HEAT TRANSFER

Engr. Charles Arthel Rey, ChE

Chemical Engineering Intelligence
Learning Laboratory
University of the Philippines Diliman
FOR INTERNAL PURPOSES ONLY. REPRODUCTION OF THIS
MATERIAL WITHOUT THE CONSENT OF THE LECTURER IS
NOT ALLOWED
Heat Transfer by Conduction
◦ Conduction computations are done with the following
assumptions:
◦ Heat flows in homogeneous isotropic solids
◦ There is no convection
◦ Effects of radiation is negligible (unless the solid is translucent to
electromagnetic waves).

◦ Conduction problems may exist in the following manner:

◦ Steady state
◦ Unsteady state
Fourier’s Law
The basic relation for heat flow by conduction is the proportionality between heat flux and the
temperature gradient.

𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝑇
= −𝑘
𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑥

Where: q = rate of heat flow in direction normal to surface

A = surface area
T = Temperature
x = distance measured normal to surface
k = thermal conductivity
Thermal Conductivity, k
Thermal conductivity, k, is the proportionality constant of the Fourier’s Law.

In Fourier’s Series, k is independent of temperature gradient but not necessarily of

temperature itself. This, however, takes exemption on porous solids where radiation between
particles becomes an important part of the total heat flow.

While k might be a function of temperature, this effect of temperature is not a strong one.
In fact, for small ranges of temperature, k may be taken as constant.
Thermal Conductivity, k
Units:
Heat per distance-time-temperature
𝑊 𝐵𝑇𝑈
,
𝑚−°𝐶 𝑓𝑡−ℎ−℉

Common thermal conductivities:

𝑊
Stainless steel: 17
𝑚℃
𝑊
Mild steel: 45
𝑚℃
𝑊
Copper: 380
𝑚℃
𝑊
Silver: 415
𝑚℃
Thermal Conductivity, k
For an ideal gas, k is proportional to the average molecular velocity, the mean free path, and the
molar heat capacity. For monoatomic gasses:
0.5
0.0832 𝑇
𝑘=
𝜎2 𝑀
where: T = temperature, K
M = molecular weight
σ = effective collision diameter, Angstrom
k = Thermal conductivity, W/m-K
Steady State Conduction
𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝑇
= −𝑘
𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑥
𝑞 𝑇1 − 𝑇2
=𝑘
𝐴 𝑥2 − 𝑥1
𝑞 ∆𝑇
=𝑘
𝐴 𝐵
x – thickness of layer of
insulation
T - Temperature
Compound resistance in Series
∆𝑇 = ∆𝑇𝐴 + ∆𝑇𝐵 + ∆𝑇𝐶 …
Steady State Conduction
𝑞 ∆𝑇
=
𝐴 𝐵𝐴 + 𝐵𝐵 + 𝐵𝐶
𝑘𝐴 𝑘𝐵 𝑘𝐶
𝐵
𝑅=
𝑘
𝑞 ∆𝑇 ∆𝑇
= =
𝐴 𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝐵 + 𝑅𝐶 𝑅
Heat Flow Through a Cylinder

𝑘𝐴𝐿 (𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜 ) 2𝜋𝐿 𝑟𝑜 − 𝑟𝑖

𝑞= 𝐴𝐿 =
𝑟𝑜 − 𝑟𝑖 ln 𝑟𝑜 /𝑟𝑖
𝑟𝑜 − 𝑟𝑖
𝑟𝐿 =
𝑟𝑜
ln
𝑟𝑖

Note: AL is the area of a cylinder of length, L and radius rL.

The latter is called the logarithmic mean radius.
In a steady state, heat flow rate is constant.
Unsteady
State
Conduction
One-Dimensional Heat
Flow with Constant
Surface Temperature
Unsteady
State
Conduction
One-Dimensional Heat
Flow with Constant
Surface Temperature
Example
1. A furnace wall consists of 200 mm of refractory fireclay brick, 100 mm of kaolin brick,
and 6 mm of steel plate. The fire side of the refractory is 1150 deg C, and the outside
of the steel is at 30 deg C. An accurate heat balance over the furnace shows the
heat loss from the wall to be 300 W per sq. m. It is known that there may be thin layers
of air between the layers of brick steel. How many millimeters of kaolin are these air
layers equivalent?
𝑞 ∆𝑇
=
𝐴 ∆𝑥𝐴 + ∆𝑥𝐵 + ∆𝑥𝑐 + ∆𝑥𝐵2
𝑘𝐴 𝑘𝐵 𝑘𝑐 𝑘𝐵
Where: Delta T = 1150 – 30 = 1120 deg C
q/A = 300 W/sqm
x’s = 0.2 m ; 0.1 m ; 0.006 m ; x = ? k’s = 0.994, 0.0857, 53.48 W/m deg C
Example
1. A furnace wall consists of 200 mm of refractory fireclay brick, 100 mm of kaolin brick, and 6 mm of steel
plate. The fire side of the refractory is 1150 deg C, and the outside of the steel is at 30 deg C. An
accurate heat balance over the furnace shows the heat loss from the wall to be 300 W per sq. m. It is
known that there may be thin layers of air between the layers of brick steel. How many millimeters of
kaolin are these air layers equivalent?
𝑞 ∆𝑇
=
𝐴 ∆𝑥𝐴 + ∆𝑥𝐵 + ∆𝑥𝑐 + ∆𝑥𝐵2
𝑘𝐴 𝑘𝐵 𝑘𝑐 𝑘𝐵

1120
300 =
0.2 0.1 0.006 𝑥
+ + +
0.994 0.0857 53.48 0.0857

∆𝑥𝐵2 = 202 mm
Example
2. A layer of pulverized cork 6 in thick is used as a layer of thermal insulation in a flat wall. The
temperature of the cold side of the cork is 40 deg F (4.4 deg C) and that of the warm side
is 180 deg F (82.2 def C). The thermal conductivity of the cork at 32 deg F (0 deg C) is 0.021
BTU/ft-h-F (0.036 W/m-C), and that at 200 deg F (93.3 deg C) is 0.032 (0.055). The area of
the wall is 25 sq. ft. (2.32 sq. m). What is the rate of heat flow through the wall in BTU per-hr?
Where: A = 25 sq ft. ; Delta T = 180 – 40 = 140 deg F; Delta x = 6 in/12 =0.5 ft
Tave = (40+180)/2 = 110 deg F
Interpolation :
𝑘 − 0.021 110 − 32
=
0.032 − 0.021 200 − 32

k = 0.0261 BTU/ft-h-F
Example
2. A layer of pulverized cork 6 in thick is used as a layer of thermal insulation in a flat wall.
The temperature of the cold side of the cork is 40 deg F (4.4 deg C) and that of the
warm side is 180 deg F (82.2 def C). The thermal conductivity of the cork at 32 deg F
(0 deg C) is 0.021 BTU/ft-h-F (0.036 W/m-C), and that at 200 deg F (93.3 deg C) is 0.032
(0.055). The area of the wall is 25 sq. ft. (2.32 sq. m). What is the rate of heat flow
through the wall in BTU per-hr and in watts?
k = 0.0261 BTU/ft-h-F
∆𝑇 × 𝐴 25 0.026 𝐵𝑇𝑈
𝑞= = 140 = 180 = 53.3 𝑊
∆𝑥 0.5 ℎ
𝑘
Example
3. A flat furnace wall is constructed of a 4.5 in (114 mm) layer of Sil-o-cel brick, with a
thermal conductivity of 0.08 BTU/ft-hr-F (0.138 W/m-C) backed by a 9 in (220 mm) layer of
common brick, of conductivity 0.8 BTU/ft-h-F (1/38 W/m-C). The temperature of the inner
face of the wall is 1400 deg F and that of the outer face is 170 deg F (76.6 deg C). a)
What is the heat loss through the wall? b) What is the temperature of the interface
between the refractory brick and the common brick? c) supposing that the contact
between the two brick layers is poor and that a contact resistance of 0.50 F-h-sqft/BTU
(0.088 deg C sqm/W) is present, what would be the heat loss?
Example
3. A flat furnace wall is constructed of a 4.5 in (114 mm) layer of Sil-o-cel brick, with a thermal conductivity
of 0.08 BTU/ft-hr-F (0.138 W/m-C) backed by a 9 in (220 mm) layer of common brick, of conductivity 0.8
BTU/ft-h-F (1/38 W/m-C). The temperature of the inner face of the wall is 1400 deg F and that of the outer
face is 170 deg F (76.6 deg C). a) What is the heat loss through the wall?
𝑞 ∆𝑇
a. 𝐴
= ∆𝑥
𝑘
∆𝑥
=𝑅
𝑘
4.5 9
𝑅1 = 12 = 4.68 𝑅2 = 12 = 0.938 𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 = 5.625
0.08 0.8
∆𝑇 = 1400 − 170 = 1230 ℉

𝑞 1230 𝐵𝑇𝑈
= = 218. 9
𝐴 5.625 ℎ𝑟 − 𝑓𝑡 2
Example
3. A flat furnace wall is constructed of a 4.5 in (114 mm) layer of Sil-o-cel brick, with a
thermal conductivity of 0.08 BTU/ft-hr-F (0.138 W/m-C) backed by a 9 in (220 mm) layer of
common brick, of conductivity 0.8 BTU/ft-h-F (1/38 W/m-C). The temperature of the inner
face of the wall is 1400 deg F and that of the outer face is 170 deg F (76.6 deg C). a)
What is the heat loss through the wall? b) What is the temperature of the interface
between the refractory brick and the common brick?
∆𝑇 ∆𝑇𝐴
=
𝑅 𝑅1
1400 − 𝑇1 1230
=
4.687 5.625

𝑇1 = 375 𝐹
Example
3. A flat furnace wall is constructed of a 4.5 in (114 mm) layer of Sil-o-cel brick, with a
thermal conductivity of 0.08 BTU/ft-hr-F (0.138 W/m-C) backed by a 9 in (220 mm) layer of
common brick, of conductivity 0.8 BTU/ft-h-F (1/38 W/m-C). The temperature of the inner
face of the wall is 1400 deg F and that of the outer face is 170 deg F (76.6 deg C). c)
supposing that the contact between the two brick layers is poor and that a contact
resistance of 0.50 F-h-sqft/BTU (0.088 deg C sqm/W) is present, what would be the heat
loss?

𝑞 1230 𝐵𝑇𝑈
= = 201
𝐴 5.625 + 0.5 ℎ𝑟
Example
4. A tube of 60 mm (2.36 in) outer diameter is insulated with a 50 mm layer of silica foam,
for which the conductivity is 0.055 W/m-C (0.032 BTU/ft-h-F), followed with a 40 mm layer
of cork with a conductivity of 0.05 W/m-C. If the temperature of the outer surface of the
pipe is 150 deg C and the temperature of the outer surface of the cork is 30 deg C,
calculate the heat loss in watts per meter pipe.
𝑞 ∆𝑇
=
𝐴𝐿 ∆𝑥
𝑘
𝐴𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑟𝐿 𝐿

𝑟2 − 𝑟1 80 − 30 120 − 80
𝑟𝐿 = = = 50.98𝑚𝑚 𝑟𝐿 = = 98.64 𝑚𝑚
𝑟2 80 120
ln 𝑟 ln 30 ln 80
1
Example
4. A tube of 60 mm (2.36 in) outer diameter is insulated with a 50 mm layer of silica foam, for which the
conductivity is 0.055 W/m-C (0.032 BTU/ft-h-F), followed with a 40 mm layer of cork with a conductivity of
0.05 W/m-C. If the temperature of the outer surface of the pipe is 150 deg C and the temperature of the
outer surface of the cork is 30 deg C, calculate the heat loss in watts per meter pipe.

𝐴𝐿1 = 2𝜋𝑟𝐿 𝐿 = 0.3203𝐿 𝐴𝐿2 = 0.6198𝐿

0.3203𝐿 150 − 𝑇𝑖
𝑞𝐴 = 0.055 = 0.3522𝐿 150 − 𝑇𝑖
0.05
0.05 0.6198𝐿 𝑇𝑖 − 30
𝑞𝐵 = = 0.7748𝐿 𝑇𝑖 − 30 𝑇𝑖 = 67.501
0.04
𝑞𝐴 = 𝑞𝐵 = 𝑞
𝑞 𝑊
= 29.1
𝐿 𝑚
Example
Determine the rate of heat transfer by conduction per unit area, by means of conduction for a
furnace wall made of fire clay. Furnace wall thickness is 6" or half a foot. Thermal conductivity of the
furnace wall clay is 0.3 W/m·K. The furnace wall temperature can be taken to be same as furnace
operating temperature which is 6500C and temperature of the outer wall of the furnace is 1500C.
a. 943.12 W/m2 c. 4921.3 W/m2
b. 988.13 W/m2 d. 9431.2 W/m2
Example
A furnace is constructed with 0.2 m of firebrick (k = 1.4 W\m-K) , 0.1 m of insulating brick (k= 0.7 W/m-
K) and 0.2 m of building brick (k = 0.7 W/m-K). The inside temperature is 1200 K and the outside
temperature is 330 K. Find the heat loss per unit area in W/m2.
a. 700 c. 850
b. 750 d. 960
Example
A furnace is constructed with 0.2 m of firebrick (k = 1.4 W\m-K) , 0.1 m of insulating brick (k= 0.21
W/m-K) and 0.2 m of building brick (k = 0.7 W/m-K). The inside temperature is 1200 K and the outside
temperature is 330 K. Calculate the temperature at the junction of the firebrick and the insulating
brick.

a. 800 K c. 1063 K

b. 1080 K d. 985 K
Example
A furnace walls made up of three layers , one of fire brick, one of
insulating brick and one of red brick. The inner and outer surfaces
are at 870 degrees C and 40 degrees C respectively. The
respective coefficient of thermal conduciveness of the layer are
1.0, 0.12 and 0.75 W/m-K and thicknesses are 22 cm, 7.5, and 11
cm. assuming close bonding of the layer at their interfaces, find
the rate of heat loss.
a. 837 W/m2 c. 738 W/m2
b. 378 W/m2 d. 8371 W/m2
Example
A spherical container of negligible thickness holding a hot fluid at 140 deg C and having an outer
diameter of 0.4 m is insulated with three layers of each 50 mm thick insulation of k1 = 0.02: k2 = 0.06
and k3 = 0.16 W/mK. (Starting from inside). The outside surface temperature is 30 deg C. Determine
the heat loss in Watts.
a. 2157 W c. 2141 W
b. 21.57 W d. 2.14 W
Example
A pipe with an outside diameter of 2.5 inch is insulated with a 2 inch layer of asbestos (k=0.396 BTU-
in/hr ft2-°F), followed by a layer of cork 1.5 in thick (k= 0.3 BTU-in/hr ft2-°F) . If the temperature of the
outer surface of the pipe is 290°F and the outer surface of the cork is 90°F , calculate the heat lost
per 100 ft of insulated pipe.
a. 846.74 BTU/hr c. 3845.7 BTU/hr
b. 2847.4 BTU/hr d. 1844.7 BTU/hr
Example
Hollow sphere has an outside radius of 1 m and is made of polystyrene foam with thickness of 1 cm.
A heat source inside keeps the inner surface 7.4 °C hotter than the outside surface . How much
power is produced by the heat source? The thermal conductivity of polystyrene foam is 0.033
W/m°C .
a. 276.4 W c. 123.5 W
b. 306.7 W d. 278.2 W

∆𝑇
𝑞 = 𝑟 −𝑟
𝑜 𝑖
4𝜋𝑘𝑟𝑜 𝑟𝑖
Examples
If the convection coefficient of heat transfer of a nickel wire of 0.035 in diameter at 1700 °F to air is 6
BTU/hr ft2-°F, how much heat is lost by 1 foot of wire inside an oxidized copper container , the air and
container being at 160 °F .
a. 20 BTU/hr c. 54 BTU/hr
b. 40 BTU/hr d. 84 BTU/hr

𝑞 = (𝑇𝑠 −𝑇𝑓 )/(1/ℎ𝑐 𝐴)

Where: h c is convection coefficient = 6 BTU/hr ft2degF
T s = 1700 deg F
Tf = 160 deg F
A =2(pi)(0.035/2)(12) = 1.3121in2 = 0.00916 ft2
q = (1700-160)/(1/6*0.00916) = 84 BTU/hr
Example
A reaction mixture having a Cp = 2.85 kJ/kg-K is flowing at a rate of 7260 kg/hr and is to be cooled
from 377.6 K to 344.3 K. Cooling water at 288.8 K is available and the flow rate is 4536 kg/hr. The
overall Uo =is 653 W/K -m2 . Calculate the outlet water temperature.
a. 51.95 °C c. 156.45 °C
b. 89.37 °C d. 325.1 °C

−𝑞𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝑞𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

−𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐶𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑇ℎ𝑏 − 𝑇ℎ𝑎 = 𝑚𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝐶𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑇𝑐𝑏 − 𝑇𝑐𝑎
Cwater = 4.187 J/g-K = 1 cal/g-K
Tcb = 325.1 K
Example
From the previous problem, calculate the area in m2 assuming flow is counter current.
a. 3.23 c. 2.71
b. 6.46 d. 5.43

𝑞 = 𝑈𝑜 𝐴𝑜 ∆𝑇𝐿𝑀
−𝑞𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 = −𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐶𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑇ℎ𝑏 − 𝑇ℎ𝑎

q =191391.75 W
∆𝑇1 = 377.6 − 325.09 = 52.5 𝐾 ∆𝑇2 = 344.3 − 288.8 = 55.5 𝐾
55.5 − 52.5
∆𝑇𝐿𝑀 = = 53.991 𝐾
55.5
ln
52.5
191391.75 𝑊
𝐴𝑜 = = 5.43 𝑚2
𝑊
653 2 (53.991)
𝑚 𝐾
Example
Calculate the area in m2 assuming flow is concurrent.
a. 3.23 c. 2.71
b. 6.46 d. 5.43
𝑞 = 𝑈𝑜 𝐴𝑜 ∆𝑇𝐿𝑀
−𝑞𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 = −𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐶𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑇ℎ𝑏 − 𝑇ℎ𝑎
q =191391.75 W
∆𝑇1 = 377.6 − 288.8 = 89.5 𝐾 ∆𝑇2 = 344.3 − 325.09 = 19.21 𝐾
89.5 − 19.21
∆𝑇𝐿𝑀 = = 45.68 𝐾
89.5
ln
19.21
191391.75 𝑊
𝐴𝑜 = = 6.45 𝑚2
𝑊
653 2 (45.68)
𝑚 𝐾
Example
Methyl alcohol flowing in the inner pipe of a double-pipe exchanger is cooled with water flowing in the
jacket. The inner pipe is made from 1-in Schedule 40 steel pipe. The thermal conductivity of steel is 26
BTU/hr-ft-°F. The individual coefficients and fouling factors are hi = 180 BTU/hr-ft2 -°F, hdi = 1000 BTU/hr-ft2 -°F,
ho = 600 BTU/hr-ft2 -°F, hdo = 500 BTU/hr-ft2 -°F. What is the overall coefficient based on the outside area of
the inner pipe in BTU/hr-ft2 -°F?
a. 80.9 c. 85.1 b. 84.2 d. 86.5

Where:
From handbook, 1 in schedule 40 pipe :
D0 = 1.315 in Di = 1.049 in
ksteel = 26 BTU/hr-ft-°F
hi = 180 BTU/hr-ft-°F h0 = 600 BTU/hr-ft-°F
hdi = 1000 BTU/hr-ft-°F hdo= 500 BTU/hr-ft-°F
Example
Q = UAΔTLM

ΔTLM
Q= 1 resistance
𝑈𝐴

1 1 1 1 1 Δx 1 1
= = = + + + +
𝑈𝐴 𝑈𝑖𝐴𝑖 𝑈𝑜𝐴𝑜 ℎ𝑖𝐴𝑖 ℎ𝑑𝑖𝐴𝑖 𝑘𝐴𝑙𝑚 ℎ𝑜𝐴𝑜 ℎ𝑑𝑜𝐴𝑜
1 1
[ 𝑈𝑜𝐴𝑜 = 1 1 Δx 1 1 ][ ]
+ + + + 𝐴𝑜
ℎ𝑖𝐴𝑖 ℎ𝑑𝑖𝐴𝑖 𝑘𝐴𝑙𝑚 ℎ𝑜𝐴𝑜 ℎ𝑑𝑜𝐴𝑜

1
Uo =
Ao Ao ΔxAo 1 1
+ + + +
ℎ𝑖𝐴𝑖 ℎ𝑑𝑖𝐴𝑖 𝑘𝐴𝑙𝑚 ℎ𝑜 ℎ𝑑𝑜
Example
Since,
Ao = πDoL
Ai = πDiL
Alm = πDLML
Then,
1
Uo= 𝑒𝑞𝑛 1
𝐷𝑜 Do ΔxDo 1 1
+ + + +
ℎ𝑖𝐷𝑖 ℎ𝑑𝑖𝐷𝑖 𝑘𝐷𝑙𝑚 ℎ𝑜 ℎ𝑑𝑜
And
Δx = (Do – Di)/2
Δx = (1.315 in – 1.049 in)/2
Δx = .133 in
Example
𝐷𝑜−𝐷𝑖
DLM = 𝐷𝑜
𝑙𝑛
𝐷𝑖

1.315−1.049
DLM = 1.315
𝑙𝑛
1.049

DLM = 1.177 in

So substituting to Eqn. 1
1
Uo = .133
1.315 1.315 ( )(1.315) 1 1
+ + 12 +600+500
180(1.049) 1000(1.049) 26(1.177)

Uo = 80.9 BTU/hr-ft2 -°F

Heat Exchangers
Common heat exchangers are made of bundle of
parallel tubes A, the ends of which are expanded
into tube sheets B1 and B2. The tube bundle is inside
a cylindrical shell C and is provided with two
channels D1 and D2, one at each end, and two
channel covers E1 and E2. Steam or other vapor is
introduced through nozzle D into the shell side
space surrounding the tubes, condensate is
withdrawn through connection G and any non
condensable gas that might enter with the inlet is
removed through vent K. Connection G leads to a
trap, which is a device that allows flow of liquid but
holds back vapor. The fluid to be headed is
pumped through connection H into channel D2. It
flows through the tubes into the other channel D1
and is discharged through connection J.
Countercurrent and Parallel Flows
Countercurrent and Parallel Flows
Tha : Temperature of entering hot fluid
Thb : Temperature of exiting hot fluid
Tca : Temperature of entering cold fluid
Tcb : Temperature of exiting cold fluid

Therefore,

𝑇ℎ𝑎 − 𝑇𝑐𝑏 = ∆𝑇2 𝑇ℎ𝑏 − 𝑇𝑐𝑏 = ∆𝑇1

𝑊𝑎𝑟𝑚 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = 𝑇ℎ𝑎 − 𝑇ℎ𝑏 𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = 𝑇ℎ𝑏 − 𝑇𝑐𝑎
Heat Exchanger: Energy Balance
Enthalpy Balance in Heat Exchangers:
𝑚 𝐻𝑏 − 𝐻𝑎 = 𝑞

Where: m = flow rate of stream

q = Q/t = rate of heat transfer into stream
Ha, Hb = Enthalpies per unit mass of stream at entrance and exit

𝑚ℎ 𝐻ℎ𝑎 − 𝐻ℎ𝑏 = 𝑚𝑐 𝐻𝑐𝑏 − 𝐻𝑐𝑎 = 𝑞

𝑚ℎ 𝐶𝑝ℎ 𝑇ℎ𝑎 − 𝑇ℎ𝑏 = 𝑚𝑐 𝐶𝑝𝑐 𝑇𝑐𝑏 − 𝑇𝑐𝑎 = 𝑞

Heat Exchanger: Energy Balance
Enthalpy Balance in Total Condensers:
𝑚ℎ λ = 𝑚𝑐 𝐶𝑝𝑐 𝑇𝑐𝑏 − 𝑇𝑐𝑎 = 𝑞

This equation is based on the assumption that the vapor enters the condenser as saturated vapor (no
superheat0 and the condensate leaves at condensing temperature without being further cooled.
Otherwise, other heat factors must be taken into consideration, such that:

Where: Cph : Specific heat of the condensate

Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient

Where: The delta TL described above is the logarithmic mean temperature difference LMTD.

Where: Subscript “o” means outside of the shell, and

the subscript “I” means
Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
Variable Overall Coefficient

Where: U1 and U2 = local overall coefficients at ends of exchanger

∆𝑇1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∆𝑇2 = temperature approaches at corresponding ends of exchanger
Individual Heat Transfer Coefficient
Overall Resistance

R=
The individual resistance on the right-hand side of the displayed equation represent the individual
resistance of the two fluids and of the metal. The overall temperature drop is proportional to 1/U, and the
temperature drops in the two fluids and the wall are proportional to the individual resistances, or:
Overall Resistance
Effects of Fouling

Where: hdi and hdo are fouling factors for the scale deposits on the inside and outside tube
surfaces, respectively.
Effects of Fouling
HEAT TRANSFER BY CONVECTION
Occurs as a result of the movement of fluid on a macroscopic scale in the form of
eddies or circulating currents.

If the resistance to transfer is regarded as lying within the film covering the surface, the
rate of heat transfer Q is given by:

𝑇1 − 𝑇2
𝑄 = 𝑘𝐴 ( )
𝑥

The effective thickness x is not generally known; therefore the equation can be rewritten
as:

𝑄 = ℎ𝐴(𝑇1 − 𝑇2 )
HEAT TRANSFER BY CONVECTION
NOTE:

The type of fluid flow, whether laminar or turbulent, of the individual fluid has a great
effect on the heat transfer coefficient h, which is also called as the film coefficient, since
most of the resistance to heat transfer is in a thin film close to the wall.

The more turbulent the flow is, the greater the heat-transfer coefficient.
HEAT TRANSFER BY CONVECTION
TWO CLASSIFICAITONS OF CONVECTIVE HEAT TRANSFER:

Free or Natural Convection – the motion of the fluid results from the density changes in
heat transfer. The BUOYANCY EFFECT produces a natural circulation of the fluid, so it
moves past the solid surface.

Forced Convection – the fluid is forced to flow by pressure differences, a pump, a fan,
and so on.

When Natural Convection occurs, the velocity is dependent on the buoyancy effects
alone, represented by the Grashof number and the Reynolds number may be omitted.

𝑁𝑢 = 𝑓 𝐺𝑟, Pr

When Forced Convection occurs, the effects of natural convection are usually
negligible and the Grashof number may be omitted.

𝑁𝑢 = 𝑓(𝑅𝑒, 𝑃𝑟)
HEAT TRANSFER BY CONVECTION
PRANDTL NUMBER

- is the ratio of the shear component of diffusivity for momentum to the diffusivity for
heat and physically relates the relative thicknesses of the hydrodynamic layer and
thermal boundary layer:
𝜇
𝜌 𝐶𝑝 𝜇
𝑁𝑃𝑟 = =
𝑘 𝑘
𝜌𝐶𝑝

NUSSELT NUMBER

- is used to relate data for the heat-transfer coefficient h to the thermal conductivity k of
the fluid and a characteristic dimension D:
ℎ𝐷
𝑁𝑁𝑢 =
𝑘
HEAT TRANSFER BY CONVECTION
GRASHOF NUMBER

𝐷3 𝜌2 𝑔𝛽∆𝑇
𝑁𝐺𝑟 =
𝜇2
1
𝛽=
𝑇
EXAMPLES
Air at a pressure of 101.3 kPa and a temperature of 288.8 K is flowing over a thin, smooth,
flat plate at 3.05 m/s. The plate length in the direction of flow is 0.305 m and its
temperature is 333.2 K. Calculate the heat transfer coefficient assuming laminar flow.

a. 13.92 c. 11.64
b. 10.11 d. 12.79
HEAT TRANSFER BY RADIATION
Can take place without a solid or a fluid being present, that is through a vacuum,
although many fluids are transparent to radiation, and it is generally assumed that the
emission of thermal radiation is by ‘waves’ of wavelengths in the range 0.1-100µm which
travel in straight lines.

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE SPECTRUM

Modest, Michael F. Radiative Heat Transfer (Kindle Locations 649-654). Elsevier Science.
Kindle Edition.
HEAT TRANSFER BY RADIATION
THE MECHANISM OF RADIANT HEAT TRANSFER:

1. The thermal energy of a hot source, such as the wall of a furnace at T1 is converted
into energy in the form of electromagnetic-radiation waves.

2. These waves travel through the intervening space in straight lines and strike a cold
object at T2, such as furnace tube containing water to be heated.

3.The electromagnetic waves that strike the body are absorbed by the body and
converted back to thermal energy or heat.
HEAT TRANSFER BY RADIATION
BASIC LAWS OF THERMAL RADIATION

- When an electromagnetic wave traveling through a medium (or vacuum) strikes the
surface of another medium (solid or liquid surface, particle or bubble), the wave may
be reflected (either partially or totally), and any nonreflected part will penetrate into
the medium.

- While passing through the medium, the wave may become continuously attenuated.

- If the attenuation is complete, then there will be no penetrating radiation that will
emerge – and this is known as opaque

- If the wave passes through the medium without attenuation, then it is termed as
transparent. On the other hand, if there is partial attenuation, then it is termed as
semitransparent.
HEAT TRANSFER BY RADIATION

𝜌+ 𝛼+ 𝜏 =1
HEAT TRANSFER BY RADIATION
BLACK BODY RADIATION

One that absorbs all radiant energy and reflects none. Hence, 𝜌 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛼 = 1.

STEFAN-BOLTZMANN LAW

The total emissive power is the total amount of radiation energy per unit area leaving a
surface with a temperature T over all wavelengths.

𝐸𝐵 = 𝜎𝑇 4

𝑊
Where 𝜎 = 5.676𝑥10−8 𝑚2𝐾4
HEAT TRANSFER BY RADIATION
EMISSIVITY AND KIRCHOFF’S LAW

An important property in radiation is the emissivity of a surface. The emissivity of a

surface is defined as the total emitted energy of a black body at the same temperature

𝐸 𝐸
𝜀= =
𝐸𝐵 𝜎𝑇 4

NOTE: Since a black body emits the maximum amount of radiation, 𝜀 < 1.0

GRAY BODY

Real material with 𝜀 < 1.0, emissivity is independent of wavelength.

A surface for which the monochromatic properties are constant over all wavelengths.
HEAT TRANSFER BY RADIATION
HEAT TRANSFER BY RADIATION FROM A GRAY BODY

𝑞 = 𝐴𝜀𝜎𝑇 4

NOTE:

For Polished Metal Surface, 𝜀 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛼 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑤

For Oxidized Metal Surface, 𝜀 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛼 𝑎𝑟𝑒 ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ

CONCEPT OF A GRAY BODY: 𝛼 = 𝜀

Valid even if the body is not in thermal equilibrium with its surroundings.
HEAT TRANSFER BY RADIATION
RADIATION TO A SMALL OBJECT FROM ITS SURROUNDINGS

𝑄 = 𝐴1 𝜀1 𝜎1 𝑇14 − 𝐴1 𝛼12 𝜎𝑇24 = 𝐴1 𝜎(𝜀1 𝑇14 − 𝛼12 𝑇24 )

If 𝜀1 = 𝛼12

𝑄 = 𝐴1 𝜀1 𝜎(𝑇14 − 𝑇24 )

VIEW FACTORS

Defined as the amount of radiant heat leaving a surface I to another surface j,

normalized by the total leaving heat flux.
HEAT TRANSFER BY RADIATION
RECIPROCITY RELATIONSHIP OF VIEW FACTORS

𝐴𝑖 𝐹𝑖𝑗 = 𝐴𝑗 𝐹𝑗𝑖

Sometimes the product AiFij is called an exchanged area since it represents a portion of
area I that is in direct exchange with area j.

VIEW FACTORS WHEN SURFACES ARE CONNECTED BY RERADIATING WALLS

A2 − A1 F122
F 12 =
A1 + A2 − 2 A1 F12
Examples
A thin square steel plate, 10 cm on a side is heated in a blacksmiths forge to a temperature of
800°C . If the emissivity is 0.6, what is the total rate of radiation of energy?
a. 900 W c. 451 W
b. 700 W d. 600 W

𝑞 = 𝜀𝐴𝜎𝑇 4
Emissivity = 0.6
A = 0.10^2 sqm
Sigma = 5.67 x 10-8 W/m2K4
T =800 + 273.15
𝑞 = 451 𝑊
HEAT TRANSFER BY RADIATION
VIEW FACTORS AND GRAY BODIES

𝑞12 = ℱ12 𝐴1 𝜎(𝑇14 − 𝑇24 )

1
ℱ12 =
1 𝐴 1 1
+ 𝐴1 𝜀 − 1 + (𝜀 − 1)
𝐹12 2 2 1
A space satellite in the shape of a sphere is travelling in outer space where its surface
temperature is held at 283.2 K. The sphere “sees” only outer space, which can be
considered as a black body with a temperature of 0 K. The polished surface of the
sphere has an emissivity of 0.1. Calculate the heat loss per m2 by radiation.

a. 37.1 W/m2 c. 36.5 W/m2

b. 35.8 W/m2 d. 34.3 W/m2
EXAMPLES
A loaf of bread having a surface temperature of 373 K is being baked in an oven whose
walls and the air are at 477.4 K. The bread moves continuously through the large oven
on an open chain belt conveyor. The emissivity of the bread is estimated as 0.85, and
the loaf can be assumed to be a rectangular solid 114.3 mm high x 114.3 mm wide x 330
mm long. Calculate the radiation heat-transfer rate to the bread, assuming that it is
small compared to the oven and neglecting natural convection heat transfer.

a. 278.3 W c. 281.6 W
b. 249.1 W d. 292.1 W
◦ Source:

McCabe, Smith, Harriott (2006). Unit operations

of chemical engineering. 7th Ed.