Page 1 of 11 SPH 2202 – Thermal Physics I Lecture notes

Heat transfer
 Basic requirement for heat transfer → the presence of a temperature difference.
 Three natural processes of heat transfer: conduction, convection, radiation.

Heat transfer by conduction

 Conduction:
 Atoms in a region of a substance that is at a high temperature vibrate with greater
amplitude than those in a region at a lower temperature. Those atoms at a higher
temperature region possess greater thermal energy, part of which is passed to neighboring
atoms, which in turn pass it on to their neighboring atoms.
 Heat energy is therefore transferred from particle to particle by collisions and NOT by
bulk motion of the matter.
 Heat transfer by conduction occurs in solids, liquids and gases. However, due to
differences in inter-atomic distances in these substances, it is hardly noticeable in liquids
and gases, being poorest in the latter.

 Studies on heat transfer by conduction are mostly concerned with the rate at which the heat
energy is transferred by conduction in a material(s). The Fourier’s law of heat conduction
prescribes this. It states that the rate of heat transfer by conduction is proportional to the
temperature gradient in the direction of heat flow and the cross-sectional area
perpendicular to that flow.

Illustration
o LHS panel of figure below: A thin slab of cross-sectional area 𝐴 and thickness Δ𝑥. One
side is maintained at temperature 𝜃1 and the other at temperature 𝜃2 , where, 𝜃1 > 𝜃2 →
this creates a temperature gradient (RHS panel).

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Page 2 of 11 SPH 2202 – Thermal Physics I Lecture notes

o The following assumptions are made:

i. One-dimensional heat flow.
ii. No heat losses through the sides of the slab.
iii. Heat flows perpendicular to the side of the slab of cross-sectional area 𝐴 (RHS
panel).
iv. Steady state conditions prevail i.e. the rate of heat flow is the same at every point
along the thickness of the slab.

o Following Fourier’s law, therefore,

𝛥𝑄 𝛥𝜃
∝𝐴∙ 1
𝛥𝑡 𝛥𝑥
o The proportionality constant is the thermal conductivity 𝐾 (or coefficient of thermal
conductivity), and in a limiting case where, 𝛥𝑥 → 0, eq. 1 reduces to the differential
equation,

𝑑𝑄 𝑑𝜃
= −𝐾 ∙ 𝐴 ∙ 2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥

Where,
𝑑𝑄
o ≡ rate of heat transfer (in 𝐽𝑠 −1 or 𝑊). Commonly expressed as 𝑄̇.
𝑑𝑡
o 𝐴 ≡ Cross-sectional area of the slab (in 𝑚2 ).
𝑑𝜃 (𝜃2 −𝜃1 )
o = ≡ Temperature gradient (in 𝐾 ∙ 𝑚−1 ), 𝜃2 < 𝜃1 , 𝑑𝑥 ≡ thickness of the slab
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
(in 𝑚).

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Page 3 of 11 SPH 2202 – Thermal Physics I Lecture notes
Temperature gradient is negative since temperature decreases in the direction of
increasing 𝑥.

 Eq. 2 is the mathematical form of Fourier’s law.

 𝐾 gives a measure of a material’s ability to conduct heat energy.
Its magnitude depends on properties of the material and its physical dimensions.
Its unit is 𝐽𝑠 −1 𝑚−1 𝐾 −1 (𝑜𝑟 𝑊𝑚−1 𝐾 −1 ).

 Examples of typical values of 𝐾 at normal pressure and temperature for some materials:

 From the table above, thermal conductivity of pure metals is the highest.

 Note:
o Materials with high values of 𝐾 are good thermal conductors (i.e. poor thermal
insulators).
Materials with low values of 𝐾 are poor thermal conductors (i.e. good thermal insulators).
o Thermal conductivity for most metals decreases with increase in temperature (aluminum
and uranium being the exceptions).
o Thermal conductivity for most liquids decreases with increase in temperature (water
being an exception) due to decrease in density with increase in temperature.
o In gases the value of thermal conductivity increases with temperature.
o For most materials, the dependence of thermal conductivity on temperature is linear.
o Materials that are good conductors of electricity are also good conductors of heat
(Wiedemann and Franz law).

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Page 4 of 11 SPH 2202 – Thermal Physics I Lecture notes

 Illustrative examples:
1. A concrete wall is 3 m high, 5 m wide, and 0.3 m thick. On a certain day, the
temperatures of the inner and the outer surfaces of the wall are measured to be 16°C and
2°C, respectively as shown in the diagram below:

Determine the rate of heat loss through the wall on that day. Take 𝐾𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑒 =
1.2 𝑊𝑚−1 𝐾 −1 .
Solution:
𝑑𝜃 (2 − 16)𝐾
𝑄̇ = −𝐾𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑒 ∙ 𝐴 ∙ = −(1.2 𝑊𝑚−1 𝐾 −1 )(5 𝑚 × 3 𝑚) = 840 𝑊
𝑑𝑥 0.3 𝑚

2. Calculate the quantity of heat conducted through 2 m2 of a brick wall 12 cm thick in 1 hr

at steady state. Assume that the temperature of the hotter side is 28 °C and that the colder
side is 8 °C, Kbrick is 0.13 𝑊𝑚−1 𝐾 −1 .
Solution:
𝑑𝑄 𝑑𝜃 (8 − 28)
= −𝐾𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑘 ∙ 𝐴 ∙ = −(0.13)(2) = 43.3 𝐽𝑠 −1
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥 0.12
𝑑𝑄 = 43.3 ∙ 𝑑𝑡

𝑄 = ∫ 43.3 ∙ 𝑑𝑡 = 43.3 ∙ 𝑡 + 𝑐

Where, c is a constant.
At 𝑡 = 0, 𝑄 = 0 and 𝑐 = 0.
∴ 𝑄 = 43.3 × 60 × 60 = 156000 𝐽 = 156 𝑘𝐽

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Page 5 of 11 SPH 2202 – Thermal Physics I Lecture notes
3. The figure below shows two walls of equal cross-sectional area (A), thicknesses L1 and
L2, and thermal conductivities are K1 and K2. One end of the arrangement is maintained
at temperature T1, the other end is at temperature T3, while the temperature at the
interface of wall 1 and wall 2 is T2 such that T1 > T2 > T3, and hence the direction of flow
of heat energy is as indicated (left to right).

Given that the two walls are made of concrete (wall 1) and Styrofoam (wall 2), determine
the rate of heat flow through each wall.
Take the cross-sectional area to be 15 𝑚2 , lengths 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 to be 0.3 𝑚 and 0.4 𝑚
respectively, temperatures 𝑇1 , 𝑇2 and 𝑇3 to be 24°C, 23.4°C and 5°C respectively, and the
thermal conductivities K1 and K2 to be 0.8 𝑊𝑚−1 𝐾 −1 and 0.035 𝑊𝑚−1 𝐾 −1 respectively.
Solution:
‒ Rate of heat flow through wall 1
(23.4 − 24)𝐾
𝑄̇𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 1 = −(0.8 𝐽𝑠 −1 𝑚−1 𝐾 −1 )(15 𝑚2 ) ≅ 24 𝐽𝑠 −1
0. 3 𝑚
‒ Rate of heat flow through wall 2
(5 − 23.4)𝐾
𝑄̇𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 2 = −(0.035 𝐽𝑠 −1 𝑚−1 𝐾 −1 )(15 𝑚2 ) ≅ 24 𝐽𝑠 −1
0. 4 𝑚

‒ Conclusion: The rate of heat flow through the wall is such that,

𝑄̇𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 1 = 𝑄̇𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 2

‒ In an series arrangement of 𝑛 different materials such that heat flows through each
of the materials at a time, at steady state and assuming no heat losses to the
surrounding, the rate of heat flow is such that,

𝑄̇𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 1 = 𝑄̇𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 2 = ⋯ = 𝑄̇𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑛

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Page 6 of 11 SPH 2202 – Thermal Physics I Lecture notes
4. A lagged copper bar has its ends pressed against metal tanks at 0°C and 100°C. The
bar has length 0.4 m and cross-sectional area 200 cm2. It is separated from the two
tanks by layers of dust 0.12 mm thick as shown in the diagram below:

If the thermal conductivity of dust is 1⁄1050 that of copper, find the total rate of flow
of heat from the hotter to the colder tank. Take the thermal conductivity of copper to
be 380 𝑊/𝑚𝐾.
Solution:
 Assuming no heat losses to the surrounding and that the system is at steady state,
𝑄̇𝑑𝑢𝑠𝑡 1 = 𝑄̇𝐶𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑎𝑟 = 𝑄̇𝑑𝑢𝑠𝑡 2
 Let
 𝜗1 ≡ temperature at the interface of dust 1 and the copper bar.
 𝜗2 ≡ temperature at the interface of the copper bar and dust 2.
 𝐾𝑑𝑢𝑠𝑡 and 𝐾𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑎𝑟 ≡ thermal conductivity of dust and copper respectively.
 𝐴𝑑𝑢𝑠𝑡 and 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑎𝑟 ≡ cross-section area of dust and the copper bar respectively.
 𝐿𝑑𝑢𝑠𝑡 and 𝐿𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑎𝑟 ≡ thickness/length of dust and the copper bar respectively.
 Then,
𝐾𝑑𝑢𝑠𝑡 1 𝐴𝑑𝑢𝑠𝑡 1 (0 − 𝜗1 ) 𝐾𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑎𝑟 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑎𝑟 (𝜗1 − 𝜗2 ) 𝐾𝑑𝑢𝑠𝑡 2 𝐴𝑑𝑢𝑠𝑡 2 (𝜗2 − 100)
− =− =−
𝐿𝑑𝑢𝑠𝑡 1 𝐿𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑎𝑟 𝐿𝑑𝑢𝑠𝑡 2

 But, since 𝐴𝑑𝑢𝑠𝑡 1 = 𝐴𝑑𝑢𝑠𝑡 2 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑎𝑟

𝐾𝑑𝑢𝑠𝑡 1 (𝜗1 − 0) 𝐾𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑎𝑟 (𝜗2 − 𝜗1 ) 𝐾𝑑𝑢𝑠𝑡 2 (100 − 𝜗2 )

= =
𝐿𝑑𝑢𝑠𝑡 1 𝐿𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑎𝑟 𝐿𝑑𝑢𝑠𝑡 2

 Thus,

𝐾𝑑𝑢𝑠𝑡 1 (𝜗1 − 0) 𝐾𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑎𝑟 (𝜗2 − 𝜗1 )

= 3
𝐿𝑑𝑢𝑠𝑡 1 𝐿𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑎𝑟

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Page 7 of 11 SPH 2202 – Thermal Physics I Lecture notes

𝐾𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑎𝑟 (𝜗2 − 𝜗1 ) 𝐾𝑑𝑢𝑠𝑡 2 (100 − 𝜗2 ) 4

=
𝐿𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑎𝑟 𝐿𝑑𝑢𝑠𝑡 2

𝐾𝑑𝑢𝑠𝑡 1 (𝜗1 − 0) 𝐾𝑑𝑢𝑠𝑡 2 (100 − 𝜗2 ) 5

=
𝐿𝑑𝑢𝑠𝑡 1 𝐿𝑑𝑢𝑠𝑡 2
 Since 𝑄̇𝑑𝑢𝑠𝑡 1 = 𝑄̇𝐶𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑎𝑟 = 𝑄̇𝑑𝑢𝑠𝑡 2 , the total rate of flow of heat from the hotter to
the colder tank can be given by computing either 𝑄̇𝑑𝑢𝑠𝑡 1 , 𝑄̇𝐶𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑎𝑟 , or 𝑄̇𝑑𝑢𝑠𝑡 2 .
But, in order to do this, 𝜗1 and 𝜗2 must first be determined.
 Therefore, eq. 3, eq. 4, and eq. 5 are solved simultaneously for 𝜗1 and 𝜗2 . This yields,
𝜗1 = 19.33°𝐶 and 𝜗2 = 80.67°𝐶.
 And,

𝐾𝑑𝑢𝑠𝑡 1 𝐴𝑑𝑢𝑠𝑡 1 (𝜗1 − 0)

𝑄̇𝑑𝑢𝑠𝑡 1 =
𝐿𝑑𝑢𝑠𝑡 1
where
1
𝐾𝑑𝑢𝑠𝑡 1 = × 380 = 0.3619 𝑊𝑚−1 𝐾 −1
1050
𝐴𝑑𝑢𝑠𝑡 1 = 200 × 10−4 𝑚2

𝜗1 = 19.33 + 273.15 = 292.48 𝐾

𝐿𝑑𝑢𝑠𝑡 1 = 0.12 × 10−3 𝑚

∴
(0.3619 𝑊𝑚−1 𝐾 −1 )(200 × 10−4 𝑚2 )(292.48 − 273.15)𝐾
𝑄̇𝑑𝑢𝑠𝑡 1 = = 1165.92 𝑊
0.12 × 10−3 𝑚

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Page 8 of 11 SPH 2202 – Thermal Physics I Lecture notes
The concept of thermal resistance
 The inverse of thermal conductivity is thermal resistance i.e. a measure of a material’s
resistance to heat flow).
 From eq. 2,

𝑑𝜃 𝜃2 − 𝜃1
𝑄̇ = −𝐾 ∙ 𝐴 ∙ = −𝐾 ∙ 𝐴 ∙ , 𝜃1 > 𝜃2 6
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜃1 − 𝜃2 𝐾 ∙ 𝐴 7
𝑄̇ = 𝐾 ∙ 𝐴 ∙ = ∙ (𝜃1 − 𝜃2 )
𝑑𝑥 𝐿
1 8
𝑄̇ = ∙ (𝜃1 − 𝜃2 )
𝑅𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙

𝐿 9
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑅𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 =
𝐾∙𝐴

 Eq. 9 above shows that thermal resistance depends on the geometry (in terms of 𝐿 and 𝐴)
and thermal properties (in terms of 𝐾) of a material.
 Using the concept of thermal resistance, the rate of heat transfer therefore becomes,

𝑑𝜃
𝑄̇ = 10
𝑅𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙

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Page 9 of 11 SPH 2202 – Thermal Physics I Lecture notes

 Thermal resistance is analogous to electrical resistance as illustrated below:

𝑑𝑉 𝑉1 − 𝑉2 𝑑𝑇 𝜃1 − 𝜃2
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 = = 𝑅𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 = =
𝑑𝑞⁄ 𝑑𝑞⁄ 𝑑𝑄⁄ 𝑑𝑄⁄
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑉1 − 𝑉2 = 𝑑𝑉 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝜃1 − 𝜃2 = 𝑑𝑇
≡ 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, ≡ 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑑𝑞⁄ 𝑑𝑄⁄
𝑑𝑡 ≡ 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒. 𝑑𝑡 ≡ 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦.

e.g. rate of flow of electric charge (electric e.g. rate of flow of heat through a composite
current) through two resistors in series of two walls in series

𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝑄 𝑑𝑄
( ) =( ) ( ) =( )
𝑑𝑡 𝑅1 𝑑𝑡 𝑅2 𝑑𝑡 𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙1 𝑑𝑡 𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙2
𝐿1 ∙ 𝐾2 + 𝐿2 ∙ 𝐾1
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 (𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙) = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑅𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 (𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙) =
𝐴 ∙ 𝐾1 ∙ 𝐾2

e.g. rate of flow of electric charge (electric e.g. rate of flow of heat through a composite
current) through two resistors in parallel of two walls in parallel

𝑅1 ∙ 𝑅2 𝐿
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 (𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙) = 𝑅𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 (𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙) =
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝐾1 ∙ 𝐴1 + 𝐾2 ∙ 𝐴2

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Page 10 of 11 SPH 2202 – Thermal Physics I Lecture notes

 Illustrative examples (contd.):

5. Using the concept of thermal resistance, attempt illustrative examples 1and 3.
6. A furnace wall consists of a 1.2 cm thick stainless steel inner layer covered by a 5 cm
thick outer layer of asbestos board insulation (figure below).

The temperature of the inside surface of the stainless steel is 800 K and the outside surface
of the asbestos is 350 K. Determine,
i. The heat transfer rate through the wall per unit area.
ii. The temperature of the interface between the stainless steel and the asbestos.
Take the thermal conductivities for steel and asbestos to be 19 W/mK and 0.7 W/mK
respectively.
Solution:
i. This is a series arrangement. Therefore, the heat transfer rate per unit area,

𝑄̇ 𝑇1 − 𝑇2 𝐾1 ∙ 𝐾2 (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 )
= =
𝐴 𝑅𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 (𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙) 𝐿1 ∙ 𝐾2 + 𝐿2 ∙ 𝐾1

𝑄̇ (19 𝑊𝑚−1 𝐾 −1 )(0.7 𝑊𝑚−1 𝐾 −1 )(800 − 350) 𝐾

= = 6245 𝑊𝑚−2
𝐴 (0.012 𝑚 × 0.7 𝑊𝑚−1 𝐾 −1 ) + (0.05 𝑚 × 19 𝑊𝑚−1 𝐾 −1 )
ii. By assuming steady state,
𝑄̇ 𝑄̇ 𝑄̇
( ) =( ) =
𝐴 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝐴 𝑎𝑠𝑏𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑠 𝐴
- Consider,
𝑄̇ 𝑑𝑇 1 𝐾𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙
( ) = = 𝑑𝑇 ∙ = (𝑇1 − 𝑇𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 ) ∙
𝐴 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝑅𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 (𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙) 𝑅𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 (𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙) 𝐿𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙

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Page 11 of 11 SPH 2202 – Thermal Physics I Lecture notes

−2
19 𝑊𝑚−1 𝐾 −1
6245 𝑊𝑚 = (800 − 𝑇𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 )𝐾 ∙
0.012 𝑚

𝑇𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 = 796 𝐾

- Alternatively, consider,

𝑄̇ 𝑑𝑇 1
( ) = = 𝑑𝑇 ∙
𝐴 𝑎𝑠𝑏𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑠 𝑅𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 (𝑎𝑠𝑏𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑠) 𝑅𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 (𝑎𝑠𝑏𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑠)
𝐾𝑎𝑠𝑏𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑠
= (𝑇𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 − 𝑇2 ) ∙
𝐿𝑎𝑠𝑏𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑠

−2
0.7 𝑊𝑚−1 𝐾 −1
6245 𝑊𝑚 = (𝑇𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 − 350)𝐾 ∙
0.05 𝑚

𝑇𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 = 796 𝐾

NB: Supplement your learning from the lecture and lecture notes by independent study and discussions.