how this works using an analogous
electric circuit. Is it possible to bring the entire bulk of the milk up to the burning
temperature without burning part of it?
Solution:
If you put the milk into a hot pan and leave it undisturbed the milk closest to the source
of the heat will reach the burn temperature quickly and scorch.
If you stir the milk constantly, the movement will keep redistributing the added heat
throughout the milk so it heats up more uniformly. When the more uniformly heated milk
reaches the same burn temperature, it will scorch.
Milk get scorched at 185 F (85 C), which makes it taste unpleasant.
Same data as in (a)
Tburning = 100 C
T flame = 500 C
q=
T flame Tburning
L 1
+
k hb
55

T flame Tmilk
1 L 1
+ +
h k hb
L
Where 0
k
q=
h = 200 W/m2.K Same as in example 2.10.

hb = 5000 W/m2.K assumed for stirred milk. Same as in example 2.10.
L
0
k
Thermal Circuit
Burning at the bottom or surface of the pan.

Then,
q=
500 85
= 83,000 W/m2.
1
200
Tmilk = milk temperature

T flame Tmilk
q=
1 L 1
+ +
h k hb
500 Tmilk
83,000 =
1
1
+
200 5000
q
1
1
Tmilk = T flame = 500 83,000
+
h
200 5000
Tmilk = 68.4 C . Therefore the milk must be heated to approximately 65 to 70 C.
Heating to approximately, it is possible to reach the burning temperature without burning

part of it.
2.32
A small, spherical hot air balloon, 10 m in diameter, weighs 130 kg with a small
gondola and one passenger. How much fuel be consumed (in kJ/h) if it is to hover
at low altitude in still 27 C air? houtside = 215 W/m2.K, as the result of natural
convection.)
Solution:
56

ro = (1/2)(10 m) = 5 m
T = 27 C
h = 215 W/m.K
Derivation of equation:
1 2 (rT )
q&
=
2
r r
k
2
(rT )
q&
= r
2
r
k
(rT )
q&
= r 2 + C1
r
2k
&q 3
rT = r + C1 r + C 2
6k
q& 2
C
T = r + C1 + 2
6k
r
T
q&
C
= r 22
r
3k
r
T
h (T T )r = r o = k
r r =ro
q&
q& 2
C
C
= k ro 22
h ro + C1 + 2 T
ro
ro
6k
r =r o
3k
q&
q& 2
C
C
h ro + C1 + 2 T
= k ro + 22
ro
ro
6k
r = ro
3k
q&
k
C
q& 2
C1 =
ro +
C2 2 +
ro + T
2
3h
h ro
ro 6k
q&
1
Q = h Ao (T T )r = r o = q&V = kAo ro + 2 C2
ro
3k
&
1
4 3
2 q
q& ro = k 4 ro ro + 2 C2
ro
3
3k
C2 = 0
q&
q& 2
C1 =
ro +
ro + T
3h
6k
q
q&
q& 2
T = r2 +
ro +
ro + T
6k
3h
6k
q& 2 2
q&
T T =
ro r +
ro
6k
3h
57

Density of air = =
m
V
4 3
V = ro
3
3m
3(130 )
=
= 0.2483 kg/m3.
=
3
3
4 ro
4 (5)
From Appendix A, Table A.6, Temperature of air at this density is 1422 K = 1149 C.
At uniform air temperature inside balloon.
To = 1149 C
q&
ro
3h
Qro
Q
T T =
=
2
3h V 4 ro h
T T =
Q = 4 ro h (T T ) - equation derived.
2
Q = 4 (5) (215)(1149 27 )
Q = 75,784,640 J/s = 272,824,703 kJ/h
2
2.33
A slab of mild steel, 4 cm thick, is held at 1000 C on the back side. The front side
is approximately black and radiates to black surroundings at 100 C. What is the
temperature of the front side?
Solution:
Ti )
4
4
= To T
L
Ti = 1000 C + 273 = 1273 K
k
(T
T = 100 C + 273 = 373 K

L = 4 cm = 0.04 m
= 5.67 x 10-8 W/m2.K4
Thermal conductivity of mild steel at 1000 C, App. A
k = 28 W/m.K
(T T )
4
4
k i o = To T
L
(
1273 To )
4
(28)
= (5.67 10 8 ) To 3734
(0.04)
(5.67 10 )T
8
+ 700To 892,198 = 0
To = 1138.4 K
To = 865.4 C
58

2.34
With reference to Fig. 2.3, develop an empirical equation for k(T) for ammonia
vapor. Then imagine a hot surface at Tw parallel with a cool horizontal surface at
a distance H below it. Develop equations for T(x) and q. Compute q if Tw = 350
C, Tcool = -5 C, H = 0.15 m.
Solution:
From Fig. 2.3, ammonia vapor is nearly a straight line, use k = a + bT
T = 0 C, k = 0.0234 W/m.K
T = 100 C, k = 0.0498 W/m.K
Then a = 0.0234, b = 2.64 x 10-4
k = 0.0234 + 2.64 10 4 T
dT
dT
q = k
= (a + bT )
dx
dx
T2
1
qL = aT + bT 2
2
T1
1
2
2
qL = a(T2 T1 ) b T2 T1
2
T1 = Tw
T2 = Tcool , L = H = 0.15 m
1
2
2
qL = a (T1 T2 ) b T1 T2
2
1
2
2
0.234(T1 T2 ) (2.64 10 4 ) T1 T2
2
q=
L
1
2
2
0.234(Tw Tcool ) (2.64 10 4 ) Tw Tcool
2
q=
L
2
2
0.234(Tw Tcool ) (1.32 10 4 ) Tw Tcool
q=
L
2
2
2 x
0.234 (Tw T ) (1.32 10 4 ) Tw T 2 = 0.234 (Tw Tcool ) (1.32 10 4 ) Tw Tcool
L
2
2
2 x
1773(Tw T ) Tw T 2 = 1773(Tw Tcool ) Tw Tcool
L
2
2 x
2
T 2 + 1773T + 1773(Tw Tcool ) + Tw Tcool Tw 1773Tw = 0
L
2
2
2 x
T 2 + 1773T Tw + 1773Tw 1773(Tw Tcool ) + Tw Tcool = 0
L
) [
) [
)]
)]
59
)]
)]

2
2
2 x
1773 + 17732 + 4Tw + 1773Tw 1773(Tw Tcool ) + Tw Tcool
L
T=
2
)]
2
2
2 x
T = 886.5 + 0.5 17732 + 4Tw + 1773Tw 1773(Tw Tcool ) + Tw Tcool
L
)]
2
2
2 x
T = 886.5 + 0.5 3,143,529 + 4Tw + 7092Tw 4 1773(Tw Tcool ) + Tw Tcool
L
)]
Compute q:
q=
2.35
0.234[350 ( 5)] (1.32 10 4 ) (350 ) ( 5)

= 662 W/m2.
0.15
2
A type 316 stainless steel pipe has a 6 cm inside diameter an 8 cm outside

diameter with a 2 mm layer of 85 % magnesia insulation around it. Liquid at 112
C flows inside, so hi = 346 W/m2.K. The air around the pipe is 20 C, and ho = 6
W/m2.K. Calculate U based on the inside area. Sketch the equivalent electrical
circuit, showing all known temperatures. Discuss the results.
Solution:
r1 = (1/2)(6 cm) = 3 cm = 0.03 m

r2 = (1/2)(8 cm) = 4 cm = 0.04 m
r3 = 0.002 m + 0.040 m = 0.042 m
hi = 346 W/m2.K
ho = 6 W/m2.K
Ti = 112 C
To = 20 C
60

r
r
r1 ln 2 r1 ln 3
1
1
r1 +
r2 + r1
= +
U i hi
2k ss
2k m
r3ho
For type 316 stainless steel, kss = 15 W/m.K from Appendix A
For 85 % magnesia, km = 0.067 W/m.K
(0.03)ln 0.04 (0.03)ln 0.042
1
1
0.03 +
0.04 + (0.03)
=
+
(0.042)(6)
U i 346
2(15)
2(0.067 )
2
U i = 7.5104 W/m .K
U i (Ti To ) = hi (Ti T1 )
7.5104(112 20 ) = 346(112 T1 )
T1 = 110 C
2k (T T )
U i (Ti To ) = ss 1 2
r
r1 ln 2
r1
2(15)(110 T2 )
7.5104(112 20 ) =
0.04
0.03 ln
0.03
T2 = 109.8 C
2k (T T )
U i (Ti To ) = m 2 3
r
r1 ln 3
r2
2(0.067 )(109.8 T3 )
7.5104(112 20 ) =
0.042
0.03 ln
0.04
T3 = 102.25 C
Electrical circuit:
61

2.36
There is a negligible drop in temperature in stainless steel pipe, insulation and the
inside film coefficient. The dominant factor is the outside film coefficient .
Two highly reflecting, horizontal plates are passed 0.0005 m apart. The upper one
is kept at 1000 C and the lower one at 200 C. There is air in between. Neglect
radiation and compute the heat flux and the midpoint temperature in the air. Use a
power-law fit of the form k = a (T 0C)b to represent the air data in Table A.6.
Solution:
Table A.6
T, oC
177
227
277
327
377
427
477
527
577
627
677
727
827
927
k (W/m.K)
0.03656
0.03971
0.04277
0.04573
0.04863
0.05146
0.05425
0.05699
0.05969
0.06237
0.06501
0.06763
0.07281
0.07792
By curvefitting
k = aTb
a = 0.003225
b = 0.4608
dT
dx
dT
q = aT b
dx
T2
a b +1
qL =
T
b +1
T1
q = k
T2 = 200C
T1 = 1000 C
L = 0.0005 m
a
b +1
b +1
q=
T2 T1
(
)
L b +1
)
62

a
b +1
b +1
T1 T2
L(b + 1)
0.003225
(1000)0.4608+1 (200)0.4608 +1
q=
(0.0005)(0.4608 + 1)
q
= 96,358.3 W/m2.
L
x=
2
2a
b +1
b +1
q=
T1 Tm
L(b + 1)
2(0.003225)
96,358.3 =
(1000)0.4608 +1 Tm 0.4608 +1
(0.0005)(0.4608 + 1)
Tm = 662.2 C
q=
2.37
A 0.1 m thick slab with k = 3.4 W/m.K is held at 100 C on the left side. The right
side is cooled with air at 20 C through a heat transfer coefficient, and
5
1
h = 5.1 W / m 2 (K ) 4 (Twall T )4 . Find q and Twall on the right.
Solution:
L = 0.10 m
k = 3.4 W/m.K
Tl = 100 C
T = 20 C
5
1
h = 5.1 W / m 2 (K ) 4 (Twall T )4
(T T )
q = k l wall = h (Twall T )
L
5
5
(T T )
k l wall = 5.1W / m 2 ( K ) 4 (Twall T )4
L
5
(3.4) (100 Twall ) = 5.1(Twall 20)4
(0.10)
5
5.1(Twall 20)4 34(100 Twall ) = 0

Twall = 76.67 C
(T T )
(100 76.67) = 793.22 W/m2.
q = k l wall = (3.4 )
(0.10)
L
2.38
Heat is generated at 54,000 W/m3 in a 0.16 m diameter sphere. The sphere is

cooled
by
natural
convection
with
fluid
at
0
C,
and
63

h = 2 + 6(Tsurface T )4 W/m2.K, ksphere = 9 W/m.K. Find the surface temperature
and center temperature of the sphere.

1
Solution:
q& = 54,000 W/m3.
T = 0 C
k sphere = 9 W/m.K
1 2 (rT ) q&
+ =0
r r 2
k
1 2 (rT )
q&
=
2
r r
k
2
(rT )
q&
= r
2
r
k
(rT )
q&
= r 2 + C1
2k
r
q&
rT = r 3 + C1 r + C 2
6k
&q 2
C
T = r + C1 + 2
6k
r
T
q&
C2
= r 2
r
3k
r
at the surface r = ro
h (T T )r = ro = k
T
r
r = ro
q&
q& 2
C
C
h
ro + C1 + 2 T = k ro 22
ro
ro
6k
3k
q& 2
C
q&
kC
ro + C1 + 2 T =
ro + 22
6k
ro
3h
h ro
but
q& 2
C
To = ro + C1 + 2
6k
ro
q& 2 C
C1 = To + ro 2
6k
ro
q& 2
q& 2 C2 C 2
q&
kC
ro + To +
ro +
T =
ro + 22
6k
6k
ro ro
3h
h ro
64

To T =
q&
kC
ro + 22
3h
h ro
h 2
q&
C2 = ro To T
ro
3h
k
q& 2 h
q&
C1 = To +
ro ro To T
ro
6k
3h
k
q& 2 h
q& 2
ro ro (To T ) + ro
6k
3k
k
2
q&
q& 2 h
q& 2 h r
q&
T = r 2 + To +
ro ro (To T ) + ro + o To T
ro
6k
6k
3k
k
r
3
h
q& 2 2 h ro
q& ro
To T
T = To +
ro r +
ro 1
6k
3h r
k r
Solve for surface temperature T = To
q& 2
q& ro
2 h r
To = To +
ro ro o To T
ro 1
6k
3h ro
k ro
q&
To = T +
ro
3h
q&ro
To = T +
1
3 2 + 6(To T )4
1
3(To T ) 2 + 6(To T )4 = q&ro
T = 0 C
C1 = To +
1
3To 2 + 6To 4 = (54,000)(0.16) = 8,640
1
To 2 + 6To 4 = 2880
To = 129.5 C
Center Temperature, r = 0
q&
Note that To T
ro = 0
3h
Then:
q& 2 2
T = To +
ro r
6k
2
q&r
(54000)(0.16)2 = 155.1 C
Tc = To + o = 129.5 +
6k
6(9 )
65

2.39
Layers of equal thickness of spruce and pitch pine are laminated to make an
insulating material. How should the laminations be oriented in a temperature
gradient to achieve the best effect?
Solution:
Thermal conductivity of spruce and pitch pine, Appendix A
kspruce = 0.11 W/m.K
kpine = 0.14 W/m.K
T
q=
Rt
In series:
1
1
1
Rt = =
+
= 16.234
k 0.11 0.14
T
q=
= 0.0616T
16.234
In parallel:
1
1
Rt =
=
=4
k 0.11 + 0.14
T
q=
= 0.0616T
16.234
T
q=
= 0.25T
4
Therefore use series orientation with lower heat loss.
2.40
The resistance of a thick cylindrical layer of insulation must be increased. Will Q

be lowered more by a small increase of the outside diameter or by the same
decrease in the inside diameter?
Solution:
2 klT T
=
Q=
ln (ro / ri ) Rt
ln (ro / ri )
Rt =
2 kl
For small increase in diameter let x be the ratio of that increase to diameter.
Outside diameter increase:
ln (ro / ri )
Rt =
2 kl
66

r + xro
r
ln o
ln o
ri
ri
Rto =
2 kl
ln (1 + x )
Rto =
2 kl
r
r
ln o ln o
r xri
ri
Rti = i
2 kl
1
ln
1 x
Rti =
2 kl
Since
1
1+ x <
for 1 > x > 0
1 x
Rti > Rto
and
qo > qi
Therefore Q will be lowered more by a small increase of the outside diameter.

2.41
You are in charge of energy conservation at your plant. There is a 300 m run of 6
in. O.D. pipe carrying steam at 250 C. The company requires that any insulation
must pay for itself in one year. The thermal resistance are such that the surface of
the pipe will stay close to 250 C in air at 25 C when h = 10 W/m2.K. Calculate
the annual energy savings in kW.h that will result if a1 in layer of 85 % magnesia
insulation is added. If energy is worth 6 cents per kW.h and insulation costs $75
per installed linear meter, will the insulation pay for itself in one year?
Solution:
Thermal conductivity of 85 % magnesia insulation
k = 0.08 W/m.K
T
Q=
Rttotal
Without insulation, OD = 6 in = 0.1524 m
Q = h AT
Q = (10)( )(0.1524)(300 )(250 25)
Q = 323,176 W
With insulation
67

r
ln o
r
1
Rttotal = i +
2 lk 2 ro lh
ri = (1/2)(0.1524 m) = 0.0762 m
ro = ri + 1 in = ri + 0.0254 m = 0.0762 m + 0.0254 m = 0.1016 m
0.1016
ln
1
0.0762
Rttotal =
+
= 2.43 x 10-3 K/W
2 (300 )(0.080 ) 2 (0.1016 )(300)(10)
T
250 25
Q=
=
= 92,593 W
Rttotal 2.43 10 3
Annual Energy Savings
Payback Period =
= (323,176 W 92,593 W)(1 kW / 1000 W)(8760 h/yr)

= 2,019,907 kW.h
($75.00 / m)(300 m)
= 0.1857 year << 1 year
(2,019,907 kW .h)($0.06 / kW .h )
Therefore insulation pays for itself in less than a year.

2.42
An exterior wall of a wood-frame house is typically composed from outside to

inside, of a layer of wooden siding, a layer of glass fiber insulation, a layer of
gypsum wall board. Standard glass fiber insulation has a thickness of 3.5 inch and
a conductivity of 0.038 W/m.K. Gypsum wall board is normally 0.50 inch thick
with a conductivity of 0.17 W/m.K, and the siding can be assumed to be 1.0 inch
thick with a conductivity of 0.10 W/m.K.
a. Find the overall thermal resistance of such a wall (in K/W) if it has an area of
400 ft2.
b. Convection and radiation processes on the inside and outside of the wall
introduce more thermal resistance. Assuming that the effective outside heat
transfer coefficient (accounting for both convection and radiation) is ho = 20
W/m2.K and that for the inside is hi = 10 W/m2/K, determine the total thermal
resistance for the heat loss from the indoors to the outdoors. Also obtain an
overall heat transfer coefficient, U, in W/m2.K.
c. If the interior temperature is 20 C and the outdoor temperature is 5 C, find
the heat loss through the wall in watts and the heat flux in W/m2.
d. Which of the five thermal resistance is dominant?
Solution:
k1 = 0.10 W/m.K
L1 = 1.0 inch = 0.0254 m
k2 = 0.038 W/m.K
L2 = 3.5 inch = 0.0889 m
68

k3 = 0.17 W/m.K
L3 = 0.50 inch = 0.0127 m
L L L 1
Rttotal = 1 + 2 + 3
k1 k 2 k3 A
0.0254 0.0889 0.0127 1
-3
=
+
+
= 6.67 x 10 K/W
0.038
0.17 400
0.10
(a)
Rttotal
1 L L L 1 1
Rttotal = + 1 + 2 + 3 +
ho k1 k 2 k 3 hi A
(b)
1 0.0254 0.0889 0.0127 1 1

-3
Rttotal = +
+
+
+
= 7.04545 x 10 K/W
0.10
0.038
0.17 10 400
20
UA =
UA =
U=
(c)
(d)
2.43
1
Rttotal
1
Rttotal
1
= 0.355 W/m2.K
3
(7.04545 10 )(400)
Q = UAT
Q = (0.355)(400 )(20 ( 5)) = 3550 W
Q
q = = UT = (0.355)(20 (5)) = 8.875 W/m2.
A
L2
is the dominant one (glass fiber insulation).
K2
ln ro .
We found that the thermal resistance of a cylinder was Rtcyl = 1
r
2
kl
i
If ro = ri + , show that the thermal resistance of a thin-walled cylinder
( << ri ) can be approximated by that for a slab of thickness . Thus,
Rtthin = ( ) , where Ai = 2 ri l is the inside surface area of the cylinder. How

kAi
mych error is introduced by this approximation if

series.]
Solution:
69
ri
= 0.2 ? [Hint: Use a Taylor

1 ro
ln
Rtcyl =
2 kl ri
1 ri +
ln
Rtcyl =
2 kl ri
For small
ri
r +

= ln 1 +
ln i
ri
ri
Using Taylor series:
n
( 1)
ln (1 + x ) =
x n+1 for |x| < 1
n= 0 n + 1
1
1
1
ln (1 + x ) = x x 2 + x 3 x 4 ........
2
3
4
ln (1 + x ) x

ln 1 +
ri ri
1
Rtthin =
2 kl ri

=
kAi
Error:

ln 1 +
r
ri
Error = i

ln 1 +
ri
2.44
= 0.2 ln (1 + 0.2) = 0.097 or 9.7 %

ln (1 + 0.2)
A Gardon gage measures a radiation heat flux by detecting a temperature

difference. The gage consists of circular constantan membrane of radius R,
thickness t, and thermal conductivity kct which is joined to a heavy copper heat
sink at its edges. When a radiant heat flux qrad is absorbed by the membrane, heat
flows from the interior of the membrane to copper heat sink at the edge, creating
a radial temperature gradient. Copper leads are welded to the center of the
membrane and to the copper heat sink, making two copper-constantan
thermocouple junctions. These junctions measure the difference T between the
edge of the membrane, T(r = 0), and the edge of the membrane, T(r = R).
The following approximations can be made:
The membrane surface has been blackened so that it absorbs all radiation that falls
on it.
The radiant heat flux is much larger than the heat lost from the membrane by
convection pr re-radiation. Thus, all absorbed radiant heat is removed from the
70

membrane by conduction to the copper heat sink, and the other loses can be
ignored.
The gage operates in steady state.
The membrane is thin enough ( t << R) that the temperature in it varies only with
r, i.e. , T = T(r) only.
Answer the following questions.

a. For a fixed copper heat sink temperature, T(r = R), sketch the shape of the
temperature distribution in the membrane, T = T(r), for two arbitrary heat radiant
fluxes qrad1 and qrad2, where qrad1 > qrad2.
b. Find the relationship between the radiant heat flux, qrad, and the temperature
difference obtained from the thermocouples, T. Hint: Treat the absorbed radiant
heat flux as if it were a volumetric heat source of magnitude qrad / t (W / m3).
Solution:
1 T 1 2T 2T q&
1 T
+ 2 + =
r
+ 2
2
r r r 1
r 4
z
k
t
4
244
123
3
= 0 , since steady
= 0 , sinceT T ( , z )
1 T
q&
q
r
= = rad
r r r
k
kt
T
q
r
= rad r
r r
kt
q
T
r
= rad r 2 + C1
r
2kt
qrad
T
C
=
r+ 1
r
2kt
r
q
T = rad r 2 + C1 ln r + C2
4kt
If r = 0, C1 = 0
q
T = rad r 2 + C2
4kt
at r = R, T = T(r = R)
qrad 2
R + C2
4kt
q
C2 = T (r = R ) + rad R 2
4kt
qrad 2
q
(a)
T =
r + T (r = R ) + rad R 2
4k ct t
4k ct t
q
T = rad (R 2 r 2 ) + T (r = R )
4kct t
T (r = R ) =
71

qrad
(R 2 r 2 ) = qrad R 2 qrad r 2
4k ct t
4k ct t
4kct t
Equation of parabola.
y k = 4ax 2
Here,
q
q
4a = rad , a = rad
4k ct t
16k ct t
2
x=r
T T (r = R ) =
T T (r = R ) =
(b)
qrad
(R 2 r 2 )
4k ct t
at r = 0
T (r = 0 ) =
qrad 2
R
4kct t
T = T (r = R ) T (r = 0) = T (r = R )
qrad =
2.45
qrad 2
R
4kct t
4kct t
[T (r = R ) T ]
R2
You have a 12 oz. (375 mL) can of soda at room temperature (70 F) that you
would like to cool to 45 F before drinking. You rest the can on its side on the
plastic rods of the refrigerator shelf. The can is 2.5 inches in diameter and 5
inches long. The cans emissivity is = 0.4 and the natural convection heat
transfer coefficient around it is a function of the temperature difference between
1
the can and the air: h = 2T 4 for T in Kelvin.

Assume that thermal interactions with the refrigerator shelf are negligible and that
buoyancy currents inside the can will keep the soda well mixed.
72

a. Estimate how long it will take to cool the can in the refrigerator compartment,
which is at 40 F.
b. Estimate how long it will take to cool the can in the freezer compartment,
which is at 5 F.
c. Are your answers for part 1 and 2 the same? If not, what is the main reason
that they are different?
Solution:
1
h = 2T 4
= 0.4
D = 2.5 in = 0.0635 m
L = 5.0 in = 0.127 m
m = 12 oz = 375 mL = 0.375 kg
(a)
T = 40 F, T1 = 70 F, T2 = 45 F
3
hrad = 4Tm
1
1
Tm = (T + T ) = (45 + 40) = 42.5 F
2
2
3
8
hrad = 4(5.67 10 )(0.4 )(42.5 + 273) = 2.849 W/m2.K
1
hc = 2(45 40)4 = 2.99 W/m2.K

hT = 2.99 + 2.849 = 5.839 W/m2.K
T
t
assume cp = 4187 J/kg.K
hT A(T T ) = mc p

2
A = 2 D 2 + DL = (0.0635) + (0.0635)(0.127 ) = 0.03167 m2
4
2
T
hT A(T T ) = mc p
t
(5.839 )(0.03167 )(45 40) = (0.375)(4187 )(70 45)
t
t = 42454 s = 11.79 hrs
(b)
T = 5 F, T1 = 70 F, T2 = 45 F
3
hrad = 4Tm
1
1
Tm = (T + T ) = (45 + 5) = 25 F
2
2
73

hrad = 4(5.67 10 8 )(0.4 )(25 + 273) = 2.4 W/m2.K
3
hc = 2(45 5)4 = 5.03 W/m2.K

hT = 2.4 + 5.03 = 7.43 W/m2.K
T
t
assume cp = 4187 J/kg.K
hT A(T T ) = mc p

2
A = 2 D 2 + DL = (0.0635) + (0.0635)(0.127 ) = 0.03167 m2
4
2
T
hT A(T T ) = mc p
t
(7.43)(0.03167 )(45 5) = (0.375)(4187 )(70 45)
t
t = 4182 s = 1.16 hrs
(c)
The answer is not the same as the room temperature will still dominate the
cooling time.
74

Chapter 02 HEAT

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Chapter 02 HEAT

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2.

HEAT CONDUCTION CONCEPTS, THERMAL RESISTANCE, AND THE

The ordinary differential equation is

2. HEAT CONDUCTION CONCEPTS, THERMAL RESISTANCE, AND THE

where i is the number of increment stages.

2. HEAT CONDUCTION CONCEPTS, THERMAL RESISTANCE, AND THE

q(0.01 m) = - (-34,900 W/m)

Using average value:

kave = (kleft + kright) / 2 = (91 + 53) / 2 = 72 W/m.K

2. HEAT CONDUCTION CONCEPTS, THERMAL RESISTANCE, AND THE

2. HEAT CONDUCTION CONCEPTS, THERMAL RESISTANCE, AND THE

2. HEAT CONDUCTION CONCEPTS, THERMAL RESISTANCE, AND THE

2. HEAT CONDUCTION CONCEPTS, THERMAL RESISTANCE, AND THE

2. HEAT CONDUCTION CONCEPTS, THERMAL RESISTANCE, AND THE

The result is the same as Example 2.5.

2. HEAT CONDUCTION CONCEPTS, THERMAL RESISTANCE, AND THE

2. HEAT CONDUCTION CONCEPTS, THERMAL RESISTANCE, AND THE

Step 7. Critical radius of insulation = rcrit = ro.

2. HEAT CONDUCTION CONCEPTS, THERMAL RESISTANCE, AND THE

q& = 1.0 kW/m3 = 1000 W/m3

Second boundary condition,

qconvection = qconduction at the wall

2. HEAT CONDUCTION CONCEPTS, THERMAL RESISTANCE, AND THE

h q&L q&k q& L k

(b) q& = 1.0 kW/m3 = 1000 W/m3

2. HEAT CONDUCTION CONCEPTS, THERMAL RESISTANCE, AND THE

(c ) Check of heat flux.

at the back of the slab, x = 0

at the front of the slab, x = L

Putting equation into neat dimension form.

2. HEAT CONDUCTION CONCEPTS, THERMAL RESISTANCE, AND THE

q&L q&k q&L q&k

2. HEAT CONDUCTION CONCEPTS, THERMAL RESISTANCE, AND THE

T = Tw1 Tw2 = 370 C 66 C = 304 C

2. HEAT CONDUCTION CONCEPTS, THERMAL RESISTANCE, AND THE

2. HEAT CONDUCTION CONCEPTS, THERMAL RESISTANCE, AND THE

For concrete cinder block.

2. HEAT CONDUCTION CONCEPTS, THERMAL RESISTANCE, AND THE

2. HEAT CONDUCTION CONCEPTS, THERMAL RESISTANCE, AND THE

2.11 Compute U for the slab in Example 1.2.

2. HEAT CONDUCTION CONCEPTS, THERMAL RESISTANCE, AND THE

Assume negligible paper cup thickness.

2. HEAT CONDUCTION CONCEPTS, THERMAL RESISTANCE, AND THE

Burning temperature of paper cup is at 235 C from various sources.

T flame Tboiling water

Copper plates 2 mm and 3 mm in thickness are processed rather lightly together.

2. HEAT CONDUCTION CONCEPTS, THERMAL RESISTANCE, AND THE

Thermal conductivity of copper @ 150 C, k = 239 W/m.K

These shows that not any of them can be ignored.

After Extended Service:

2. HEAT CONDUCTION CONCEPTS, THERMAL RESISTANCE, AND THE

2. HEAT CONDUCTION CONCEPTS, THERMAL RESISTANCE, AND THE

Density of air at 20 C, = 1.205 kg/m3.

An isothermal sphere 3 cm in diameter is kept at 80 C in a large clay region. The

2. HEAT CONDUCTION CONCEPTS, THERMAL RESISTANCE, AND THE

Boundary condition no.1 for x-coordinate.

2. HEAT CONDUCTION CONCEPTS, THERMAL RESISTANCE, AND THE

Is it possible to increase the heat transfer from a convectively cooled isothermal

2. HEAT CONDUCTION CONCEPTS, THERMAL RESISTANCE, AND THE

Step 4. Integrate once:

qconvection = qconduction at the wall

2. HEAT CONDUCTION CONCEPTS, THERMAL RESISTANCE, AND THE

2. HEAT CONDUCTION CONCEPTS, THERMAL RESISTANCE, AND THE

A 1 % carbon-steel sphere 20 cm in diameter is kept at 250 C on the outside. It